THEORY OF MACHINES

UNIT - I

Mechanics: It is that branch of science which deals with motion, time and force.

Kinematics is the study of motion, without considering the forces which produce that
motion. Kinematics of machines deals with the study of the relative motion of machine parts.
It involves the study of position, displacement, velocity and acceleration of machine parts.

Dynamics of machines involves the study of forces acting on the machine parts and the
motions resulting from these forces.

Plane motion: A body is said to have plane motion, if all its points move in a single plane or
in planes which are parallel to one another. A body with plane motion will have only three
degrees of freedom, i.e., translation along two axes parallel to the reference plane and
rotational/angular about the axis perpendicular to the reference plane. The reference plane is
called plane of motion. Plane motion can be of three types. 1) Translation 2) rotation and 3)
combination of translation and rotation.

Translation: A body has translation if it moves so that all straight lines in the body move to
parallel positions. Rectilinear translation is a motion wherein all points of the body move in
straight line paths. Eg. The slider in slider crank mechanism has rectilinear translation. (link 4
in fig.1.1)

Fig.1.1

Translation, in which points in a body move along curved paths, is called curvilinear
translation. The tie rod connecting the wheels of a steam locomotive has curvilinear
translation. (link 3 in fig.1.2)

Fig.1.2
 Rotation: In rotation, all points in a body remain at fixed distances from a line which is
perpendicular to the plane of rotation. This line is the axis of rotation and points in the body
describe circular paths about it. (Eg. link 2 in Fig.1.1 and links 2 & 4 in Fig.1.2)

Link or element: It is the name given to any body which has motion relative to another. All
materials have some elasticity. A rigid link is one, whose deformations are so small that they
can be neglected in determining the motion parameters of the link.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1.3

Binary link: Link which is connected to other links at two points. (Fig.1.3 a)

Ternary link: Link which is connected to other links at three points. (Fig.1.3 b)

Quaternary link: Link which is connected to other links at four points. (Fig1.3 c)

Pairing elements: the geometrical forms by which two members of a mechanism are joined
together, so that the relative motion between these two is consistent are known as pairing
elements and the pair so formed is called kinematic pair. Each individual link of a mechanism
forms a pairing element.

Fig.1.4 Kinematic pair

Degrees of freedom (DOF): It is the number of independent coordinates required to describe

the position of a body in space. A free body in space (fig 1.5) can have six degrees of
freedom, i.e., linear positions along x, y and z axes and rotational/angular positions with
respect to x, y and z axes.
In a kinematic pair, depending on the constraints imposed on the motion, the links may loose
some of the six degrees of freedom.

Types of kinematic pairs:

(i) Based on relative motion between pairing elements:

(a) Siding pair. Sliding pair is constituted by two elements so connected that one is
constrained to have a sliding motion relative to the other. DOF = 1

(b) Turning pair (revolute pair). When connections of the two elements are such that
only a constrained motion of rotation of one element with respect to the other is
possible, the pair constitutes a turning pair. DOF = 1

(c) Cylindrical pair. If the relative motion between the pairing elements is the
combination of turning and sliding, then it is called as cylindrical pair. DOF = 2

(d) Rolling pair. When the pairing elements have rolling contact, the pair formed is called
rolling pair. Eg. Bearings, Belt and pulley. DOF = 1

(e) Spherical pair. A spherical pair will have surface contact and three degrees of freedom.
Eg. Ball and socket joint. DOF = 3
 (f) Helical pair or screw pair. When the nature of contact between the elements of a pair
is such that one element can turn about the other by screw threads, it is known as screw
pair. Eg. Nut and bolt. DOF = 1

(i) Based on nature of contact between elements:

(a) Lower pair. If the joint by which two members are connected has surface contact, the
pair is known as lower pair. Eg. pin joints, shaft rotating in bush, slider in slider crank
mechanism.
(b) Higher pair. If the contact between the pairing elements takes place at a point or along
a line, such as in a ball bearing or between two gear teeth in contact, it is known as a
higher pair.

