The Cytoplasm and nucleus

By Dr Bashir Ibrahim Madawaki

The Cytoplasm.

The cytoplasm is the fluid part of the cell, between the Cell membrane and the Nucleus, that is
composed of small and large particles (like dissolved proteins, electrolytes, glucose, and fat globules
etc.), and Organelles. The fluid part of the Cytoplasm is called Cytosol. The cytoplasm is 80% water.

The cytoplasm is divided into 2 parts;

 Ectoplasm: Cytoplasm just beneath the cell membrane.
 Endoplasm: Cytoplasm between the ectoplasm and the Nucleus.

The Organelles;

The Organelles are structural components of the cytoplasm with distinct function. In fact, the
organelles are considered to be miniature organs within the cell. There are two (2) types of
organelles;
 Membrane bound Organelles
 Non-membrane bound Organelles.

Membrane bound Organelles;

These are organelles that are covered by a Limiting membrane; a phospholipid bilayer similar to the
Cell membrane. They include;
 Endoplasmic reticulum,
 The Golgi Apparatus,
 Lysosome,
  Peroxisome,
 Secretory vesicles,
 Mitochondrion.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER);

This is a network of interconnected, flattened, tubular structures containing a fluid medium called
Endoplasmic Matrix. The space between the walls of this organelles is continuous with the space
between the two (2) walls of the nuclear membrane. There are two (2) types of Endoplasmic
reticulum, namely;
 Rough/Granular ER,
 Smooth/Agranular ER.

The Rough and Smooth ERs are also continuous with one another, and depending on cellular activity,
the Rough ER can change to Smooth ER and vice versa.

The Rough ER has a granular Ribosomes attached to its outer surface that give it a
rough/granular/bumpy appearance.

The Smooth ER has no Ribosomal attachments on its outer Surface; hence it is called Smooth, or
simply Tubular ER.

Figure 3 shows the types of ER.

Functions Of Rough ER;

 Protein Synthesis,
 Helps in Cellular Metabolism due to the enzymes on its membrane,
 Degradation of worn-out organelles.

Functions of Smooth ER;

 Lipid synthesis,
 Storage and metabolism of Calcium,
 Catabolism and detoxification of toxic substances.

The Golgi Apparatus;

The Golgi apparatus is also called Golgi body. It is formed by 4 or more flattened membranous sacs,
called Cisternae, situated near the ER. It has 2 faces, The Cis-face; being the part near the ER, and the
Trans-face; the part near the cell membrane. Vesicles from the ER enter the Golgi via the Cis-face,
and exit the Golgi via the Trans-face.

The Golgi is present in all cells of the body except the Red Blood Cells. It is prominent in cells with
high secretory activity like Goblet cells in the Respiratory tract.

Functions of The Golgi;

 Processing, packaging and labelling of substances within vesicles to form Lysosomes,

secretory vesicles etc.
 Transport of vesicles.
Figure 3 shows the Golgi apparatus.

Figure 3

The Lysosome;

The Lysosome is a membrane bound vesicular Organelle scattered about the cytoplasm, formed by
the Golgi. It contains Hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting protein (Proteases) into its component
amino acids, Glycogen (Amylases) to glucose molecules, Nucleic acids (Nucleases) into
Mononucleotides and Lipids (Lipases) to Fatty acids and Glycerol. For this reason, the Lysosomes
have the thickest membrane. There are two (2) types of Lysosomes;
 Primary Lysosomes,
 Secondary Lysosomes.

The Primary Lysosome is the inactive Lysosome and the Secondary Lysosome is the active Lysosome.
When materials digested are of an extracellular source, the mechanism of Lysosomal action is
Heterophagy, and when they are of an intracellular source, like worn-out Organelles, the mechanism
is Autophagy.

Functions of Lysosomes;
 Digestion of Macromolecules,
 Digestion of worn-out Organelles,
 Removal of excess secretory products,
 Secretion of substances like Melanin in Melanocytes.

The Peroxisome;

The Peroxisomes are similar to the Lysosomes; however, Peroxisomes are believed to form from
budding off from the Smooth ER, and they contain Oxidase enzymes like Catalase, and Urate Oxidase.

Functions of Peroxisome;
 Breakdown of fatty acids via Beta-Oxidation,
 Accelerate Gluconeogenesis from Fat,
 Urine degradation to Uric acid.
The Secretory Vesicles;

As stated earlier, there exists within the cytoplasm an ER-Golgi apparatus system, where proteins are
produced in the ER and get processed, modified, and labelled in Golgi, to be transport as vesicles to
target areas inside or outside the cell. Some of those vesicles become the Secretory vesicles.
Secretory vesicles are especially abundant in cells with a major secretory function like Pancreatic
acinar cells where they function as storage vesicles.

