Chapter 2:

Network Protocols and

Communications

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Chapter 2
2.1 Rules of Communication
2.2 Network Protocols and Standards
2.3 Moving Data in the Network

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 2.1 Rules of
communication

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 Communication begins with a message, or information,
that must be sent from one individual or device to
another

These methods have 3 elements in common:

• Message source (sender) - Message sources are
people, or electronic devices, that need to send a
message to other individuals or devices.
• Message Destination (receiver) - The destination
receives the message and interprets it.
• Channel - This consists of the media that provides
the pathway over which the message travels from
source to destination.
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Communication Protocols

▪ Before communicating with one another, individuals must use

established rules or agreements (protocols) to govern the
conversation.
▪ Protocols must account for the following requirements to
successfully deliver a message that is understood by the receiver:
•An identified sender and receiver
•Common language and grammar
•Speed and timing of delivery
•Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements

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 2.2 Network Protocols
and Standards

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Network Protocols

▪ All communication is governed by predetermined rules

called protocols.

▪ A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and

conventions that govern a particular aspect of how
devices on a network communicate.

▪ A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to

perform a communication function is called a protocol
suite. These protocols are implemented in software and
hardware that is loaded on each host and network
device.

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Example of protocol suites

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FYI only

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Network Standard Organisations
• Because there are many different manufacturers
of network components, they must all use the
same standards.

• In networking, standards are developed by

international standards organizations.

• Open standards encourage interoperability,

competition, and innovation. They also guarantee
that the product of no single company can
monopolize the market or have an unfair
advantage over its competition
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Network Protocols and Standards
Examples of Standards Organizations

• The Internet Society (ISOC)

• The Internet Architecture Board
(IAB)
• The Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF)
• Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• The International Organization
for Standards (ISO)
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Reference Model
▪ A model helps in thinking about how data travel across a real
network, so you can imagine what is happening.
▪ A layered model is used to modularize the operations of a
network into manageable layers.
▪ There are two layered models that are used to describe
network operations:
•Open System Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
•TCP/IP Reference Model

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The OSI Reference Model
▪ The OSI reference model provides
an extensive list of functions and
services that can occur at each
layer.
▪ It describes what must be done at a
particular layer, but not prescribing
how it should be accomplished.
▪ It also describes the interaction of
each layer with the layers directly
above and below.

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The TCP/IP Protocol Model
▪ The TCP/IP model is a protocol model because it describes the
functions that occur at each layer of protocols within the TCP/IP
suite.

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OSI and TCP/IP Comparison

Both have application layers,

though they include very different
services
Both have comparable transport &
network (Internet) layers
TCP/IP combines the presentation
and session layer issues into its
application layer
TCP/IP combines the OSI data link
and physical layers into one layer
TCP/IP appears simpler because it
has fewer layers

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 The Benefits of a Layered Model
▪ Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific
layer have defined information that they act upon and a defined
interface to the layers above and below.

▪ Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work

together.

▪ Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting

other layers above and below.

▪ Provides a common language to describe networking functions and

capabilities.

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Protocol and Reference Models
2 types of networking models:
▪ A protocol model provides a model that closely matches the
structure of a particular protocol suite. The hierarchical set of
related protocols in a suite typically represents all the functionality
required to interface the human network with the data network.
Ex: TCP/IP model

▪ A reference model provides a common reference for maintaining

consistency within all types of network protocols and services. A
reference model is not intended to be an implementation
specification or to provide a sufficient level of detail to define
precisely the services of the network architecture. The primary
purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding of
the functions and process involved
Ex: OSI model
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Reference Models
Comparing the OSI and TCP/IP Models

Reference Model Protocol Model

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 OSI Reference Model
◼Please Do Not Take Sausage
Pizzas Away

◼Pew! Dead Ninja Turtle Smell

Pretty Awful

◼All People Seem To Need

Data Processing

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 OSI Reference Model - Layer 7
▪ The application layer contains
protocols used for process-to-
process communications.

▪ Layer 7 applications: e-mail,

FTP, Telnet, HTTP, etc.

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OSI Reference Model - Layer 6
▪ To ensure information from the
sender’s application layer can
be read by the receiver’s
application layer.

▪ Translates multiple data

formats into a common format.

