Indira Gandhi

National Open University

MSW-010
School of Social Work Introduction to
Philanthropic Social Work

Block

1
CONCEPT, HISTORY, ETHICS AND VALUES OF
PHILANTHROPY
UNIT 1
Concept, Nature and Scope of Philanthropy 7

UNIT 2
History and Trends in Philanthropy 20
UNIT 3
Introduction to Philanthropic Ethics 37
UNIT 4
Ethical Codes 49
UNIT 5
Fundamental Human Values 82
UNIT 6
Fundamental Human Rights and Duties 94
Expert Committee
Dr. J. Prasant Palakkappillil Prof. P. K. Ghosh Dr. Koteswar Raju
Principal Head of Department Director
Sacred Heart College Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan D.N.R. College, Bhimavaram
Thevara West Bengal
Dr. Ashutosh Pradhan
Dr. V.M. Thomas, Dr. Udaya Mahadevan Associate Professor
D.B. Institute of Management Department of Social Work Department of Social Work
Guwahati Loyola College, Chennai Central University of Himachal
Pradesh
Prof. Anjali Gandhi Dr. Suresh Pathare Dharmashala, Kangra Distt.
Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi Director, CSRD, Ahmednagar Himachal Pradesh
Fr. Nadackal George Dr. S.R. Billore Dr Joseph Xavier
Director Barkatullah University, Bhopal Indian Social Institute
Don Bosco Ashalayam
Dr. Sayantani Guin Bangalore
New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. C.P. Singh
Prof. Gracious Thomas
Prof. A.S. Inamshashtri Chairman
IGNOU
M.G. Kashi Vidyapeeth Department of Social Work
New Delhi
Varanasi Kurukshetra University

Block Preparation Team

Units 1 & 2 Dr. Koteswar Raju
D.N.R. College, Bhimavaram
Units 3 & 5 Prof. George Panthanmackel
Suvidya College, Bangalore
Unit 4 Dr. J. Prasant Palakkappillil
Principal, Sacred Heart College, Thevara
Unit 6 Dr. Sayantani Guin
School of Social Work, IGNOU

Course Editor Course Coordinator Block Editor

Prof. Gracious Thomas Dr. Sayantani Guin Prof. Suresh Pathare
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Director, CSRD, Ahmednagar

Print Production
Mr. Kulwant Singh
Section Officer (P)
IGNOU, New Delhi

March, 2013
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2013
ISBN: 978-266-6366-8
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Professional social work has its origin in Charity Organization Societies (COS).
Philanthropic social work has its origin in the vision, mission and charitable works of
philanthropists, who devoted their lives for serving the poorest of the poor. The concept
of philanthropic social work is relevant to developing countries where intervention
among the poorest of the poor is much needed. Some of the interventions including
those of BabaAmte,Acharya Vinoba Bhave and Mother Teresa have been recognized
across the globe. Their approaches and the use of the social action method to ameliorate
the sufferings of the needy and poorest of the poor are being adequately highlighted in
this course. This course on ‘Introduction to Philanthropic Social Work’consists of
three blocks.
Block 1 deals with the “Concept, History, Ethics and Values of Philanthropy”. In this
block we discuss about the concept, nature and scope of philanthropy. We also explain
the history and trends in philanthropy. Finally the block focuses on the ethical codes,
fundamental human values, fundamental human rights and duties.
Block 2 is on “Philanthropic Social Work”. In this block we examine the concept and
meaning of philanthropic social work. The block explains the history of philanthropic
Social Work and evaluates the contemporary issues in philanthropic social work. The
various human and financial resources for philanthropic social work is also discussed.
Block 3 deals with “Stakeholders in Philanthropic Social Work”. In this block we
discuss about the various stakeholders in philanthropic social work viz. religions,
government, corporate sector, non-profit organizations (donor agencies) and civil
society.
This course will give you a comprehensive understanding of philanthropic social work.
 BLOCK INTRODUCATION
Welcome to block 1 of the course entitled ‘Introduction to Philanthropic Social Work’.
This block on, “Concept, History, Ethics and Values of Philanthropy” is the first block
of MSW-010. It is comprised of six units.
Unit 1 on ‘Concept, Nature and Scope of Philanthropy’ will enable you to understand
the concept, nature and scope of philanthropy.You will be able to analyze the emerging
trends in philanthropy and the need for a rational approach in philanthropy.
Unit 2 is on ‘History and Trends in Philanthropy’. This unit describes the history of
philanthropy from a global perspective. The unit analyzes the early beginning of
charitable work, transformation of charity into philanthropy and the emergence of
philanthropic foundations. The unit concludes with discussing the current scenario of
contemporary philanthropy and policy environment.
Unit 3 on ‘Introduction to Philanthropic Ethics’ examines themain philanthropic ethical
principles, philanthropic ethics in India as envisaged bySchool ofSocial Work, IGNOU
and the emphasis on the philanthropic ethics of Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa.
The fourth unit on ‘Ethical Codes’ focuses on the core values of social work profession.
The evolution of Social Work values and ethics is traced and the purpose, values,
principles and standards in the code of ethics proposed by NASW has been explained.
Finally, the ethical dilemmas and the ethical decision making process in social work
has been elaborated.
The fifth unit on ‘Fundamental Human Values’discusses the values of society, life,
love and freedom as the fundamental human values that promotephilanthropic activities
in a society.
The sixth unit on ‘Fundamental Human Rights and Duties’ explains the concept of
rights, human rights and human duties. The unit also enlists various fundamental human
rights. Finally, the salient features of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights have
been presented.
On the whole, this block will provide you an overview of the concept, history, ethics
and values of philanthropy.

4
 Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of SocialWork
MSW-010
INTRODUCTION TO
PHILANTHROPIC
SOCIAL WORK

Concept, History, Ethics and Values of

Philanthropy 15
 Concept, Nature and
UNIT 1 CONCEPT, NATURE AND Scope of Philanthropy

SCOPE OF PHILANTHROPY
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Philanthropy
1.3 Nature of Philanthropy
1.4 The Philosophical Foundations of Philanthropy
1.5 The Emerging Trends in Modern Philanthropy
1.6 Scope of Philanthropy
1.7 Various Dimensions of Philanthropy
1.8 The Need of a Rational Approach in Philanthropy
1.9 Philanthropy and the Role of NGOs
1.10 Let Us Sum Up
1.11 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit provides you a basic understanding of the concept, nature and scope of
philanthropy.Acareful study would help you understand:
l the meaning and definitions of philanthropy in its conceptual framework;
l the nature of philanthropy as a humane response of loving and caring the
humankind;
l its philosophical foundations over the centuries in different societies ofthe world;
l its scope as a means and method of promoting social good in contemporary
societies; and
l role of philanthropic organisations.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Philanthropy has a very long and rich tradition and found in almost all societies
characterized by democratic values. It has been a phenomenon in existence since
ancient to modern times through the medieval period. Philanthropy, which aims at
helping fellow people, has however, changed its focus and forms over the ages.A
proper understanding of the concept, the underlying meaning, its nature and changing
forms would help empower the less fortunate people in any given society.
Understanding the philosophical foundations responsible for the evolution of
philanthropy, over the ages and across the societies, worldwide, is also very useful
in this context.

7
Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy 1.2 CONCEPT OF PHILANTHROPY
Philanthropy literally means ‘love of mankind’. According to New Standard
Encyclopaedia the word has come to be used specifically for the practice of donating
large sums of money to educational, religious, social welfare, cultural and scientific
institutions, enterprises or causes. Philanthropyis distinguished from charity because
it generally seeks to help large masses of people rather than individuals. In more
conventional terms, it is the act of giving money to charitable causes.
The NewWebster Dictionary of English Language also defines philanthropyas love
of mankind especially as shown in practical efforts to promote wellbeing by donating
to the needycauses; such benevolent activityor a particular instance of it. International
Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences defines philanthropy as the use of resources
to examine and address the causes of social ills or problems.As such, philanthropy
contrasts with traditional charity, understood as the ameliorative use of resources.
The Oxford English Dictionarydefines philanthropyas the disposition or active effort
to promote the happiness and wellbeing of one’s fellow-men. The new Webster
International Encyclopaedia portrays philanthropy as an act of charity meant to
improve the welfare of the people. Philanthropy has been a part of many cultures
from the ancient Hebrews (who introduced a tax to help the poor) to the Greeks,
Egyptians, Muslims and Europeans of the Middle Ages. In the United States
philanthropyis often carried out through charitable foundations established bywealthy
families. Charity, love for one’s fellow men, goodwill to others and alms giving have
a similar connotation with that of philanthropy.
Philanthropist is a person who practices philanthropy- a benefactor. Philanthropy is
a quality pertaining to or characterized by showing love for one’s fellow men, being
humane, benevolent and giving goods or services disinterestedly to works of charity.
The word Philanthrope means loving mankind.
The word has its origin in both Latin and Greek. In Latin it is philanthropia meaning
“humanity, benevolence” and in Greek it is philanthropos meaning “loving mankind,”
from phil- “loving” + anthropos “mankind”.
Philanthropyis denoted byan altruistic concern for human welfare and advancement.
It is usually manifested by donations of money, property, or work to needy persons.
When an organization is initiated to channelize philanthropy it is generally known as
a philanthropic organization. Its characteristics are:
l Love of humankind in general.
l The effort or inclination to increase the well-being of humankind, as by chari-
table aid or donations.
l To dispense or receive aid in the form of a gift from funds intentioned for hu-
manitarian purposes.

1.3 NATURE OF PHILANTHROPY

The terms ‘philanthropy’and ‘charity’have often been used interchangeably.Aileen
Russ opines that changes in the attitude to the phenomenon of giving have meant that
charity now has a somewhat derogatory connotation, and so it is gradually giving
way to the more acceptable concept of philanthropy. In contrast to charitable giving,
philanthropy stresses the total wellbeing rather than merely relieving distress.
8 Philanthropy seems a more appropriate term for the highly organized types of giving
typical of modern industrialized societies.
Edward Grubb states that philanthropy is closely akin to charityand maybe regarded Concept, Nature and
Scope of Philanthropy
as charity grownup; i.e., the impulse to help the needy which may be but a casual
and superficial emotion, develops in some minds into settled disposition and a steady
life effort. The typical philanthropist is a prosperous person who gives up a large
share of his life to the work of improving the lot of his fellow creatures. While charity
concerns itself in the main with the present needs of individuals, philanthropy looks
further, to the future as well as to the present, and seeks to elevate human life on a
larger scale. It is especially characteristic of those societies that are called
‘individualistic’, in which ideals of personal libertymake a strong appeal to the average
person. In societies where the rights of the community over the individual are
powerfully felt as in the case of communism, there is less call for philanthropy; it is to
the community than to the wealthyindividual men naturally look for the redressing of
human suffering. Further, philanthropy is usuallythe product of religious faith, and it
is therefore affected by the kind of religion that prevails in a society at a given point
of time
The type of charity has varied from country to country and from one historical period
to another, but philanthropy has always been the reflection of a class society. Because,
it happened on a division between the rich givers and poor recipients. Even when
the poor have themselves been givers, they have always made up the largest
proportion of recipients. The wealthy have not only given because they have more
but because, by alleviating distress, they have secured their own positions
Philanthropy is seen by some as a supplement to government, and by others as a
way to effect change without involving government. Much of funding for religious,
artistic, educational and health related causes comes from philanthropic sources. In
fact, many cultural, religious and artistic organizations are almost entirely dependent
on philanthropic donations. The government gives these organizations exempt status.
Scholars of philanthropy have identified these non-profit organizations as the ‘third
sector’as they are neither public nor private in nature.

1.4 THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF

PHILANTHROPY
An effort to understand the philosophical foundations of philanthropy would help
appreciate the deeper meaning associated with it. The earlier reference may be that
of the documents of Mesopotamia and Egypt indicating that charity in the sense of
social justice was considered a divinely decreed principle. In ancient Egypt charity
was perceived as an inner disposition toward fellow human beings and as a means
of propitiating the gods for the purpose of achieving immortality. It also means giving
bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty, clothes to the naked and even a boat to one
who had none.
The early Hebrew thought was greatly influenced by the Babylonian, Egyptian and
other peoples of the ancient East. The Hebrew Bible refers primarily to God’s love
for mankind, mankind’s love for God and love among human beings. A person’s
love for God is a response to God’s love, a gratitude that is also expressed through
one’s love for other people.As an applied virtue charity is expected of everyone, for
whoever gives charity will be blessed by the Lord. In medieval Judaism, the highest
form of charity is not to give alms but to help the poor rehabilitate themselves by
lending them money, taking them into partnership, or employing them, for in this way
the desired end is achieved without any loss of self-respect for the recipient. This
has a close resemblance to the present day philosophy of philanthropic social work. 9
Concept, History, Ethics and In ancient Greek society charity was synonymous with love (agape), philanthropia,
Values of Philanthropy
eleos, and philosenia, and it was manifested through benevolent deeds on behalf of
those who are in need. Compassion for the afflicted and loving hospitality were
greatly emphasised. The care of strangers and suppliants was an ethical imperative
because such people had been placed under the direct aegis of the divinity. Charity
in the sense of selfless love, alms giving, pity and concern for the orphan, the widow
and the elderly was widely and generously practised. The Greek charis originally
denoted a gift or favour inspired by the Charites (the three Graces), goddesses who
personified not only physical attributes such as charm, grace and beauty but also
kindness, goodwill and gratitude.
Under the influence of the great philosophers Socrates, Plato andAristotle, charity
was perceived as a duty toward all broken and destitute humanity wherever found.
It was a moral and religious obligation, a social and economic need. The pre-Socratan
philosophers had held that justice and equality were principles of divine origin, as
had Pythagoras, who stressed equality and harmony in social relationships.
For the great thinkers of the fifth and fourth century BCE, doing good for the sake of
goodness was the onlymoral ground for charity.Acardinal principle of Greek religion
and social thought was the divinity is good and the cause of good. Plato writes that
for the cause of evil we must look in other things and not in God. Neither God nor
man can be really good without in some way communicating his goodness to others.
Aristotle adds ‘if all men vied with each other in moral nobility and strove to perform
the noblest deeds, the common welfare would be fully realized, while individuals
also could enjoy the greatness of god in as much as virtue is the greatest good’.
Greek religious and social thought adopted by Cicero and Seneca in their exposition
of caritas and beneficia echoAristotle’s teachings and the Greek understanding of
philanthopia. Much charity was practised in the Roman empire, especially in the
alimenta, such as measures introduced to assist orphans and poor children. Instead
of private philanthropists, the system was adopted by imperial government after the
reign of Nerva.
Charity in Christianityis synonymous with agape or love. In the practical application
of charity, it went beyond Jews, Greeks and Romans. It stressed that ‘love is of
God, and he who loves is born of God and knows God. He who does not love does
not know God; for God is love. God’s love requires that men love one another.
Charity is defined as the love of God and as man’s love of neighbour, the solvent of
hatred of the enemy.
In the post-apostolic and medieval Christian thought, charity was the will of God, an
act of propitiation to a means of external reward, a social obligation and an act of
righteousness. Byzantine society, its government and church made charity a major
concern and established numerous institutions for the sick, orphans, widows, indigent
and others in need of rehabilitation and assistance. Charity was also a cardinal feature
of medieval western European society which was guided by the church.
Charity as a synonym for love, either as God’s love for man or man’s reciprocal love
for God expressed in acts of love for fellow men was the conception so central to
the western tradition. It is not explicitly stated in such a way in Buddhism, Hinduism
and Islam. Nor do we find definitions of charity similar to the conceptions of
philanthropia or agape. The Buddha’s Four Noble Truths inherently include love
and compassion toward fellow human beings. Buddhism sees suffering as a universal
reality, but a reality with a cause. Suffering may be relieved through the application
10 of three principles: metta or maitri, loving kindness actively pursued; karuna,
compassion, mercy, which does not repay evil with evil; and mudita, a feeling of Concept, Nature and
Scope of Philanthropy
approval of other people’s good deeds. These principles find their expression in
works of social welfare, including public works projects and the maintenance of
hospitals and shelters for hospices.
The meaning of charity in Hinduism depends upon the interpretation of dharma, the
primary virtue of the active life of the Hindu. Dharma is the inner disposition and the
conserving idea, while the action by which it is realised to be known as karman,
which is expressed in physical, verbal and mental forms. The physical forms consist
of good deeds such as hospitality, duties to wife and children and assistance to those
in need. Verbal charity is identified with proper or gentle speech and courteous
behaviour. Mental charity is synonymous with piety.
Hinduism has given a primary position to personal ethics. The Upanishads clearly
indicate that each person is responsible for his economic or social condition. If
individuals are moral and perfect and economically safe, society will ultimately be
perfect. Thus personal charity is enjoined to a degree that makes organized charity
unnecessary.
If a man is a creature good by nature, then man can develop the ethics of benevolence,
justice or righteousness. Jainism, in particular, which stresses self-cultivation more
than social involvement, sees self-perfection as the best means of alleviating social
misery. The value of charity as an act of benevolence is judged by the degree of
personal cultivation and sacrifice involved. It is a spontaneous and personal virtue,
instinctive rather than acquired. “To love your neighbour as yourself” is inherent in
the Vedic formula of unity with the absolute self. Because one loves oneself, one is
bound to love one’s neighbour, who is not different from oneself.
Charity in Islam depends on the belief in an omnipotent God, master of mankind,
which not only receives God’s mercy but is always in danger of incurring his wrath.
Thus mankind needs to serve God by means of good works, including alms giving,
both voluntary offering (sadaqat) and legally prescribed ones (zakat), kindness
and good treatment of parents, orphans and the elderly.
Provision of service to those in need is one of the chief aims of all the major religions
of the world.Among the many services performed by religious groups are collecting
food and clothing; aiding refugees; operating hospitals, orphanages and homes for
senior citizens; furnishing medical services and counselling; and providing disaster
relief.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What do you understand by philanthropy?
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Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy 2. Discuss the philosophical foundations of philanthropy.
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1.5 THE EMERGING TRENDS IN MODERN

PHILANTHROPY
The trend which foreshadowed modern philanthropy can be more easily traced to
the Western Christian countries. For, since they led the industrial revolution, they
were forced to alter their patterns of giving sooner than the less developed countries
ofAfrica and the East. In the early Christian era the religious institutions taught that
giving alms was an intrinsic and essential part of a Christian’s duty. But there was no
overall control of giving in the sense that all the poor and destitute were equally
served. Rather, a giver gave according to his conscience and the amount of social
pressure to which he exposed, directly to the recipient. This meant that the giver
usuallysaw the problems of the recipient at first hand and thus made charitya personal
affair.
The great changes in the conception and organization of charity were due to the
decline of medieval society in Europe and the disorganization of the tightlystructured
feudal way of life. The dissolution of monasteries, the steadyincrease in population,
the unplanned urbanisation and industrialisation, the beginning of a rural-urban
movement, plagues and wars all aggravated the problem of poverty and destitution.
The destitution has grown so extensive and evident that it could no longer be ignored.
It was soon seen as a serious continuing social problem. It was evident that the
church, which formerly had a near monopoly over charity, could no longer cope
with the situation; thus private and secular charitable institutions began to arise to fill
the gap. This movement to secular organizations was nourished by the mounting
wealth of the industrial middle classes.
The historical circumstances destroyed the power of the former feudal lords and the
medieval church, redistributed wealth and power to the middle class, and brought
about the beginning of a new industrial society. It also caused a redistribution of
responsibility for charity. For, the dislocations and maladjustments caused by these
momentous changes produced a situation which was too heavy for the church and
the local piety to handle.
This new approach to philanthropy gradually became defined and supported by
law. The earliest and most famous law was that passed by Queen Elizabeth I in
1601 to ‘to create, control and protect the funds that had been allotted or donated
to charity’. It made the local community responsible for providing for the destitute
whose families were unable to look after them. But it went no further than to mark
out those responsible for the needy. Laws created to deal with this new social
phenomenon, however, necessarily lagged behind the rapidly growing needs. For
no one could foresee the extent of the fundamental changes that were taking place
or envisage the coming industrial revolution, which would produce new types of
destitution and poverty far beyond the capacity of the individual family or voluntary
12
agencies to look after. Part of the gap was filled in by wealthy individuals who gave
large gifts of money to relieve the misery of those caught in the new social and Concept, Nature and
Scope of Philanthropy
economic dislocations. These gifts resembled the grants awarded by the numerous
modern foundations, but differed from them in that they were solely for relief, for in
that era prevention was not recognized. They did, however, serve the function of
enabling people to test out new ways of coping with the situation. It gradually paved
way for the present day foundations and non-profit organizations, that embarked on
philanthropy on a more larger and sustainable scale.

1.6 SCOPE OF PHILANTHROPY

To be able to appreciate the scope of philanthropy in India, in its wider sense, it is
worth examining the perspectives unfolded by Rohini Nilekani while inaugurating
the Indian Philanthropic Forum, founded to organize philanthropy in the country in
scientific and systematic manner. She laments that the new century that dawned in
2000 now requires Indian philanthropy to move very rapidly, and move in many
different directions, to solve the new problems that we have. In the last three decades
many things have allowed the creation of extraordinary wealth in the hands of a few
in India. It has also widened the gap between the haves and have-nots, and it is time
to think those who have unprecedented wealth have a tremendous responsibility,
not just to give back or to give forward, but also to look at the very structures of
society that can allow the concentration of wealth in a few hands.
Nilekani draws comparison of Indian philanthropywith that of the west. In the western
world today, philanthropy has acquired a very interesting new orientation. There are
lots of very bright young minds from the corporate sectors who are coming and
saying that there are much greater challenges that one can address. She rightly points
out that what we are now seeing is that the smartest minds are coming into this space
and the deepest pockets are getting opened up, and we want that to be combined
with the warmest hearts. She concludes that this is an extremely exciting time for
Indian philanthropy to engage in philanthropic work, those who have become part
of this new wealth generation are genuinelyinterested in improving the quality of life
of the ordinary people and contributing for their empowerment.
And in India there is just so much to do. Six hundred million is the number that is
now being tossed around, of people who just don’t have what the privileged sections
take for granted. That means, the entire creation of public infrastructure - the schools,
the colleges, the roads and every single thing, that the have to do sections take for
granted, which allowed them to get into good schools and to get better opportunities.
So the real question is, can that kind of opportunity come to a small child in remote
rural / tribal areas or the slums of Indian cities. These issues may not be solved
directly by philanthropy. Those who are comfortable should think of what is the kind
of local empowerment that needs to be created to get those people to believe that
they are not just part of the problem, but perhaps can be empowered also to be part
of the solution.
In any society where the creation of wealth is allowed, it is obvious that the society
believes that the wealth in the hands of people, rather than taxed by governments, is
actually going to serve society - at least as well as if it were taxed and deposited in
the hands ofgovernment. Hopefullyit should create a kind of distribution of resources
and empowerment beyond what governments could do.
Philanthropy has potential to do what neither the government nor the market can do.
There is space at the bottom, where hundreds of millions of our citizens live, where 13
Concept, History, Ethics and neither the government nor the markets can reach. And that is the exciting place
Values of Philanthropy
where philanthropycan begin to support individuals and institutions that are trying to
reach that very last citizen.
These are difficult things to do; theyrequire a lot of patience and tremendous amounts
of humility. It is not ‘I who did something’but ‘yes, I was fortunate enough to get
some money, but how that money will be used is really not something I take full
credit for’. But of course one can get a lot of joy from it, and that joy is well deserved.
So there are many things that one can do in that space where neither society nor
markets can reach.

