Lesson 3: STANDARDS AND DILEMMAS Examples of Non- Moral Standards

A. MORAL STANDARDS – norms that individual 1. Etiquette – norms of correct conduct in

and groups have about the kind of actions polite society or to any special code of
believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as social behaviour or courtesy. If you
the values placed on what we believed to be violate them you are likely to be
morally good or morally bad. Moral standards considered ill-mannered or impolite.
normally promote the “good”, that is, the welfare 2. Statutes – laws enacted by legislative
and well-being of humans as well as animals bodies. Breaking the law is not always
and the environment. Moral standards therefore immoral and the legality of an action
prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of does not guarantee that it is morally
rights and obligations. right.
- Moral standard is a combination of the norms 3. Standard of Aesthetics – the positive,
and values. pleasant or artful appearance of a thing.
- Norms are general rules about actions or
behaviours. e.g., killing innocent people is MORAL DILEMMAS
absolutely wrong.
Dilemma- it is a situation where a person is forced to
- Values are enduring beliefs about what is good
choose between two or more conflicting options neither
and desirable or not. e.g. helping the poor is
of which is acceptable.
good.
- When dilemmas involved human actions which
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS
have moral implications they are called ethical
1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or or moral dilemmas.
significant benefits. Moral standards deal with - Moral dilemmas are situations where persons
matters which can seriously impact, that is, who are called moral agents are forced to
injure or benefit human beings. (example: child choose between two or more conflicting options.
abuse)
According to Karen Allen, there are 3 conditions
2. Moral standards are not established by
that must be present in moral dilemma.
authority figures. Moral standards are not
1. The person or the agent of moral action is
invented, formed or generated by authoritative
obliged to make a decision about which
bodies or persons. (We don’t need the law to
course of action is best.
back up our conviction that killing is wrong.)
2. There must be different courses of action to
3. Moral standards ought to be preferred to
choose from.
other values. Moral standards have overriding
3. No matter what course of action is taken
character or hegemonic authority. A person has
some moral principle is always
the moral obligation to do something even if it
compromised.
conflicts with self-interest.
Benjamin Labastin – In moral dilemmas moral agent
4. Moral standards are based on impartial
seems fated to commit something wrong which implies
considerations. You give equal or adequate
that she is bound to morally fail because in one way or
consideration to the interest of all concerned
another she will fail to do something which she ought to
parties.
do. In other words, by choosing one of the possible
5. Moral standards are associated with special
moral requirements the person also fails on others.
emotions and vocabulary. “Do not kill”. “Love
your neighbour”. These features evaluate Types of Moral Dilemmas
behaviour, to assign praise and blame, and to a) Epistemic and Ontological Dilemmas – there
produce feelings of satisfaction or guilt. are two or more moral requirements that
conflict with each other. The moral agent hardly
B. NON-MORAL STANDARDS – refers to knows which one takes precedence over the
standards by which we judge what is good or other. (ex: A father has to go home early to fulfil
bad and right or wrong in a non- moral way. We his promise to his son and on his way home, he
have no right to impose on others. They are a sees a sick old man.) One option must be
matter of taste or preference. Violation of such better than the other, only it needs fuller
standards does not pose any threat to human knowledge of the situation.
beings.
 Ontological – two or more moral requirements Lesson 1 – Freedom and Moral Acts
that conflict with each other, yet neither of these
conflicting moral requirements overrides each Immanuel Kant – A German philosopher and one of the
other. Neither of the moral requirements is central Enlightenment thinkers. He is one of the most
stronger than the other hence the moral agent influential thinkers in Western philosophy.
can hardly choose between the conflicting moral
The CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE is the supreme
requirements. (ex: a military doctor is attending
principle of morality. An imperative is a command. (ex:
to the needs of two wounded soldiers in the
You have to fulfil your promise. Don’t cheat!)
middle of a war and need blood transfusion and
only one bag of blood is left.) 2 Types of Command
1. Hypothetical Imperative – it expresses a
b) Self- imposed and world – imposed moral conditional command. (ex: If you want to
dilemma – it is caused by the moral agent become successful then you have to work very
wrongdoings. (ex: Danny was running for town hard.)
mayor and promises the indigenous people to 2. Categorical Imperative – one that expresses
protect their virgin forest just to get their votes an absolute command. (ex: Do not cheat!. You
at the same time he seeks the financial support are commanded not to cheat.)
of a mining corporation. He won the election
and faces the dilemma. It is impossible for him Core Concepts of the Kantian Ethics
to be discharge from those promises.
1. The idea of the GOOD WILL - it facilitates a
World- imposed – certain events in the world human act. Good by virtue of its intrinsic values.
place the moral agent in a situation of moral Good without qualification. Good without
conflict. condition.
c) Obligation Dilemmas – more than one How is good will manifested?
feasible action is obligatory. (ex: Sartre’s - When done for the sake of duty. (ex: the
student) will to help a friend. If one expect
Prohibition Dilemma – all feasible actions are something in return then the “will” is
forbidden. NOT GOOD without qualification. But if
d) Single- Agent Dilemma – The moral agent someone helps a friend because of duty
can choose one option only. (ex: A doctor and then the WILL is GOOD without
an HIV patient. He is to decide between qualification.
respecting the right to confidentiality and the - Autonomy of the will – it is self-
rules of medical persons.) legislating. It is influenced by outside
Multi – Person Dilemma – involves several factors. When a moral agent performs a
people. Requires more than choosing what is particular act then her will is
right, it also entails that the persons involve autonomous if he is not forced to do it.
reached a general consensus. (Euthanasia,
cutting workforce) 2. Duty and the Moral Worth of an Act – duty
should be the motive of any moral act.
CHAPTER II FREEDOM AND MORALITY Inclination or self-interest can never be the
motive of any moral act. (ex:If a physician treats
Objectives: a patient her motive should be duty, the
At the end of the chapter, yu should be able to: physician is move because it is her duty to treat
1. Explain why only human beings can be ethical the patient and not the interest of profiting from
2. Discuss the meaning of moral acts. the patient.
3. Put into practice Kant’s definition of freedom - An act is moral if it is done for the sake of duty.
and morality; If an act is done out of self-interest then it has
4. Analyse the relationship of culture and morality; no moral worth.
5. Detect a moral dilemma; and
6. Identify the three levels of dilemma 3. Formulation of the Categorical Imperative
a. Principle of Universality – act only on the
maxim whereby, you can at the same time
will, that it should become a universal law.
- Maxim is a rule or principle
 - Universal law is something that must be done natural results of the action. (ex: the end
in similar situations. result of going to school is to learn.)
Example 1: The act of STEALING the properties of
the rich to distribute to the poor. It can’t be 2) The End of the Agent – refers to the intention
universalized as stealing is wrong. of the doer of the act. The motive of the agent
Example 2: HELPING a friend is universalized and varies. (ex: the motive of man for riding a bicycle
morally right. can be for fun, exercise or to run an errand.)

