their output by improving their farming methods, national needs and farmers' needs can be satisfied

together.

Extension is a two-way link

Extension is not a one-way process in which the extension agent transfers knowledge and ideas to
farmers and their families. Such advice, which is often based upon the findings of agricultural and other
research stations, is certainly important but the flow of information from farmers to extension and
research workers is equally important. Extension should be ready to receive farmers' ideas, suggestions
or advice, as well as to give them. This two-way flow of ideas can occur at different stages.

When the problem is being defined. Being in regular contact with the farmers, the extension agent can
help research workers to understand the farming problems of the area and the limitations under which
farmers have to work. It is even better if the agent can bring researchers into direct contact with farmers
in order to ensure that research recommendations are relevant to farmers' needs.

Extension links farmers with research

When recommendations are being tested in the field. A new farm practice or crop variety might produce
good results at a research station but not do so well on a farmer's field. Trials on farmers' fields are an
opportunity to test research recommendations and provide feedback for research staff.

When farmers put recommendations into practice. Sometimes farmers discover problems with a
recommendation which the research station failed to note. With the feedback the recommendations
can be adjusted accordingly.

The two-way link between research, extension and the farmer is fundamental to sound extension
practice and should be a basic principle of extension activity.

Extension cooperates with other rural development organizations

Within rural areas, extension services and agents should work closely with the other organizations that
provide essential services to farmers and their families. Extension is only one aspect of the many
economic, social and political activities that seek to produce change for the better in rural society.
Extension, therefore, must be prepared to collaborate with all other such organizations, both
government and non-government, and to take them into account when preparing to implement
extension policies. The kinds of organizations with which extension services should cooperate include:

Political institutions and local political leaders whose active local support will help the extension agent,
who may thereby be brought into closer touch with local farmers.

Support organizations such as those which supply agricultural or other inputs, credit facilities or
marketing services. Such inputs must be available in sufficient quantity, in the right place and at the right
time if they are to be of any use.

Health services, so that the extension agent is kept aware of local health problems, particularly
nuritional levels. Agricultural development and nutrition are closely related and the agent must keep
closely in touch with health programmes and projects and adapt his programme to conform to local
health requirements.

Local schools, so that the agent can have early access to the farmers of the future, and begin to equip
them with the knowledge and skills required for farming.

Community development, whose objectives will be very similar to the educational work of extension.
Extension agents often work very closely with community development workers to break down local
social and cultural barriers to change, and to encourage community action programmes.

It is essential that the extension agent in the field know what his colleagues in other services and
government departments are doing, and that they understand what he is doing. Close cooperation not
only avoids duplication but provides opportunities for integrated farm programmes.

Extension works with different target groups

Extension recognizes that not all farmers in any one area will have the same problems. Some will have
more land than others and will be keen to try out new ideas. Others, with fewer resources, will probably
be more cautious. Extension cannot offer a single "package" of advice, suitable to all farmers. Different
groups need to be identified and the agent will have to develop programmes appropriate to each group.
In the past, much extension effort was concentrated on the progressive farmer who was expected to
spread new ideas to others. It has been seen, however, that this does not always work, because
progressive farmers often have different problems. They have more land, more education and are
usually more involved in the marketing of their produce.

Extension must, therefore, be aware of the existence of different farming groups and plan its
programmes accordingly. The smallest and poorest farmers will need particular attention, as they may
lack the basic resources needed to become involved in extension activities. The point to stress,
therefore, is the existence of farmer groups with different resources and skills in any one community,
and the need for extension to respond to these groups accordingly.

Extension and education

It has been seen that the extension agent's task is an educational one. Farmers and their families need
to learn new skills, knowledge and practices in order to improve their farming and other productive
activities. As they do so, they develop new attitudes toward farming and the new practices, and to
extension itself; this in turn influences their future behaviour. Extension agents, however, must also be
prepared to learn from farmers about the way they farm, and keep themselves up to date with relevant
developments in agricultural knowledge. In this educational work of extension, the agent should be
aware of a number of principles of learning.

The educator must also be a learner

Education is not a process of filling empty minds with knowledge. Farmers already have a lot of
knowledge about their environment and about their farming system; they would not be able to survive
if they did not. Extension must build on the knowledge that already exists.