1.7 VARIOUS DIMENSIONS OF PHILANTHROPY

Philanthropy in some organized form appears in all the major cultural and religious
traditions, andit might be argued that philanthropyis an essential definingcharacteristic
of civilized society. It is considered to be a major aspect of religion. However, it is
not the onlyone. There are also philanthropic dimensions to economics and politics,
and it is also approached from the perspective of any of the humanities and social
sciences: history, literature, anthropology, and so on. Philanthropy can also be looked
upon from a functional perspective also, that discusses how money is raised, how it
is given, and how it is used. There are also the people involved: the volunteers and
professionals.
One familiar definition of philanthropy is that it is “a rational, large-scale giving by
foundations and individuals to enhance the quality of life in society at large, that
includes the extension of grant-making activityto voluntary/non-profit organisations
and corporations of late”.
A preferred, broader definition may include “giving for charitable purposes — acts
of mercy to relieve suffering, to provide assistance to those unable to fend for
themselves in meeting the ordinary daily challenges of life”. This broader definition
also includes voluntaryservice and voluntary association, stressing that philanthropy
is more than almsgiving, more than grant-making.
Philanthropy like charity falls within the voluntary sector and is considered as one of
the much-favoured routes to the achievement of social welfare undertaken by those
‘placed in circumstances of ease’. The term charity and philanthropy are difficult to
separate, for both indicate a sense of social concern and conscience felt by the
upper and middle classes of society for those who occupied a lesser position in
society – the poor, destitute, exploited and abused, socially excluded and
downtrodden.
There is a broad new philanthropic movement emerging from the 1980s and 1990s
wealth boom globally. Industrial houses, family business conglomerates and the new
generation of rich individuals - entrepreneurs, financiers, and executives finally have
started to give their money away for charity and philanthropic purposes.
Such ‘giving’ is not currently limited to the charity or voluntary sector like religious
organisations, NGOs and non-profit organisations. Individual donors, successful
entrepreneurs and business houses have started to establish their own foundations
through which they channelize funds both to non-profits and governments. This
represents a paradigm shift in the wayfunds and philanthropic services are channeled.
Large foundations like the Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, Bill & Melinda
Gates Foundation, Michael and Susan Dell Foundation and our very own Azim
14
PremJi Foundation, Infosys Foundation, Sir Ratan Tata Trust, etc. have been
established and in most of the cases apart from funding NGOs and non-profits these Concept, Nature and
Scope of Philanthropy
foundations have funded governments in their own and in developing and under-
developed countries in the field of education, health, livelihoods, etc.

1.8 THE NEED OFA RATIONALAPPROACH IN

PHILANTHROPY
The basic problem of philanthropy has changed, from that of caring for the physical
needs of a relatively few destitute people, to meet the physical, social and
psychological needs of total populations living in highly complex societies. The
emphasis now is being placed on securing a ‘better’, ‘happier’or ‘healthier’world
for all and the focus has shifted from relief of immediate want to long-term planning
that will prevent future want. This trend toward prevention, whose development has
been due to the growth of scientific knowledge, has eliminated the need for charity
in some areas. It has also led to a change in the motivation to give.
As rightly pointed out byAileen Ross, participation in philanthropic activity is now
more characteristic of the individualistic laissez-faire societies in which the ideology
of personal liberty and non-interference by the state is widely held than of those with
communistic political systems. In some of the individualistic societies it plays such
important role that its organized agencies have become closely integrated with the
whole social structure. Every year vast sums of money are collected for an infinite
number of philanthropic purposes, and an increasing number of people participate
in the work of collecting money through highly organized fund-raising campaigns.
So well has this form of activity come to serve certain needs that in many countries
it has even been incorporated in governmental policy in the form of tax exemptions
for contributions for charitable agencies. It has become such an acceptable form of
behaviour that few escape the demands of giving, and many important institutions
are partly or wholly dependent on it. On the other hand, in countries in which the
rights of the community take precedence over the rights of the individual, there is
less need for voluntary philanthropy because the state takes responsibility for most
if not all of the needs of its people.
However, throughout history there have been many critics of philanthropy. On a
theoretical level, Marxists have argued that philanthropyis another aspect of capitalism
that serves the interests of the rich. Social scientists such as C. Wright Mills showed
how a small group of families control the wealth in capitalist nations, and any notion
of creating social mobility through philanthropic assistance may be a mere illusion.
Instances of misusing race in western societies and caste and religion in developing
nations in philanthropic activities throw light on the ethical aspects of the philanthropic
initiatives.
Moreover according to conventional view, a philanthropist is a wealthy person who
gives to those with less. Yet this definition tends to obscure acts of giving by middle
and lower income people.Agrowing tendency of donating sums for worthy causes
by the low income groups is now being found in almost all societies and this need to
be harnessed effectively to transform philanthropy as a widespread human virtue
intended for promoting social good on a much larger scale. In the final analysis, to
see a robust philanthropic initiative, it is needed to have foundations laid on ethical
consideration whereby philanthropic activity is found on the larger principles of
promoting an egalitarian society characterised by equity and justice and not to
perpetuate class structures or narrow parochial considerations based on race or
religion. 15
Concept, History, Ethics and Modern philanthropy serves many and varied functions to the givers, collectors and
Values of Philanthropy
the business world, as well as for the recipients. The more obvious functions that
philanthropy has played through the centuries, such as relieving the lot of the poor
and needy, is easy to see, but the more subtle aspects of its effects have seldom
been analysed. During this process a core of professionally trained administrators
and fund raisers has arisen to handle the complex problems that the extension of
philanthropy has brought about. Anumber of professional organizations have also
grown up with the specific purpose of directing the larger fund raising campaigns
and training volunteer canvassers. These people were at first looked upon as
professional beggars, but by now the importance of their role is recognized and they
have an accepted professional status.
The organization and coordination of philanthropyhave eliminated much of the early
spontaneity of giving. They have also brought about a more rational assessment of
people’s ability to give and the introduction of scientific methods of surveying
community and national needs and of raising money. Thus philanthropy has entered
the field of planning. This trend has meant that the sense of personal involvement
with a problem which in the past led to many worthwhile reforms has given way to
impersonal donating to a charitable budget.
Understanding philanthropy presents very many challenges. For the theorists the
challenges are to understand the motives and institutions for charitable giving. For
the policy analysts the challenges are to measure and identify the effects of price and
income-the cost benefit analysis. For the experimenters the challenge is to explore
innovations in the market for giving.As governments become increasinglyreliant on
private organizations to provide public services, and as charities become increasingly
sophisticated at raising money and delivering needed services, understanding the
relationships among the suppliers and demanders of charity will become essential
part for calculating the social costs and benefits of philanthropic institutions, as rightly
pointed by JamesAndreoni. Thus the march towards professionalizing philanthropy
is on its headway.

1.9 PHILANTHROPYAND THE ROLE OF NGOs

The Constitution of India (under article 38) directs the state to “strive to promote
the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may, a social
order in which justice – social, economic and political – shall inform all the institutions
of national life” (GOI, 1988: 13). Thus the major onus of developmental activity
comes on the state. Developmental activity refers to the individual and collective
efforts to improve physical, economic, intellectual, moral and social conditions. It
aims at bringing all round growth resulting in betterment in the qualityof lifeof people.
The government alone cannot be expected to meet all kinds of needs of the people.
The working Group on Block Level Planning remarked that the Country’s social
and economic problems are so vast and multifarious that the government’s
administrative machinery alone can’t tackle them (GOI, 1978: 139.40). Here lies
the need for “sincere, dedicated and competent voluntary organizations with social
action as their main strategy based on social justice for all” (Gonsalves, 1975:58)
and unfurls immense scope for Philanthropic Works.
Philanthropists as well as foundations, voluntary organizations or NGOs established
by them work in close proximity to their clientele. Social work approach to problem
solving assigns primacy to the clients. This client – centered approach of NGOs
16
and social work brings them together in their march towards the common goal of Concept, Nature and
Scope of Philanthropy
social welfare. Hence, for increasing people’s participation in the programs, the
institutions of social work and the NGOs are required to work together.
The post-independence era has witnessed phenomenal increase in the number of
voluntary agencies with the introduction of community development programs. The
planning commission recognized their role in the first five year plan document itself in
the field of social welfare by observing, “that a national plan which embrace both the
public and the private sectors may yet be incomplete unless the enthusiastic support
of large number of voluntary organizations and voluntary workers engaged in
constructive work can be harnessed into action as an aspect of public cooperation.
Every successive five year plan gave important role in extending welfare activities
among backward classes and provided financial assistance for taking up various
programs in this field with constantly enlarging outlays.
The seventh plan identified voluntaryagencies as the alternative mechanism for helping
the poor. Late Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi had emphasized the need for
widening the role of voluntary agencies under the chairmanship of the chief secretary
or the development commissioner. Periodic meetings of such groups were proposed
to give valuable feedback on the actual implementation of the scheme and to help
bring out problems affecting the work of the voluntary agencies (Sachdeva, 1992-
93: 223). Besides, because of their own experiences the Indian policymakers realized
the limitations of the government and the comparative advantages of the NGOs.
They understood that the government has failed to reach the intended beneficiaries
through the welfare and development activities, because of corruption, red-tapism
and bureaucratic hurdles. But the NGOs, because of their easy accessibility to the
poor, their awareness of local problems, their low cost alternative technologies and
their participative strategies could make better impact in those areas, where the
government with their giant bureaucratic machinery failed. Once these facts were
assimilated, thepolicymakers realized theadvantages of collaborating with the NGOs.
Accordingly, the Indian state began encouraging the participation of the NGOs in
different government sponsored welfare and development programs. Besides, the
provision for grant in aid has been made in different government departments, inviting
the NGOs to involve themselves in planning, capacity building, implementation and
monitoring of the development programs.
If NGOs have to be successful in securing peoples participation, they have to fulfill
some essential prerequisites. Firstly, theythemselves should be people’s organizations
or set up with full participation or support of the people. Secondly, they should help
in the development of local grass-root level organizations to become self-reliant
through sustained efforts of local leadership while it is important to achieve
development by utilizing local resources, local talents and strengthening all that is
good and utilization in the local lore and tradition. It is equally important to achieve
development through implementation of progressive ideas relating to appropriate
technology and new values”.
Thirdly, they should not attempt to operate projects directly but do so through local
people who should only be guided by the cadres. Fourthly, the NGOs should be
able to create motivation and opportunities for self employment among people. This
means that they should create conditions which will cause self employment and not
create parasitic jobs. Fifthly, NGOs should study the national development policies
and promote among people thinking trends on the lines of those policies so as to
enable the people to reap the benefits of schemes and projects meant for them.
Sixthly, and as a corollary to the preceding prerequisite, the governments should 17
Concept, History, Ethics and recognize the NGOs as an essential third force for economic and social development.
Values of Philanthropy
(The Government and the people are the two other forces). Lastly, the NGOs or
the voluntary organizations should keep constant liaison with other voluntary
organizations with a view to avoiding duplication of efforts and wastage. Proper
co-ordination among NGOs will result in greater benefits.
The voluntary organizations were once served by unpaid social workers imbued
with the spirit of service and did not require any special education or training. But
the present trend of professionals in social services emphasizes proper education
and training of personnel in the context of scientific and technological advancements
impinging on the quality of services to be provided for various type of clientele
(Sachdeva, 1992-93: 207).
Here lies the need for embarking on Philanthropic Social Work by combining the
virtues of both philanthropy and Social Work so that persons trained accordingly
would contribute for attaining the goals of philanthropy as well as social work and
bring the advantages of the both worlds in improving the wellbeing in the society.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Discuss the scope of philanthropy in modern world.
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2. What is the role of voluntary organisations in the practice of philanthropy?

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1.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, an attempt has been made to describe the concept, nature and scope of
philanthropy, philosophical foundations of philanthropy, the emerging trends in
philanthropy and the need for a rational approach in philanthropy. It has been pointed
out that philanthropyhas a verylong and rich tradition and found in almost all societies
characterized by democratic values. It has been a phenomenon in existence since
ancient to modern times through the medieval period. Philanthropy means love of
mankind and differs from charity in the sense it generally seeks to help large masses
of people rather than individuals. Philanthropy has been a part of many cultures from
the ancient Hebrews to the Greeks, Egyptians, Muslims, Europeans and the Eastern
societies. Philanthropy has changed from that of caring for the physical needs of a
relatively few destitute people living in simple societies to attempting to meet the
physical, social and psychological needs of total populations living in highly complex
societies. The emphasis now being placed on securing a ‘better’, ‘happier’ or
18 ‘healthier’world for all and the focus has shifted from relief of immediate want to
long-term planning that will prevent future want and leading to the empowerment of Concept, Nature and
Scope of Philanthropy
the indigent sections. Philanthropy’s potential to reach to the bottom rung of the
society, where hundreds of millions of our citizens live, where neither the state nor
the markets can reach, should be rightly utilized to reach that very last citizen.
Philanthropy should have foundations laid on ethical considerations of promoting an
egalitarian society characterised by equity and justice. There is increasing role of
voluntary organisations in the practice of philanthropy and Social work professionals
might find their opportunities in the administration and management of philanthropic
organisations.

1.11 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Aileen D. Ross : Philanthropy, International Encyclopaedia of Social
Sciences
Edward Grubb : Philanthropy, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, T&T
Clark Ltd, Edinburgh, 1974
James Andreoni : Charitable Giving, The New Algarve Dictionary of
Economics, Macmillan Publishing Ltd, NewYork, USA
Sachedeva, DR : Social Welfare Administration in India, Kitab Mahal,
Allahabad, 1992

Webster Universal Dictionary The Tulasi Shaw Enterprises, Bombay 1970

New Webster Dictionary of English Language, The Delair Publishing Company,
USA, 1971
The NewWebster International Encyclopaedia, Macmillan Publishing, London, 2008
International Encyclopaedia of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Elsevier, Oxford,
UK, 2001

19
Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy
UNIT 2 HISTORYAND TRENDS IN
PHILANTHROPY
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Early Beginnings of Charitable Work
2.3 Transformation of Charity into Philanthropy
2.4 Charity vs. Philanthropy
2.5 The Emergence of Philanthropic Foundations
2.6 The Indian History of Philanthropy
2.7 The Changing Face of Indian Philanthropy
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit is intended to help the learner understand the historic beginnings of
philanthropy and its evolution across the globe and India. The detailed study will
help the learner understand:
l the early beginnings of charitable work from which philanthropy had evolved;
l the transformation of the early charitable work of compassionate helping as a
sustainable process of enabling and empowerment with the advent of philan-
thropic perspective;
l the emergence of egalitarian organizations called philanthropic foundations;
l the philanthropic work taking place globally;
l understand the Indian ethos conducive for the expansion of philanthropic work
in India;
l its expansion over ancient, medieval and modern times;
l the potential scope and possible limitations of the contemporary Indian Philan-
thropy; and
l the policy environment of promoting philanthropy and its strengths and weak-
nesses.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
It is in the Christian communities of theWest, and particularly in the English speaking
countries, that philanthropy has been most widely developed. But it has long existed
in the East also, quite apart from Christianity. Having had its beginnings in charitable
work associated with religion, philanthropy has been transformed into an egalitarian
endeavour of promoting human wellbeing through the philanthropic foundations
worldwide with a secular orientation. The policies of the contemporary societies
20 encouraged philanthropic work through tax concessions.
Sandeep Deshmukh aptly analyses that the pluralistic values have dominated the History and Trends
in Philanthropy
evolution of philanthropy in India throughout the country’s complex history. Daan,
generallytranslated as ‘donation’ in English, is the preferred traditional wayof giving
in Hindu society. It is given to a Brahmin (a priest figure) publicly, for recognition, or
privately, for moksha (salvation). The ancient traditions of temple trust (sthanattar)
and the village assembly (gaonki) have similar functions to communityfoundations.
Although these traditional mechanisms for giving are still important, class, caste and
the social relationships based on them are in transition. Religious giving is strongest
in rural areas, although the influence of the village communities has weakened since
independence.Differentreligionshaveinspired different mechanismsforgiving,though
none are uniform across India.
Ramachandran and Rachna Jhas’ collective work on Corporate Philanthropy and
its Emerging Trends describes the nature and evolution of corporate philanthropy in
India. Families in India are in some ways microcosmic socio-economic systems.
They are strongly embedded in their local communities, and have a long tradition of
giving to the poor, needyand destitute. Donating towards templebuilding, for instance,
has been a favoured charitable activity throughout history. In recent times business
families, for instance, do not focus only on achieving sustainable financial growth,
but also on contributing a part oftheir income for social good.Traditionally, companies
have directly given to charitable organisations or to individuals in need, or have
undertaken activities for social good on their own. In recent years, their focus has
shifted from charity to philanthropy and many new activities such as environmental
conservation and preservation of historyand art have become part of the philanthropic
activities of business families and of corporate philanthropy. As thecharitable impulses
of family businesses slowly transformed into sustainable organized philanthropic
initiatives, companies started setting up Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR) wings.
As businesses grew and professionalized, several family businesses institutionalised
theirphilanthropicactivities in theformoffamilyfoundations. Theseserved as excellent
forums forfamilycollaboration and ameans of transferring themantle of philanthropic
stewardship to succeeding generations. Gradually, the global business environment
and stakeholders’ growing expectations encouraged businesses to payclose attention
not only to their philanthropic activities, but also to the measurable social impact of
these activities. Today, companies view their philanthropic programmes not only as
corporate or family resources meant for social development, but also as strategic
social investments intended to achieve measurable outcomes and impacts. Corporate
philanthropy programmes are often a part of the organisation’s mission and are
designed to address social and political issues that affect the business.