▪ Responsible for encryption and

decryption.

▪ Layer 6 common standards:

Graphic: TIFF, JPEG, PICT
Sound and movie: MIDI, MPEG
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 OSI Reference Model - Layer 5
▪ Establishes, manages and
terminates sessions between 2
communicating hosts

▪ Provides service to the

presentation layer by
synchronizing dialog between 2
hosts’ presentation layers and
manages their data exchange

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 OSI Reference Model - Layer 4
▪ The transport layer defines services
to segment, transfer, and
reassemble the data for individual
communications between the end
devices.

▪ Layer 4 protocols: Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP), User
Datagram Protocol (UDP),
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX)

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 ▪ Responsible for delivery of
individual packets from source to
destination (host-to-host delivery
possibly across multiple networks)

▪ Concerned with logical addressing

(IP address), routing, packetizing,
fragmenting

▪ Provides best path determination or

“Best Effort” delivery of packet
between networks

▪ Layer 3 protocols: IP, IPX

(Internetwork Packet Exchange)

▪ Layer 3 device: Layer 3 Switches,

Routers. -27-
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 ▪ Provides transit of data across a
physical link by defining the rules
about how the physical link is used.
(host to host delivery in the same
network).
▪ Concerned with:
Physical addressing (MAC or
hardware address), Network
topology, Network access and
Error notification
▪ Layer 2 protocols: Ethernet, Token
Ring, PPP, Frame Relay
▪ Layer 2 devices: bridges, switches,
NICs -28-
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 ▪ Defines the electrical, mechanical,
procedural, and functional
specifications for activating,
maintaining and deactivating the
physical link between end systems
▪ Concerned with a raw bits
transmission.
▪ Attributes:
Voltage levels, timing of voltage
changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission
distances, physical connectors.
▪ Layer 1 devices: repeaters, hubs
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Protocol Suites
TCP/IP Protocol Suite and Communication

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 2.3 Moving data in the
network

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Segmenting messages
▪ Data is divided into smaller, more manageable pieces to send over
the network. This is called segmentation
▪ Segmentation is the process of dividing a stream of data into
smaller units for transmissions over the network.
▪ Two primary benefits:
• Increases speed - Because a large data stream is segmented into packets,
large amounts of data can be sent over the network without tying up a
communications link. This allows many different conversations to be
interleaved on the network called multiplexing.
• Increases efficiency -If a single segment is fails to reach its destination due to
a failure in the network or network congestion, only that segment needs to
be retransmitted instead of resending the entire data stream.

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Multiplexing
▪ Multiplexing – interleaving of pieces of separate
communications from different users to share the medium on
the network

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Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• As application data is passed down the protocol stack on its way
to be transmitted across the network media, various protocol
information is added at each level. This is known as the
encapsulation process.

• The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a

protocol data unit (PDU).

• During encapsulation, each succeeding layer encapsulates the

PDU that it receives from the layer above in accordance with the
protocol being used.
• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to
reflect its new functions.

• The PDUs are named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP

suite. The PDUs for each form of data are shown in the figure.
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Encapsulation and PDU

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PDU names

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Definition of Encapsulation
▪ Encapsulation – the process by which a computer adds
networking headers and trailers to data from an application
for the eventual transmission of the data onto a transmission
medium – Cisco
When messages are being sent on a network, the encapsulation process
works from top to bottom. At each layer, the upper layer information is
considered data within the encapsulated protocol. For example, the TCP
segment is considered data within the IP packet

▪ De-encapsulation – reverse of the encapsulation process

This process is reversed at the receiving host and is known as de-
encapsulation. De-encapsulation is the process used by a receiving device to
remove one or more of the protocol headers. The data is de-encapsulated as
it moves up the stack toward the end-user application.
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Addresses

The network and data link layers are responsible for delivering the
data from the source device to the destination device

Protocols at both layers contain a source and destination address,

but their addresses have different purposes:

•Network layer source and destination addresses - Responsible

for delivering the IP packet from the original source to the final
destination, which may be on the same network or a remote
network.
•Data link layer source and destination addresses - Responsible
for delivering the data link frame from one network interface card
(NIC) to another NIC on the same network.