An extension agent, therefore, needs to learn as well as to teach. He must learn what farmers already
know about agriculture: for example, how they describe and explain things that happen on their farms
and what they know already about improved farming methods.
Learning requires motivation

No one can compel another person to learn. There has to be a desire to learn. Adults find it more
difficult than children to grasp new ideas and information. Also, unlike a schoolteacher, the extension
agent does not have a captive audience. Farmers can choose not to learn and they can choose not to
listen to extension agents.

People do not learn unless they feel that the learning will result in their being able to satisfy a need or
want. Food and drink are needs that are essential for life, together with the starting and raising of a
family and the search for safe living conditions, which provide protection and shelter from danger and
discomfort for the family.

In addition to needs, people have wants or desires. These are less intense than needs, but still
important. People desire approval and praise from their family and friends; they want prestige in their
society and to be well thought of by their neighbours. These desires become more apparent once basic
needs have been satisfied. Farmers and their families who are wellfed and have good homes still strive
for improvement. They want to produce more and the extension agent, by helping them to improve
farming methods, can use this legitimate ambition to help them to improve the productivity of their
farms. A farmer who is motivated to learn is likely to do so more rapidly and completely than a farmer
who lacks motivation. This is a very important principle for the extension agent to remember.

Dialogue and practice are important for learning

An extension agent tells a group of farmers how to thin their crops in order to improve yields. He then
goes away, thinking that the farmers have learned the new skill. A few weeks later, he returns to find
that none of the farmers have thinned their crops and that they have only a very vague idea of what he
told them.

The extension agent should not be surprised. Farmers do not learn very much from a straightforward
talk and most of what they do hear they soon forget. But if they are given the chance to ask questions,
to put the new information into their own words and to discuss it with the extension agent, much more
will be learned and remembered. Furthermore, when a new practical skill is being taught, the farmers
must have a chance to practice it. The extension agent can then correct any initial mistakes, and the
farmer will gain the confidence to use the new skill.

Learning and adoption occur in stages

Different types of learning are involved in extension. Before a group of farmers can decide to try out a
new practice, they must first learn of its existence. They may then have to learn some new skills. Five
stages can be identified in the process of accepting new ideas.

Awareness. A farmer learns of the existence of the idea but knows little about it.

Interest. The farmer develops interest in the idea and seeks more information about it, from either a
friend or the extension agent.

Evaluation. How the idea affects the farmer must now be considered. How will it be of benefit? What
are the difficulties or disadvantages of this new idea? The farmer may seek further information or go to
a demonstration or meeting, and then decide whether or not to try out the new idea.

Trial. Very often, farmers decide to try the idea on a small scale. For example, they may decide to put
manure or fertilizer on a small part of one field and compare the result with the rest of the field. To do
this they seek advice on how and when to apply fertilizer or manure.

Adoption. If the farmers are convinced by the trial, they accept the idea fully and it becomes part of
their customary way of farming.

Similar stages are involved with individual farmers, farmers' groups, or whole communities. In groups
and communities the process is more complex and may take much longer. The extension agent uses a
range of extension methods to bring the right kind of information and support to each stage of the
process. He must arrange learning experiences that will lead people from one stage to the next. In a
community forestry programme, he begins by encouraging people to recognize that there is a problem
of declining numbers of trees and that this could be overcome by the community planting and looking
after a wood-lot. Interest can then be increased by a visit to another village that has already planted a
wood-lot. During the evaluation stage, a lot of discussion will go on in the village. The extension worker
can provide detailed information about the costs and returns, and answer questions and doubts. When
a decision is taken to do something he can then arrange skill training sessions.

Farmers differ in their speed of learning and adoption

The process by which a new idea spreads among people in an area is known as diffusion. Not all farmers
will accept a new idea at the same time. In any rural community, the readiness to accept new ideas and
put them into practice varies from farmer to farmer depending on each farmer's previous experience
with new ideas, the personality of the farmer and the amount of land and other resources available.
Thus we can identify different categories of farmers in terms of their abilities to adopt new ideas.

Innovators. Innovators are farmers who are eager to accept new ideas. Usually there are only a few
people in this class in a farming community. They are often farmers who, having spent some years
outside the village, feel that they can make their own decisions without worrying about the opinions of
others. In villages, innovators are often looked on with suspicion and jealousy. Yet they are important to
the success of an extension programme since they can be persuaded to try new methods and thereby
create awareness of them in the community. However, the extension agent should exercise tact and
caution, and avoid overpraising innovators in public or spending too much time with them. This could
result in rejection of the idea by the rest of the community because of jealousy and suspicion of the
innovator's motives in adopting new methods.