2.2 THE EARLY BEGINNINGS OF CHARITABLE

WORK
All the major religions of the world have had the history of provision of service to
those in need, as one of their chief aims. The word charity comes from the Latin
caritas meaning ‘love’. Among the many services performed by religious groups
are collecting food and clothing; aiding refugees; operating hospitals, orphanages
and homes for senior citizens; furnishing medical services and counselling; providing
disaster relief and inaugurating self-help projects in Third World nations.
In chronicling the history of philanthropy across the globeAileen D. Ross quotes
Grubb regarding the relation between charity and religion. In early times charity was
21
usually motivated by religious faith and so its history in different societies can, in
Concept, History, Ethics and part, be understood by studying their religious ideologies. However, religious zeal is
Values of Philanthropy
largelythe product of a complex of forces, thus, even though the ideal of philanthropy
was articulated through the religious functionaries, there were always other underlying
reasons that prompted philanthropic giving. It seldom, if ever, occurred either when
the giver did not receive some practical or psychological reward, or when there was
no punishment for not giving. Active participation in philanthropy has through the
ages been much more characteristic of Christian or Western than of pagan or Eastern
societies and of those belonging to Protestant rather than to Roman Catholic or
Orthodox religions.
In preliterate societies, the family, kin, caste, tribe or clan looked after its own people
as a natural duty. The wealthier and those in high positions were expected to bear
the larger share of looking after the destitute and sometimes the village would look
after all its members. But alms giving, in the sense of the duty of everyone to give to
those outside their own close circle, was not necessary. For, belonging to a large
family or clan was being part of a system that supplied social and economic security.
The continuing strength of the ties of family, kin, tribe or caste inAfrica and Asia is
one of the main reasons for the difference in the organization of philanthropy in the
East and the West. Another is the fact that almost all the new nations have begun
their independence with a certain amount of guaranteed social security in their
constitutions.
Certain current trends in philanthropic thinking and organization go back very far in
history. The idea that giving would ensure a reward in heaven was found in Egypt
many centuries before the Christian era and giving was not limited to family or clan.
In ancient Rome, the idea was first introduced that citizenship was the basis of the
right of relief for every person, no matter whether he was destitute or not; this
foreshadowed the principle of universality. Philanthropy in this sense had very little
connection with poverty and was not necessarily motivated by pity, nor was it
considered an important virtue.
In the East, religion has also virtually been the main force to motivate giving. Many
verses in Koran exhort the belief to give alms. This is considered a basic duty, and
the destitute and poor can demand alms as a right. The Muslims thus look on
almsgiving as a compulsory act, but one that enhance the prestige of the giver.

a) History of Philanthropy in China

In China, through the teachings especially of Confucius and Mencius, the virtues of
benevolence have been recognized from very early times. They taught that the State
exists for the promotion of human happiness; but neither central nor local authorities
appear to have done much actively in this direction. There has, however, been much
private benevolence, especially during the last two centuries; but this is scarcely
noticed in the Chinese histories, which have been written in the main as chronicles of
the doings of kings and emperors. Orphans and abandoned children have been
cared for, and endeavours made from time to time to put a stop to the practice of
desertion. Hospitals and alms-houses have been established. There is a Chinese
poor law, which is stated to be on paper admirable but in practice almost a dead
letter, since no funds are provided by the state, apart form the land tax, the proceeds
of which, even under an honest magistracy, are usually required to meet the cost of
local administration. In most of the Chinese cities there is a large amount of
philanthropic work initiated and controlled by the people apart from, but not in
antagonism to, the government; and theselocal charities are coordinated byinstitutions
22 like the ‘Hall of United Benevolence’ at Shangai, which dates from 1805.
b) Greek History of Philanthropy History and Trends
in Philanthropy
Among the Greeks philanthropy occupied a minor place, whether in practice or in
ethical theory. It was always assumed that the bulk of hard manual work of the
community would be done by slaves, whose fundamental needs were of course
provided for, and if distress came upon the citizens, the Greek mind naturally turned
to the city-State, rather than to wealthy individuals, as the organ through which the
trouble should bemet. In the place of philanthropists we findlegislators and statesmen
like Solon and Cleisthenes, whose reforms were designed to lift up the poor citizens
and release them from their burdens. We hear, indeed, of rich citizens in Athens
fitting out at their own charge vessels for navy and helping their poorer neighbours
byportioning their daughters and sisters; yetAristotle in his Politics comments foreign
examples of benevolence, implying that this was not a conspicuous virtue among
fellow-Athenians. What he desired was no ill-considered or spasmodic charity.

c) Roman History of Philanthropy

The best of Roman philanthropy had its roots under the empire the Stoic faith, which
fitted so well the ideal Roman character. It drew some of the leading minds towards
a wider recognition of the worth of manhood. The broadening of the sense of human
brotherhood had its outcome in a distinct development of the philanthropic spirit.
Hospitals of some kind, probably private infirmaries, appeared in the first century
A.D.; and, with the desire to encourage the growth of population, several of the
emperors formed endowments known as alimenta for the support of selected children
of poor parents, entrusting their administration to local municipalities and encouraging
others to do likewise.

d) Jewish History of Philanthropy

Among the Jews the duty of kindness to the poor, the widows and the fatherless
was constantly enforced as a thing pleasing to God. But the nearest approach to
anything that can be called philanthropy is perhaps to be found in the earlier prophets
who (from the time of Elijah’s fearless denunciation of Ahab for his injustice to
Naboth) pleaded the cause of the poor against their oppressors. The special
contribution of the Jewish spirit (mainly through the prophets) was its insistence on
the practice of justice and love as a vital element in religion; what Jahweh required of
men was ‘to do justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with God’.
After the Exile the rise of the Synagogue was accompanied by the gradual
development of a system of organized charity, for which the Jews are still remarkable.
It is not surprising, after the treatment which they have received at the hands of
Christians, that except to their own people most Jews are not much inclined to
liberality.

e) Christian History of Philanthropy

A major philanthropic ideal that is still held by some Christians is the belief that one-
tenth of a person’s income should go to charity. This idea called the tithe, goes back
in the historyof Hebrew giving which was considered a religious duty. The system of
tithing was fairly common among many ancient peoples and was often collected in
the form of a general tax rather than as a gift to God or the poor. Thus the acceptance
of state taxation for charity could be said to be an idea that was also suitable for the
charitable needs of earlier societies.

23
Concept, History, Ethics and The teachings of Jesus with regard to giving, which have had great influence in
Values of Philanthropy
determining philanthropic attitudes down to the present day in the Western world,
can also be traced to earlier religious attitudes towards charity. In particular, Jesus’
teachings that the spirit of giver is more important than the size of the gift, and that it
is more blessed to give than to receive, emphasized the virtues of unselfishness and
giving as a personal sacrifice.

f) Modern History of Philanthropy

Modern philanthropy,strictlyso called, begins with the Reformation andis exemplified
most in the countries of North Europe and America where the Reformation took
deepest root. In England the dissolution of the monasteries destroyed the whole
organization of society so far as the relief of the destitute was concerned. The
Elizabethan Poor Laws marked the failure of private philanthropy. The outbreak of
strange sects during the Commonwealth period included schemes of social
regeneration, like that of the ‘Diggers’led by Everard and Winstanley. But more
important was the rise of the Quakers, just in the middle of the 17th century. Their
belief in the ‘Light of God in every man’ gave them a fresh intuition of human
brotherhood and sent them forth as sober apostles of love and justice among men.
The close of 17th century and the early years of 18th marked a new departure in
philanthropy: the beginning of ‘societies’ for carrying on religious and philanthropic
work with money jointly provided. From the 18th century onwards the formation of
philanthropic societies has continuously gone forward with all sorts of objects, such
as printing and distribution of Scriptures, popular education, the aftercare of prisoners,
the prevention of crime by reformatories, and industrial schools, the advocacy of
temperance, the prevention of cruelty to children and animals and the spreading of
the principles of international peace.

2.3 TRANSFORMATION OF CHARITY INTO

PHILANTHROPY
Another trend in philanthropic activity that was established during the war was that
of coordination ofeffort. There was agrowing realization that while much of voluntary
work was overlapping, many of the needs were being overlooked. This coordination
took the form of Community Chests, which combined a number of charities under
one appeal, and united appeals. By 1929 it was estimated that there were 331
community chests in America. These chests had raised $ 73 millions in that one
year alone.Again, corporations played a large part in financing this expansion.
The best-known and largest singleAmerican charity is the communitychest or united
fund. Hundreds of cities throughout the nation conduct a single annual campaign for
donations and distribute the money to local charities. The first community chest was
organized in Denver, Colo., in 1887. The idea has spread to other countries, including
Japan and South Africa.
Community welfare councils appraise local needs, eliminate duplication of services
and develop new sources of revenue. To qualify as member of a Chest, local charities
must submit their budgets to the Council and agree not to conduct individual
campaigns. Many cities in America have a United Fund. This organization gathers
into one campaign the collection for all local, national and international charities.
Thus Community Chests and United Funds used to raise billions of dollars which
they usually allotted for youth services, family and children services, health services
24
and medical research.
The total philanthropic donations of corporations have also risen steeply.The Bureau History and Trends
in Philanthropy
of Internal Revenue estimates that in 1936 corporations donated $30 million to
charitable purposes. In 1951 the figure was over $ 300 million.Although this figure
was large, a breakdown in terms of total giving to philanthropy and type of giver
shows that corporation contributions were only 5 per cent of the total annual receipts.
The rest is made up of donations from foundations (3%), individual gifts (74%) and
other sources (18%).
The donations do not come only from the corporation budget but also from
employees. This source was tapped when the growing number of campaigns caused
strong competition between fund raisers during World War I and forced them to
move further down the economic ladder to achieve their objectives. Employees
were a well organized group from which to solicit contributions. This movement was
encouraged in so many corporations that by 1950 a large number permitted payroll
deductions for the major national and city-wide campaigns in North America.
Parallel to the centralization of many former charities under the jurisdiction of the
state there has arisen the centralization of private giving under the control of
businessmen. Business institutions have thus succeeded the religious institutions on
which early charity depended for inspiration and control. This change has brought
about a change in the ideology of philanthropy. Implicit in the religious ideology of
giving was the idea that the giver, as well as the recipient, would receive some
benefit from the gift, either in this world or the next. The implication of future reward
is still present in the modern ideology of giving, but the individual reward is no longer
thought of as coming in the next world. Rather, it is expected in this one, either in the
emotional form of personal satisfaction received from sacrifice and doing one’s duty
or as a more tangible reward in the form of direct or indirect benefit from better
medical services, better homes, play grounds and the like.

2.4 CHARITY VS. PHILANTHROPY

Is there a difference between charityand philanthropy? “Charity expresses an impulse
to personal service; it engages individuals in concrete, direct acts of compassion and
connection to other people.” (Friedman and McGarvie 2003, 31). Charity is referred
to making a contribution (giving) in cash or kind, which is made to a person or
organization perceived to be needy or worthy. Philanthropy, however, is more
complicated and more ambitious: the effort to use financial and other resources to
accomplish a defined goal shared by the philanthropist and the funded organization.
Such an interpretation has two-fold implications. First, while a charity giver acquits
himself by mailing or handing-over cash or a check, the philanthropist seeking to
advance her/his own goals becomes a partner in the effort and associates in the long
term.As a partner, she/he searches for ideas, expertise and at times even additional
funding that will improve the program or organization in terms of scale and impact.
Second, because the philanthropist makes grants in order to advance defined goals,
she/he insists on accountability and evaluation both to measure impact (which in
business terms is referred to as a return on investment) and to track the ways in
which the sponsored effort could be improved.
In comparison to charity, philanthropyrepresents a broader paradigm which is defined
as “a desire to improve the material, social, and spiritual welfare of humanity,
especially through charitable activities”. [Source: Encarta online dictionary]
Philanthropy is “bigger” in its scope and its aim is societal benefit; rather than simply
25
Concept, History, Ethics and helping people in need, which suggests short-term and immediate actions and is
Values of Philanthropy
referred to as charity.
Philanthropy at its core is the investment of private capital for the public good.
Taking it to a higher level, the idea of strategic philanthropy on the other hand, as
is in operation by modern philanthropic organisations and corporate philanthropists,
connotes not necessarily to large donations, but focuses on solving problems at their
root. Strategic philanthropy works to identify opportunities for leveraging change
much greater than the size of the investment — small amounts of money that start
making large impacts. These investments often tend to be long-term in nature,
upstream focused and come with a higher risk for a higher potential return. These
are often focused on changing systems and regularly have an influence on public
policy.

2.5 THE EMERGENCE OF PHILANTHROPIC

FOUNDATIONS
During the medieval period in Europe, most charitable work was done by the church;
but after the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century and the rise of nationalistic
movements, many religious sources of charity was curtailed. Private philanthropy
gradually took the place of church. In England it was the crown that took upon itself
the role of defender of the defenceless. All private trusts were regarded as private
contracts to which the crown, as a third party, was bound as the protector of all
likelybeneficiaries.
From 17th century to the end of 19th century, most trusts and foundations were small
local affairs. Worldwide there are tens of thousands of such charitable organizations.
As each of them must operate within the legal framework of the country within
which they are headquartered, it is difficult to give a definition of foundations that
applies to all. In general terms, a foundation is a private non-profit association that
maintains a sizable fund of money in trust to aid a wide variety of charitable causes.
Foundations are managed by trustees and boards of directors and set their own
priorities for giving away their money.
Philanthropic foundations are endowments that are devoted to the pursuit of public
purposes. Foundations are typicallyset up to exist, in principle, in perpetuity- spending
parts of their annual income on public purposes, while retaining the remainder to
preserve and grow their endowment assets. Historically foundations were closely
linked to religious charity in the Judeo-Christian tradition, but similar concepts are
found in other religious traditions as well, such as the al-wakif in Islam.
Many other private service endowments were created in the years 1800 to 1850,
but the establishing of the great foundations of today began later in the 19th century.
The hugefortunes amassed bysomeAmerican industrialists such asAndrew Carnegie,
John D. Rockefeller and Henry Ford were the basis for the large trust funds that
make up the wealth of the biggest foundations. In terms of wealth and size, the
foundations in the United States make it the world leader in their formation.
Since about 1940 philanthropy has become more democratic. Foundations are
increasing rapidly in number. Industrial corporations and individual wage earners
started contributing hundreds of millions of dollars every year to charity. The money
is channelled through organized collecting and distributing agencies. Chief of these
are the local community chests. TheAmerican Red Cross and the Salvation Army
26
are two of the largest national charitable organizations. In United States the nature History and Trends
in Philanthropy
of philanthropy is changing as well as the source of contributions.
In the course of the twentieth century, however, much foundation activity has been
linked to the concept of philanthropy. Literally ‘the love of mankind’, philanthropy
can be most poignantly defined as the use of resources to examine and address the
causes of social ills or problems.Although many charitable trusts existed for various
purposes in earlyAmerican history, and the foundations of Benjamin Franklin, James
Smithson and George Peabody were of great significance, the birth of the US
foundation sector, and with it the rise of the concept of philanthropy is typically
located around the beginning of twentieth century.
In an influential series of articles published in the 1880s titled Wealth, the industrialist
Andrew Carnegie began to argue in favour of an obligation on the part of the rich to
devote excess wealth to public purposes and to help provide opportunities for the
less fortunate to better themselves. Over the following decades, the traditional focus
of charitable trusts on providing relief and amelioration was graduallysupplanted by
a new orientation toward analysing and addressing the causes of social problems
rather than just addressing their effects. Using the emerging sciences to tackle the
‘root causes of social evils’ set the ambitions and operations of the early twentieth-
century foundations part from earlier foundation activities in the United States and
launched what historians Barry Karl and Stan Katz have termed the modern
philanthropic foundation.
The earliest of these new foundations included the Russell Sage Foundation, the
Carnegie Corporation and the Rockefeller Foundation which popularized the
foundation idea and provided blueprint that other wealthy donors began to follow in
the 1920s and 1930s. High marginal tax rates that originated during World War II
and continued into post-war period, in combination with tax regulation, further
propelled growth of foundations in 1940s and 1950s.
The private philanthropy in United States continued to give direct help to the poor.
They also moved, however, into new fields. These include medical research,
fellowships and scholarships to talented young people, rehabilitation of the
handicapped, youth welfare, psychiatric care and home counselling.
Philanthropy which was once confined to one’s own ethnic communities and
immediate societies has now become trans-national. Philanthropic action by
individuals or societies for the benefit of humanity outside their own country has
been very significant in the new millennium. The great missionary enterprises must
be considered here. To quote from the past, the anti-slavery agitation was the greatest
of these philanthropic movements. In this case the work of philanthropists has been
mainly directed at securing the necessary changes in law and to bring continual
pressure to bear on the government to secure, as far as possible, justice and right
treatment for weaker people.
The initiatives from Clinton Foundation, the Melinda and Bill Gates Foundation and
Rotary International are only few other examples of the trans-national massive
philanthropic activities in developing and third world countries. In collaboration with
the respective nation states these foundation are endeavouring to improve the health
of millions of indigent sections who otherwise don’t have access to health care.
There are scores of other foundations who initiated targeted interventions in areas of
education, livelihoods, shelter and social security including food security.

27
Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Explain the transformation of charity into philanthropy.
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2. Discuss the emergence of philanthropic foundations.

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2.6 THE INDIAN HISTORY OF PHILANTHROPY

Philanthropy in India is largely guided by religion and the demands of caste, clan,
family and community. Giving is primarily directed towards religious organizations
like temples, mosques and churches. However, in the modern times philanthropy
has also extended to corporate involvement and the rise of non-profit organizations
working towards the country’s development.
The primary motivation behind giving was the belief that charitable activities lead to
one’s salvation. In later years, through interaction with other civilizations and the
resulting ideas of equality, human rights, and other related causes, social action groups
started to emerge, fighting for women’s empowerment, removal of untouchability,
promotion of education and others. These were initiated by well-known social
reforms, many of which had close links with the freedom movement of the country.

a) Philanthropy in Pre-Independent India

Indian philanthropy has always been strongly linked to religion since ancient times.
Concepts such as daana (giving) and dakshina (giving to a teacher or priest) in
Hinduism and bhiksha (giving to a monk) in Buddhism are rooted in the idea of
philanthropy. In India, philanthropy also evolved into volunteerism. Individual
volunteering has had a tremendous potential in India, with most volunteers serving
religious organizations.
Different socio-religious denominations and sects have been responsive to the social
and developmental demands of society. Institutions like the Satya Sai Sewa Trust,
the Swaminarayan Movement, the Chinmaya and the Ramakrishna Missions,
Radhasami Satsang all depend on charity by Hindus. These organizations extended
their service spheres from religion-oriented activities into other areas such as rural
development, environment, income generation and women’s empowerment.
Likewise Islam directs its followers to give in the form of sadaqah (voluntarycharity),
and zakat (obligatory charity). Zakat is paying of 2.5%, 5%, and 10% of annual
savings, income from agriculture produce, or other products, depending on certain
28 conditions of the payer and or the process of income. This is necessary to purify the
remainder of the wealth, and paid during the month of ramadhan (fasting). This History and Trends
in Philanthropy
typically involves supporting the causes of literacy and education through schools
and colleges, healthcare and homes for the aged and the destitute. These religious
institutions are also increasingly beginning to venture into sectors such as rural
development, livelihoods and specialized healthcare. Muslim institutions and Wakf
boards are also involved in social welfare and developmental activities and also run
madrashas (religious schools), providing education to Muslim students.
Christian missionaries have been active in India for nearly two centuries and have
contributed greatlyin the spheres of education, health delivery and backward groups’
development in remote areas.Awell-known example is the serviceof MotherTheresa
and Missionaries of Charity.
Volunteerism also found a new meaning in the wake of India’s struggle for freedom,
with MahatmaGandhi givingIndiaavision ofSwaraj (self-rule),Ahimsa(nonviolence)
and Seva (service).

b) Philanthropy in Modern India

To understand philanthropy in the post-independent modern India one needs to
understand the transition of the traditional philanthropic initiatives into emergence of
the present day Non-Profit Organizations. Gandhian voluntarism of the early 20th
centurystemmed from Gandhi’s belief thatIndia’s development layin thedevelopment
of her villages. He introduced a constructiveprogram to make thevillage self sufficient
by encouraging people to use the spinning wheel (charka), hand-woven cloth (khadi)
and village industries (gramodyog). Gandhi’s voluntarism was a major shift from the
voluntarism practiced in traditional Indian society. It emphasized empowerment and
transformation of society and acquired a political content. However, these voluntary
initiatives had none of the organizational characters to classify them as modern.
After the countrywon independence, the Gandhian Voluntary Organizations attained
a lot of prominence due to their leader’s support. These voluntary organizations
were involved in the training of government officials implementing developmental
activities. Other organizations followed the welfare approach in providing relief during
times of famines and floods. The Government took initiatives during this period to
promote voluntary agencies. The view held then was that social work should be the
domain of the voluntary organizations while the state should onlyprovide technical
and financial support. To this end, the Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) set
aside funds to finance the voluntary sector.
In the 60s and 70s, other volunteer organizations cropped up, including Indian
organizations formed byinternational voluntarygroups, organizations bymiddle class
professionals, non-party action groups, community-based organizations, corporate
philanthropy organizations, and government-formed voluntary organizations. Such
organizations grew due to the prevailing middle class mindsets, compassion for the
poor, tax incentives and need to develop appropriate technology. The need for
welfare grew during this period due to the increased occurrence of famines and
floods and also the refugee problem due to the 1971 war.
In the 1980s and 90s, voluntaryorganizations acted as intermediaries between donors
and the poor, worked on empowerment and helped form CBOs to campaign for
more rights from the state, and provide training and consulting services. In recent
years India has seen a surge in volunteerism from within and outside India. Several
organizations in India accept international volunteers for short-term assignments.
29
Concept, History, Ethics and Corporate volunteering is also on the rise. The GE Elfun Movement promoted by
Values of Philanthropy
General Electric is committed to improving their local communities through
volunteerism, leadership and camaraderie. The India Movement has over 1,800
members and has grown to five chapters since its inception in 1999.
Duringtheearlydays ofindustrialisationin India, philanthropywaslimited to individual
initiatives undertaken by organisations and rich families. During the independence
movement, several industrial thought leaders extended their financial support to leaders
of the freedom struggle. G.D. Birla’s financial contributions to the movement and
Ardeshir Godrej’s generous donation to theTilak Fund for the upliftment of Harijans
were notable among these. The Tatas and the Murugappas pioneered charitable
contributions to hospitals and schools. Currently, on average, Tata Sons contributes
between 8 to 14 percent of its net profit every year for philanthropic activities through
the various Tata Trusts.
Since philanthropy was considered as pure service to mankind and thus to God,
women of many such prominent families were encouraged to get involved. Non-
working family members, primarily women, took an active part in key decisions in
philanthropic activities. While key members of the family drove economic wealth
creation, others took care of the trusteeship role expected from the family by taking
up various philanthropic initiatives to improve the lot of the underprivileged. In the
paradigm ofIndian philosophy, serviceto mankind is believed to bring God’s blessings,
and hence the business family chose to directly supervise its philanthropic activities.
Support came from the business organisation through executives and assistants who
shared these sentiments. In essence, service was the only motto of philanthropy in
the early days, and everyone who wanted to get involved, regardless of his or her
technical or managerial capabilities, was encouraged.
In the Indian corporate scenario, different business communities like Parsis, Marwaris,
Khatris, Reddys and Chettiars were in the forefront in philanthropic activities.
Institutionalized philanthropy also received an impetus with the industrial revolution
in India, as corporate wealth began to be channeled towards welfare and
development work. Jamshedji Tata is considered as the father of modern Indian
philanthropy. The J N Tata Endowment Scheme was launched in 1892, much before
the first major foundation was formed in the US. His biggest contribution was the
establishment of the Indian Institute of Science.
Also, J R D Tata was one of the first few people to alert the nation of the dangers of
uncontrolled population and joined SP Godrej, Dr. Bharat Ram and others in a
campaign forpopulation control. Theytogetherset up the FamilyPlanning Foundation
in Delhi for research and funding of family planning activities.
Corporate giving in India during the year 2000 was estimated to be Rs. 200 millions.
Companies operating in India are increasingly recognizing the fact that the best way
for their business to grow is by aligning themselves with the nation’s development
objectives. These objectives have gone beyond the prevailing practice of giving to
individuals in need who belong to one’s own caste, community or religion.
Modern corporate foundations like the Azim Premji Foundation and the Infosys
Foundation support education initiatives in various states. Other industrial houses
such as Bajaj, Birla, Reddy laboratories etc., GMR Industries have also started
their own foundations to support an array of development initiatives.