Mitochondrion;

The Mitochondrion (Plural- Mitochondria) is a rod shaped, double membrane bound organelle,
present all around the Cytoplasm. It is considered the Power House of the cell because it is the
Organelle responsible for the production of the energy required to perform the functions of life.

There are between a less than a hundred, to over a thousand Mitochondria in a cell, depending on
energy requirements. The mitochondria are also variable in shape and size.

The outer membrane is smooth, and it encloses the mitochondrion. It has enzymes attached to it.

The inner membrane shows infoldings that form shelves called Cristae, on which oxidative enzymes
are attached. These enzymes are involved in the process of respiration and synthesis of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP). For this reason, all Enzymes and Proteins in the Cristae are called the Electron
Transport Chain.

The inner cavity of the mitochondrion contains a fluid medium called Mitochondrial matrix. The
matrix contains a large number of dissolved enzymes necessary for the extraction of energy from
nutrients.

The Mitochondrion is self-replicating, basically able to divide forming 2 or more daughter

Mitochondria. This is because contains DNA, and is similar to that found in the Nucleus.
Mitochondrion is the only organelle other than the Nucleus that contains DNA.

Figure 4 shows the Mitochondrion.

Functions of the Mitochondrion;

 Production of energy.
 Apoptosis through the Cytochrome C and Second Mitochondria-derived Activator of
Caspases (SMAC),
 Storage of Calcium.

Non-membrane bound Organelles.

These are Organelles that are not bound by a limiting Membrane. They include;
 Ribosome,
 Cytoskeleton.

Ribosome;

The ribosome is a minute granular non-membrane bound Organelle, made up of Ribonucleic acid
(RNA) and Protein. RNA is about 65% and Protein 35%. The RNA that forms part of the Ribosome is
called Ribosomal RNA. There are two (2) types of Ribosomes, namely;
  Ribosomes attached the ER,
 Free Ribosomes in the Cytoplasm.

Functions of Ribosomes;
 Protein synthesis by arrangement of amino acids
 Free Ribosomes are associated with the synthesis of proteins in Hemoglobin, Cytoskeleton
and Mitochondria.

Figure 4

Cytoskeleton;

The Cytoskeleton is an Organelle formed by a complex network of proteins of varying shapes and
sizes present throughout the cytoplasm. The Cytoskeleton is formed by polymerization of precursor
protein molecules synthesized in the by the free Ribosomes in the Cytoplasm. Polymerization of G-
actin forms Actin filaments a type of Microfilament, which form a supportive framework just
beneath the cell membrane to form the Ectoplasm. Tubulin is a globular protein that polymerize to
form Microtubules. Fibrous Proteins form rope-like polymers called Intermediate filaments.

Figure 5
Functions of Cytoskeleton;
 Provide structural support to the cell,
 Determine the shape of the cell,
 Act as conveyor Belts for the transport of vesicles within the cytoplasm,
 Responsible for cellular movements like Muscle Contraction, Ameboid and Ciliary
Locomotion,
 Act as cell Junction proteins.

The Nucleus.

The Nucleus is a double membrane bound organelle present in all cells except the Red Blood Cells. It
is the largest Cellular Organelle. Some cells are Uni-nucleated meaning they have only one Nucleus.
However, cells like Skeletal muscle cells that possess multiple nuclei are considered multi-nucleated.
The Nucleus is usually situated in the center of the cell; however, the position is variable.

The membrane that surrounds the Nucleus is called Nuclear-membrane. The Nuclear membrane is a
2 layered lipid bilayer, with its outer membrane in continuation with the membrane of the ER.
Therefore, the space between the inner and outer layers of the Nuclear-membrane is continuous
with the space in the ER. There are pores on the Nuclear-membrane guarded by Proteins.

The Nuclear-membrane or envelop surrounds the viscous fluid within the Nucleus, similar to the
fluid that forms the cytoplasm called Nucleoplasm. The Nucleoplasm surrounds the thread-like
material formed by the DNA called Chromatin, and a small, round, granular area in the Nucleus
containing RNA similar to the one found on Ribosomes; and also, proteins, called Nucleolus. The
RNA is stored in the Nucleolus for condensation to form subunits of Ribosomes. The chromatin is
what condenses to form chromosomes at the time of Cell division.

The Nucleus is the Control center of the cell because it contains the DNA that contains within it a
nucleotide sequence called Gene. The genes determine the characteristics of cellular proteins that
include structural proteins like the cytoskeleton, and enzymes that control both nuclear and
cytoplasmic activities.

Functions of the Nucleus;

 Control of all metabolic activities,
 Storage of hereditary information,
 Formation of RNA,
 Formation of Ribosomes,
 Control of cell division.

Figure 6 shows the Nucleus.

 Figure 6

References;

 Guyton and Hall Textbook of medical physiology.

 Essentials of Medical Physiology.