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Layer 3 Logical Address
An IP address is the network layer, or Layer 3, logical address
used to deliver the IP packet from the original source to the final
destination.

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Layer 3 Logical Address
The IP packet contains two IP addresses:
•Source IP address - The IP address of the sending device, which
is the original source of the packet.
•Destination IP address - The IP address of the receiving device,
which is the final destination of the packet.

The IP addresses indicate the original source IP address and final

destination IP address.

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Devices on the same network
• When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on the
same network, the data link frame is sent directly to the
receiving device.
• On an Ethernet network, the data link addresses are known
as Ethernet Media Access Control (MAC) addresses

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Devices on the same network

Notice that the network portion of the source IPv4 address and the network portion of
the destination IPv4 address are the same and therefore; the source and destination are
on the same network.
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 MAC addresses are physically embedded on the Ethernet NIC.

•Source MAC address - This is the data link address, or the

Ethernet MAC address, of the device that sends the data link
frame with the encapsulated IP packet. The MAC address of the
Ethernet NIC of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA, written in
hexadecimal notation.

•Destination MAC address - When the receiving device is on

the same network as the sending device, this is the data link
address of the receiving device. In this example, the destination
MAC address is the MAC address of the FTP server: CC-CC-CC-
CC-CC-CC, written in hexadecimal notation.

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Devices on a different network
When the sender of the packet is on a different network from
the receiver, the source and destination IP addresses will
represent hosts on different networks. This will be indicated by
the network portion of the IP address of the destination host.

•Source IPv4 address - The IPv4 address of the sending device,

the client computer PC1: 192.168.1.110.
•Destination IPv4 address - The IPv4 address of the receiving
device, the server, Web Server: 172.16.1.99.

Notice that the network portion of the source IPv4

address and destination IPv4 address are on different
networks.

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 When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on different networks, the
Ethernet data link frame cannot be sent directly to the destination host
because the host is not directly reachable in the network of the sender.
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 The Ethernet frame must be sent to another device known as the router or
default gateway. In our example, the default gateway is R1.
• R1 has an Ethernet data link address that is on the same network as PC1.
This allows PC1 to reach the router directly.

•Source MAC address - The Ethernet MAC address of the sending device,
PC1. The MAC address of the Ethernet interface of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-
AA.
•Destination MAC address - When the receiving device, the destination IP
address, is on a different network from the sending device, the sending
device uses the Ethernet MAC address of the default gateway or router. In
this example, the destination MAC address is the MAC address of the R1
Ethernet interface, 11-11-11-11-11-11. This is the interface that is attached
to the same network as PC1.
The Ethernet frame with the encapsulated IP packet can now be transmitted to R1. R1 forwards
the packet to the destination, Web Server. This may mean that R1 forwards the packet to
another router or directly to Web Server if the destination is on a network connected to R1.
It is important that the IP address of the default gateway be configured on each host on the local
network. All packets to a destination on remote networks are sent to the default gateway.
Ethernet MAC addresses and the default gateway are discussed in more detail in other modules.

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Data Link Layer addresses
• The data link Layer 2 physical address has a different role. The
purpose of the data link address is to deliver the data link frame
from one network interface to another network interface on the
same network.

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IP address and MAC addresses
Example of changes of Data link layer
addresses during transmission across different
networks

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 • As the IP packet travels from host-to-router, router-to-router, and finally
router-to-host, at each point along the way the IP packet is encapsulated in
a new data link frame.

• Each data link frame contains the source data link address of the NIC card
sending the frame, and the destination data link address of the NIC card
receiving the frame.

• The Layer 2, data link protocol is only used to deliver the packet from NIC-
to-NIC on the same network. The router removes the Layer 2 information
as it is received on one NIC and adds new data link information before
forwarding out the exit NIC on its way towards the final destination.

• The IP packet is encapsulated in a data link frame that contains the

following data link information:
•Source data link address - The physical address of the NIC that is sending
the data link frame.
•Destination data link address - The physical address of the NIC that is
receiving the data link frame. This address is either the next hop router or
the address of the final destination device.

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 Data Link Layer Address Network Layer address
Mac Address IP address
Transmit frame from NIC to Transmit packets from
NIC source destination to final
destination
Changes for each link No change

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