Early adopters. Farmers who are more cautious and want to see the idea tried and proved under local
conditions are known as early adopters. They express early interest but must first be convinced of the
direct benefit of the idea by result demonstration. Usually this group of farmers includes local leaders
and others who are respected in the community.

The majority. If the rest of the farmers adopt a new idea, they will do so more slowly and perhaps less
completely. Many farmers will lack the resources to adopt the new idea at all, while others may only do
so slowly and with caution. The majority who can and do adopt the idea are likely to be more influenced
by the opinions of local leaders and neighbours than by the extension agent or the demonstrations he
arranges.

Types of extension

There is no one universal type of extension but a variety of activities and approaches which can be called
extension. It has already been stated that since agriculture is the basis of a rural economy, agricultural
extension is the most common type of extension to be found in rural areas. But the areas of knowledge
and new ideas that farmers and their families require are not restricted to agriculture. There are other
aspects of family life in which new knowledge and practices can lead to improvement. Extension is any
activity that works with farmers and their families in order to improve the economic and social
conditions of their lives and to develop their ability to take responsibility for their own future
development. This extension, however, can take different forms and it would be useful to review the
two principal ones.

Agricultural extension

There are probably more extension agents involved in agricultural activities than in any other aspect of
rural life. Given the importance of agriculture and the need to produce food both for the farm family
and for the nation as a whole, this emphasis upon agricultural extension is understandable. Some
agricultural extension services are based upon a single crop, while others adopt more of a "whole farm"
approach. The choice is very much dependent upon the local agricultural system and the national crop
requirements. In regions where cash crops such as cotton, cocoa or sugar grow, the single crop
extension approach is more common.

An agricultural extension service offers technical advice on agriculture to farmers, and also supplies
them with the necessary inputs and services to support their agricultural production. It provides
information to farmers and passes to the farmers new ideas developed by agricultural research stations.
Agricultural extension programmes cover a broad area including improved crop varieties, better
livestock control, improved water management, and the control of weeds, pests or plant diseases.
Where appropriate, agricultural extension may also help to build up local farmers' groups and
organizations so that they can benefit from extension programmes. Agricultural extension, therefore,
provides the indispensable elements that farmers need to improve their agricultural productivity.

Non-agriculural extension

In the absence of a collective term to cover the other types of extension, it is convenient to refer to
them all as non-agricultural extension. This term includes all activities and efforts not directly related to
agriculture or livestock production, but which are important to the farm families. Home economics,
family health and nutrition, population education and community development are all non-agricultural
extension activities.

Rural extension covers many aspects of rural life

When talking of extension and extension agents, therefore, all activities of the above type are included.
These activities also involve the basic elements and principles of extension outlined earlier in this
chapter, such as knowledge, learning and practice. Home economists and community development
workers, therefore, are extension agents who deal with farm families in the same way as agricultural
extension agents. The only difference is their areas of concern.

In fact, it is becoming increasingly common to talk of rural extension as a collective term which brings
together all agricultural and non-agricultural extension activities. The feature common to both types of
extension is that they work with families in rural areas and deal with problems in a rural environment.
Their different programmes and approaches have a common aim, which is the improvement of the lives
of the rural people, and they are both guided by common principles and ideals.

This guide, therefore, is a guide to rural extension and is relevant to both agricultural and non-
agricultural extension agents. Given the predominance of agriculture in the rural economy, however,
there will be some emphasis on agricultural extension within the guide. The understanding of extension,
the methods used by extension agents, the planning processes involved and the qualities and skills
required by agents are factors relevant to all forms of rural extension. The content and subject-matter
may be different, but the same general principles apply in both types of extension.

an extension plot or research station. Farmers will have more confidence if a demonstration is held on a
neighbour's land, or if a new practice is shown by a fellow farmer, than if it is carried out by agents on
extension land. The more the local farmers can be involved in the whole process of a demonstration, the
greater will be their self-confidence and readiness to learn.

Simplicity. Simple, clear-cut demonstrations of a single practice or new idea will be far more effective
than ambitious and over-complex demonstrations that demand too much of the farmer. It is better to
proceed step by step with a number of demonstrations than to try do to everything at once.

Learning. The demonstration is a learning environment and should be run in such a way that the farmers
do in fact learn something. A demonstration is a type of class-room, and the agent must be conscious of
classroom requirements in terms of space, time, equipment and the teaching method to use.