(iii) Based on the nature of mechanical constraint.

(a) Closed pair. Elements of pairs held together mechanically due to their geometry
constitute a closed pair. They are also called form-closed or self-closed pair.

(b) Unclosed or force closed pair. Elements of pairs held together by the action of external
forces constitute unclosed or force closed pair .Eg. Cam and follower.

Constrained motion: In a kinematic pair, if one element has got only one definite motion
relative to the other, then the motion is called constrained motion.

(a) Completely constrained motion. If the constrained motion is achieved by the pairing
elements themselves, then it is called completely constrained motion.

(b) Successfully constrained motion. If constrained motion is not achieved by the pairing
elements themselves, but by some other means, then, it is called successfully constrained
motion. Eg. Foot step bearing, where shaft is constrained from moving upwards, by its self
weight.

(c) Incompletely constrained motion. When relative motion between pairing elements takes
place in more than one direction, it is called incompletely constrained motion. Eg. Shaft in a
circular hole.
Kinematic chain: A kinematic chain is a group of links either joined together or arranged in
a manner that permits them to move relative to one another. If the links are connected in such
a way that no motion is possible, it results in a locked chain or structure.

(a) Kinematic chain (b) Structure

Fig.1.19

Mechanism: A mechanism is a constrained kinematic chain. This means that the motion of
any one link in the kinematic chain will give a definite and predictable motion relative to
each of the other links.

Fig.1.20 Slider crank and four bar mechanisms.

If, for a particular position of a link of the chain, the positions of each of the other links of the
chain can not be predicted, then it is called as unconstrained kinematic chain and it is not
mechanism.

Fig.1.21 Unconstrained kinematic chain

Machine: A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms, which transmit force from

the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. Though all machines are mechanisms,
all mechanisms are not machines. Many instruments are mechanisms but are not machines,
because they do no useful work nor do they transform energy. Eg. Mechanical clock, drafter.
Planar mechanisms: When all the links of a mechanism have plane motion, it is called as a
planar mechanism. All the links in a planar mechanism move in planes parallel to the
reference plane.

Degrees of freedom/mobility of a mechanism: It is the number of inputs (number of

independent coordinates) required to describe the configuration or position of all the links of
the mechanism, with respect to the fixed link at any given instant.

Grubler’s equation: Number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is given by

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h. Where,

F = Degrees of freedom

n = Number of links = n2 + n3 +……+nj, where, n2 = number of binary links, n3 = number of

ternary links…etc.

l = Number of lower pairs, which is obtained by counting the number of joints. If more than
two links are joined together at any point, then, one additional lower pair is to be considered
for every additional link.

h = Number of higher pairs

Examples of determination of degrees of freedom of planar mechanisms:

(i)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h

Here, n2 = 4, n = 4, l = 4 and h = 0.

F = 3(4-1)-2(4) = 1

i.e., one input to any one link will result in

definite motion of all the links.

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h

Here, n2 = 5, n = 5, l = 5 and h = 0.

F = 3(5-1)-2(5) = 2

(ii) i.e., two input motions are required to yield

definite motions in all the links.
(iii)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h

Here, n2 = 4, n3 =2, n = 6, l = 7 and h = 0.

F = 3(6-1)-2(7) = 1

i.e., one input to any one link will result in

definite motion of all the links.

(iv)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h

Here, n2 = 5, n3 =1, n = 6, l = 7 (at the

intersection of 2, 3 and 4, two lower pairs
are to be considered) and h = 0.

F = 3(6-1)-2(7) =

(v)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h

Here, n = 11, l = 15 (two lower pairs at the

intersection of 3, 4, 6; 2, 4, 5; 5, 7, 8; 8, 10,
11) and h = 0.

