Chapter 11

Gas Law and Kinetic

Theory
 LESSON OUTLINE

11.1 Concept of temperature

11.2 Thermal expansion, Thermal Stresses
11.3 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
11.4 The Ideal Gas Law and Molecular Interpretation
of temperature
11.5 Real gases and changes of phase
 11.1: Concept of Temperature

❖ Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something

is.

❖ Thermometers: instruments designed to measure

temperature. In order to do this, they take advantage of
some property of matter that changes with temperature.

❖ Temperature is generally measured using either the

Fahrenheit, Kelvin or the Celsius scale.

❖ Most materials expand when heated.

▪ The freezing point of water is:
0°C @32°F @ 273.15 K;
▪ The boiling point of water is:
100°C @ 212°F @ 373.15 K.
Conversion between Celsius, Fahrenheit and
Kelvin
1)Celsius to Fahrenheit TF = 9 TC + 32
5

5
2)Fahrenheit to Celsius TC = (TF − 32)
9

5
3)Fahrenheit to Kelvin TK = (TF − 32) + 273.15
9

4)Celsius to Kelvin TK = TC + 273.15

 11.2: Thermal Expansion & Thermal Stresses

Thermal Expansion

➢ A substance will expand when heated. Similarly, a

substance will contract when it is cooled.
➢ However, different substances exhibit different amounts
of expansion and contraction consist of:
i) Linear expansion
ii) Volume expansion
i) Linear expansion
▪ For almost of solids, the change in length,ΔL, is
directly proportional to the change in temperature ΔT,
as well as the original length, Lo of an object.

ΔL  Lo (T) Or ΔL = αLo (T)

Where, α is the coefficient of linear
expansion.

From ΔL = αL o (T)
ΔL 1
= (Units for  is o C-1or o K -1 )
L o (T)
▪ This equation can be rewritten to give the final length
(L) after a change in temperature:
L = Lo (1 + αΔT)
ii) Volume expansion
▪ Similarly, a first order expression for thermal volume
expression is:
V
V = Vo (1 + 3T) Or = 3T
V
V
▪ Fluid volume expression = = T
Vo

▪ The coefficient of volume expansion, γ is defined:

V
=
V( T)
▪ The coefficient of volume expansion is approximately
three times the coefficient of linear expansion.
𝛽 = 3α
Water behaves differently from most other
solids—its minimum volume occurs when its
temperature is 4°C. As it cools further, it expands
even more as it freezes to ice. Above 4°C water
behaves normally and expands in volume as the
temperature is increased. Water thus has its
greatest density at 4°C.
 Example 11.1:

1. The length of Copper wire at 20˚C is 4.5 m. Calculate its

new
length when the temperature is 95 ˚C. Given, α = 1.7 x 10-
5˚C-1. L = Lo (1 + T )
= 4.5 [1 + (1.7 10−5 )(95 − 20)]
Solution: = 4.5057 m
2. Calculate the increase in volume of 100 cm3 mercury
when the temperature changes from 10˚C to 35˚C,
Given, 𝛽 = 1.6 x10-5˚C-1
V
= T
Vo
V = Vo T
= (100  10 -6 )1.6  10 −5 (35 − 10)
= 4  10 -8 m 3
Exercise 11.1: Bridge expansion.

The steel bed of a suspension bridge is 200 m long at 20°C. If the

extremes of temperature to which it might be exposed are -30°C
to +40°C, how much will it contract and expand?
Exercise 11.2: Ring on a rod.

An iron ring is to fit snugly on a cylindrical iron rod. At

20°C, the diameter of the rod is
6.445 cm and the inside diameter of the ring is
6.420 cm. To slip over the rod, the ring must be slightly larger
than the rod diameter by about 0.008 cm.
To what temperature must the ring be brought if its hole is to be
large enough so it will slip over the rod?
Exercise 11.3: Gas tank in the Sun.

The 70-liter (L) steel gas tank of a car is filled to the top with
gasoline at 20°C. The car sits in the Sun and the tank reaches a
temperature of 40°C (104°F).

How much gasoline do you expect to overflow from the tank?

Thermal Stress
A material may be fixed at its ends and
therefore be unable to expand when the
temperature changes. It will then experience large
compressive or tensile stress—thermal stress—when its
temperature changes. The force required to keep the
material from expanding is found from:

where E is the Young’s modulus of the material.

Therefore, the stress is:
Exercise 11.4: Stress in concrete on a hot day.

A highway is to be made of blocks of concrete 10 m long placed

end to end with no space between them to allow for expansion. If
the blocks were placed at a temperature of 10°C,

What compressive stress would occur if the temperature

reached 40°C?