Preparation. An extension agent should never contemplate holding a demonstration without careful
planning and preparation. A demonstration hastily given could have disastrous consequences.
Planning the demonstration

When the agent decides that a demonstration would be useful at a particular time, he must then
dedicate some time to planning and preparing for it. In this respect, he must ask himself a number of
questions.

- What is the objective of the demonstration?

- Why is the demonstration the most suitable extension method, and what would be the usefulness of
the new idea to be demonstrated?

- When should the demonstration be held? When is the most convenient date and time both for the
farmers and in terms of the application of the new idea?

- Where is the demonstration to be held? Which suitable location is the most convenient for the
farmers.

The agent should work out in some detail his answers to the above questions before proceeding any
further. It is very important that the reasons for the demonstration be appropriate and clearly
understood and that there is a realistic expectation that the demonstration will be of benefit to the
farmers involved.

Preparing the demonstration

The more carefully the agent can prepare all the details of the demonstration, the more chance he will
have of it running smoothly. The following are the key areas of preparation.

- Consult the local people and seek their help and advice in the preparation of the demonstration.

- Prepare a detailed plan of the demonstration, the main issues to be covered, the sequence of events,
the resources needed and the contributions required from other people.

- Collect information and material available on the new idea or practice to be demonstrated, and make
sure that the topic is familiar and that questions can be answered.
- Check that all the support material is ready (e.g., audio-visual aids, implements).

- Select those farmers who will take part in the demonstration and brief them on the outline of events.

- Ensure that the demonstration has been publicized and that the farmers know exactly when and where
it is to take place.

- Visit the demonstration site beforehand to make sure that all is in order and that the site is
appropriate.

Supervising the demonstration

During the demonstration, the agent's role should be to supervise but not to dominate. He should
actively support the farmer who may be assisting in the demonstration, and encourage the others to
participate as much as they can. The agent should be keen to ensure that all those present benefit from
the demonstration. During the demonstration, therefore, the agent should:

Welcome the participants, make them feel at ease and ensure that they have all they require to benefit
fully from the demonstration.

Explain the purpose of the demonstration, what it is hoped to achieve and what the various stages are
that will be followed. Distribute any literature or other material which may have been prepared as a
guide for the participants.

Conduct the demonstration in person or be ready to help the demonstrator farmer. Proceed at a pace
the farmers can follow, and be prepared to explain again or answer questions from participants.
Emphasize key points and explain the practice step by step in simple words. In a method demonstration,
ensure that all those who wish to do so have a chance to practice the demonstration themselves.

Summarize the main issues or points which have arisen, encourage questions from the farmers and
make sure that the participants have had every opportunity to try out or examine the practice being
demonstrated.

Conclude the demonstration with a vote of thanks to all concerned, and with a few comments about any
follow-up activities planned.

Follow-up
It is important that any interest generated by, or decisions taken at, the demonstration be followed up.
Farmers will feel let down if the agent does not do so. This follow-up will be useful for the agent as well.
Demonstrations can often result in good contacts with local farmers, and the agent may be able to enlist
their support for future activities. It is also important that the agent reflect upon the demonstration and
evaluate its effectiveness. The agent should, therefore, write a report and prepare a record of the
demonstration, noting the names of the participants, the effect achieved and personal impressions of
the usefulness of the demonstration.

Field days

Field days are usually opportunities to hold method or result demonstrations on a slightly larger scale,
and are usually run in a more informal and less highly structured manner. The purpose is often to
introduce a new idea and a new crop, and to stimulate the interest of as many farmers as possible.
Experimental stations or other government centres may be used for field days, but it is more usual and
profitable for them to be held on the land of a local farmer. There is a greater chance of making an
impact if the field day is held on a farmer's land, and if the farmer plays a part in running it and
explaining the purpose.

Field days can range in size from a small group to annual events attracting hundreds of farmers. Since
the aim is a general introduction to some new idea, there is less need to be concerned about limiting the
numbers. The extension agent's role on the field day is to support the farmer on whose land it is being
held, to offer general guidance to ensure that things run smoothly and to be available to answer
questions and queries.

It is probably better not to over organize the field day but to try to create an atmosphere in which
visiting farmers can inspect, inquire, question and generally get to know what is available.

Although the agent will try to encourage an open and informal atmosphere for the field day, there is still
a considerable amount of preparation needed to ensure that it runs well. The issues which the agent
must consider are very similar to those noted under demonstrations and will not be repeated here. It
may be useful, however, to bear a few additional points in mind.