F = 3(11-1)-2(15) = 0

It is a structure.
(vi) Determine the mobility of the following mechanisms.
 (a) (b) (c)

F = 3(n-1)-2l-h

Here, n = 4, l = 5 and h = 0. F = 3(n-1)-2l-h F = 3(n-1)-2l-h

F = 3(4-1)-2(5) = -1 Here, n = 3, l = 2 and h = 1. Here, n = 3, l = 2 and h = 1.

It is a structure F = 3(3-1)-2(2)-1 = 1 F = 3(3-1)-2(2)-1 = 1

Inversions of mechanism: A mechanism is one in which one of the links of a kinematic

chain is fixed. Different mechanisms can be obtained by fixing different links of the same
kinematic chain. These are called as inversions of the mechanism. By changing the fixed link,
the number of mechanisms which can be obtained is equal to the number of links. Excepting
the original mechanism, all other mechanisms will be known as inversions of original
mechanism. The inversion of a mechanism does not change the motion of its links relative to
each other.

MECHANISMS

Four bar chain:

Fig 1.22 Four bar chain

One of the most useful and most common mechanisms is the four-bar linkage. In this
mechanism, the link which can make complete rotation is known as crank (link 2). The link
which oscillates is known as rocker or lever (link 4). And the link connecting these two is
known as coupler (link 3). Link 1 is the frame.

Inversions of four bar chain:

 Fig.1.23 Inversions of four bar chain.

Crank-rocker mechanism: In this mechanism, either link 1 or link 3 is fixed. Link 2 (crank)
rotates completely and link 4 (rocker) oscillates. It is similar to (a) or (b) of fig.1.23.

Fig.1.24

Drag link mechanism. Here link 2 is fixed and both links 1 and 4 make complete rotation
but with different velocities. This is similar to 1.23(c).
 Fig.1.25

Double crank mechanism. This is one type of drag link mechanism, where, links 1& 3 are
equal and parallel and links 2 & 4 are equal and parallel.

Fig.1.26

Double rocker mechanism. In this mechanism, link 4 is fixed. Link 2 makes complete
rotation, whereas links 3 & 4 oscillate (Fig.1.23d)

Single Slider crank chain: This is a kinematic chain having four links. It has one sliding pair
and three turning pairs. Link 2 has rotary motion and is called crank. Link 3 has got
combined rotary and reciprocating motion and is called connecting rod. Link 4 has
reciprocating motion and is called slider. Link 1 is frame (fixed). This mechanism is used to
convert rotary motion to reciprocating and vice versa.

Fig1.27

Inversions of slider crank chain: Inversions of slider crank mechanism is obtained by fixing
links 2, 3 and 4.
 Fig.1.28

Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism – II inversion of slider crank
mechanism (connecting rod fixed).

Fig.1.31

In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever
(link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The ram with the
cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the tool reverses its
direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed
during the rotation of the crank through angle _ and the return stroke is executed when the
crank rotates through angle β or 360 -α. Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get,
Time to cutting α
_--------------- = ---
Time of return β

Oscillating cylinder engine–II inversion of slider crank mechanism (connecting rod

fixed).

Fig.1.32

Double slider crank chain: It is a kinematic chain consisting of two turning pairs and two

sliding pairs.

Scotch –Yoke mechanism.

Turning pairs – 1&2, 2&3; Sliding

pairs – 3&4, 4&1.

Fig.1.34
Inversions of double slider crank mechanism:

Elliptical trammel. This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted link is fixed.
The sliding block A and B in vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R generates
an ellipse with the displacement of sliders A and B.

In fig. 1.35, if AC = p and BC = q, then, x = q.cosθ and y = p.sinθ.

Fig.1.35
2 2
 x  y
Rearranging,       cos 2   sin 2   1 .
q  p
This is the equation of an ellipse. The path traced by point C is an ellipse, with major axis and
minor axis equal to 2p and 2q respectively.

Oldham coupling.

