Chapter 3.

Small-Amplitude Water Wave Theory

3.1 Introduction

Assuming inviscid, incompressible fluid and irrotational flow, φ and Ψ exist, which

satisfy ∇ 2φ = ∇ 2 Ψ = 0 .

3.2 Boundary Value Problem

3.3 Boundary Conditions

3.3.1 Kinematic boundary condition

The kinematic boundary condition is a condition that describes the water particle
kinematics at a boundary (either fixed or moving). If we sit on a boundary (fixed or
moving) and move with the boundary, we do not feel any change of the surface that
constitutes the boundary. Mathematically, the rate of change of the surface must be zero,
i.e., the total derivative of the surface is zero on the surface. Let the surface of the
boundary be represented by F ( x, y , z , t ) = 0 . Then

DF ∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F
= +u +v +w = 0 on F =0
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
2
∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F ⎛ ∂F ⎞ ⎛ ∂F ⎞ ⎛ ∂F ⎞
2 2

− = u ⋅ ∇F = u ⋅ n ∇ F ; ∇F = i+ j+ k, ∇F = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠

− ∂F / ∂t
u⋅n= on F =0
∇F
3.3.2 BBC

Assume a fixed sea bed:

z = − h ( x, y ) ⇒ F ( x, y , z , t ) = z + h ( x, y ) = 0

The kinematic boundary condition on sea bed is

− ∂F / ∂t
u⋅n = = 0 on z = − h ( x, y )
∇F

Recall that a ⊥ b if a ⋅ b = 0 . Therefore, u ⋅ n = 0 means that u is parallel to the

sea bed surface, i.e. no flow perpendicular to the bed.

Using

∂h ∂h
i+ j+k
∇F ∂x ∂y
n= =
∇F 2
⎛ ∂h ⎞ ⎛ ∂h ⎞
2

⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠

we have

∂h ∂h
u +v +w
∂x ∂y
u⋅n = =0
2
⎛ ∂h ⎞ ⎛ ∂h ⎞
2

⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠
∂h ∂h
w = −u −v on z = − h( x, y )
∂x ∂y
∂φ ∂φ ∂h ∂φ ∂h
− = + on z = − h( x, y )
∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

On a horizontal bottom, ∂h / ∂x = ∂h / ∂y = 0 , so that ∂φ / ∂z = 0 on z = −h .

3.3.3 KFSBC

On water surface,

z = η ( x, y , t ) ⇒ F ( x, y , z , t ) = z − η ( x, y , t ) = 0

The kinematic boundary condition on free surface is

− ∂F / ∂t ∂η / ∂t
u⋅n= = on z = η ( x, y , t )
∇F (∂η / ∂x )2 + (∂η / ∂y )2 + 1

Using

u = u i + v j + wk
∂η ∂η
− i− j+k
∇F ∂x ∂y
n= =
∇F 2
⎛ ∂η ⎞ ⎛ ∂η ⎞
2

⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠

we have

∂η ∂η ∂η
−u −v +w=
∂x ∂y ∂t
∂η ∂η ∂η
w= +u +v on z = η ( x, y, t )
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂φ ∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ∂η
− = − − on z = η ( x, y, t )
∂z ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

Small-amplitude wave theory assumes

L ∼ O (h)
H / L = wave steepness << 1
η ∼ O (H )
 t ∼ O (T )
x ∼ O (L)
z ∼ O (h) ∼ O(L)
∂φ ⎛H⎞
u= ∼ O⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎝T ⎠
⎛ HL ⎞
φ ∼ O⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠

∂φ ∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ∂η
− = − − on z = η ( x, y , t )
∂z ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
⎛H⎞ ⎛H⎞ ⎛H H⎞ ⎛H H⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝T ⎠ ⎝T ⎠ ⎝T L⎠ ⎝T L⎠

(1) (1) ⎛⎜ H ⎞⎟ ⎛H⎞

⎜ ⎟ << 1
⎝L⎠ ⎝L⎠

∂φ ∂η
∴− = on z = η ( x, y , t )
∂z ∂t

Taylor series expansion about z = 0 gives

⎛ ∂φ ∂η ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂η ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂φ ∂η ⎞ η 2 ∂ 2 ⎛ ∂φ ∂η ⎞
⎜ − − ⎟ = ⎜ − − ⎟ + η ⎜ − − ⎟ + ⎜− − ⎟ +L= 0
⎝ ∂z ∂t ⎠ z =η ⎝ ∂z ∂t ⎠ z = 0 ∂z ⎝ ∂z ∂t ⎠ z = 0 2 ∂z 2 ⎝ ∂z ∂t ⎠ z = 0
⎛H⎞ ⎛H⎞ ⎛H2 ⎞ ⎛H2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝T ⎠ ⎝T ⎠ ⎝ LT ⎠ ⎝ LT ⎠