Limit the numbers to the capacity of the field, to avoid overcrowding.

Ensure a good layout of field-day activities, with easy access and facility of movement around the field.

Encourage the demonstrator farmer to take most of the initiative; give him support but do not take over
the field day from him.

Provide suitably large visual material and also, if necessary, a loudspeaker, to ensure that all can hear.
Check that extension literature and other material are available for consultation.

Conclude the field day by bringing all the participants together, reviewing the day's proceedings and the
main items seen and discussed, and explain any future relevant extension activities.

A field day is a day out for farmers and is often a welcome relief from their daily hard work. The agent
should, therefore, provide an interesting and well-presented exhibition, suitable refreshments and
points of rest, and generally create an atmosphere in which the farmers will feel at ease and will be
eager to know what is going on.

Tours

Farmers like to visit farms in other districts to see how they work, what they grow and what kinds of
problems the farmers there are facing. A tour is a series of field demonstrations on different farms, or at
different centres, and can often attract a lot of interest from local farmers. The tour should give local
farmers a chance to see how other farmers cultivate their land, and to exchange ideas and experiences
with them. It is important, therefore, that the area to be visited be in some way similar agriculturally to
that of the visiting farmers.

As with all other forms of extension, tours have to be well thought out, planned, prepared and
conducted. The five stages of determining the objective, planning the content, preparing the
arrangements, conducting the tour and arranging for appropriate follow-up will be a guide to the
extension agent. However, it may be useful to add these points:

Visit the area first to become familiar with local conditions, the farms to be visited, the route and road
conditions.

Limit the tour to what is possible. It is better to do a short tour in which visitors can have a good look at
local farms than to arrange an ambitious tour and be pushed for time. Don't tire the visitors out.

Encourage the host farmers to do all the explaining and to take charge of the tour.
Arrange for food and drink during the tour.

Conclude the tour with a short summary of the main events and note any comments or conclusions.

A field tour is an ideal method of involving farmers and of stimulating genuine interest in extension
activities. It is also very useful in bringing farmers together to discuss common problems, and to gain
useful experience of other areas.

In looking for solutions to local problems, the agent should distinguish between technical solutions,
involving improved inputs or simple changes in husbandry practice, and solutions which involve
institutional changes, such as improved credit and marketing systems. Solutions involving institutional
changes may require action by other agencies and at higher levels. While the agent should certainly
suggest such solutions to those responsible, there may be little that can be done locally in isolation.

The sources of ideas for developing an area's potential include:

- the agent's own technical knowledge;

- farmers and agents from other areas who have tackled similar problems successfully;

- applied research which tests new ideas under farm conditions;

- national priorities and directives;

- projects which make funds available for particular activities.

Selecting solutions

When selecting from among the range of solutions and possible improvements, agent and farmers
should ensure that proposed solutions are:

Acceptable to farmers in the area.

Technically sound and tested by research and experience elsewhere.

Consistent with national policy, and with the local activities of other agencies.

Feasible within the time and with the resources available to farmers and the extension service.

Within the scope of the agent's ability and job description.

The agent may find that some problems will have no feasible or acceptable solution that can be
implemented locally within the period of the extension programme. They may require legislation, action
at other levels and by other agencies, or more research. The agent should lessen the effect of such
problems where possible and act as a channel for putting forward the case for changes to those who
have the power to make them.

Stating objectives

It should now be possible to state what the objectives of the extension programme are to be. But
because his time and resources may be limited, the agent must decide which objectives have a higher
priority than others. In doing so, he should consider national priorities and the size and distribution of
the benefits that will arise from a given input of time and resources.

Wherever possible, objectives should be expressed in terms of amounts and numbers, rather than
general statements. "Establish two groups of dairy farmers who will share new equipment and market
their produce jointly", and "Increase the acreage of improved rice varieties from 60 to 120 acres" are
more useful objectives than "Improve dairy farming techniques" or "Increase the use of improved rice
seed". They give the agent firm targets to work toward, and a standard against which the effectiveness
of the programme can be judged at the end of the year.

The objectives for an annual extension programme will state what should have been achieved by the
end of the programme. These statements can be broken down into intermediate steps to be taken
during the year in order to achieve the programme objectives. Again, the agent will have to make
choices, selecting the most appropriate steps from several possibilities.