The contact area between each block is 0.20 m2. Will fracture
occur?
 11.3: Gas Law and Absolute Temperature
❖ The relationship between the volume, pressure, temperature, and
mass of a gas is called an equation of state.
❖ There are three properties of gases:
❖ Volume, V
❖ Pressure, P
❖ Temperature, T GASLAWS

1 3
Boyle’s Law Pressure Law /
Gay Lussac’s Law

2
Charles’ Law
Reminder!!
To use these gas laws,
- Temperature must be in Kelvin (K) → T (K)= T(0C) + 273.15
- Pressure must be absolute pressure (in Pascal), not gauge pressure.
𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
With atmospheric pressure = 1.013 x 105 N/m2
 1
Robert Boyle

BOYLE’S LAW
(1627–1691)

Boyle’s Law definition:

“ at constant temperature,
the pressure (P) is inversely
proportional to the volume
of the gas (V)”.

1
V
P
Figure 1: Plot of P vs. V When T is constant
However, if we plot pressure
against 1/volume we get a linear
(straight line) graph.

1
V
P
PV = Constant
Thus,

PiVi = PfVf
BOYLE’S LAW
 Pressure is
inversely
proportional to
the volume.

❖The volume of a gas

depends on the pressure
exerted on it.

❖In general, the greater

the pressure exerted on a
gas, the less its volume.
 Jacques Charles
2 CHARLES’S LAW
(1746-1823)

Charles’s Law definition:

“The volume of a given

amount of gas is directly
proportional to the absolute
temperature (Kelvin) when the
pressure is kept constant”.

V  T
When P is constant
Figure 3: Plot of V vs. T
 CHARLES’S LAW

V  T
or
where:
𝑉 V is the volume of the gas
=𝑘 T is the temperature of the gas
𝑇 (measured in Kelvin).
k is a constant.

Thus,
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 3
PRESSURE LAW/
Joseph Louis Gay-
Lussac (1778-1850) GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW
Definition:
Pressure

“The absolute pressure of a

given amount of gas is directly
proportional to the absolute
temperature (K) when the
volume is kept constant”.

Temperature
(in Kelvin)
PT When V is constant
 PRESSURE LAW

PT When V is constant

 PRESSURE LAW

P T
or
• where:
𝑃
=𝑘 • V is the volume of the gas
𝑇 • T is the temperature of the gas
(measured in Kelvin).
• k is a constant.

Thus,
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 Gas Law

BOYLE’S LAW CHARLES’S LAW

1
P  ; if T is constant V  T; if P is constant
V V1 V2
=
P1V1 = P2V2 T1 T2

PRESSURE LAW IDEAL GAS LAW

P  T; if V is constant
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
 ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE

❖By extrapolating GRAPH

CHARLES’S LAW, the volume
becomes zero at - 273.15 0C.

❖This temperature is called

absolute zero.

Absolute zero = - 273.15 0C = 0 K

Exercise 11.5:

1) A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 946 mL at a

pressure of 726 Pa. What is the pressure of the gas (in Pa) if the
volume is reduced at constant temperature to 154 mL?
Answer :4460 Pa.

2) A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 3.20 L at 125 0C. At

what temperature will the gas occupy a volume of 1.54 L if the
pressure remains
constant? Answer: 192 K

3) A gas has a pressure at 2.0 atm at 18°C. What is the new

pressure when the temperature is 62°C? Answer: 2.3 atm
11.4: The Ideal gas Law and Molecular Interpretation of
Temperature

❖ The 3 gas laws can be combined into one

equation:

PV
= constant
T
PV P V
 1 1= 2 2
T1 T2

❖ The complete ideal gas law is usually written

in the following equation. P, pressure = Pa
V, volume = m3
PV = nRT n, number of mol = mol
R, = J mol-1 K-1
T, temperature = K
DEFINITION:
the absolute pressure P of an ideal gas is directly
proportional to the Kelvin Temperature T and the
number of moles n of the gas and is inversely
proportional to the volume V of the gas: P = R (nT/ V)
 PV = nRT
n = number of moles
R = universal gas constant m
= (M = atomic or molecular mass)
=8.314 J mol−1K −1 M

The temperature T must

always be expressed in
Kelvin units.
 ❖ The ideal gas law always refers to “standard condition”
or Standard temperature and pressure (STP).
❖Where at STP:

❖ Note:
❑ 1 mol STP gas has: Volume = 22.4 L
Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Avogadro’s Number

❖ Since the gas constant is universal, the number of

molecules in one mole is the same for all gases. That
number is called Avogadro’s number:

❖ The number of molecules in a gas is the number of

moles times Avogadro’s number:
Therefore we can write:

N
PV = nRT = RT
N A

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇

where k is called Boltzmann’s constant.