30
 History and Trends
2.7 THE CHANGING FACE OF INDIAN in Philanthropy

PHILANTHROPY
Lokesh Pande traces the changing face of Indian philanthropy from the medieval
periods to modern times. Philanthropy has been a tradition in India since times
immemorial. In olden days emperors donated sumptuous amounts for the upkeep of
poor and needy living in their empires on special occasions like festivals and other
social functions such as marriages, birthdays etc. They also donated land and money
to sages living on the outskirts of their empire.
Several thousands of years later, while philanthropy continues to hold a special appeal
for Indians, the face of donor has undergone considerable change. Emperors as
donors have been replaced by commoners belonging to upper and middle class
groups. However when compared with developed societies likeAmerica, donation
for social causes has taken a back seat.
Individual and corporate donations make up only 10 percent of charitable giving in
India. The balance of the philanthropy comes from foreign organizations and the
government. In fact, nearly 65 percent is donated by India’s central and state
governments with a focus on disaster relief. By comparison, nearly three fourths of
all philanthropyin theUS is undertaken byindividuals.This tradition reflectsAmerica’s
history and culture of individualism as well as a supportive tax structure. Even more
impressive this high rate of charitable giving by individuals has been remarkably
consistent for a number of years.
Arpan Sheth analyses that when we look at giving as a percentage of household
income in India, donations by the wealthy actually go down. In fact, the wealthiest
or upper class, have the lowest level of giving at 1.6 percent of household income.
The high class, which is ranked one level below the upper class on the income and
education scale, donates 2.1 percent to charity. Even the middle class gives 1.9
percent of household income to philanthropy. Clearly, there is room for those with
means to give more. So why aren’t they? Why aren’t we? To understand the challenge
before us, we need to look at the three major factors that constrain giving in India.
l The first factor: The relatively recent accumulation of wealth by individuals
inhibits philanthropy. The number of wealthy individuals in India started grow-
ing rapidly only after the economic reforms of the 1990s. Normally, it takes 50
to 100 years for philanthropic markets to mature. Today in India, many of
those with hard-earned new wealth are not eager to part with even a small
amount of their money. As a society, charitable donations do not necessarily
win social recognition. Instead, many of the newly wealthy view increased
material wealth as the key to improving their social standing.ABain analysis of
30 high-net-worth individuals in India showed that theycontribute, on average,
just around one-fourth of 1 percent of their net worth to social and charitable
causes. But remember, even the great philanthropists John D. Rockefeller,
Andrew Carnegie and J.P. Morgan did not give away their riches until toward
the end of their lives.
l Another factor impeding contributions is a belief by donors that support net-
works are not professionally managed, and as a result, their contributions won’t
be put to good use or are at risk of being misappropriated.
l Finally, for some, the lines may be blurred between personal giving and cor-
porate social responsibility initiatives. Much of corporate India is run by fam-
ily-owned groups. Among the top 40 business groups, nearly 70 percent are 31
Concept, History, Ethics and family-owned or -controlled enterprises. It is likely that some families and indi-
Values of Philanthropy
viduals view corporate responsibility initiatives as extensions of their own giv-
ing.And that may curb their interest in making personal donations.
As per statistics a sizeable number of donors, around 40 per cent, donate for religious
causes – the intent here probably being to please the gods and demigods and get
rewarded handsomely in material terms through their blessings. Natural and national
calamities like earthquakes, floods, war etc. have also seen people coming together
with the common objective of helping those in distress. Some 26 per cent of donors
prefer to donate in times of national crisis or natural calamities. However, onlyabout
10 per cent of the donors donate for the welfare of marginalized sections of society.
Philanthropy seems to have lost focus in times of today with majority donating for
intangible causes.
At present, philanthropy is developing more in urban areas.Astudy conducted by
Sampradaan Indian Centre for Philanthropy (SICP), indicated that 96 % of upper
and middle class households in urban areas donate for a charitable purpose. However,
promoting giving must address all forms of wealth, as giving money is not the key to
developmental problems in all areas. For instance, community grain banks offer a
solution to pockets of inadequate nutrition in India and grain can finance further
development projects.
One example of innovation through giving institutions is the emerging community
foundations across the country. SICPis promoting a communityfoundation in Mewat
by trying to build a network of donors within the small middle class community and
the local Muslim clergy. Lessons from this project may inspire others.
Diaspora giving continues to play an important role. Though it has developed mainly
from family-focussed initiatives it now encompasses broader philanthropic aims. It
is increasingly being channelled through foreign foundations.
Although many Indian companies’ community development and CSR programmes
have had little visible impact, there are examples of strategic company philanthropy.
The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, for example, is a world-class centre of
research in mathematics and sciences, borne out of the vision of Tata Group of
Companies in the 1940s. The Tata family was awarded a Carnegie Medal of
Philanthropy in 2007 for its “longstanding commitment to philanthropic causes”. Its
recent multimillion grant to the Horward Business School is a classical example for
cross boarder philanthropy flowing from India to the developed world for the cause
of promoting quality education.
Vineet Nayyar of Tech Mahindra’s 30-crore rupees gift to the Essel Social Welfare
Foundation is a high-profile example of philanthropic giving in India. Nayyar
understands that philanthropy is not only the right thing to do but also the smart thing
to do. A more equal and less impoverished society benefits every one of us. A
healthier, better-educated population means a more secure and prosperous India.
A quick glance at the current Indian philanthropic scenario would show a number of
interesting trends. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is the most prevalent form
ofphilanthropyworldwide,though thelevels ofactivityand organisational involvement
vary widely. Most large organisations have a social responsibilityarm, with budgeted
resources and dedicated staff, which works towards improving the quality of life of
the workforce and their families, as well as for the local community at large. Most
philanthropic initiatives areundertaken in thebusiness neighbourhood, mainlybecause
of the immediate impact on local stakeholders. Organisations with multiple locations
32 tend to undertake community building activities in as many business locations as
possible. Such ‘pure’ corporate initiatives do not have much participation from the History and Trends
in Philanthropy
business promoter’s families. This is particularly the case if the promoter family is
not very closely involved in the business.
With the transformation of the economy in the 1990s, a new generation of corporate
leaders, such as those of Infosys and Wipro, have shown tremendous interest in
investing their wealth for social development. They have demonstrated how several
strategic approaches used byprofessional organisations can be applied for formulating
policies and programmes for inclusive growth. Several such individuals and their
families have set up their own private foundations for philanthropy. Most are either
first or second generation entrepreneurs such asAzim Premji or multi-generational
familybusinesses.
A family foundation is broadly defined as a charitable organisation managed by
individuals with family ties and supported by donations from those individuals, their
businesses and other investment income. In such individual or family foundations,
promoters playan active role in formulating strategyand often in micro level activities,
again depending on the interest and availabilityof time.An extreme case of the entire
family and the organisation itself being dedicated to selfless service is the case of
Aravind Eye Hospital
The Family-Corporate Jugalbandi is the most common model of philanthropy in
India. Since most Indian business organisations are family businesses, a separate
philanthropic organisation is created, in the form of a foundation or trust. This is
largely funded by the business, but often run under the leadership of the business
family. One such example is the Krishi Gram Vikas Kendra (KGVK), an NGO set
up by Usha Martin Limited, which receives a fixed annual grant from the company.
GMR Varalakshmi Foundation, GMR group’s familyfoundation, is another example
of family-corporate jugalbandi where the family business contributes a fixed
percentage of its surplus to the foundation annually.
In all these cases, family members take an active part in deciding the range of
philanthropic activities and in overall programme review. However, they recruit high
quality non-family professionals to develop structure, systems and processes for
successful execution of these philanthropic programmes. These organisations tend
to get into partnerships with otherlike-minded organisations - whetherlocal, national or
foreign - for aid and sharing of expertise. The major benefits of such a model include
higher accountability, knowledge sharing, talent acquisition, an ability to scale up
programmes quickly,and system and processoptimalitybrought in byexternalfunding.
Sundar Pushpa states that Women’s philanthropyhas deep roots in India. She analyses
that despite their generallylow socio-economic status, Indian women made significant
contributions to social progress even while outside the formal power and profit
structure. The role of religion, custom, caste and class, political and social movements,
and the legal and political structure in motivating and facilitating as well as restraining
women’s philanthropy needs to be understood in more systematic manner. It is lack
of economic independence and an enabling socio-legal structure that has inhibited
social entrepreneurship among women, while socio-political movements have
encouraged it.
Philanthropyis no longerunderstood as simplecharity.Current philanthropicinitiatives
are in alignment with current social realities and aim to attack social problems at
their root. Contemporary business philanthropy strives to create awareness about
environmental issues such as afforestation, water harvesting, global warming, about
issues like foeticide, discrimination against girl child, and about the spread of diseases 33
like HIV-AIDS.
Concept, History, Ethics and This metamorphosis has been in tandem with changes in the economy in recent
Values of Philanthropy
years, as economic development has picked up momentum with liberalization and
progressive economic policies. The change has been for the better in all respects. In
recent years, philanthropy has become both efficiency and effectiveness oriented,
thanks to larger corpuses of funds, more strategic planning, a more professional
approach and more rigorous outcome/impact measurement of the amounts spent on
philanthropy.
Indian philanthropyhas emerged in recent years as a mainstream professional activity,
thanks to rapid economic growth, and the globalisation of knowledge and funding
resources. Organisational leadership now insists on the best use of their resources
for inclusive growth. Familybusinesses are fast opting for an entrepreneurial approach
to problem solving, both in terms of identifying new areas of activity and improving
existing ones.
Philanthropy now aims at capacity building of the target group. The professional
approach to solving complicated issues, the use of metrics and strategic decision-
making has transformed philanthropy from mere monetary giving to targeted goal-
oriented support to worthy causes. Also, as the breadth of activities and range of
possible ways of contributing to any specific cause have expanded, immense
possibilities have opened up for volunteers and donors. In the post-globalisation
landscape, individual entrepreneurs and business families have increasingly accepted
a tri-fold bottom-line of growth that includes community and environment. What is
noteworthy is that the fundamental premise of philanthropy - its motto of service -
continues as before.
Another potential area for philanthropic work is the Indian Diaspora. It has been
one of the larger global migrant movements in the world, with estimated numbers at
20 million. In 2005, remittances have been recorded at USD 21.7 billion. As
reported, this is 4 times higher than India’s Foreign Direct Investment. In the United
States, 24 of the high-tech firms in the Silicon Valley with annual sales turnovers of
over USD 3.6 billion are owned by Indians. In Hong Kong, though the Indian
Diaspora numbers only about 23,000, it accounts for almost 10% of the island’s
international trade, which is estimated to be around USD 400 million.AHigh Level
Committee has been formed to deal with diaspora issues, enabling Indian migrants
to advise the Prime Minister on India’s development.
As noted in the 2003 Global Equity Initiative Study on Indian and Chinese Diaspora
Philanthropy, there is a large incidence of Indians giving back to the country, mostly
in thecommunitylevel andthroughinformalchannels.Thegivingpatternshaverecently
shifted from individual giving to institutional giving, with migrants supporting causes
of Indian NGOs such as Asha, CRY and IDS, as well as Indian educational
institutions. There has also been a noted shift from supporting traditional causes
such as religion and culture to more development related areas such as education
and health. The willingness and availability of support by Indian migrants for
development projects in India is hoped to encourage better reporting and regulation
in the Indian Non Profit Organization sector, and further strengthening support from
the diasporas.
Reasons for giving, as described in 2004 study “Mapping for Diaspora Investment
in the Social Development Sector in India”, can go beyond an emotional bond to a
desire to change the image of thecountrythat has long been synonymous with poverty,
illiteracyand hunger.
34
 History and Trends
Check Your Progress II in Philanthropy

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

1. Give a brief account of philanthropy in modern India.
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2. Enlist the factors that impedes philanthropy in India.

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2.8 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we have described the history of philanthropy from global perspective.
The main topic of discussion centered around the early beginning of charitable work,
transformation of charityinto philanthropy, theemergenceofphilanthropicfoundations,
the current scenario of contemporary philanthropy and the policy environment.
The earlier charitable work under the influence of religions across the globe has
graduallybeen transformed into philanthropywith larger focus on capacitating people
rather than simply ameliorating their conditions. From 16th century onwards the
new phenomenon of emergence of formal organizations based on egalitarian
principles have started cropping up under the titles of trusts and later foundations.
The twentieth centurywitnessed the emergence of trulyglobal foundations extending
their philanthropic activities beyond the boundaries of nations and continents. The
philanthropic organizations have become more democratic and egalitarian and
expanded their interventions beyond amelioration to the development of science
including the social sciences to improve the quality of life of the people. National
governments across the globe started creating an enabling policy environment for
the promotion of philanthropic organizations in view of their indispensable role in
promoting human wellbeing in the society. India has had the rich tradition of
philanthropyfostering public good. Philanthropyhas changed its forms and patterns-
philanthropy fostered by rulers in the ancient times, socio-religious organizations in
the pre-independence times and business houses or family centered trusts and
foundations in the post-independent era. Indian organizations are coming up to tone
up the Indian philanthropic work in the right direction. Systematic and rational efforts
should be taken up by individuals and institutions competent to handle philanthropy,
to identify, dovetail and harness philanthropy to promote social good on a much
larger scale. Individuals and institutions engaged in philanthropic activities need to
be more transparent, accountable and ethical so that they become the icons for
others to follow.

35
Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy 2.9 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES
Aileen D. Ross, Philanthropy, International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences
Arpan Sheth (2010)An overview of Philanthropy in India Bain & Co.
Chambers Encyclopaedia, International Learning Systems Corporation Ltd., London
Compton’s Encyclopaedia, the University of Chicago, 1973
Edward Grubb Philanthropy, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, T&T Clark
Ltd, Edinburgh, 1974
International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd Edition
Lokesh Pande, Philanthropy: Where is it?
Murray Culshaw (2003) Profile of 500 Selected Voluntary Organisations in India,
Center forAdvancement of Philanthropy, Mumbai,
New Standard Encyclopaedia, Standard Educational Corporation, Chicago
Ramachandran, K & Rachna Jha, Family-and-Corporate-Philanthropy-Emerging
Ttrends-in- India, International School of Business, Hyderabad.
Sampradhaan, 1999 Directory of Donor Organisations, Sampradaan Indian Center
for Philanthropy, New Delhi,
Sandeep Deshmukh India: Myriad Shapes of Philanthropy, Sampradaan Indian
Centre for Philanthropy
Sundar Pushpa Women and philanthropy in India Voluntas: International Journal of
Voluntary And Nonprofit Organizations Volume 7, Number 4, 412-427,
Doi: 10.1007

Web resources
blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/tag/philanthropy
<http://business.in.com/article/isb/family-and-corporate-philanthropy-emerging
trends-in-india/12682/2#ixzz12SA6h2Lc>nthropy-emerging-trends-in-india/12682/
1#ixzz12RwCyqVl
http://www.asiapacificphilanthropy.org/
merinews.com/article/philanthropy-where-is-it/136234.shtml
merinews.com/article/philanthropy-where-is-it/136234.shtml
www.asiapacificphilanthropy.org
www.philanthropyuk.org

36
 Introduction to
UNIT 3 INTRODUCTION TO Philanthropic Ethics

PHILANTHROPIC ETHICS
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Philanthropic Ethical Principles
3.3 Philanthropic Ethics in Indian Context
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to introduce you to ‘Philanthropic Ethics.’ The unit
places before you the main philanthropic ethical principles; philanthropic ethics in
India as envisaged by School of Social Work, IGNOU; and the emphasis on the
philanthropic ethics of Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Philanthropy etymologicallymeans “love of human.” It is private initiatives for public
welfare. It is generally agreed that the word was coined about 2,500 years ago in
ancient Greece by the playwright, Aeschylus, who wrote Prometheus Bound. There
the author wrote that the primitive humans, at first had no knowledge, skills, or
culture of any kind. They lived in dark caves in constant fear of their lives. Zeus
decided to destroy them, but Prometheus, a Titan, out of his “philanthropos tropos”
(human-loving nature) gave them two empowering, life-enhancing gifts: fire
(symbolizing all knowledge, skills, technology, arts, and science) and optimism (with
which theycould improve their condition). The Greeks adopted the “love of human”
as an educational ideal, whose goal was the fullest development of body, mind and
spirit. Philanthropia was later translated by the Romans into Latin as,
simply, humanitas = humaneness. Combining all these views, we may better define
philanthropyas private initiatives for an all-round public welfare. This distinguishes it
from government (public initiatives for public good) and business initiatives (private
initiatives for private good).Aphilanthropist is a person who practices philanthropy.
The term is usually used to describe those that donate large sums of money. People
who donate smaller sums of money are just as important, and are often sacrificing
more of their disposable income than a rich person that donates a larger amount.
People who donate smaller amounts of money, however, are not nearly as visible to
others, and so are not usually given the title.

Nature of Philanthropy
Philanthropy can be done through the donation of money, property, and services:
Money. Money can be donated directly to those in need, or it can be given to
charities and other organizations to distribute. Many philanthropic people donate a
specific percentage of their income. Some people choose to give their money away 37
Concept, History, Ethics and when theydie, putting instructions into their will as to which charitable organizations
Values of Philanthropy
or people it should go to.
Property. Property can be donated just like money. Both new and used articles of
clothing are usually accepted by most charities. Other common items like strollers
and electronics can be donated to charity stores. Canned or prepackaged food can
be donated to soup kitchens, some shelters, and other charity centers.
Services. Sometimes, people need services. One person offering one’s time and
skills to another is an example of this sort of donation. Some people serve by working
in soup kitchens or delivering meals. Others visit nursing homes and hospitals so that
they will have company. Those with specialized knowledge can donate their skills in
many different ways, such as being legal representatives for those with little money
or tutoring children in need.