As the agent breaks down each programme objective into specific steps, he will in effect be preparing a
schedule of extension activities for the programme period. He will decide what knowledge and skills the
farmers will need; what additional technical information will be required from specialists and research
workers; what extension methods should be used; and what resources and support he will need from
his own and other agencies.

When the planning is completed for other programme objectives, the agent can compile all the plans
into an overall annual work plan. He may find that he cannot possibly do everything that all the
individual plans require, so some of the lower priority objectives may have to be dropped, or scaled
down. The annual work plan does not specify what the agent will be doing on each day during the year,
but it should indicate when each extension activity will begin and end, and what resources will be
needed for each.

Implementation

To implement the programme, the agent carries out the activities specified in the work plan. His detailed
monthly and weekly plans will take account of progress and problems encountered in previous months.
For example, the timing of some activities may have to be changed, or additional method
demonstrations may be planned if more farmers than expected want to take part. An extension
programme should be flexible enough to allow the agent to respond to circumstances in this way.

Evaluation

The agent will be constantly reviewing and evaluating his progress during the year. At the end of the
year, a more thorough evaluation should be carried out in which the agent identifies how fully each
objective has been achieved, and the reasons for any lack of progress. This evaluation, together with an
up-dated situation analysis, provides the basis for planning the next year's programme.

Evaluating extension programmes

Evaluation is the process by which the effectiveness of extension is assessed. It is more than simply
finding out what happened; it involves passing judgement on what happened. Was the outcome of the
programme good enough? Was it better or worse than expected? Could more have been achieved?
Extension programmes are evaluated to (a) ascertain for the extension organization how well agents
perform, so that their suitability for promotion may be assessed; (l') satisfy the government that public
money spent on extension is being used effectively; and (c) permit the agent to learn from what has
happened. Evaluation is a waste of time unless the results have an influence on future extension
decisions.

One approach to evaluation is to ask if the programme's objectives were achieved. This is an important
first step and one which is made easier if the programme had clear, precise objectives. If the answer is
no, then there is no real basis on which to make improvements in future programmes. It is important,
therefore, to ask why things turned out in the way they did. Only when that question is answered can
the agent learn from the past. Agents should, therefore, ask questions about the following aspects of
the programme.

Results. What happened as a result of the- extension programme? Were they the results that were
expected, and were there any unexpected results?

Inputs. Were all the planned inputs available and, if not, why?

Levels of evaluation

There are several levels of evaluation of extension programmes. At the most general level, the effect of
extension on agricultural production, family incomes and standards of living can be evaluated. An
increase in family living standards is usually an important ultimate goal of rural extension and it is,
therefore, important to ask whether any increase has occurred. Evaluation of this kind involves
measuring production and farm income for a representative sample of farm families, and then
comparing the figures with previous levels. The changes revealed by these figures are then related to
the extension inputs and activities during the programme.

However, extension is not the only factor that leads to higher production and living standards; changes
in prices and in the availability of inputs are two of the many additional factors that affect the level of
crop and of livestock production. Separating the effects of these various factors is a complex task and
best left to specialist research and evaluation staff. Nevertheless, the agent should be aware of these
economic changes and regularly ask himself how much his extension activities are contributing to the
economic well-being of farmers and their families. He should also observe who is benefiting from
extension. Is a broad cross-section of the farming population sharing the benefits, for example, or do
one or two particular groups benefit most?

An intermediate level of evaluation is provided by the extension programme itself. Two questions are
important here. Did the extension activities take place in the planned sequence and at the right time?
Did these activities lead to the expected results? If the answers are negative, the agent should try to
understand why. Perhaps he was over-ambitious about how many extension activities he could
undertake, or maybe he did not receive the support he needed from other agencies. Whatever the
reason, the agent will be able to learn from the evaluation process. He should be able to make more
realistic plans in the future to ensure that the necessary support and inputs are provided.

Finally, the agent can evaluate at the level of each extension activity. All extension activities, such as
demonstrations, talks or meetings with a farmers' group, have a purpose. The agent should try to check,
wherever possible, not only how well the activity itself was conducted but whether the purpose was
achieved. This will usually involve finding out whether the extension activity led to any changes in one or
more of the following:

- awareness of a particular idea, possibility or problem;

- motivation to act in a particular way;

- knowledge about new farming practices;

- skills needed to adopt a new practice;

- behaviour by farmers and their families (such as new farming methods), or by an extension group (such
as making an application for funds to carry out a group project or the preparation of a formal group
constitution).