∂φ ∂η
− = on z=0 (LKFSBC)
∂z ∂t
3.3.4 DFSBC

The Bernoulli equation on free surface is

∂φ 1 2
− (
+ u + v 2 + w2 +
∂t 2
pη
ρ
)
+ gη = C (t ) on z = η ( x, y , t )

Using pη = 0 (gauge pressure),

∂φ 1 2
−
∂t 2
( )
+ u + v 2 + w 2 + gη = C (t ) on z = η ( x, y , t )

⎛ HL ⎞ ⎛H2 ⎞
⎜ 2⎟ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ (gH )
⎝T ⎠ ⎝T ⎠
⎛H⎞ ⎛ T2 ⎞
(1) ⎜ ⎟ << 1 ⎜⎜ g ⎟⎟ ~ O(1)
⎝L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠

∂φ
∴− + gη = C (t ) on z = η ( x, y , t )
∂t

Taylor series expansion about z = 0 gives

⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
⎜− + gη ⎟ = ⎜ − + gη ⎟ + η ⎜ − + gη ⎟ + L = C (t )
⎝ ∂t ⎠ z =η ⎝ ∂t ⎠ z =0 ∂z ⎝ ∂t ⎠ z =0
⎛ HL ⎞ ⎛H2 ⎛ H2 ⎞
⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟ (gH ) ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ g ⎟⎟
⎝T ⎠ ⎝T ⎠
⎝ L ⎠
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛H⎞ ⎛ T H⎞
2
(1) ⎜⎜ g ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ g ⎟⎟
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝L⎠ ⎝ L L⎠

∂φ
− + gη = C (t ) on z=0 (LDFSBC)
∂t
3.3.5 LBC

Assuming 2-D ( x − z ) periodic wave,

φ ( x , t ) = φ ( x + L, t )
φ ( x, t ) = φ ( x, t + T )

3.3.6 Summary of 2-D periodic wave boundary value problem

GE ∇ 2φ = 0 0 ≤ x ≤ L, − h ≤ z ≤ η

∂φ
BBC − = 0 on z = −h
∂z
∂φ ∂η
LKFSBC − = on z=0
∂z ∂t
∂φ
LDFSBC − + gη = C (t ) on z=0
∂t
φ ( x , t ) = φ ( x + L, t )
LBC
φ ( x, t ) = φ ( x, t + T )

Note: The Laplace equation is linear, so the superposition of solutions is valid.

3.4 Solution to Boundary Value Problem

Using separation of variables, the velocity potential can be expressed as

φ ( x, z , t ) = Χ ( x ) Ζ( z )Τ(t )

Assume

2π
Τ(t ) = sin σt ; σ =
T

where σ = wave angular frequency. The above equation satisfies the periodicity
condition in time, that is

Τ(t + T ) = sin(σt + σT ) = sin σt cos σT + cos σt sin σT = sin σt

Now

φ ( x, z , t ) = Χ ( x ) Ζ( z ) sin σt

Substitution into the Laplace equation gives

d 2Χ d 2Ζ
Ζ sin σt + Χ sin σt = 0
dx 2 dz 2
1 d 2Χ 1 d 2Ζ
+ =0
Χ dx 2 Ζ dz 2

The first term is a function of x alone, whereas the second term is a function of
z alone. Therefore, the two terms should be constants with opposite signs, that is,

1 d 2Χ
= −k 2
Χ dx 2
1 d 2Ζ
= k2
Ζ dz 2

The possible solutions that satisfy these ODE’s are given in Table 3.1 of textbook.
Among these, the solution which satisfies the periodicity condition in x is

φ ( x, z, t ) = ( A cos kx + B sin kx )(Ce kz + De − kz )sin σt

The periodicity condition in x gives

A cos kx + B sin kx = A cos k ( x + L) + B sin k ( x + L)

