Classification and

purification of Organic
Compounds

1
Classification based on structure of
organic compounds

2
Classification based on Functional Groups
Organic compounds are classified by the the
presence of characteristic functional groups.
A functional group is defined as an atom or a
group of atoms that effectively determines the
chemical properties of an organic compound.

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 Functional Groups

and

• The above 2 compounds have similar chemical

properties
➔ they contain the same functional group –OH
➔ they are classified into the same homologous
series — alcohols
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Homologous Series

• A homologous series is a series of

compounds that have the same functional
group, and each member differs from the
next member by a – CH2 – unit in their
formulae.
CH4 C2 H 6 C3 H 8 C4H10

CH2 CH2 CH2

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 Homologous Series
• Members in the same series can be represented by
a general formula.
e.g. alkanols: CnH2n+1OH

alkanals: CnH2n+1CHO

alkanoic acids: CnH2n+1COOH

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 INTRODUCTION – Purification of
organic compounds
Organic compounds are isolated either from
natural sources or from reactions mixtures. These
compounds are seldom pure and are usually
contaminated with small amounts of other similar
compounds, which are found to exist together or
formed during the reaction. In order to
characterize them, it is important to purify them.
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 PROCESSES FOR PURIFICATION

1. Crystallization
2. Sublimation
3. Distillation
4. Chromatography
5. Differential Extraction
6. Qualitative Analysis

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 1. CRYSTALLIZATION
Aim
To separate a solid compound in pure and geometrical form.
Principle
A saturated solution of the impure substance in a suitable solvent is made at
a temperature higher than the room temperature.
On cooling this solution, the substance reappears in the form of well shaped
crystals.
Process
• Purification by crystallization involves the following steps:
• Choice of solvent
• Preparation of solution
• Filtration of the solution
• Separating the crystals
• Drying of crystals
Example
Crystallisation of Phthalic acid
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 2. SUBLIMATION
Aim

To separate volatile solids, which pass directly into vapour

state on heating from a non-volatile solid.

Principle

A mixture of solid substances, such as camphor, benzoic acid,

ammonium chloride, iodine etc., containing non-volatile
substances, when heated, change directly into vapour without
passing through the liquid state.
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 Fig :-Sublimation

Substance Mp Substance Mp

1,4-dichlorobenzene 55 Benzoic acid 122

Naphthalene 82 Salicylic acid 159

1-Naphthol 96 Camphor 177

Acetanilide 114 Caffeine 235

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 3. DISTILLATION
Aim

To separate a solution of a solid in a liquid and for separating a solution of two

liquids whose boiling points are different.

Principle

Distillation involves the conversion of a liquid into its vapors upon heating and
then cooling the vapors back into the liquid. Depending on the difference in
boiling points of liquids.

Types of distillation

 Simple Distillation
 Fractional Distillation
 Distillation Under Reduced Pressure or Vacuum Distillation
 Steam Distillation
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 SIMPLE DISTILLATION

Principle
It is used for separating liquids having boiling points
differing by 10-20 degrees. The liquid having the lower
boiling point distills over first, and the other liquid
component is left behind. In this process, vaporization
and condensation occur side by side.
Process
Example
Simple distillation of a Cyclohexane- Toluene mixtures
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Fig : - Simple distillation 14
 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Principle
It is used for separating two liquids in any mixture, which
have boiling points within a narrow range of temperatures.
In such cases, simple distillation does not give complete
separation and a modified version called fractional
distillation is employed.
Process

Example
Fractional Distillation of a Cyclohexane- Toluene
mixtures 15
Fig : -Fractional distillation
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 DISTILLATION UNDER REDUCED
PRESSURE OR VACUUM DISTILLATION

Principle

The lowering of pressure on the surface of a liquid lowers

its boiling point. As a result of this, a liquid can be boiled
and distilled, without any decomposition, at temperature
much below its normal boiling point.

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 STEAM DISTILLATION

Principle

This technique is used for separating/purifying liquids,

which are immiscible with water, volatile in steam, & have

high vapor pressure at the boiling temperature of water.

Process

Example

Isolation of essential oils

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 4.CHROMATOGRAPHY
Aim
To identify, purify and/or separate constituents of a mixture
that are present in very small amounts.
Principle
The principle behind this technique is the differential
adsorption of the various components of a mixture between
two different phases that are as follows:
▪ Fixed or stationary phase
▪ Mobile or Moving phase

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 COMMONLY EMPLOYED
CHROMATOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

• Column Chromatography
• Paper Chromatography
• Ascending and Descending Paper
Chromatography
• Radial Paper Chromatography
• Thin Layer Chromatography

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 COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
This is the simplest chromatography based on the
differential adsorption of the constituents of a mixture.
A suitable adsorbent like alumina (Al2O3), taken in the
form of a slurry in petroleum ether, constitutes the
stationary phase.

Fig : -Column chromatography 21

 THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Principle
In this chromatography, the stationary phase is a thin
layer of an adsorbent (generally alumina) coated on
Flat glass strip. The solvent (mobile phase) moves up
the layer due to the capillary action and thus causes
the separation of constituents of the mixture.
The constituents are identified by measuring their
RF values.
Example
Separation of vitamins by thin layer chromatography 22
 5. DIFFERENTIAL EXTRACTION
Principle
To extract a compound that is present in very small amounts
in an aqueous solution with the help of an organic liquid in
which that compound is highly soluble.
Process

Fig :- Differential extraction

Example :-Extraction of Caffeine from Tea 23

 6. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
The systematic qualitative analysis of organic
compounds includes the following different stages:
Preliminary tests and physical examinations.
Detection of elements
Determination of functional group or groups.
Determination of physical constant.
Identification of the compound by search of
literature with similar physical and chemical
properties.
Confirmation of compounds by preparing suitable
derivative and specific chemical tests. 24
SUMMARY

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 CONCLUSION
Purification process is widely used in industry.
Distillation is among most important and widely
used in industrial operation today. About 95% of
all separation process today is carried out in
industry with more than 40,000 distillation system.
Sublimation is also use to create freeze- dried
substances. e.g. tea, soup, drug.
Steam distillation is employed in industry for the
recovery of various essential oils from plant and
flowers.
Better chemical stability, crystallization process is
use due it help to increase physical stability,
bioavailability and sustain release.
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 Questions on purification -
Easy
• Purification by steam distillation is suitable for which compounds ? Give an example of compounds
purified using steam distillation. (immiscible with water, steam volatile. Eg - essential oils)

• Components of dye can be separated by which method of purification?

(Chromatography)

• Sublimation cannot be used for purification of which of the following compounds?

– Naphthalene
– Camphor
– Benzoic acid
– Urea

• Refining of petroleum involves which process of purification? (Fractional distillation)

• The separation of an organic compound from its aqueous solution can be achieved by which
method of purification? (Solvent extraction)

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 Questions on purification –
Difficult
• Sugar containing an impurity of common salt can be purified by crystallization from
– Benzene
– Ethanol
– Water.

• The separation of the constituents of a mixture by column chromatography depends upon

difference in which property of constituents? (Rate of adsorption)

• A mixture of benzoic acid and naphthalene can be separated by crystallization from

– Hot water
– Benzene
– Ether.

• Name two compounds which contain nitrogen but do not give a positive test in the Lassaignes test
for nitrogen. (Hydrazine, hydroxylamine)

• The technique of gas chromatography is suitable for compounds which

– Are liquids
– have very low boiling points
– vapourize without decomposition.

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 Prepared by
A K Chabiri, K V Balasore

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