At all levels of evaluation, the agent needs to collect information to compare the situation after the
activity with the situation existing before. He will already have assessed the situation before evaluation
when deciding on the need for the extension activity. When planning a result demonstration, for
example, he will have some idea of how many farmers in the area know about, are interested in, or have
already adopted the particular practice that is to be demonstrated. However, he can obtain a more
accurate assessment by asking those who attend the demonstration how much they already know and
what experience they have had of the practice. By carrying out a similar assessment after the
demonstration, he can collect the information he needs for evaluation.

Some effects can be assessed much sooner than others. Immediately after a public meeting, for
example, the agent can talk to a few members of the audience and check how clearly they understood
what he was saying. Changes in behaviour, on the other hand, will not happen at once and the agent
must wait before checking these.

There are several ways of collecting information for evaluation at the village level.

Agent's reports. Whether or not a formal report of each extension activity is required from agents by
their extension officers, the agent should make some notes on each activity for his own use,
concentrating on his conduct of the activity and on points to note for future occasions.

Supervisors. It is not easy for an agent to assess how well he conducts an extension activity; in particular,
he cannot see himself through the eyes of the farmers who attend. It is useful, therefore, to have
constructive comments from a supervisor or colleague.

Discussions. Informal discussion with farmers after the extension activity will reveal their immediate
reactions. It is often useful to record such discussions using a tape recorder for later transcription and
fuller analysis.

Questionnaires. Simple check-lists and questionnaires can be used when the agent has the time and
opportunity to carry out a more formal evaluation of extension activities. Before a result demonstration
on early planting, for example, the agent could prepare a list of four or five important facts that farmers
should know after they have attended. By asking a sample of farmers questions on the facts, before and
after the demonstration, the agent can assess its impact on farmers' knowledge.

Observation. Where changes in farming practice are concerned, observation is an accurate source of
information. The agent can see whether or not his advice is being adopted on farms in the area.
Many extension organizations have their own formal procedures for evaluation. In some, the agent
prepares a detailed plan of work each month on a standard form, showing what he plans to do each day
during the month and how these activities fit in with his annual extension programme. The plan of work
is then used as the basis for evaluation at the end of the month. Did he do all that he planned? Did he
encounter any problems that he should take into account in the future? Is he on target in terms of
progress toward his annual extension programme objectives? This procedure may be combined with a
monthly meeting of agents in a particular district at which progress and problems in each area are
discussed.

Whatever the formal procedures in a particular organization, however, the agent should think of
evaluation as an attitude of mind. He should develop a readiness to ask what happened, why it
happened and how it could be done better in the future. In this way, he will continue to learn and
improve his extension work.

mindful that these clubs have three main purposes.

Educational. In a variety of ways, both formal and informal, a club can be the means whereby young
people can socialize and train for future life. Specific skills, leadership qualities and a general
understanding of the problem of rural development can all be useful objectives of the club.

Economic. More particularly, a club can be used to instruct the youth in different aspects of agricultural
practice, farm management or home economics. The club can also undertake specific projects designed
to provide income for the youth.

Recreational. Not all the activities of the club should be serious. It should also encourage recreational
activities and social events, e.g., sports, day-trips and even dances. In this way, the young people will
enjoy the club, and will see it as an important part of their leisure time.

The agent should consult people locally before he forms a club, and ensure that it has the support of
parents He should also find a meeting-place and allocate some resources for its functioning. The agent's
work with a club is very similar to his work with farmers' groups, and similar issues arise (see Chapter 5).

Two important aspects are the selection of a club leader and the internal organization of the club. Often
the club leader will be a local, progressive farmer or even a teacher. The leader is not a member of the
club and his task is to help to guide and support the club's activities. The leader (or leaders) will manage
the club, help in the selection of projects and generally work in an advisory role to the club members. As
the club develops, young people will need to be involved in its organization. This could be in the form of
a committee of members, with a chairman, treasurer and secretary as committee officials. It is
important for the agent to encourage the club to adopt an internal organization to provide some
structure for discussion and for project work.

Projects with rural youth

Project work, either with the clubs or with rural youth in general, is the means by which young people
can learn to do something instead of just listening to talks or lectures. The agent should encourage
project activities with young people and allocate part of his local budget for such activities. These
projects can be on an individual or a club basis, and should not be too ambitious initially. In terms of the
approach to project work and to the steps involved in planning and implementation, the agent can
consult other sections of this guide (see particularly Chapters 1 and 7).