3.2 PHILANTHROPIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

The new millennium (21st century) provides the proper moment to reflect on the
privilege of working in philanthropy. Philanthropy supports courageous people
working to reduce human suffering and advance human achievement. Most societies
have traditions of giving in some form or other. Philanthropy affects almost all parts
of human culture and a large number of people. It continues to expand and increase
its effectiveness, hence one needs to be clear about philanthropy’s basic values.
Whether it is terrorism, war, natural disasters, or simply everyday life, the humans
live in stressful times. It maybe difficult for some people to find meaning and purpose
in a world filled with unease and upheaval. Gifted persons are especially sensitive to
issues that affect society. They often become concerned with fairness, meaning, and
the “whys” of what transpires in the world. Bright persons are empathic and can
often put themselves in other people’s shoes. This can be a very good quality, but at
the same time quite frightening. These exceptional humans maydraw inward in order
to cope with stressful realities, and thus become isolated. Isolation, in turn, may lead
to depression.
There are ways to help gifted persons cope with these emotions. Talking with them
and normalizing theirfeelings are helpful strategies. But what can we do about helping
them deal with theirfeelings aboutunfairness and meaninglessness inthelargerpicture?
How can we help foster self-confidence and self-actualization?As lovers of human,
one can give these persons the direction they need to move forward in helping
others. Thus, one can see that philanthropy is moral at its core. Moral is about
behavior; ethics is thought about that behaviour. Our interventions in other people’s
lives for their benefit are moral actions. So the core value of philanthropy is
morality. The capacity to respond to others in need is a defining characteristic of
being human. Humans are beings capable of moral judgment and action, although
not all humans are equal in these matters or any other. As with so many values
humans often lose touch with their deeper meaning, just as they often fail to act
according to the values they proclaim. The Greeks fretted a lot over weakness of
will, knowing the right thing to do but not doing it.
Another way to express the idea of philanthropic values is to distinguish among
government, the market, and philanthropy by identifying the essential concept of
each one. An essential concept is one which embodies the core of a being. Hence,
the essential concept of government is power. The essential concept of the market is
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wealth and the essential concept of philanthropy is morality (the right to help others
in need or to act voluntarily to improve the quality of life). The following constitute Introduction to
Philanthropic Ethics
the core of philanthropic ethics:
Welfare: The value one might call welfare is another term for the large category of
concerns for the overall well-being of the most vulnerable sections of society.
Generosity: Generosity is a value at the core of philanthropic mission. The grant-
making and other forms of giving are expressions of the basic human instinct of
altruism that religious and secular policies encourage.Aparticularlyinteresting feature
of philanthropic generosity is that it goes beyond the most typical pattern of giving
around the globe which emphasizes giving to one’s family and acquaintances.
Compassion: Compassion is an emotion that is a sense of shared suffering, most
often combined with a desire to alleviate or reduce the suffering of another; to show
special kindness to those who suffer. Compassion essentiallyarises through empathy,
and is often characterized through actions, wherein a person acting with compassion
will seek to aid those they feel compassionate for. Compassionate acts are generally
considered those which take into account the suffering of others and attempt to
alleviate that suffering as if it were one’s own. Compassion differs from other forms
ofhelpfulorhumanebehaviorinthat its focus isprimarilyon thealleviationofsuffering.
The first step in cultivating compassion is to develop empathy for fellow human
beings. Many believe that they have empathy, and on some level nearly all have it.
But many times humans are centred on themselves and theylet their sense of empathy
get rusty. Try this practice: Imagine that a loved one is suffering. Something terrible
has happened to him or her. Now try to imagine the pain they are going through.
Imagine the suffering in as much detail as possible. After doing this practice for a
couple of weeks, one should try moving on to imagining the suffering of others one
knows, and not just those who are closely related through relationship of kinship or
friendship.
Instead of recognizing the differences between oneself and others, try to recognize
what all have in common. At the root of it all, all are human beings.All need food,
and shelter, and love. All crave for attention, recognition, affection, and above all,
happiness. Once one can empathize with another person, and understand his/her
humanity and suffering, the next step is to want that person to be free from suffering.
This is the heart of compassion, which calls for philanthropic commitment.
The final purpose is not only to ease the sufferings of those whom we love, but even
those who mistreat us. According to Dalai Lama, ‘when we encounter someone
who mistreats us, instead of acting in anger, withdraw. Later, when you are calm and
more detached, reflect on that person who mistreated you. Try to imagine the
background of that person. Try to imagine what that person was taught as a child.
Try to imagine the day or week that person was going through, and what kind of bad
things had happened to that person. Try to imagine the mood and state of mind that
person was in — the suffering that person must have been going through to mistreat
you that way.’
Reciprocity: Here the philanthropic value is reciprocity, repaying the good things
done for us by the good things we do for others in turn. What a sociologist called
“the norm of reciprocity” can go beyond it when reciprocal charity happens in
sincerity and selflessness.
Loving Relationship: Love is the greatest moral norm. It is also the greatest
relationship. It is not primarily about certain polite behaviour, about conforming to
all the rules and regulations, but of living in loving relationship with women and men 39
of today. For love gives human life its cohesion and dynamism.
Concept, History, Ethics and Authenticity: Philanthropists are truthful with their partners and expect the same in
Values of Philanthropy
return. They model the standards that they expect others to uphold. They ensure
that there is consistency in all phases of their work.
Stewardship: Philanthropists invest only after rigorous due diligence is complete.
Theylook for opportunities to help organizations become more efficient and effective.
They work to create systems for sustainability. They are funders and shapers and
rely upon others to act and implement.
Concern for the Poorest of the Poor: Philanthropy, especially the kind visualized
by IGNOU, also has a reformist side, usually toward social reform in behalf of the
poorest of the poor.
Solidarity: The principle of solidarity invites us to consider how we relate to each
other in community. It assumes we recognize that we are a part of at least one family
–ourbiologicalfamily,ourlocal community,orournational community.Inaglobalizing
economy, we participate in a vast, international economic community, one in which
goods and services are provided for us by those on the other side of the world.
Solidarity requires us to consider this kind of extended community, and to act in
such a way that reflects concern for the well-being of others.
Participation: Participation extends the idea of solidarity to make it practical. The
demands of solidarity point us to the principle of participation, so that those affected
by an environmental decision can shape how it is made. Many environmental
problems stem from decisions being made by private individuals or companies
that have wide-ranging implications. In some cases, in this country and others,
governments make environmental decisions without fully securing the consent of
the public. Often, those most affected are unaware of the decisions or the long-
term effects on their health and the well-being of their environment. The ethical
principle of participation requires us to recognize all of the parties: both humans and
non-humans who are likely to be affected by a decision, and to recognize that all
parties should have a say in how the decision is made. Genuine participation requires
transparency, meaning that each individual has access to the same information
that everyone else has.
Health Care: The commonly accepted principles of philanthropic health care ethics
include: respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice. Respect
for Autonomy: Any notion of moral decision making assumes that rational agents
are involved in making informed and voluntary decisions. In health care decisions,
our respect for the autonomyof the patient would, in common parlance, mean that the
patient has the capacityto actintentionally, with understanding, andwithout controlling
influences that would mitigate against a free and voluntary act. This principle is
the basis for the practice of “informed consent” in the physician/patient transaction
regarding health care. Personal liberty of action in which the individual determines
his/her own course of action in accordance with a plan chosen by him/her implies
independence and self-reliance, freedom of choice, and ability to make decisions. It
cannot exist in a vacuum but must be acknowledged and respected by others. Non-
maleficence: Non-maleficence requires of us that we not intentionally create a
needless harm orinjuryto the patient,either through acts ofcommission or omission. In
common language, we consider it negligenceif one imposes acareless or unreasonable
risk of harm upon another. Providing a proper standard of care that avoids or
minimizes the risk of harm is supported not only by our commonly held moral
convictions, but by the laws of society as well. In a professional model of care one
may be morally and legally blameworthy if one fails to meet the standards of due
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care. The legal criteria for determining negligence are as follows: the professional Introduction to
Philanthropic Ethics
must have a duty to the affected party, the professional must have breached that
duty, the affected party must experience a harm, and the harm must be caused by
the breach of duty. This principle affirms the need for medical competence. It is
clear that medical mistakes occur. However, this principle articulates a fundamental
commitment on the part of health care professionals to protect their patients from
harm. Beneficence: The ordinary meaning of this principle is the duty of health care
providers to be of a benefit to the patient, as well as to take positive steps to prevent
and to remove harm from the patient. These duties are viewed as self-evident and
are widely accepted as the proper goals of medicine. These goals are applied both
to individual patients, and to the good of society as a whole. For example, the good
health of a particular patient is an appropriate goal of medicine, and the prevention
of disease through research and the employment of vaccines is the same goal
expanded to the population at large. It is sometimes held that non-maleficence is a
constant duty, that is, one ought never to harm another individual; whereas,
beneficence is a limited duty.Aphysician has a duty to seek the benefit of any or all
of her patients, however, the physician may also choose whom to admit into his or
her practice, and does not have a strict duty to benefit patients not acknowledged in
the panel. This duty becomes complex if two patients appeal for treatment at the
same moment. Some criteria of urgency of need might be used, or some principle of
first come first served, to decide who should be helped at the moment. It is the duty
to help others further their important and legitimate interests when we can do so with
minimal risk to ourselves. Justice: Justice in health care is usually defined as a form
of fairness, or as Aristotle once said, “Giving to each that which is his due.” This
implies the fair distribution of goods in society and requires that we look at the role
of entitlement. The question of distributive justice also seems to hinge on the fact
that some goods and services are in short supply, there is not enough to go around,
thus some fair means of allocating scarce resources must be determined. It is generally
held that persons who are equals should qualify for equal treatment. This is borne
out in the application of Medicare, which is available to all persons over the age of
65 years. This category of persons is equal with respect to this one factor, their age,
but the criteria chosen says nothing about need or other noteworthy factors about
the persons in this category. In fact, our society uses a variety of factors as criteria
for distributive justice, including the following: to each person an equal share, to
each person according to need, to each person according to effort, to each person
according to contribution, to each person according to merit, to each person
according to free-market exchanges. One of the most controversial issues in modern
health care is the question pertaining to “who has the right to health care?” The duty
to give to the other what that person is due or owed what he/she deserves or can
legitimatelyclaim.
Social Interaction: Philanthropic ethics underlines social interaction, which is the
process by which people behave in relation to others.Almost all human behaviour is
oriented toward welfare of other persons.Awoman nodding to someone she meets
on the street, an angry father scolding his child, and teacher giving students an
assignment for the next day are all interactions, most often intended for the good of
others. There are mainly five broad or universal types of social interactions that are
of positive nature: cooperation, exchange, accommodation, assimilation and
integration.
i) Cooperation: Cooperation is interaction in which individuals or groups act together
in order to promote common interests or shared goals. They achieve goals that
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Concept, History, Ethics and might otherwise bedifficult or impossible to achieve individually.All social life, in this
Values of Philanthropy
way, is based on cooperation. People band together in groups to adapt to the
environment. Theywork together to meet individual needs efficiently and to provide
mutual protection from threats of other societies. Society would be inconceivable
without a minimum of cooperation. There are four main types of cooperation:
spontaneous, traditional, directed, and contractual. Spontaneous cooperation is the
oldest and most universal. It arises out of the needs and possibilities of a situation, as
when witnesses to an accident jointly give aid to the injured. Traditional cooperation
is cooperation ingrained in a primitive tribe through repetition from one generation to
another. The cooperation that originated spontaneouly has become an established
custom and tradition passed on from generation to generation – for example, a
cooperative venture began among the families of a medieval Indian village. Directed
cooperation is the one directed by a third party who holds a position of authority.
The third party may be a swimming instructor who tells students to pair up when
they go into the water. Contractual cooperation is that in which groups agree to
cooperate in certain explicit ways, with the obligations of each clearlyspelled out.A
group of young mothers, for example, take turns caring for each other’s children so
that each can have some free time.
Cooperation stands in contrast to coercion. Coercion is one person or group forcing
its will on another. All forms of coercion, to a large extent, rest on the threat of the
ultimate use of physical force or violence. It is usually much more subtle than the
open use or threat of violence. Love for a parent, faith in God, and fear of loneliness
can all be used as weapons of coercion. It is usually viewed as a negative kind of
social interaction. But it also has positive social functions. Although parents and
educators use many patterns of social interaction in socializing children, coercion is
often very effective in imparting values, in teaching what is right and what is wrong.
Cooperation also remains in contrast to conflict: Conflict is the process of social
interaction in which two or more persons struggle with one another for some
commonly prized object or value. It is the opposite of cooperation in which defeat
of the opponent is considered essential for achieving the desired goal. Conflict arises
because of scarce resources, in the pursuit of which each individual tries to subdue
the others as much as necessaryto satisfyone’s own desires. George Simmel identified
four major types of conflict: wars between groups, feuds or factional strife within
groups, litigation, and the clash of impersonal ideals. Some thinkers have opined
that conflict is a problem caused byfaulty social organization and that conflict would
not arise in a perfect society. However, several sociologists have emphasized that
conflict has some positive aspects. It can serve as a force that integrates the people
on opposing sides. It may also lead to needed social change. Even if society could
somehow succeed in eliminating conflicts, such a state might not be desirable. A
conflict free society would be lifeless.
There is also another type of cooperative conflict known as competition by which
individuals and groups struggle to reach the same goals, but their main concern is
directed toward the goals being sought, not toward the competitors. Although the
defeat of the competitor is not the primary aim in competition – as in conflict – one
competitor will attain the goal and the other will be defeated. Unlike cooperation,
the competitors seek their goals separately, in rivalry with one another. To prevent
competition from degenerating into conflict, it is necessary for parties to abide by
the ‘rules of the game.’

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ii) Exchange: Exchange is a form of interaction by which a person acts in a certain Introduction to
Philanthropic Ethics
way toward another for the purpose of receiving a reward or return. The rewards
need not have to be monetary or material. Subjective emotional rewards form the
basis for many social exchange relationships. Exchange relationships based on
gratitude are more significant in people’s lives than is generallyunderstood. Sheltering
a victim of communal riot in one’s own house, helping an elderly person across the
street, sending a small gift to a co-worker who is ill – underlying all these actions is
the expectation that the other person will feel grateful for what you have done.
One’s love for another is not based solely on an expected return of that love, but
that expectation nonetheless is a part of the relationship. If the person never receives
any gratitude for the love offered, one’s feelings of love probablywill not survive the
unfair exchange.
iii) Accommodation:Accommodation denotes acquired changes in the behaviour
of individuals which enable them to adjust to their environment. It is distinct from
adaptation, which is adjustment through organic orstructural modification transmitted
through heredity.Accommodation, on the other hand, is adjustment achieved through
the acquisition of behaviour patterns transmitted socially and through adopting new
ways of behaving.Animals lower than humans adjust themselves through adaptation;
whereas humans adjust themselves through accommodation. This is due to the fact
that human life in a truly social environment which demands adjustment to it.
iv) Assimilation: Assimilation is the process through which persons and groups
acquire the culture of another group by adopting its attitudes and values, its patterns
of thinking and behaving. It is a process by which persons and groups acquire the
memories, sentiments, and attitudes of other persons or groups by sharing their
experience and history. The assimilating groups incorporate into them the common
cultural lifeoftheassimilated group.In theprocess ofbecomingassimilated, individuals
or groups give up their own culture to adopt that of others. In other words, the
process involves both denationalization and renationalization.
v) Integration: Integration is the harmonizing or unifying process by which the
various structural components of society are properly organized. Integration does
not mean similarityof various structural parts, but similarityof certain basic, common
values essential for the maintenance of society.When basic changes occur in a society
due to a new technology, the traditional values may become inadequate calling for
certain readjustment necessary to integration. Integration not only keeps the society
ongoing but also imparts a meaning and purpose to the lives of the individuals who,
then, feel themselves part of a comprehensive and harmonious social life.
Integration fights isolation, which is the absence of communicative interaction or
social contact. Both individual and group can be isolated. Two main types of isolation
may be distinguished: spatial isolation and organic isolation. Spatial isolation is an
externally enforced deprivation of contacts through imprisonment or banishment.
Organic isolation is caused by certain organic defects of the individual such as
deafness or blindness. Isolation is considered to be a negative value. Despite
temporary or partial isolation being useful, complete isolation can be harmful.An
individual or group maysometimes have to withdraw from society, in order to preserve
self-identity, but if an individual or a group is completely separated from the rest of
society for a long time, the result can be mental retardation or breakdown of
personalities as humans can grow only with the help of other fellow beings.

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Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Enlist the principles of philanthropic health care ethics.
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2. What are the different types of social interactions?

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3.3 PHILANTHROPIC ETHICS IN INDIAN

CONTEXT
Philanthropy has a very long tradition in India, and the concept of dana (gift-giving)
works across religions and cultures in India. From the 1900s onwards, we saw a lot
of Indian industrialist households, and especiallytheTatas, lead the wayin reinventing
philanthropy in the modern age. They have set up many kinds of institutions; they’ve
supported many kinds of movements all across India.
The new century that dawned in 2000 now requires Indian philanthropy to move
very rapidly, and move in many different directions, to solve the new problems that
we have. In the last three decades many things have allowed the creation of
extraordinary wealth in the hands of a few in India. It has also widened the gap
between the haves and have-nots. Those who have unprecedented wealth have a
tremendous responsibility, not just to give back or to give forward, but also to look
at the very structures of society that can allow the concentration of wealth in a few
hands.
What is it that became so different about India in the last three decades that allowed
people, especially middle-class people, to (ethically and legally, of course) make
much more moneythan one could havedreamt of in one’s life?And what responsibility
does that therefore bestow on others? Those are some of the questions that might
arise in persons who travel across the country, looking at exactly how poor the
people in north Bihar or the hinterland of Madhya Pradesh are.
So what is philanthropy in our context? In the western world today, philanthropy
has acquired a very interesting new orientation. There are lots of very bright young
minds from the corporate sectors who are coming and saying that there are much
better challenges here in India. What is seen is that the smartest minds are coming
into India and the deepest pockets are getting opened up, combined with the warmest
hearts. So, this is an extremely exciting time for Indian philanthropy.
What kind of philanthropic Ethics, then, are we talking about? Is it just about setting
up schools and hospitals? I think Gandhian and Mother Teresian philanthropies with
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their fundamental option for the poorest of the poor can serve as best models for a
relevant philanthropic ethics in the context of the recently launched IGNOU Introduction to
Philanthropic Ethics
Programme of the MSW Philanthropic Social Work.
Gandhian Philanthropy: In Gandhi, one can perceive some of the important
principles of philanthropy. Following the cultural traditions of India, Gandhi saw
God not as a personal but an unseen power, which was represented for him as truth,
and which became a central tenet for him. He even named his autobiography as
“The story of my experiments with truth. His belief that “truth is God” led him to the
idea of oneness of humankind and the essential unity of all existence. The practice of
ahimsa or nonviolence was the means to attain this truth.
Gandhi’s moral philosophy of Sarvodaya, meaning universal uplift or welfare, also
flowed from his belief in the oneness of humankind. Sarvodaya was a philanthropic
step beyond utilitarianism, which looked for the welfare of the greatest number.
When one seeks the welfare of all, one cannot be satisfied with the welfare of the
greatest number, and universal welfare flowed from one’s belief of isomorphism of
truth. It did not matter to him that it may be a goal that is beyond reach. Gandhi
believed that economic policy and business behavior could not ignore moral values.
He stated that nature provided enough to satisfy human’s needs but not human’s
greed. Since the rich had wealth in excess of their needs, it was their duty to use the
balance for the welfare of the others. Gandhi says in the autobiography how he was
inspired by the notion of aparigraha (meaning non-possession) in the Bhagavad
Gita.
Gandhi’s philanthropy is not akin to charity or generosity for he believed that able-
bodied people should work for their living, and giving charity to healthy people was
not only shameful and degrading but gave the donor a false sense of satisfaction. He
believed in a voluntary form of socialism. Gandhi disagreed with communists due to
their use of violence to achieve their ends although their egalitarianism appealed to
him. Gandhi was not uncomfortable among the capitalists. G.D. Birla, founder of the
Birla Group of companies in India, provided much of the moneyfor the maintenance
of Gandhi’s ashrams and his various organizations. Gandhi also distinguished between
capitalists and capitalism. Gandhi’s dislike of force and state enforcement made him
imply philanthropy initially as a voluntary practice, but towards the end of his life,
increasing frustration perhaps due to lack of wide acceptance made him lean towards
legislation and state enforcement.
In a wider sense, philanthropy was a generic dynamic process that Gandhi subscribed
to which governed the relationship between the strong and the weak, the rich and
the poor, and the rulers and the governed. He viewed it as the responsibility of all
individuals to retain only what they need and to utilize the rest of their wealth and
income for the benefit of the poorest of the poor. For Gandhi, wealthy people should
not just be encouraged to act as philanthropists, they are morally required to do so.
For his desire was to alleviate the poverty he saw around him, and a nonviolent
approach to equitable distribution was preferable to either state intervention or the
violent means of the communists. There is a moral justification for acting as a
philanthropist. Even though an individual may claim that he/she did not cause the
poverty, continuing to live in and share the fruits of society requires bearing common
responsibility. One could even argue that, by spending on oneself and not taking the
voluntary initiative to use the excess wealth for society’s benefit, the individual is
certainly causing harm to society for whom the wealth could have been used.
Philanthropy involves making a contribution to activities that are involved in good
works, and hence is an expression of support and encouragement. It does not involve
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Concept, History, Ethics and any transformation of the giver’s intent or behavior beyond this act of donation. Nor
Values of Philanthropy
does it provide constraints on decision making. However, Gandhian philanthropy
stipulates that corporations need to recognize their responsibility towards society
and to act accordingly in a responsible manner. This sets a minimum standard of
expectations; and organization that recalls its product from the market when it has
evidence of possible harm to consumers and before being required to do so by
regulatory authorities would satisfy an expectation of socially responsible behavior.
Another organization may seek to establish its socially responsible credentials by
sponsoring sports or arts events.
Gandhian philanthropy is an ideal standard that requires being proactive. It is highly
an ethical philanthropy with authentic social responsibility. It would require a moral
basis of operation that goes beyond writing a check for a tax deductible cause, or
disposing of hazardous waste safely. It would not only require an organization to see
itself as using assets for the benefit of the poorest of the poor, but would also require
that it follows a moral path in the way it conducts business.
Mother Teresian Philanthropy: Mother Teresa was a philanthropist. She spent
many years lifting and carrying those who were dying or sick. She chose to “serve
the poorest of the poor and to live among them and like them.” She strove to make
the lives and deaths of those around them more peaceful and full of love. She fed,
washed, and cared for anyone who needed the assistance. The following incident is
the beginning of the story of her work told by her: “One day, in a heap of rubbish,
I found a woman who was half dead. Her body had been bitten by rats and by ants.
I took her to a hospital, but they had told me that they didn’t want her because they
couldn’t do anything for her. I protested and said that I wouldn’t leave unless they
hospitalized her. Theyhad a long meeting and finallygranted myrequest. That woman
was saved.” Realizing the need for a home to care for those who were dying alone
in the streets of Calcutta, Mother Teresa requested a place from city officials who
assigned her a building next to the temple. She called the new home for the dying,
“Nirmal Hriday” which means the “Pure Heart.” Nirmal Hridaywas where homeless,
dying individuals were washed, given food, and allowed to die with dignity. It was a
struggle to get the people of Kolkata to trust her. They were afraid that she was
helping people just so she could convert them to Christianity. This was not her
intention. She respected the religions of the people and simplybelieved that everyone
deserved to die in a loving and caring atmosphere. Soon, they realized her true
intention and began to bring dying people from the streets to Nirmal Hriday to
receive love and care. Even after her death the Missionaries of Charity have continued
to establish homes all over the world for the dying, the sick, orphaned children,
lepers, the aged, the disabled, HIV and AIDS victims.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Explain Gandhian philanthropy.
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 Introduction to
2. Discuss Mother Teresian philanthropy as a model for philanthropic ethics in Philanthropic Ethics
India?
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3.4 LET US SUM UP

Philanthropy is private initiatives for public welfare. Philanthropy is usually done
through the donation of money, property, and services. It supports, courageous
people working to reduce human suffering and advance human achievement.
Philanthropy, with its basic ethical values, affects almost all parts of human culture
and a large number of people. Thus, one can see that philanthropy is moral at its
core. So the core value of philanthropy is morality. Philanthropic ethics includes the
following ethical principles: welfare, generosity, compassion, reciprocity, loving
relationship, authenticity, stewardship, concern for the poorest of the poor, solidarity,
participation, health care, and social interaction. Philanthropyhas a verylong tradition
in India, and the concept of dana (gift-giving) works across religions and cultures in
India. Today, the Gandhian and Mother Teresian philanthropic methods with their
fundamental option for the poorest of the poor can serve as best models for a
relevant philanthropic ethics in the context of our country, especially against the
backdrop of the recently launched IGNOU Programme of the MSW Philanthropic
Social Work.

3.5 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Andrew, Donna. Philanthropy and Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth
Century. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989.
Cavallo, Sandra. Charity and Power in Early Modern Italy: Benefactors and
Their Motives in Turin, 1541–1789. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press,
1995.
Chakkalakkal, Cyrilla. “Mother Teresa.” In: ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Vol. II, Edited by Johnson Puthenpurackal and George Panthanmackel. Bangalore:
Asian Trading Corporation, 2010.
Davis, Natalie. The Gift in Sixteenth-Century France. Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 2000.
Himmelfarb, Gertrude. Poverty and Compassion: The Moral Imagination of the
Late Victorians. New York: Knopf, 1991.
Jones, Gareth. History of the Law of Charity, 1532–1827. London: Cambridge
University Press, 1969.
McCarthy, Kathleen D. American Creed: Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil
Society, 1700–1865. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
Miller, Howard S. The Legal Foundations of American Philanthropy, 1776–
1844. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1961.
47
Concept, History, Ethics and Panthanmackel, George. Society in Being: Metaphysical Foundation of
Values of Philanthropy
Sociology. Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2003.
Pushparajan, A. “Gandhi, Mahatma.” In: ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol.
I, Edited by Johnson Puthenpurackal and George Panthanmackel. Bangalore:Asian
Trading Corporation, 2010.
Safely, Thomas M. Charity and Economy in the Orphanages of Early Modern
Augsburg. Boston: Humanities Press, 1997.
Websites
www.paytonpapers.org/output/CATethics_morals.shtm. Retrieved on 24-01-2011.
philanthropy.com/article/Essays-on-Philanthropic-Ethics/62367/. Retrieved on 26-
01-2011.
philanthropy.foreignpolicyblogs.com/.../are-there-philanthropic-ethics/ Retrieved on
28-01-2011.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropy. Retrieved on 03-02-2011
justcauseit.com › Education. Retrieved on 06-02-2011.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20537302. Retrieved on 08-02-2011.
learningtogive.org/lessons/unit67/lesson2.html. Retrieved on 08-02-2011.
www.hriuk.org/index.php?page=e-philanthropy-code-of-ethics. Retrieved on 09-
02-2011.
www.tpi.org/excellence_cf/partners/ethics.aspx. Retrieved on 10-02-2011.