= A(cos kx cos kL − sin kx sin kL) + B(sin kx cos kL + cos kx sin kL)

For the above relation to be satisfied, the followings are needed:

cos kL = 1 and sin kL = 0

which give the wave number,

2π
k=
L

Recalling that the superposition of solutions is valid for the Laplace equation, keep only

φ ( x, z, t ) = A cos kx(Ce kz + De − kz )sin σt

Using BBC,

∂φ
−
∂z
( )
= A cos kx kCe kz − kDe − kz sin σt = 0 on z = −h

Ce − kh − De kh = 0
C = De 2 kh

Therefore,
 φ ( x, z, t ) = A cos kx(De 2 kh e kz + De − kz )sin σt
( )
= ADe kh cos kx e k ( h + z ) + e − k ( h + z ) sin σt
= G cos kx cosh k (h + z ) sin σt

Applying LDFSBC,

∂φ
− + gη = C (t ) on z = 0
∂t
− σG cos kx cosh kh cos σt + gη = C (t )
σG cosh kh C (t )
η= cos kx cos σt +
g g

The spatial mean of η must be zero. Thus, C (t ) must be zero. Expressing η as

H
η= cos kx cos σt
2

we have

gH
G=
2σ cosh kh

Finally,

gH cosh(h + z )
φ ( x, z , t ) = cos kx sin σt
2σ cosh kh

Applying LKFSBC,

∂φ ∂η
− = on z = 0
∂z ∂t
gkH sinh kh σH
− cos kx sin σt = − cos kx sin σt
2σ cosh kh 2
gkH σH
tanh kh =
2σ 2
 ∴ σ 2 = gk tanh kh (dispersion relationship)

The dispersion relationship gives relation among h , σ and k or the relation among
h , T and L . The dispersion relationship can be solved for k by Newton-Raphson
method for given σ and h . Approximate solutions are also available:

Eckart (1951):

σ 2h
σ 2 = gk tanh
g

Hunt (1979):

y σ 2h
(kh) 2 = y 2 + 6
; y= , d 1 ~ d 6 given in p. 72 of textbook
g
1+ ∑ dn y n

n =1

The dispersion relationship gives

⎛ 2π ⎞ 2π
2

⎜ ⎟ =g tanh kh
⎝ T ⎠ L
gT 2
L= tanh kh
2π

In deepwater ( kh > π ), tanh kh ≅ 1 . Therefore, the deepwater wavelength is

gT 2
L0 =
2π

Then
L = L0 tanh kh
L L0
C= = tanh kh = C 0 tanh kh
T T
L gT
C0 = 0 =
T 2π
In summary,

Hg cosh(h + z )
φ ( x, z , t ) = cos kx sin σt
2σ cosh kh
H
η ( x, t ) = cos kx cos σt
2

which represents a standing wave.

Another standing wave associated with the sin kx term gives

Hg cosh(h + z )
φ ( x, z , t ) = − sin kx cos σt
2σ cosh kh
H
η ( x, t ) = sin kx sin σt
2

Superposition of the two standing waves gives a progressive wave:

Hg cosh(h + z )
φ ( x, z , t ) = (cos kx sin σt − sin kx cos σt )
2σ cosh kh
H g cosh k (h + z )
=− sin(kx − σt )
2 σ cosh kh
H
η ( x, t ) = (cos kx cos σt + sin kx sin σt )
2
H
= cos(kx − σt )
2
Progressive wave propagating to positive x -direction:

For progressive wave propagating to negative x -direction:

sin( kx − σt ) ⇒ sin( kx + σt )

For the definitions of deepwater, shallow water, and intermediate depth water, see Fig.
3.12 of textbook. Also see Table 3.2 for asymptotic forms of hyperbolic functions.

Dispersion relationship in shallow water:

σ 2 = gk tanh kh ≅ gk 2 h
⎛σ ⎞
2

C 2 = ⎜ ⎟ = gh
⎝k⎠
C = gh

The shallow water wave is non-dispersive, that is, all the waves with different
frequencies propagate at the same speed.

Dispersion relationship in deepwater:

σ 2 = gk tanh kh ≅ gk
2π 2π 2πg gT 2
L0 = = 2 = =
k σ ⎛ 2π ⎞
2
2π
⎜ ⎟
g ⎝ T ⎠
L gT
C0 = 0 =
T 2π
3.5 Waves with Uniform Current U 0

Assume: 1) Current direction and wave propagation direction is collinear, and 2)

Current is uniform vertically as well as horizontally.