b. Principle of Humanity – act so that you

treat humanity, whether in your own person 3) Circumstances of the Act – conditions that
or in that of another, always as an end and affect the human act by increasing or
never as a mere means. decreasing the responsibility of the actor. Our
Example: Cheating someone is absolutely court of justice is instituted for this purpose.
immoral because this act treats others as a Types of Circumstances
means to own selfish ends.  Aggravating – these are serious
offenses like murder, torture or
FREEDOM: The Foundation of Moral Act conspiracy. There is intention on the
part of the doer.
Freedom is human’s greatest quality and is a reflection  Mitigating or Extenuating – you did
of our Creator. Freedom is the power rooted in reason not have the intention to kill so the
and will, to act or not to act. Having freedom means gravity of the crime is lessened.
having responsibility.  Justifying Circumstance – are those
that make the doing of an act right. No
Requirement of True Freedom – true freedom is
crime committed. No criminal liability.
oriented toward the good. We should not understand
 Exempting Circumstances – defences
freedom as the possibility of doing evil. Evil enslaves
were the accused committed a crime
usand diminishes one’s ability to be free.
but s not criminally liable.
HUMAN ACTS – action done by an agent knowingly,
Lesson 2 - Culture and Morality
freely, and wilfully (voluntary). He is aware that he is
doing and consents to do this. What is Culture?
Determinants of Human Acts - Culture is derived from the Latin word “cultura”
or “cultus” which means care or cultivation.
A. Knowledge – an action performed by
Culture as cultivation implies that every human
conscious agent who is ware of its
being is a potential member of his own social
action and its consequences.
group. He is endowed with certain innate
B. Freedom – it must be performed by an
qualities to make use.
agent who is acting freely, without any
- According to anthropologist Edward Tylor,
external factors affecting its actions.
culture is a complex whole which includes
C. Voluntariness – it must be performed
knowledge, belief, law, art, moral, custom, and
by an agent who decides wilfully to
other capabilities and habits acquired as a
perform the act.
member of society
ACTS OF MAN – it is an action done by an agent which
does not have one or more determinants of Human
Acts. It is one’s beyond consciousness.

Human Acts Versus Acts of Man - Acts of man cannot

be judge if the action is good or bad. Only with human
acts can we determine whether an act is moral or
immoral. Your human act becomes your character.

The Moral Determinants – measurement of the

goodness and badness of an action.

1) The End of the Action – this is the primary

determinant. The natural purpose of an act. The