48
 Ethical Codes
UNIT 4 ETHICAL CODES
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Evolution of Social Work Values and Ethics
4.3 The NASW Code of Ethics
4.4 Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work
4.5 The Process of Ethical Decision Making
4.6 Ethical Codes for Social Workers in India
4.7 What can Social Workers do to Strengthen the Social WorkValues and Ethics?
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Further Readings and References
4.10 Annexure

4.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able:
l to understand the meaning of ethics in Social Work practice;
l to list out the core values of social work profession;
l to trace the evolution of Social Work values and ethics;
l to understand the purpose, values, principles and standards in the code of
ethics proposed by NASW;
l to be able to identify the ethical dilemmas and understand the ethical decision
making process in social work.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Many decisions social workers make in their day today practice include important
and difficult ethical questions. It is important to consider what guidelines are available
to social workers who face difficult ethical decisions about professional values. . It is
important to distinguish between ethical and non ethical aspects of Social Work.
The ethical aspects of the profession include questions about the obligations and the
duties of practitioners and about the rightness/wrongness of the professional’s
conduct.
The non ethical aspects of the profession includes questions about technical aspects
of practice, e.g., the effectiveness of particular intervention techniques, the proper
way to prepare process notes, methods for assessing the nature of the client’s
problems, or ways of carrying out a cost – benefit analysis. However, it is not easy
to separate the moral and non moral aspects of social work.

49
Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy 4.2 THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL WORK
VALUES AND ETHICS
Discussions of values and ethics have had an important place in social work education
and practice since the beginning of profession. Throughout the history of social
work, practitioners have been concerned about moral or ethical aspects of their
relationship with clients. The meaning of the term moral has changed considerably
over time – concern with ethical issues in social work has shifted from an emphasis
upon the morality of the client to moral aspects of the practitioner’s behavior and of
the profession.
In order to explore fully the nature of contemporary values and ethics in social
work, it is important to understand historical evolution of thinking in fact with respect
to the profession’s value base, ethical dilemmas in practice, ethical decision making
in social work, mal practices and misconduct. Social work is a normative profession
- perhaps the most normative of the so called helping professions. In contrast to
professions such as psychiatry, psychology and counseling, social work historical
roots are firmly grounded in concepts such as justice and fairness.
The evolution of social work values and ethics has had several key stages (Reamer,
1998).
1) The first stage began in the late 19th century when social work was formally
inaugurated as a profession. During this period, social work was much more
concerned about the morality of a client than about the morality or ethics of the
profession or its practitioners
The English Poor Law Reform Bill of 1834 represents what is perhaps the best
example of the importance of morality. The so called classical economists
believed that poverty was “the natural state of the wage earning classes” the
poor law was seen as an artificial creation of the State which taxed the middle
and upper classes in order to provide care for the wayward needy (Walter I.
Trattner, 1974)
One result of the Commission’s report was an end to public assistance for the
able bodied persons except in public institutions. Moreover, poverty was
described in the report as a condition which resulted from the moral inferiority
of the individuals.
A similar attitude prevailed in the United States during this period. Though
there were nominal distinctions between the “worthy” and “unworthy” poor,
even those who were considered worthy were frequently condemned as moral
failures; the protestant ethic encouraged the belief that the poor suffered only
from a failure to muster their own resources.
2) The rise of the Settlement House Movement and progressive era in the earlier
20th century marked the beginning of a second key stage in which the aims and
valueorientations of manysocial workers shifted from concern about the morality
to the need for dramatic social reform
The settlement house movement, beginning in the United States with the opening
of Neighborhood Guild in 1886, marked a significant shift away from the
attributions of moral inferiority. They believe that the end of poverty could be
realized only as a result of basic social change – by providing more jobs and
better working conditions, health care, education and housing. Poverty resulted
50
 not from moral inferioritybut from inadequate social conditions, or what became Ethical Codes

known as a “poverty of opportunity” (Allen F. Davis, 1967)

3) The third key stage began in the late 1940’s and early 1950’s when concern
about the moral dimensions of social work practice intensified. There was more
focus on the morality or ethics of the profession and of its practitioners. The
profession began to develop ethical guidelines to enhance proper conduct among
practitioners. In 1947, after several years of debate and discussion, the delegate
conference of theAmerican Association of Social Workers adopted a code of
ethics.
There was a significant shift in the meaning of morality in social work when the
term appeared in the literature following World War II. There have been
organized discussions amongall considered central to theprofession for instance,
individual worth and dignity, self determination, adequate living conditions and
acceptance by and respect of others. Also they have included discussions of
rules intended to serve as specific guides to social workers’ relationship with
their clients, colleagues and employers, for example, with regard to protecting
a client’s right to confidentiality, the worker’s responsibility to oppose
discrimination and the worker’s obligation to avoid conflicts of interest.
4) In the 1960’s Social workers shifted considerable attention towards the ethical
constructs of social justice, rights and reforms. The National Association of
Social Workers (NASW) adopted its first Code of Ethics in 1960. The most
visible expression of emerging concern about social work values and ethics
was the 1976 publication of Charles S. Levy’s “Social Work Ethics”.
Contemporary philosophers have attempted to justify ethical decisions in a variety
of ways. Their theories represent two major schools of thought.
1) There are those who claim that certain kinds of actions are inherently right or
good, right or good as a matter of principle. Advocates of this school of thought
are generally referred to as deontologists (William K. Frankena, 1973)
2) There are those who argue that certain actions are to be performed not because
they are intrinsically good but because they are good by virtue of their
consequences. They are generally referred to as teleologists (William K.
Frankena, 1973). Utilitarian theories, which hold that an action is right if it
promotes the maximum good for everyone, have historically being the most
popular teleological theories and have served as justification for many decisions
made by social workers.
An important example of rules intended to serve as a guide to social workers’ actions
is the Code of Ethics drafted by National Association of Social Workers (NASW,
1980). The NASW Code of ethics includes principles that were carefully and
thoughtfully drafted by members of the NASW Task Force on ethics. The content
of the specific principles was influenced by a review of code of ethics developed by
other professional organizations and by the contributions of task force members,
study groups organized to consider ethical issues in social work and social work
practitioners and scholars in general.

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Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy 4.3 THE NASW CODE OF ETHICS
The NASW Code of Ethics is intended to serve as a guide to the everyday
professional conduct of social workers.
This Code includes four sections.
l The first Section, “Preamble,” summarizes the social work profession’s mission
and core values.
l The second section, “Purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics,” provides an
overview of the Code’s main functions and a brief guide for dealing with ethical
issues or dilemmas in social work practice.
l The third section, “Ethical Principles,” presents broad ethical principles, based
on social work’s core values that inform social work practice.
l The final section, “Ethical Standards,” includes specific ethical standards to
guide social workers’ conduct and to provide a basis for adjudication.

First Section – Preamble

Preamble summarizes the social work profession’s mission and core values. The
Preamble to the Code of Ethics states that it is “intended to serve as a guide to the
everyday conduct of members of the social work profession………… The social
worker is expected to take into consideration all the principles is this code that have
a bearing upon any situation in which ethical judgment is to be exercised and
professional intervention or conduct is planned” .
The mission of the social work profession is rooted in a set of core values. These
core values, embraced by social workers throughout the profession’s history, are
the foundation of social work’s unique purpose and perspective:
l service
l social justice
l dignity and worth of the person
l importance of human relationships
l integrity
l competence
This constellation of core values reflects what is unique to the social work profession.
Core values, and the principles that flow from them, must be balanced within the
context and complexity of the human experience.

Second Section - Purpose

Purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics,” provides an overview of the Code’s main
functions and a brief guide for dealing with ethical issues or dilemmas in social work
practice.
l Set forth broad ethical principles that reflect the profession’s core values and
establish ethical standards to guide social work practice
l Help social workers identify relevant considerations when professional
obligations, conflicts, or ethical uncertainties arise.
l Socialize new practitioners to social work’s mission, values and ethical standards
52
l Provide ethical standards to which the general public can hold the social work Ethical Codes

profession accountable
l Articulate standards that the profession itself can use to assess whether social
workers have engaged in unethical conduct.

Third Section - Ethical Principles

This section presents six broad ethical principles based on social work’s core values
of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human
relationships, integrity, and competence. These principles set forth ideals to which
all social workers should aspire. More details on the ethical principles can be had
from the annexure.

Fourth Section - Ethical Standards

This section includes 155 specific ethical standards to guide social workers’ conduct
and provide a basis for adjudication of ethics complaints filed against NASW
members.
The standards fall into six categories as follows:
1) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to clients
2) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to colleagues,
3) social workers’ ethical responsibilities in practice settings,
4) social workers’ ethical responsibilities as professionals,
5) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to the social work profession,
6) social workers’ethical responsibilities to the broader society.
Some of the standards that follow are enforceable guidelines for professional conduct,
and some are inspirational. The extent to which each standard is enforceable is a
matter of professional judgment to be exercised by those responsible for reviewing
alleged violations of ethical standards.

Ethical Responsibilities to Clients

The first section of the code’s ethical standards is the most detailed. It addresses a
wide range of issues involved in the delivery of services to individuals, families,
couples, and small groups of clients. In particular, this section focuses on social
workers’ commitment to clients, clients’ right to self-determination, information
consent, professional competence, cultural competence and social diversity, conflicts
of interest, privacy and confidentiality, client access to records, sexual relationships
and physical contact with clients, sexual harassment, the use of derogatory language,
payment for services, clients who lack decision-making capacity, interruption of
services, and termination of services.

Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues

This section of the code addresses issues concerning social workers’ relationships
with professional colleagues. These include respect for colleagues; proper treatment
of confidential information shared by colleagues; interdisciplinary collaboration and
disputes among colleagues; consultation with colleagues; referral for services; sexual
relationships with and sexual harassment of colleagues; and dealings with impaired,
incompetent and unethical colleagues.
53
Concept, History, Ethics and Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings
Values of Philanthropy
This section of the code addresses ethical issues that arise in social service agencies,
human service organizations, private practice, and social work education programs.
Standards pertain to social work supervision, consultation, education, or training,
performance evaluation, client records, billing for services; client transfer; agency
administration; continuing education and staff development; commitments to
employers and labor-management disputes.

Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals

This section of the code focuses on issues primarily related to social workers’
professional integrity. Standards pertain to social workers’competence, obligation
to avoid any behavior that discriminates against others, private, conduct, honesty,
personal impairment, misrepresentation, solicitation of clients and acknowledging
credit.
In addition to emphasizing social workers’ obligation to be proficient, the code exhorts
social workers to routinely review and critique the professional literature, participate
in continuing education, and base their work on recognized knowledge, including
empirically based knowledge, relevant to social work practice and ethics.

Ethical Responsibilities to the Profession

Social Workers’ethical responsibilities are not limited to clients, colleagues, and the
public at large; they include the social work profession itself. Standards in this
section of the code focus on the profession’s integrity and social work evaluation
and research. The principal these concerning the profession’s integrity pertains to
social worker’s obligation to maintain and promote high standards of practice by
engaging in appropriate study and research, teaching, publication, presentations at
professional conferences, consultation, service to the community and professional
organizations, and legislative testimony.

Ethical Responsibilities to Society at Large

The social work profession has always been committed to social justice. This
commitment is clearly and forcefully reflected in the preamble to the code of ethics
and in the final section of the code’s ethical standards. The standards explicitly
highlight social workers’ obligation to engage in activities that promote social justice
and the general welfare of society “from local to global levels” (standard 6.01).
These activities may include facilitating public discussion of social policy issues;
providing professional services in public emergencies; engaging in social and political
action (for example, lobbying and legislative activity) to address basic human needs;
promoting conditions that encourage respect for the diversity of cultures and social
diversity, and acting to prevent and eliminate domination, exploitation, and
discrimination against any person, group, or class of people.
The ethical standards concern 3 kinds of issues (Reamer, 1994).
i) Mistakes social worker make that have ethical implications, example, leaving
confidently material displayed on one’s desk in such a way that it can be read
by unauthorized persons.
ii) Issues associated with difficult ethical decisions or dilemmas – eg. Whether to
disclose confidential information to protect a third party from serious harm
iii) Issues pertaining to social worker misconduct such as exploitation of clients,
54
boundary violations or fraudulent billing for service rendered
 Ethical Codes
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Discuss the evolution of social work values and ethics.
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2. What are the issues pertaining to ethical standards to guide social workers’
conduct?
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4.4 ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN SOCIAL WORK

Social workers encounter a wide range of ethical dilemmas. In general these fall into
two groups. (Reamer, 2005)
1) Ethical dilemmas involving work with individual clients, families and
small groups (direct practice)
Ethical dilemmas in direct practice involve a number of issues among the most
prominent themes are confidentiality and privacy, self determination, divided
loyalties, professional boundaries, conflicts of interest and relationship between
professional and personal values.
Example ofclient’s right to confidentialityvs social worker’s obligation to protect
a third party from harm:
l Confidentiality and privacy
Social workers can be charged with misconduct if they violate clients’ right to
confidentiality. The NASW Code of Ethics includes eighteen specific standards
pertaining to confidentiality (standards 1.07 [a-r], addressing.
l Clients’ right to privacy
l Informed consent required for disclosure
l Protection of third parties from harm
l Notification of clients when social workers expect to disclose confidential
information
l Limitations of clients’ right to confidentiality
l Confidentiality issues in the delivery of services to families, couples, and small
groups
l Disclosure ofconfidential information to third partypayers, the media and during
legal proceedings

55
Concept, History, Ethics and l Protection of theconfidentialityof written and electronicrecords and information
Values of Philanthropy
transmitted to other parties through the use of electronic devices such as
computers, electronic mail, facsimile machines, and telephones
l Proper transfer and disposal of confidential records
l Protection of confidential information during teaching, training and consultation
l Protection of the confidentiality of deceased clients.
Various ethical dilemmas arise in social work related to confidentialityand privacy.
Common dilemmas faced by practitioners involve disclosure of confidential
information:
1) to protect a third party-, eg. A social worker who has to decide whether to
disclose confidential information about a client who is HIV positive in order to
protect the client’s lover, who is not aware of her lover’s HIV-positive status.
2) to protect or benefit a client in response to a court order,\
3) To parents or guardians concerning minor children.
l Self determination and paternalism
Instances in which social workers believe it may not be appropriate to respect
clients’ right to self-determination. Often these situations arise when social
workers are inclined to interfere with clients’ right to self determination “for
their own good”. These are cases involving professional paternalism.
l Divided loyalties-social workers sometimes find themselves torn between
their clients and their employer’s interests, when practitioners must choose
whether their employers’ interests or their clients’ interests will take precedence.
l Professional boundaries and conflicts of interest-social workers are trained
to maintain clear boundaries in their relationships with clients. Confusion about
the worker-client relationship can interfere with the therapeutic goals and
process.
l Professional and personal values- some of the most difficult ethical dilemmas
that social workers face occur when their personal values conflict with the
profession’s values.
2) Ethical dilemmas involving activities such as community organizing,
social policy and planning, administration, research and evaluation
(indirect practice).
Ethical dilemmas that are prominent in indirect social work practice are the
allocation of limited resources, the government and private sector responsibility
for social welfare, compliance with regulation and laws, labour management
disputes, research and evaluation, the use of deception in social work and
whistle blowing etc.
We will discuss these in a slightly broader context:
l The allocation of limited resources
Social workers frequently find themselves without sufficient resources to
administer adequately the policies and programs for which they are responsible.
Meager funding, budget cuts, and increased demand for social service often
require social workers to make difficult decisions about how to allocate scarce
or limited resources.

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l Government and private sector responsibility for social welfare Ethical Codes

As a profession, social worker has always had close ties with government.
Many social service programs and much funding on which the profession
depends are government sponsored, whether at the national, state, or local
levels. The nature of the relationship between social work and government has
raised ethical issues, primarily with respect to the nature of government’s duty
to citizens.
l Compliance with regulations and laws
Social work administrators and practitioners sometimes encounter regulations
and laws that seem unjust. In these instances, social workers face difficult
decisions about their obligation to adhere to or obey these regulations and
laws.
l Labour management disputes
A significant number of social workers assume management positions during
their careers, typically in the form of department directors and agency
administrators. Social work administrators sometimes find themselves in the
midstofadifficultethicaldilemmawhenconflictexistsbetweenlinestaff,including
other social workers, and administrative superiors or an agency board of
Directors.
l Research and evaluation
As the profession has matured, social workers have become increasingly more
appreciative of the importance of research and evaluation-to evaluate their
work, conduct needs assessments and program evaluations etc. Ethical issue
arise in social work evaluation and research in a number of ways.
l The use of deception
Social workers, like all professionals, understand the need for truth and honesty
in their work But in practice some degree of deception and dishonesty is
necessary and justifiable. This is an ethical issue
l Whistle blowing
Among the most difficult ethical decision social workers faces whether to blow
the whistle on a colleague who is engaged in wrong doing and to report the
misconduct to supervisors or other authorities.

Professional malpractice and misconduct

The preceding paragraphs have examined the nature of social work values, the
process of ethical decision making, and various ethical dilemmas in social work
practice. Many ethical issues raise difficult philosophical questions-ex:
l Whether social workers are always obligated to be truthful?
l Respect to client’s right to self determination
l How limited resources should be allocated
l When social worker’s should blow the whistle on unethical practices.
However there are many ethical issues that ethical misconduct and wrongdoing of a
sort that mayconstitute violations of the law, professional code of ethics and publicly
enacted regulations. These are the cases that mayresult in law suits, ethics complaints,
or criminal charges filed against social workers. These issues raise legal questions or
issues that warrant discipline by a regulatory body such as a professional body of
57
social workers.
Concept, History, Ethics and These varyfrom genuine unintentional injurylike not obtaining client’s consent before
Values of Philanthropy
sharing confidential records with third parties to gross harmful mistakes- social
workers becoming sexually involved with clients, extract money from clients
committing fraud against insurance companies.

4.5 THE PROCESS OF ETHICAL DECISION

MAKING
No precise formula for resolving ethical dilemmas exists. Reasonable, thoughtful
social workers can disagree about the ethical principles and criteria that ought to
guide ethical decisions in any given case. But ethicists generally agree that it is
important to approach ethical decisions systematically, to follow a series of steps to
ensure that all aspects of the ethical dilemma are addressed. By following a series of
clearly formulated steps, social workers can enhance the quality of the ethical
decisions they make. It is helpful for social workers to follow these steps when
attempting to resolve ethical dilemmas:
i) Identifytheethical issues, including thesocial work values and duties that conflict
ii) Identify the individuals, groups, and organizations likely to be affected by the
ethical decision
iii) Tentatively identify all viable courses of action and the participants involved in
each, along with the potential benefits and risks for each.
iv) Thoroughly examine the reasons in favor of and opposed to each course of
action, considering relevant.
a. Ethical theories, principles, and guidelines (for example, deontological
and teleological-utilitatian perspectives and ethical guidelines based on
them)
b. Codes of ethics and legal principles
c. Social work practice theory and principles
d. Personal values (includingreligious, cultural, and ethnicvalues and political
ideology), particularly those that conflicts with one’s own.
v) Consult with colleagues and appropriate reports (such as agency staff,
supervisors, agency administrators, attorneys, ethics scholars.)
vi) Make the decisions and document the decision making process.
vii) Monitor, evaluate, and document the decision

4.6 ETHICAL CODES FOR SOCIAL WORKERS

IN INDIA
Association of Social Workers India (ASWI) - www.socialworker.net.in
TheASWI code of Ethics identifies core social work values and the principles which
underline those values. The identified core values are:
Value 1: Respect for Inherent Dignity and Worth of Persons
Value 2: Pursuit of Social Justice
Value 3: Service to Humanity

58
Value 4: Integrity of Professional Practice
Value 5: Confidentialityin Professional Practice Ethical Codes

Value 6: Competency in Professional Practice

Accompanying the Code of Ethics are Guidelines for Ethical Practice which provide
guidance on ethical practice by applying the values and principles in the Code to
common areas of social work practice.

Ethics of Social Work Education

According to the Declaration of Ethics for Professional Social Workers, prepared
by the Social Work Educators Forum of the Tata Institute of Social Sciences (1997)
and revised by the BombayAssociation of Trained Social Workers (2002) ,following
are the best ethical responsibilities of professional social workers as educators and
researchers (Desai, 2004):
l Are conversant with the learners’ needs, readiness and goals, when teaching
and training
l Regularly update knowledge about social work profession in general and the
subjects they teach, through field experience, update reading and training
l Impact knowledge, inculcate attitudes and develop skills within the value
framework of the profession, while teaching and training
l Recognize the importance of partnership between practitioners and educators
for the purpose of social work education and training.
l Develop a nurturing relationship with students, encouraging openness, critical
inquiry and self-study.
l Undertake people-centered field action projects as a demonstration of
innovation to promote the well-being of people and for research and
documentation, training and replication, whenever possible.
l Contribute to the knowledge base of social work education through practice
wisdom, documentation as well as research.
l Expose the students to the professional associations and orient them about
their role in developing and strengthening them
l Carefully select the topic for research considering its possible consequences
for those studied, when conducting a research
l Do not cause the respondents any physical or mental discomfort, distress or
harm, through research.
l Consider the informants of research as co-partners in understanding the
phenomenon
l Share their research objectives with them and get their informed and voluntary
consent, respect their knowledge and attitude about their life situation, and
share/interpret the findings with them
l Protect the confidentialityof the information shared bythem and use the findings
for their benefit, by recommending and promoting policies and programmes
concerning them
l Provide information and referral services to them, as and when necessary, during
the process of data collection.
l Dissociate from or do not engage in any research activity, which requires
manipulation, distortion or falsification of data or findings.
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Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy 4.7 WHAT CAN SOCIALWORKERS DO TO
STRENGHTHEN THE SOCIAL WORK
VALUES AND ETHICS?
1) Training and education programmes can sharpen the focus on Social Work
values and ethics. Social work education programmes and social work agencies
can incorporate these topics in their curricular and training agendas more
deliberately. Students and practitioners should be systematically exposed to
debates about social work values and their influence on theprofessions’ mission;
the kinds of ethical dilemmas in social work and strategies for ethical decision
making and the problems of professional mis-conduct and malpractice.
2) Conferences sponsored by Professional associations and agencies are the
principle source of continuing education for many social workers and these
regularlyscheduled events provide a valuable opportunitycontinuallyto remind
practitioners of the central importance of professional values and ethics.
3) Social Workers must contribute to the growing fund of scholarship on
professional values and ethics. More empirical research and theoretical
development and need to occur in order to enhance social workers’ grasp of
such topics as the criteria and procedures that social workers use to make
ethical decisions, practitioners’ beliefs about what is ethically acceptable and
unacceptable in a variety of circumstances, the nature of ethical dilemmas
encountered bysocial workers working in various practicesettings and positions,
and the effectiveness of education and training on values and ethics.
4) Astrong national professionalAssociation of social workers should serve as a
regulatory body to propose code of ethics and review complaints against
violations of specific standards in the association’s code of ethics.
More likely increased education, training and scholarship will stir up even more
debate and controversy and even more questions. This however, is not a problem,
for the nature of values and ethics is such that unresolved questions are an ethical
feature. Increased controversy and constructive debate among social workers who
are well informed about values, ethical dilemmas, ethical decision making, and
professional misconduct will enhance the likelihood that decisions and policies will
be carefully thought about.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Identify instances from your field experiences where controversies on
practice decisions emerge.
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 Ethical Codes
4.8 LET US SUM UP
This unit lists out the core values of social work profession. The evolution of social
work values and ethics is traced and the purpose, values, principles and standards
in the code of ethics proposed by NASW has been explained. Finally, the ethical
dilemmas and the ethical decision making process in social work has been elaborated.