In the absence of waves,

∂φ
U0 = − ⇒ φ = −U 0 x
∂x

For wave with current,

φ = −U 0 x + A cosh k (h + z ) cos(kx − σt )

which satisfies the periodicity condition and BBC. Then,

∂φ
u=− = U 0 + kA cosh k (h + z ) sin( kx − σt )
∂x

u 2 = U 02 + 2kAU 0 cosh k (h + z ) sin(kx − σt ) + k 2 A 2 cosh 2 k (h + z ) sin 2 (kx − σt )

Neglecting small nonlinear terms,

u 2 ≅ U 02 + 2kAU 0 cosh k (h + z ) sin(kx − σt )

DFSBC is

⎡ ∂φ 1 2
( ⎤
⎢− ∂t + 2 u + w + gη ⎥
2
)
⎣ ⎦ z =η
⎡ ∂φ 1 2 ∂ ⎡ ∂φ 1 2
= ⎢− ( ⎤
)
+ u + w 2 + gη ⎥ + η ⎢−
⎤
(
+ u + w 2 + gη ⎥ = C (t )
∂z ⎣ ∂t 2
)
⎣ ∂t 2 ⎦ z =0 ⎦ z =0
Note that w 2 is small compared to the linear terms but u 2 is not. Then DFSBC gives

− σA cosh kh sin( kx − σt ) +
1 2
2
( )
U 0 + 2kAU 0 cosh kh sin( kx − σt ) + gη = C (t )

or

U 02 Aσ ⎛ kU 0 ⎞
η ( x, t ) = − + ⎜1 − ⎟ cosh kh sin(kx − σt ) + C (t )
2g g ⎝ σ ⎠

Since

1 T U 02 1 T
η=
T ∫ 0
ηdt = 0 = −
2g T
+ ∫ 0
C (t )dt

we have

U 02
C (t ) = constant =
2g

Now

Aσ ⎛ kU 0 ⎞ H
η ( x, t ) = ⎜1 − ⎟ cosh kh sin(kx − σt ) = sin(kx − σt )
g ⎝ σ ⎠ 2

which gives

H g gH
A= =
2 ⎛ kU 0 ⎞ ⎛ U ⎞
σ ⎜1 − ⎟ cosh kh 2σ ⎜1 − 0 ⎟ cosh kh
⎝ σ ⎠ ⎝ C ⎠

Therefore,
 gH cosh k (h + z )
φ ( x, z , t ) = −U 0 x + cos( kx − σt )
⎛ U 0 ⎞ cosh kh
2σ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ C ⎠

Applying KFSBC,

⎡ ∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ⎤ ⎡ ∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ⎤ ∂ ⎡ ∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ⎤
⎢ ∂t − ∂x ∂x + ∂z ⎥ = ⎢ ∂t − ∂x ∂x + ∂z ⎥ + η ∂z ⎢ ∂t − ∂x ∂x + ∂z ⎥ + L = 0
⎣ ⎦ z =η ⎣ ⎦ z =0 ⎣ ⎦ z =0

∂η ∂η ∂φ
+U0 =− on z=0
∂t ∂x ∂z

H H kgH
−σ cos(kx − σt ) + U 0 k cos(kx − σt ) = − tanh kh cos(kx − σt )
2 2 ⎛ U0 ⎞
2σ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ C ⎠
gk
− σ + U 0k = − tanh kh
⎛ U0 ⎞
σ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ C ⎠
k gk
−1+U0 =− tanh kh
σ ⎛ U0 ⎞
σ ⎜1 − ⎟ 2

⎝ C ⎠
U gk
−1+ 0 = − tanh kh
C 2⎛ U0 ⎞
σ ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ C ⎠
gk tanh kh
σ2 = 2
⎛ U0 ⎞
⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ C ⎠
2
⎛ U ⎞
σ ⎜1 − 0 ⎟ = gk tanh kh
2

⎝ C ⎠
⎛ U0 ⎞
σ ⎜1 − ⎟ = gk tanh kh
⎝ C ⎠

Finally,
 σ = U 0 k + gk tanh kh

The second term on RHS indicates the angular frequency in no current, that is the
angular frequency in moving frame of reference, while the total indicates the angular
frequency in stationary frame of reference.