A useful way of beginning project work is to take young people on a visit to a farmer, or to other
agricultural projects, where they can see a particular activity for themselves. Local farmers are often
most willing to collaborate with a group of keen club members. In addition, the agent could arrange for
talks by other local people, or demonstrations to explain a project to them. It is important for the agent
to be enthusiastic about project work and to try to involve youth in discussing and deciding what
projects to undertake. Examples of youth projects that have been undertaken successfully in different
parts of the world include poultry keeping, rabbit keeping, vegetable growing, handicrafts, fish-pond
farming and home improvement.

Essentially, project work should be a learning experience. The projects are not only to provide useful
additional income or food supplies, but should also be educational and a way of equipping young people
with skills and knowledge useful for the future. It is important that the projects succeed, since failure
could easily lead to early disillusionment. The extension agent, therefore, should give as careful
attention to youth work as to more general extension work since he is really preparing and building for
the future.

Finally, if an extension agent is to work with rural youth, he should have general sympathy with their
views and ideals and feel at ease working with them. It might be better, therefore, for the younger
agents in an extension service to take on the responsibilities of youth extension work. Young people will
need to identify with the agent and be prepared to work with and trust him if extension work is to
succeed.

Extension and the landless

In many areas where extension agents work, there will be farm families who are landless. The term
landless includes not only people who have no land at all, but also families whose landholding is
insufficient even for subsistence farming. Both these types of family are obliged to sell their family
labour in order to make a living. It is not possible in this guide to give facts and figures on landlessness
worldwide. The evidence is, however, that landlessness is quite common and increasing in many parts of
the world, and it presents extension with a particular set of problems.

So far in this guide when extension and farmers have been discussed, and new technology, ideas and
practices referred to, it has usually been assumed that farmers have access to the means (such as land)
to take advantage of such innovations. Yet in many parts of the world a lot of farm families do not have
direct access to the means of using the agricultural innovations suggested by the extension service. The
question "What is extension's responsibility toward these families" must, therefore, be asked. These
families present extension agents with an enormous challenge, which they can begin to confront if they
try to understand the characteristics of landless families.

- The landless lack an economic base on which to build any kind of future.

- They are dependent upon others for their livelihood, under conditions over which they have little
control.

- The landless family's livelihood is precarious.

- They have little contact with extension or other government services.

- They have no influence over the decisions that affect their family's livelihood.

- Few organizations represent their interests.

It is not difficult to see that the above present a formidable challenge to extension agents who find
landless families in the areas where they work. The agent will already have to implement policies and
programmes; meet targets in order to achieve rural development objectives; give priority to increasing
the productivity levels of existing resources; and work with the farmers who have the means to produce
more: Nevertheless, where possible, extension services in general (and agents in particular) should give
some thought to the plight of the landless. It will be a question of how much time the agent will have to
devote, and how many resources he can allocate to efforts to improve the livelihood of the landless.

The agent should at least take time to study the problems of the landless in his area and be continually
alert to ways in which he might make an impact on these problems. In several parts of the world - Nepal,
Bangladesh and Peru - extension services have tried to tackle the problems of the landless. These efforts
have been based on three main activities:

Organization. The extension agent encourages the formation of some kind of organization to represent
the interests of the landless, and supports such organizations as he would support a farmers' group.
Given the above characteristics of landless families, however, the agent must be prepared to devote a
lot of time before any organization takes shape.

Resources. Where possible, the agent should try to make resources available to the landless to improve
their smallholding or, if land becomes available, to help them to obtain the use of it. Small stock-raising
projects will also provide some income, as will craft production projects with other members of the
family.

Motivation. The landless often lack the will or the motivation to try to improve their circumstances. The
extension agent can offer his support, show that he wants to give them some help, and generally try to
encourage their interest in activities to improve their lives.

It would be wrong to suggest that an extension agent can solve the fundamental problems of the
landless. The root causes of the situation of the landless lie in the rural society as a whole, and only
when rural changes occur will the livelihood of the landless improve. The extension service and the
agent must not turn away from a farm family merely because it does not have the resources to adopt
new ideas immediately; extension is for the whole rural population. The agent must come to understand
the structural obstacles which prevent the development of the landless, and he must try to tackle these
obstacles whenever possible. Most of all, he must recognize the existence of the landless and offer
extension's support in securing a more secure livelihood for them.