4.9 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

l Walter I. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State (New York: Free Press,
1974) pp. 46-47
l Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for reform (New York: Oxford University Press,
1967), PP. 18-20
l NASW, Code of Ethics (rev. ed; New York: National Association of Social
Workers, 1980)
l William K. Frankena, Ethics (2d ed.; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
1973), pp.95-116
l Frederic G. Reamer, Ethical Dilemmas in Social Service ( Columbia
University Press, New York, 1982)
l Murali Desai, Methodology of Progressive Social Work Education (Rawat
Publications, 2004)

4.10 ANNEXURE
Approved by the 1996 NASW Delegate Assembly and revised by the 1999
NASW Delegate Assembly
The NASW Code of Ethics is intended to serve as a guide to the everyday
professional conduct of social workers. This Code includes four sections. The first
Section, “Preamble,” summarizes the social work profession’s mission and core
values. The second section, “Purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics,” provides an
overview of the Code’s main functions and a brief guide for dealing with ethical
issues or dilemmas in social work practice. The third section, “Ethical Principles,”
presents broad ethical principles, based on social work’s core values that inform
social work practice. The final section, “Ethical Standards,” includes specific ethical
standards to guide social workers’ conduct and to provide a basis for adjudication.

Preamble
The primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human wellbeing
and help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention to the
needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in
poverty. Ahistoric and defining feature of social work is the profession’s focus on
individual wellbeing in a social context and the wellbeing of society. Fundamental to
social work is attention to the environmental forces that create, contribute to, and
address problems in living.
Social workers promote social justice and social change with and on behalf of clients.
“Clients” is used inclusively to refer to individuals, families, groups, organizations,
and communities. Social workers are sensitive to cultural and ethnic diversity and
strive to end discrimination, oppression, poverty, and other forms of social injustice.
61
Concept, History, Ethics and These activities may be in the form of direct practice, community organizing,
Values of Philanthropy
supervision, consultation administration, advocacy, social and political action, policy
development and implementation, education, and research and evaluation. Social
workers seek to enhance the capacity of people to address their own needs. Social
workers also seek to promote the responsiveness of organizations, communities,
and other social institutions to individuals’ needs and social problems.
The mission of the social work profession is rooted in a set of core values. These
core values, embraced by social workers throughout the profession’s history, are
the foundation of social work’s unique purpose and perspective:
l service
l social justice
l dignity and worth of the person
l importance of human relationships
l integrity
l competence
This constellation of core values reflects what is unique to the social work profession.
Core values, and the principles that flow from them, must be balanced within the
context and complexity of the human experience.

Purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics

Professional ethics are at the core of social work. The profession has an obligation
to articulate its basic values, ethical principles, and ethical standards. The NASW
Code of Ethics sets forth these values, principles, and standards to guide social
workers’ conduct. The Code is relevant to all social workers and social work students,
regardless of their professional functions, the settings in which they work, or the
populations they serve.
The NASW Code of Ethics serves six purposes:
1. The Code identifies core values on which social work’s mission is based.
2. The Code summarizes broad ethical principles that reflect the profession’s core
values and establishes a set of specific ethical standards that should be used to
guide social work practice.
3. The Code is designed to help social workers identify relevant considerations
when professional obligations conflict or ethical uncertainties arise.
4. The Code provides ethical standards to which the general public can hold the
social work profession accountable.
5. The Code socializes practitioners new to the field to social work’s mission,
values, ethical principles, and ethical standards.
6. The Code articulates standards that the social work profession itself can use to
assess whether social workers have engaged in unethical conduct. NASW has
formal procedures to adjudicate ethics complaints filed against its members.*
In subscribing to this Code, social workers are required to cooperate in its
implementation, participate in NASW adjudication proceedings, and abide by
any NASW disciplinary rulings or sanctions based on it.
The Code offers a set of values, principles, and standards to guide decision making
and conduct when ethical issues arise. It does not provide a set of rules that prescribe
62 how social workers should act in all situations. Specific applications of the Code
must take into account the context in which it is being considered and the possibility Ethical Codes

of conflicts among the Code‘s values, principles, and standards. Ethical

responsibilities flow from all human relationships, from the personal and familial to
the social and professional.
Further, the NASW Code of Ethics does not specify which values, principles, and
standards are most important and ought to outweigh others in instances when they
conflict. Reasonable differences of opinion can and do exist among social workers
with respect to the ways in which values, ethical principles, and ethical standards
should be rank ordered when theyconflict. Ethical decision making in a given situation
must apply the informed judgment of the individual social worker and should also
consider how the issues would be judged in a peer review process where the ethical
standards of the profession would be applied.
Ethical decision making is a process. There are many instances in social work where
simple answers are not available to resolve complex ethical issues. Social workers
should take into consideration all the values, principles, and standards in this Code
that are relevant to any situation in which ethical judgment is warranted. Social
workers’ decisions and actions should be consistent with the spirit as well as the
letter of this Code.
In addition to this Code, there are many other sources of information about ethical
thinking that may be useful. Social workers should consider ethical theory and
principles generally, social work theory and research, laws, regulations, agency
policies, and other relevant codes of ethics, recognizing that among codes of ethics
social workers should consider the NASW Code of Ethics as their primary source.
Social workers also should be aware of the impact on ethical decision making of
their clients’ and their own personal values and cultural and religious beliefs and
practices. They should be aware of any conflicts between personal and professional
values and deal with them responsibly. For additional guidance social workers should
consult the relevant literature on professional ethics and ethical decision making and
seek appropriate consultation when faced with ethical dilemmas. This may involve
consultation with an agency based or social work organization’s ethics committee, a
regulatory body, knowledgeable colleagues, supervisors, or legal counsel.
Instances may arise when social workers’ ethical obligations conflict with agency
policies or relevant laws or regulations. When such conflicts occur, social workers
must make a responsible effort to resolve the conflict in a manner that is consistent
with the values, principles, and standards expressed in this Code. If a reasonable
resolution of the conflict does not appear possible, social workers should seek proper
consultation before making a decision.
The NASW Code of Ethics is to be used by NASW and by individuals, agencies,
organizations, and bodies (such as licensing and regulatory boards, professional
liability insurance providers, courts of law, agency boards of directors, government
agencies, and other professional groups) that choose to adopt it or use it as a frame
of reference. Violation of standards in this Code does not automatically imply legal
liability or violation of the law. Such determination can only be made in the context
of legal and judicial proceedings.Alleged violations of the Code would be subject to
a peer review process. Such processes are generally separate from legal or
administrative procedures and insulated from legal review or proceedings to allow
the profession to counsel and discipline its own members.
A code of ethics cannot guarantee ethical behavior. Moreover, a code of ethics
cannot resolve all ethical issues or disputes or capture the richness and complexity 63
Concept, History, Ethics and involved in striving to make responsible choices within a moral community. Rather, a
Values of Philanthropy
code of ethics sets forth values, ethical principles, and ethical standards to which
professionals aspire and by which their actions can be judged. Social workers’
ethical behavior should result from their personal commitment to engage in ethical
practice. The NASW Code of Ethics reflects the commitment of all social workers
to uphold the profession’s values and to act ethically. Principles and standards must
be applied by individuals of good character who discern moral questions and, in
good faith, seek to make reliable ethical judgments.

Ethical Principles
The following broad ethical principles are based on social work’s core values of
service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human
relationships, integrity, and competence. These principles set forth ideals to which
all social workers should aspire.
Value: Service
Ethical Principle: Social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and
to address social problems.
Social workers elevate service to others above self interest. Social workers draw
on their knowledge, values, and skills to help people in need and to address social
problems. Social workers are encouraged to volunteer some portion of their
professional skills with no expectation ofsignificant financial return (pro bono service).
Value: Social Justice
Ethical Principle: Social workers challenge social injustice.
Social workers pursue social change, particularly with and on behalf of vulnerable
and oppressed individuals and groups of people. Social workers’ social change
efforts are focused primarily on issues of poverty, unemployment, discrimination,
and other forms of social injustice. These activities seek to promote sensitivity to
and knowledge about oppression and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers
strive to ensure access to needed information, services, and resources; equality of
opportunity; and meaningful participation in decision making for all people.
Value: Dignity and Worth of the Person
Ethical Principle: Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the
person.
Social workers treat each person in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of
individual differences andcultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers promote clients’
socially responsible self-determination. Social workers seek to enhance clients’
capacity and opportunity to change and to address their own needs. Social workers
are cognizant of their dual responsibility to clients and to the broader society. They
seek to resolve conflicts between clients’interests and the broader society’s interests
in a socially responsible manner consistent with the values, ethical principles, and
ethical standards of the profession.
Value: Importance of Human Relationships
Ethical Principle: Social workers recognize the central importance of human
relationships.
Social workers understand that relationships between and among people are an
64 important vehicle for change. Social workers engage people as partners in the helping
process. Social workers seek to strengthen relationships among people in a purposeful
effort to promote, restore, maintain, and enhance the wellbeing ofindividuals, families, Ethical Codes

social groups, organizations, and communities.

Value: Integrity
Ethical Principle: Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner.
Social workers are continually aware of the profession’s mission, values, ethical
principles, and ethical standards and practice in a manner consistent with them.
Social workers act honestly and responsibly and promote ethical practices on the
part of the organizations with which they are affiliated.
Value: Competence
Ethical Principle: Social workers practice within their areas of competence
and develop and enhance their professional expertise.
Social workers continually strive to increase their professional knowledge and skills
and to apply them in practice. Social workers should aspire to contribute to the
knowledge base of the profession.

Ethical Standards
The following ethical standards are relevant to the professional activities of all social
workers. These standards concern social workers’ ethical responsibilities (1) to
clients, (2) to colleagues, (3) in practice settings, (4) as professionals, (5) to the
social work profession, and (6) to the broader society.
Some of the standards that follow are enforceable guidelines for professional conduct,
and some are inspirational. The extent to which each standard is enforceable is a
matter of professional judgment to be exercised by those responsible for reviewing
alleged violations of ethical standards.

1. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES TO CLIENTS

1.01 Commitment to Clients

Social workers’ primary responsibility is to promote the wellbeing of clients. In
general, clients’interests are primary. However, social workers’responsibility to the
larger society or specific legal obligations may on limited occasions supersede the
loyalty owed clients, and clients should be so advised. (Examples include when a
social worker is required by law to report that a client has abused a child or has
threatened to harm self or others.)

1.02 Self Determination

Social workers respect and promote the right of clients to self-determination and
assist clients in their efforts to identify and clarify their goals. Social workers may
limit clients’ right to self-determination when, in the social workers’ professional
judgment, clients’ actions or potential actions pose a serious, foreseeable, and
imminent risk to themselves or others.

1.03 Informed Consent

(a) Social workers should provide services to clients only in the context of a
professional relationship based, when appropriate, on valid informed consent.
Social workers should use clear and understandable language to inform clients
of the purpose of the services, risks related to the services, limits to services
because of the requirements of a third-party payer, relevant costs, reasonable 65
Concept, History, Ethics and alternatives, clients’ right to refuse or withdraw consent, and the time frame
Values of Philanthropy
covered by the consent. Social workers should provide clients with an
opportunity to ask questions.
(b) In instances when clients are not literate or have difficulty understanding the
primary language used in the practice setting, social workers should take steps
to ensure clients’ comprehension. This may include providing clients with a
detailed verbal explanation or arranging for a qualified interpreter or translator
whenever possible.
(c) In instances when clients lack the capacity to provide informed consent, social
workers should protect clients’ interests by seeking permission from an
appropriate third party, informing clients consistent with the clients’level of
understanding. In such instances social workers should seek to ensure that the
third partyacts in a manner consistent with clients’ wishes and interests. Social
workers should take reasonable steps to enhance such clients’ ability to give
informed consent.
(d) In instances when clients are receiving services involuntarily, social workers
should provide information about the nature and extent of services and about
the extent of clients’ right to refuse service.
(e) Social workers who provide services via electronic media (such as computer,
telephone, radio, and television) should inform recipients of the limitations and
risks associated with such services.
(f) Social workers should obtain clients’ informed consent before audio taping or
videotaping clients or permitting observation of services to clients by a third
party.

1.04 Competence
(a) Social workers should provide services and represent themselves as competent
only within the boundaries of their education, training, license, certification,
consultation received, supervised experience, or other relevant professional
experience.
(b) Social workers should provide services in substantive areas or use intervention
techniques or approaches that are new to them onlyafter engaging in appropriate
study, training, consultation, and supervision from people who are competent
in those interventions or techniques.
(c) When generally recognized standards do not exist with respect to an emerging
area of practice, social workers should exercise careful judgment and take
responsible steps (including appropriate education, research, training,
consultation, and supervision) to ensure the competence of their work and to
protect clients from harm.

1.05 Cultural Competence and Social Diversity

(a) Social workers should understand culture and its function in human behavior
and society, recognizing the strengths that exist in all cultures.
(b) Social workers should have a knowledge base of their clients’ cultures and be
able to demonstrate competence in the provision of services that are sensitive
to clients’ cultures and to differences among people and cultural groups.
(c) Social workers should obtain education about and seek to understand the nature
of social diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin,
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 color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, marital status, Ethical Codes

political belief, religion, immigration status, and mental or physical disability.

1.06 Conflicts of Interest

(a) Social workers should be alert to and avoid conflicts of interest that interfere
with the exercise of professional discretion and impartial judgment. Social
workers should inform clients when a real or potential conflict of interest arises
and take reasonable steps to resolve the issue in a manner that makes the
clients’ interests primary and protects clients’ interests to the greatest extent
possible. In some cases, protecting clients’ interests may require termination of
the professional relationship with proper referral of the client.
(b) Social workers should not take unfair advantage of anyprofessional relationship
or exploit others to further their personal, religious, political, or business interests.
(c) Social workers should not engage in dual or multiple relationships with clients
or former clients in which there is a risk of exploitation or potential harm to the
client. In instances when dual or multiple relationships are unavoidable, social
workers should take steps to protect clients and are responsible for setting
clear, appropriate, and culturally sensitive boundaries. (Dual or multiple
relationships occur when social workers relate to clients in more than one
relationship, whether professional, social, or business. Dual or multiple
relationships can occur simultaneously or consecutively.)
(d) When social workers provide services to two or more people who have a
relationship with each other (for example, couples, family members), social
workers should clarifywith all parties which individuals will beconsidered clients
and the nature of social workers’ professional obligations to the various
individuals who are receiving services. Social workers who anticipate a conflict
of interest among the individuals receiving services or who anticipate having to
perform in potentially conflicting roles (for example, when a social worker is
asked to testify in a child custody dispute or divorce proceedings involving
clients) should clarify their role with the parties involved and take appropriate
action to minimize any conflict of interest.

1.07 Privacy and Confidentiality

(a) Social workers should respect clients’right to privacy. Social workers should
not solicit private information from clients unless it is essential to providing
services or conducting social work evaluation or research. Once private
information is shared, standards of confidentiality apply.
(b) Social workers may disclose confidential information when appropriate with
valid consent from a client or a person legally authorized to consent on behalf
of a client.
(c) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of all information obtained in
the course of professional service, except for compelling professional reasons.
The general expectation that social workers will keep information confidential
does not apply when disclosure is necessary to prevent serious, foreseeable,
and imminent harm to a client or other identifiable person. In all instances,
social workers should disclose the least amount of confidential information
necessaryto achieve the desired purpose; onlyinformation that is directlyrelevant
to the purpose for which the disclosure is made should be revealed.

67
Concept, History, Ethics and (d) Social workers should inform clients, to the extent possible, about the disclosure
Values of Philanthropy
of confidential information and the potential consequences, when feasible before
the disclosure is made. This applies whether social workers disclose confidential
information on the basis of a legal requirement or client consent.
(e) Social workers should discuss with clients and other interested parties the nature
of confidentialityand limitations of clients’right to confidentiality. Social workers
should review with clients circumstances where confidential information may
be requested and where disclosure of confidential information may be legally
required. This discussion should occur as soon as possible in the social worker-
client relationship and as needed throughout the course of the relationship.
(f) When social workers provide counseling services to families,couples, or groups,
social workers should seek agreement among the parties involved concerning
each individual’s right to confidentiality and obligation to preserve the
confidentiality of information shared by others. Social workers should inform
participants in family, couples, or group counseling that social workers cannot
guarantee that all participants will honor such agreements.
(g) Social workers should inform clients involved in family, couples, marital, or
group counseling of the social worker’s, employer’s, and agency’s policy
concerning the social worker’s disclosure of confidential information among
the parties involved in the counseling.
(h) Social workers should not disclose confidential information to third partypayers
unless clients have authorized such disclosure.
(i) Social workers should not discuss confidential information in anysetting unless
privacy can be ensured. Social workers should not discuss confidential
information in public or semipublic areas such as hallways, waiting rooms,
elevators, and restaurants.
(j) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of clients during legal
proceedings to the extent permitted by law. When a court of law or other
legally authorized body orders social workers to disclose confidential or
privileged information without a client’s consent and such disclosure could cause
harm to the client, social workers should request that the court withdraw the
order or limit the order as narrowly as possible or maintain the records under
seal, unavailable for public inspection.
(k) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of clients when responding to
requests from members of the media.
(l) Social workers should protect the confidentialityof clients’written and electronic
records and other sensitive information. Social workers should take reasonable
steps to ensure that clients’ records are stored in a secure location and that
clients’ records are not available to others who are not authorized to have
access.
(m) Social workers should take precautions to ensure and maintain the confidentiality
of information transmitted to other parties through the use of computers,
electronic mail, facsimile machines, telephones and telephone answering
machines, and otherelectronic or computer technology. Disclosure of identifying
information should be avoided whenever possible.
(n) Social workers should transfer or dispose of clients’ records in a manner that
protects clients’ confidentiality and is consistent with state statutes governing
records and social work licensure.
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(o) Social workers should take reasonable precautions to protect client Ethical Codes

confidentiality in the event of the social worker’s termination of practice,

incapacitation, or death.
(p) Social workers shouldnot discloseidentifyinginformationwhen discussingclients
for teaching or training purposes unless the client has consented to disclosure
of confidential information.
(q) Social workers shouldnot discloseidentifyinginformationwhen discussingclients
with consultants unless the client has consented to disclosure of confidential
information or there is a compelling need for such disclosure.
(r) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of deceased clients consistent
with the preceding standards.

1.08 Access to Records

(a) Social workers should provide clients with reasonable access to records
concerning the clients. Social workers who are concerned that clients’ access
to their records could cause serious misunderstanding or harm to the client
should provide assistance in interpreting the records and consultation with the
client regarding the records. Social workers should limit clients’ access to their
records, or portions of their records, only in exceptional circumstances when
there is compelling evidence that such access would cause serious harm to the
client. Both clients’ requests and the rationale for withholding some or all of the
record should be documented in clients’ files.
(b) When providing clients with access to their records, social workers should
take steps to protect the confidentialityof other individuals identified or discussed
in such records.

1.09 Sexual Relationships

(a) Social workers should under no circumstances engage in sexual activities or
sexual contact with current clients, whether such contact is consensual or forced.
(b) Social workers should not engage in sexual activities or sexual contact with
clients’ relatives or other individuals with whom clients maintain aclose personal
relationship when there is a risk of exploitation or potential harm to the client.
Sexual activityor sexual contact with clients’ relatives or other individuals with
whom clients maintain a personal relationship has the potential to be harmful to
the client and may make it difficult for the social worker and client to maintain
appropriate professional boundaries. Social workers—not their clients, their
clients’ relatives, or other individuals with whom the client maintains a personal
relationship—assume the full burden for setting clear, appropriate, and culturally
sensitive boundaries.
(c) Social workers should not engage in sexual activities or sexual contact with
former clients because of the potential for harm to the client. If social workers
engage in conduct contrary to this prohibition or claim that an exception to this
prohibition is warranted because of extraordinary circumstances, it is social
workers—not their clients—who assume the full burden of demonstrating that
the former client has not been exploited, coerced, or manipulated, intentionally
or unintentionally.
(d) Social workers should not provide clinical services to individuals with whom
they have had a prior sexual relationship. Providing clinical services to a former
sexual partner has the potential to be harmful to the individual and is likely to 69
Concept, History, Ethics and make it difficult for the social worker and individual to maintain appropriate
Values of Philanthropy
professional boundaries.