Fig.1.36

An application of the third inversion of the double slider crank mechanism is Oldham’s
coupling shown in the figure. This coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts when
the distance between the shafts is small. The two shafts to be connected have flanges at their
ends, secured by forging. Slots are cut in the flanges. These flanges form 1 and 3. An
intermediate disc having tongues at right angles and opposite sides is fitted in between the
flanges. The intermediate piece forms the link 4 which slides or reciprocates in flanges 1 & 3.
The link two is fixed as shown. When flange 1 turns, the intermediate disc 4 must turn
through the same angle and whatever angle 4 turns, the flange 3 must turn through the same
angle. Hence 1, 4 & 3 must have the same angular velocity at every instant. If the distance
between the axis of the shaft is x, it will be the diameter if the circle traced by the centre of
the intermediate piece.

Quick return mechanisms are used in machine tools such as shapers and power driven saws
for the purpose of giving the reciprocating cutting tool a slow cutting stroke and a quick
return stroke with a constant angular velocity of the driving crank. Some of the common
types of quick return motion mechanisms are discussed below. The ratio of time required for
the cutting stroke to the time required for the return stroke is called the time ratio and is
greater than unity.

Drag link mechanism

Fig.1.37

This is one of the inversions of four bar mechanism, with four turning pairs. Here,
link 2 is the input link, moving with constant angular velocity in anti-clockwise direction.
Point C of the mechanism is connected to the tool post E of the machine. During cutting
stroke, tool post moves from E1 to E2. The corresponding positions of C are C1 and C2 as
shown in the fig. 1.37. For the point C to move from C1 to C2, point B moves from B1 to B2,
in anti-clockwise direction. IE, cutting stroke takes place when input link moves through
angle B1AB2 in anti-clockwise direction and return stroke takes place when input link moves
through angle B2AB1 in anti-clockwise direction.

The time ratio is given by the following equation.

Timeforforwardstroke B1 Aˆ B2 anti  clockwise 


Timeforreturnstroke B2 Aˆ B1 anti  clockwise 
Whitworth quick return motion mechanism:

This is first inversion of slider mechanism, where, crank 1 is fixed. Input is given to link 2,
which moves at constant speed. Point C of the mechanism is connected to the tool post D of
the machine. During cutting stroke, tool post moves from D1 to D11. The corresponding
positions of C are C1 and C11 as shown in the fig. 1.38. For the point C to move from C1 to
C11, point B moves from B1 to B11, in anti-clockwise direction. I.E., cutting stroke takes place
when input link moves through angle B1O2B11 in anti-clockwise direction and return stroke
takes place when input link moves through angle B11O2B1 in anti-clockwise direction.

Timeforforwardstroke Boˆ2 B 1

 
Timeforreturnstroke Boˆ2 B  2

Fig.1.38

The time ratio is given by the following equation.

Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism

This is second inversion of slider mechanism, where, connecting rod is fixed. Input is given
to link 2, which moves at constant speed. Point C of the mechanism is connected to the tool
post D of the machine. During cutting stroke, tool post moves from D1 to D11. The
corresponding positions of C are C1 and C11 as shown in the fig. 1.39. For the point C to
move from C1 to C11, point B moves from B1 to B11, in anti-clockwise direction. I.E., cutting
stroke takes place when input link moves through angle B1O2B11 in anti-clockwise direction
and return stroke takes place when input link moves through angle B11O2B1 in anti-clockwise
direction.

The time ratio is given by the following equation.

Timeforforwardstroke Boˆ2 B 1

 
Timeforreturnstroke Boˆ2 B  2

Fig.1.39

Straight line motion mechanismsStraight line motion mechanisms are mechanisms, having
a point that moves along a straight line, or nearly along a straight line, without being guided
by a plane surface.Condition for exact straight line motion:

If point B (fig.1.40) moves on the circumference of a circle with center O and radius OA,
then, point C, which is an extension of AB traces a straight line perpendicular to AO,
provided product of AB and AC is constant.