Examples 11.2:

Compute the number of molecules in a gas contained in a volume

of 10 cm3 at a pressure 1.013 x 105 Nm-2 and a temperature of 30
K.(R= 8.314 K / mol K)

V = 10 cm3 , P =1.01310 5 , T = 30K

from PV = nRT
PV
n =
RT

=
(1.01310 )(1010 )
5 −6

(8.314)(30)
= 4.06110−3 moles
number of molecules = N
from N = nN A
( )(
= 4.06110 −3 6.022  10 23 )
= 2.45  1021 molecules
Exercise 11.6: Helium balloon.

A helium party balloon, assumed to be a perfect sphere, has a

radius of 18.0 cm. At room temperature (20°C), its internal
pressure is 1.05 atm. Find the number of moles of helium in the
balloon and the mass of helium needed to inflate the balloon to
these values.
Exercise 11.7: Mass of air in a room.

Estimate the mass of air in a room whose dimensions are

5 m x 3 m x 2.5 m high, at STP.
Exercise 11.8: Check tires cold.

An automobile tire is filled to a gauge pressure of 200 kPa at

10°C. After a drive of 100 km, the temperature within the tire
rises to 40°C. What is the pressure within the tire now?
Exercise 11.9: Hydrogen atom mass.

Use Avogadro’s number to determine the mass of a hydrogen

atom.
 Kinetic
Theory

As this container of gas is heated, the temperature increases.

As a result, the average kinetic energy of the particles in the
system increases. With the increase in kinetic energy, the force
on the available amount of surface area increases. As a result,
the pressure of the system increases.
Eventually,..........................Ka-Boom!!!!!!!
❑ These is the characterization of gas.
❑ The Kinetic theory for an ideal gas is :
1) large number of molecules, N moving in random
directions with a variety of speeds
2) The molecules are separated by great distances
relative to their size
3) collisions with another molecule are perfectly
elastic, so no energy loss.
4) There is no interaction between molecules,
molecules obey laws of classical mechanics and
interact only when colliding.
“The average translational kinetic energy of the
molecules in an ideal gas is directly proportional to
the temperature of the gas”:
 “The average speed of molecules in a gas as a
function of temperature”:

root-mean-
square
speed
Exercise 11.11: Speeds of air molecules.

What is the rms speed of air molecules (O2 and N2) at room
temperature (20°C)?
Exercise 11.12: Average speed and rms speed.

Eight particles have the following speeds, given in m/s: 1.0,

6.0, 4.0, 2.0, 6.0, 3.0, 2.0, 5.0. Calculate
a) the average speed
b) the rms speed.
 11.5: Real gases and Change of Phases

Real Gases

▪ The term of “real gases” refers to characteristics /

behavior of gas where the pressure of gas is too
high and the temperature of gas close/near the
boiling point , it is refers to behavior of real gases.
❖A PV diagram, the curves here represent the behavior
of the gas at different temperatures (not constant) for real
gases. Where TA > TB > TC >TD.

❖It is found that, the cooler (temperature decrease @

farther from boiling point) it gets, the further the gas33is
from ideal.
❖The dashed curve A’ and B’
represents the behavior of a gas
as predicted by the ideal gas law
(Boyle’s Law) for several different
values of the temperature.

❖We see that, the behavior of gas

deviates even more from the
curves predicted by ideal gas law
(curves A and B) and the deviation
is greater when the gas is closer to
liquid- vapor region (curve C and
D).
❖ In curve D, the gas becomes liquid; it begins
condensing at (b) and is entirely liquid at (a).

❖Curve C represent the behavior of the substance at

its critical temperature and the point (c) is called the
critical point.

❖At temperature less than the critical temperature, a

gas will change to the liquid phase if sufficient
pressure is applied.
❖A PT diagram is called a phase diagram, it shows all
three phases of matter:

❑The solid-liquid transition (in equilibrium) is melting or

freezing

❑The liquid- vapor transition is boiling or condensing

❑The solid-vapor transition is sublimation. Where

sublimation refers to the process whereby at low
pressures a solid changes directly into the vapor phase
without passing through the liquid phase.
❖The intersection of the three curves is called the triple
point. Where it is only at triple point that the three phases
can exist together in equilibrium.

Phase diagram
of water
Below the critical temperature, the gas can
liquefy if the pressure is sufficient; above it, no
amount of pressure will suffice.
The triple point is the only point where all three
phases can coexist in equilibrium.

Phase diagram of
carbon dioxide.
4

THE END.
Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 12 :
Thermodynamics

54