Locus of pt.C will be a straight line, ┴ to AE if, is constant

AB  AC
Proof:
AEC  ABD
AD AB
 
AC AE
AB  AC
 AE 
AD
butAD  const.
 AE  const., ifAB  AC  const.
 Fig.1.40 Fig.1.41

Peaucellier exact straight line motion mechanism:

Here, AE is the input link and point E moves along a circular path of radius AE = AB. Also,
EC = ED = PC = PD and BC = BD. Point P of the mechanism moves along exact straight
line, perpendicular to BA extended.

To prove B, E and P lie on same straight line:

Triangles BCD, ECD and PCD are all isosceles triangles having common base CD and apex
points being B, E and P. Therefore points B, E and P always lie on the perpendicular bisector
of CD. Hence these three points always lie on the same straight line.

To prove product of BE and BP is constant.

In triangles BFC and PFC,

BC 2  FB 2  FC 2 and PC 2  PF 2  FC 2

 BC 2  PC 2  FB 2  PF 2  FB  PF FB  PF   BP  BE But since BC and PC are

constants, product of BP and BE is constant, which is the condition for exact straight line
motion. Thus point P always moves along a straight line perpendicular to BA as shown in the
fig.1.41.

Approximate straight line motion mechanism: A few

four bar mechanisms with certain modifications provide
approximate straight line motions.

Robert’s mechanism

This is a four bar mechanism, where, PCD is a single

integral link. Also, dimensions AC, BD, CP and PD are all
equal. Point P of the mechanism moves very nearly along line AB.

Intermittent motion mechanisms An intermittent-motion mechanism is a linkage which

converts continuous motion into intermittent motion. These mechanisms are commonly used
for indexing in machine tools.
Geneva wheel mechanism

In the mechanism shown (Fig.1.43), link A is driver and it contains a pin which engages with
the slots in the driven link B. The slots are positioned in such a manner, that the pin enters
and leaves them tangentially avoiding impact loading during transmission of motion. In the
mechanism shown, the driven member makes one-fourth of a revolution for each revolution

of the driver. The locking plate, which is mounted on the driver, prevents the driven member
from rotating except during the indexing period.

Fig.1.43 Fig.1.44

Ratchet and pawl mechanism

Ratchets are used to transform motion of rotation or translation into intermittent rotation or
translation. In the fig.1.44, A is the ratchet wheel and C is the pawl. As lever B is made to
oscillate, the ratchet wheel will rotate anticlockwise with an intermittent motion. A locking
pawl D is provided to prevent the reverse motion of ratchet wheel.

Toggle mechanism

Toggle mechanisms are used, where large resistances are to be overcome through short
distances. Here, effort applied will be small but acts over large distance. In the mechanism
shown in fig.1.45, 2 is the input link, to which, power is supplied and 6 is the output link,
which has to overcome external resistance. Links 4 and 5 are of equal length.

F
tan   2
P
 F  2 P tan 

Fig.1.45
Considering the equilibrium condition of slider 6,

For small angles of α, F (effort) is much smaller than P(resistance).

This mechanism is used in rock crushers, presses, riveting machines etc.

Pantograph

Pantographs are used for reducing or enlarging drawings and maps. They are also used for
guiding cutting tools or torches to fabricate complicated shapes.

Fig.1.46

In the mechanism shown in fig.1.46 path traced by

point A will be magnified by point E to scale, as
discussed below.

In the mechanism shown, AB = CD; AD =BC and

OAE lie on a straight line.

When point A moves to A , E moves to E  and

OAE  also lies on a straight line.

From the fig.1.46, ODA  OCE and

ODA  OC E  .

OD OA DA OD  OA D A
   and  
OC OE CE OC  OE  C E 

OD OD  OA OA
But,  ;  ; OAA  OEE .
OC OC  OE OE 

 EE  // AA

EE  OE OC
And  
AA OA OD

 OC 
 EE   AA 
 OD 

 OC 
Where,   is the magnification factor
 OD 