1.10 Physical Contact

Social workers should not engage in physical contact with clients when there is a
possibility of psychological harm to the client as a result of the contact (such as
cradling or caressing clients). Social workers who engage in appropriate physical
contact with clients are responsible for setting clear, appropriate, and culturally
sensitive boundaries that govern such physical contact.

1.11 Sexual Harassment

Social workers should not sexuallyharass clients. Sexual harassment includes sexual
advances, sexual solicitation, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical
conduct of a sexual nature.

1.12 Derogatory Language

Social workers should not use derogatory language in their written or verbal
communications to or about clients. Social workers should use accurate and
respectful language in all communications to and about clients.

1.13 Payment for Services

(a) When setting fees, social workers should ensure that the fees are fair, reasonable,
and commensurate with the services performed. Consideration should be given
to clients’ability to pay.
(b) Social workers should avoid accepting goods or services from clients as payment
for professional services. Bartering arrangements, particularlyinvolving services,
create the potential for conflicts of interest, exploitation, and inappropriate
boundaries in social workers’ relationships with clients. Social workers should
explore and may participate in bartering only in very limited circumstances
when it can be demonstrated that such arrangements are an accepted practice
among professionals in the local community, considered to be essential for the
provision of services, negotiated without coercion, and entered into at the client’s
initiative and with the client’s informed consent. Social workers who accept
goods or services from clients as payment for professional services assume the
full burden of demonstrating that this arrangement will not be detrimental to the
client or the professional relationship.
(c) Social workers should not solicit a private fee or other remuneration for providing
services to clients who are entitled to such available services through the social
workers’employer or agency.

1.14 Clients Who Lack Decision Making Capacity

When social workers act on behalf of clients who lack the capacityto make informed
decisions, social workers should take reasonable steps to safeguard the interests
and rights of those clients.

1.15 Interruption of Services

Social workers should make reasonable efforts to ensure continuity of services in
the event that services are interrupted by factors such as unavailability, relocation,
illness, disability, or death.
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1.16 Termination of Services Ethical Codes

(a) Social workers should terminate services to clients and professional relationships
with them when such services and relationships are no longer required or no
longer serve the clients’ needs or interests.
(b) Social workers should take reasonable steps to avoid abandoning clients who
are still in need of services. Social workers should withdraw services
precipitously onlyunder unusual circumstances, giving careful consideration to
all factors in the situation and taking care to minimize possible adverse effects.
Social workers shouldassist in making appropriatearrangements for continuation
of services when necessary.
(c) Social workers’ fee for service settings may terminate services to clients who
are not paying an overdue balance if the financial contractual arrangements
have been made clear to the client, if the client does not pose an imminent
danger to self or others, and if the clinical and other consequences of the current
nonpayment have been addressed and discussed with the client.
(d) Social workers should not terminate services to pursue a social, financial, or
sexual relationship with a client.
(e) Social workers who anticipate the termination or interruption of services to
clients should notify clients promptly and seek the transfer, referral, or
continuation of services in relation to the clients’ needs and preferences.
(f) Social workers who are leaving an employment setting should inform clients of
appropriate options for the continuation of services and of the benefits and
risks of the options.

2. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES TO

COLLEAGUES

2.01 Respect
(a) Social workers should treat colleagues with respect and should represent
accurately and fairly the qualifications, views, and obligations of colleagues.
(b) Social workers should avoid unwarranted negative criticism of colleagues
in communications withclients or with otherprofessionals. Unwarranted negative
criticism may include demeaning comments that refer to colleagues’ level of
competence or to individuals’attributes such as race, ethnicity, national origin,
color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, marital status,
political belief, religion, immigration status, and mental or physical disability.
(c) Social workers should cooperate with social work colleagues and with
colleagues of other professions when such cooperation serves the wellbeing of
clients.

2.02 Confidentiality
Social workers should respect confidential information shared by colleagues in the
course of their professional relationships and transactions. Social workers should
ensure that such colleagues understand social workers’ obligation to respect
confidentiality and any exceptions related to it.

2.03 Interdisciplinary Collaboration

(a) Social workers who are members of an interdisciplinaryteam should participate
in and contribute to decisions that affect the wellbeing of clients by drawing on 71
Concept, History, Ethics and the perspectives, values, and experiences of the social work profession.
Values of Philanthropy
Professional and ethical obligations of the interdisciplinary team as a whole and
of its individual members should be clearly established.
(b) Social workers for whom a team decision raises ethical concerns should attempt
to resolve the disagreement through appropriate channels. If the disagreement
cannot be resolved, social workers should pursue other avenues to address
their concerns consistent with client wellbeing.

2.04 Disputes Involving Colleagues

(a) Social workers should not take advantage of a dispute between a colleague
and an employer to obtain a position or otherwise advance the social workers’
own interests.
(b) Social workers should not exploit clients in disputes with colleagues or engage
clients in any inappropriate discussion of conflicts between social workers and
their colleagues.

2.05 Consultation
(a) Social workers should seek the advice and counsel of colleagues whenever
such consultation is in the best interests of clients.
(b) Social workers should keep themselves informed about colleagues’ areas of
expertise and competencies. Social workers should seek consultation only from
colleagues who have demonstrated knowledge, expertise, and competence
related to the subject of the consultation.
(c) When consulting with colleagues about clients, social workers should disclose
the least amount of information necessary to achieve the purposes of the
consultation.

2.06 Referral for Services

(a) Social workers should refer clients to other professionals when the other
professionals’ specialized knowledge or expertise is needed to serve clients
fully or when social workers believe that they are not being effective or making
reasonable progress with clients and that additional service is required.
(b) Social workers who refer clients to other professionals should take appropriate
steps to facilitate an orderly transfer of responsibility. Social workers who refer
clients to other professionals should disclose, with clients’ consent, all pertinent
information to the new service providers.
(c) Social workers are prohibited from giving or receiving payment for a referral
when no professional service is provided by the referring social worker.

2.07 Sexual Relationships

(a) Social workers who function as supervisors or educators should not engage in
sexual activities or contact with supervisees, students, trainees, or other
colleagues over whom they exercise professional authority.
(b) Social workers should avoid engaging in sexual relationships with colleagues
when there is potential for a conflict of interest. Social workers who become
involved in, or anticipate becoming involved in, a sexual relationship with a
colleague have a duty to transfer professional responsibilities, when necessary,
to avoid a conflict of interest.
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2.08 Sexual Harassment Ethical Codes

Social workers should not sexually harass supervisees, students, trainees, or

colleagues. Sexual harassment includes sexual advances, sexual solicitation, requests
for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature.

2.09 Impairment of Colleagues

(a) Social workers who have direct knowledge of a social work colleague’s
impairment that is due to personal problems, psychosocial distress, substance
abuse, or mental health difficulties and that interferes with practice effectiveness
should consult with that colleague when feasible and assist the colleague in
taking remedial action.
(b) Social workers who believe that a social work colleague’s impairment interferes
with practice effectiveness and that the colleague has not taken adequate steps
to address the impairment should take action through appropriate channels
established by employers, agencies, NASW, licensing and regulatory bodies,
and other professional organizations.

2.10 Incompetence of Colleagues

(a) Social workers who have direct knowledge of a social work colleague’s
incompetence should consult with that colleague when feasible and assist the
colleague in taking remedial action.
(b) Social workers who believe that a social work colleague is incompetent and
has not taken adequate steps to address the incompetence should take action
through appropriate channels established by employers, agencies, NASW,
licensing and regulatory bodies, and other professional organizations.

2.11 Unethical Conduct of Colleagues

(a) Social workers should take adequate measures to discourage, prevent, expose,
and correct the unethical conduct of colleagues.
(b) Social workers should be knowledgeable about established policies and
procedures for handling concerns about colleagues’unethical behavior. Social
workers should be familiar with national, state, and local procedures for handling
ethical complaints. These include policies and procedures created by NASW,
licensing and regulatory bodies, employers, agencies, and other professional
organizations.
(c) Social workers who believe that a colleague has acted unethically should seek
resolution by discussing their concerns with the colleague when feasible and
when such discussion is likely to be productive.
(d) When necessary, social workers who believe that a colleague has acted
unethically should take action through appropriate formal channels (such as
contacting a state licensing board or regulatory body, an NASW committee on
inquiry, or other professional ethics committees).
(e) Social workers should defend and assist colleagues who are unjustly charged
with unethical conduct.

73
Concept, History, Ethics and 3. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES IN PRACTICE
Values of Philanthropy
SETTINGS

3.01 Supervision and Consultation

(a) Social workers who provide supervision or consultation should have the
necessary knowledge and skill to supervise or consult appropriately and should
do so only within their areas of knowledge and competence.
(b) Social workers who provide supervision or consultation are responsible for
setting clear, appropriate, and culturally sensitive boundaries.
(c) Social workers should not engage in any dual or multiple relationships with
supervisees in which there is a risk of exploitation of or potential harm to the
supervisee.
(d) Social workers who provide supervision should evaluate supervisees’
performance in a manner that is fair and respectful.

3.02 Education and Training

(a) Social workers who function as educators, field instructors for students, or
trainers should provide instruction only within their areas of knowledge and
competence and should provide instruction based on the most current
information and knowledge available in the profession.
(b) Social workers who function as educators or field instructors for students should
evaluate students’ performance in a manner that is fair and respectful.
(c) Social workers who function as educators or field instructors for students should
take reasonable steps to ensure that clients are routinely informed when services
are being provided by students.
(d) Social workers who function as educators or field instructors for students should
not engage in any dual or multiple relationships with students in which there is a
risk of exploitation or potential harm to the student. Social work educators and
field instructors are responsible for setting clear, appropriate, and culturally
sensitive boundaries.

3.03 Performance Evaluation

Social workers who have responsibility for evaluating the performance of others
should fulfill such responsibility in a fair and considerate manner and on the basis of
clearly stated criteria.

3.04 Client Records

(a) Social workers should take reasonable steps to ensure that documentation in
records is accurate and reflects the services provided.
(b) Social workers should include sufficient and timely documentation in records
to facilitate the delivery of services and to ensure continuityof services provided
to clients in the future.
(c) Social workers’ documentation should protect clients’ privacy to the extent
that is possible and appropriate and should include only information that is
directly relevant to the delivery of services.
(d) Social workers should store records following the termination of services to
ensure reasonable future access. Records should be maintained for the number
74 of years required by state statutes or relevant contracts.
3.05 Billing Ethical Codes

Social workers should establish and maintain billing practices that accurately reflect
the nature and extent of services provided and that identify who provided the service
in the practice setting.
3.06 Client Transfer
(a) When an individual who is receiving services from another agencyor colleague
contacts a social worker for services, the social worker should carefully consider
the client’s needs before agreeing to provide services. To minimize possible
confusion and conflict, social workers should discuss with potential clients the
nature of the clients’ current relationship with other service providers and the
implications, including possible benefits or risks, of entering into a relationship
with a new service provider.
(b) If a new client has been served by another agency or colleague, social workers
should discuss with the client whether consultation with the previous service
provider is in the client’s best interest.

3.07 Administration
(a) Social work administrators should advocate within and outside their agencies
for adequate resources to meet clients’ needs.
(b) Social workers should advocate for resource allocation procedures that are
open and fair. When not all clients’needs can be met, an allocation procedure
should be developed that is nondiscriminatory and based on appropriate and
consistently applied principles.
(c) Social workers who are administrators should take reasonable steps to ensure
that adequate agency or organizational resources are available to provide
appropriate staff supervision.
(d) Social work administrators should take reasonable steps to ensure that the
working environment for which they are responsible is consistent with and
encourages compliance with the NASW Code of Ethics. Social work
administrators should take reasonable steps to eliminate any conditions in their
organizations that violate, interfere with, or discourage compliance with the
Code.

3.08 Continuing Education and Staff Development

Social work administrators and supervisors should take reasonable steps to provide
or arrange for continuing education and staff development for all staff for whom they
are responsible. Continuing education and staff development should address current
knowledge and emerging developments related to social work practice and ethics.

3.09 Commitments to Employers

(a) Social workers generally should adhere to commitments made to employers
and employing organizations.
(b) Social workers should work to improve employing agencies’ policies and
procedures and the efficiency and effectiveness of their services.
(c) Social workers should take reasonable steps to ensure that employers are
aware of social workers’ ethical obligations as set forth in the NASW Code of
Ethics and of the implications of those obligations for social work practice.
75
Concept, History, Ethics and (d) Social workers should not allow an employing organization’s policies,
Values of Philanthropy
procedures, regulations, or administrative orders to interfere with their ethical
practice of social work. Social workers should take reasonable steps to ensure
that their employing organizations’ practices are consistent with the NASW
Code of Ethics.
(e) Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate discrimination in the
employing organization’s work assignments and in its employment policies and
practices.
(f) Social workers should accept employment or arrange student field placements
only in organizations that exercise fair personnel practices.
(g) Social workers should be diligent stewards of the resources of their employing
organizations, wisely conserving funds where appropriate and never
misappropriating funds or using them for unintended purposes.

3.10 Labor Management Disputes

(a) Social workers may engage in organized action, including the formation of and
participation in labor unions, to improve services to clients and working
conditions.
(b) The actions of social workers who are involved in labor management disputes,
job actions, or labor strikes should be guided by the profession’s values, ethical
principles, and ethical standards. Reasonable differences of opinion exist among
social workers concerning their primary obligation as professionals during an
actual or threatened labor strike or job action. Social workers should carefully
examine relevant issues and their possible impact on clients before deciding on
a course of action.

4. SOCIALWORKERS’ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES AS
PROFESSIONALS

4.01 Competence
(a) Social workers should accept responsibility or employment only on the basis
of existing competence or the intention to acquire the necessary competence.
(b) Social workers should strive to become and remain proficient in professional
practice and the performance of professional functions. Social workers should
critically examine and keep current with emerging knowledge relevant to social
work. Social workers should routinely review the professional literature and
participate in continuing education relevant to social work practice and social
work ethics.
(c) Social workers should base practice on recognized knowledge, including
empirically based knowledge, relevant to social work and social work ethics.

4.02 Discrimination
Social workers should not practice, condone, facilitate, or collaborate with any
form of discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex,
sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, marital status, political belief,
religion, immigration status, or mental or physical disability.

76
4.03 Private Conduct Ethical Codes

Social workers should not permit their private conduct to interfere with their ability
to fulfill their professional responsibilities.

4.04 Dishonesty, Fraud, and Deception

Social workers should not participate in, condone, or be associated with dishonesty,
fraud, or deception.

4.05 Impairment
(a) Social workers should not allow their own personal problems, psychosocial
distress, legal problems, substance abuse, or mental health difficulties to interfere
with their professional judgment and performance or to jeopardize the best
interests of people for whom they have a professional responsibility.
(b) Social workers whose personal problems, psychosocial distress, legal problems,
substance abuse, or mental health difficulties interfere with their professional
judgment and performance should immediately seek consultation and take
appropriate remedial action by seeking professional help, making adjustments
in workload, terminating practice, or taking any other steps necessary to protect
clients and others.

4.06 Misrepresentation
(a) Social workers should make clear distinctions between statements made and
actions engaged in as a private individual and as a representative of the social
work profession, a professional social work organization, or the social worker’s
employing agency.
(b) Social workers who speak on behalf of professional social work organizations
should accurately represent the official and authorized positions of the
organizations.
(c) Social workers should ensure that their representations to clients, agencies,
and the public of professional qualifications, credentials, education, competence,
affiliations, services provided, or results to be achieved are accurate. Social
workers should claim only those relevant professional credentials they actually
possess and take steps to correct any inaccuracies or misrepresentations of
their credentials by others.

4.07 Solicitations
(a) Social workers should not engage in uninvited solicitation of potential clients
who, because of their circumstances, are vulnerable to undue influence,
manipulation, or coercion.
(b) Social workers should not engage in solicitation of testimonial endorsements
(including solicitation of consent to use a client’s prior statement as a testimonial
endorsement) from current clients or from other people who, because of their
particular circumstances, are vulnerable to undue influence.

4.08 Acknowledging Credit

(a) Social workers should take responsibilityand credit, including authorship credit,
only for work they have actuallyperformed and to which theyhave contributed.
(b) Social workers should honestly acknowledge the work of and the contributions
made by others. 77
Concept, History, Ethics and 5. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES TO THE
Values of Philanthropy
SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION

5.01 Integrity of the Profession

(a) Social workers should work toward the maintenance and promotion of high
standards of practice.
(b) Social workers should uphold and advance the values, ethics, knowledge, and
mission of the profession. Social workers should protect, enhance, and improve
the integrity of the profession through appropriate study and research, active
discussion, and responsible criticism of the profession.
(c) Social workers should contribute time and professional expertise to activities
that promote respect for the value, integrity, and competence of the social
work profession. These activities may include teaching, research, consultation,
service, legislative testimony, presentations in the community, and participation
in their professional organizations.
(d) Social workers should contribute to the knowledge base of social work and
share with colleagues their knowledge related to practice, research, and ethics.
Social workers should seek to contribute to the profession’s literature and to
share their knowledge at professional meetings and conferences.
(e) Social workers should act to prevent the unauthorized and unqualified practice
of social work.

5.02 Evaluation and Research

(a) Social workers should monitor and evaluate policies, the implementation of
programs, and practice interventions.
(b) Social workers should promote and facilitate evaluation and research to
contribute to the development of knowledge.
(c) Social workers should critically examine and keep current with emerging
knowledge relevant to social work and fullyuse evaluation and research evidence
in their professional practice.
(d) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should carefully consider
possible consequences and should follow guidelines developed for the protection
of evaluation and research participants.Appropriate institutional review boards
should be consulted.
(e) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should obtain voluntary and
written informed consent from participants, when appropriate, without any
implied or actual deprivation or penaltyfor refusal to participate; without undue
inducement to participate; and with due regard for participants’ wellbeing,
privacy, and dignity. Informed consent should include information about the
nature, extent, and duration of the participation requested and disclosure of the
risks and benefits of participation in the research.
(f) When evaluation or research participants are incapable of giving informed
consent, social workers should provide an appropriate explanation to the
participants, obtain the participants’ assent to the extent they are able, and
obtain written consent from an appropriate proxy.
(g) Social workers should never design or conduct evaluation or research that
does not use consent procedures, such as certain forms of naturalistic
78 observation and archival research, unless rigorous and responsible review of
 the research has found it to be justified because of its prospective scientific, Ethical Codes

educational, or applied value and unless equallyeffective alternative procedures

that do not involve waiver of consent are not feasible.
(h) Social workers should inform participants of their right to withdraw from
evaluation and research at any time without penalty.
(i) Social workers should take appropriate steps to ensure that participants in
evaluation and research have access to appropriate supportive services.
(j) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should protect participants
from unwarranted physical or mental distress, harm, danger, or deprivation.
(k) Social workers engaged in the evaluation of services should discuss collected
information only for professional purposes and onlywith people professionally
concerned with this information.
(l) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should ensure the anonymity
or confidentiality of participants and of the data obtained from them. Social
workers should inform participants of anylimits of confidentiality, the measures
that will be taken to ensure confidentiality, and when any records containing
research data will be destroyed.
(m) Social workers who report evaluation and research results should protect
participants’ confidentiality by omitting identifying information unless proper
consent has been obtained authorizing disclosure.
(n) Social workers should report evaluation and research findings accurately. They
should not fabricate or falsify results and should take steps to correct any errors
later found in published data using standard publication methods.
(o) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should be alert to and avoid
conflicts of interest and dual relationships with participants, should inform
participants when a real or potential conflict of interest arises, and should take
steps to resolve the issue in a manner that makes participants’interests primary.
(p) Social workers should educate themselves, their students, and their colleagues
about responsible research practices.

6. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES TO THE

BROADER SOCIETY

6.01 Social Welfare

Social workers should promote the general welfare of society, from local to global
levels, and the development of people, their communities, and their environments.
Social workers should advocate for living conditions conducive to the fulfillment of
basic human needs and should promote social, economic, political, and cultural
values and institutions that are compatible with the realization of social justice.

6.02 Public Participation

Social workers should facilitate informed participation by the public in shaping social
policies and institutions.

6.03 Public Emergencies

Social workers should provide appropriate professional services in public emergencies
to the greatest extent possible.
79
Concept, History, Ethics and 6.04 Social and Political Action
Values of Philanthropy
(a) Social workers should engage in social and political action that seeks to ensure
that all people have equal access to the resources, employment, services, and
opportunities they require to meet their basic human needs and to develop
fully. Social workers should be aware of the impact of the political arena on
practice and should advocate for changes in policy and legislation to improve
social conditions in order to meet basic human needs and promote social justice.
(b) Social workers should act to expand choice and opportunity for all people,
with special regard for vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, and exploited
people and groups.
(c) Social workers should promote conditions that encourage respect for cultural
and social diversity within the United States and globally. Social workers should
promote policies and practices that demonstrate respect for difference, support
the expansion of cultural knowledge and resources, advocate for programs
and institutions that demonstrate cultural competence, and promote policies
that safeguard the rights of and confirm equity and social justice for all people.
(d) Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate domination of, exploitation
of, and discrimination against any person, group, or class on the basis of race,
ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or
expression, age, marital status, political belief, religion, immigration status, or
mental or physical disability.
The 2008 NASW DelegateAssemblyapproved the following revisions to the NASW
Code of Ethics:

Cultural Competence and Social Diversity (1.05)

(c) Social workers should obtain education about and seek to understand the nature
of social diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin,
color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, marital status,
political belief, religion, immigration status, and mental or physical disability.

Respect (2.01)
(a) Social workers should treat colleagues with respect and should represent
accurately and fairly the qualifications, views, and obligations of colleagues.
(b) Social workers should avoid unwarranted negative criticism of colleagues
in communications withclients or with otherprofessionals. Unwarranted negative
criticism may include demeaning comments that refer to colleagues’ level of
competence or to individuals’attributes such as race, ethnicity, national origin,
color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, marital status,
political belief, religion, immigration status, and mental or physical disability.

Discrimination (4.02)
Social workers should not practice, condone, facilitate, or collaborate with any
form of discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, national
origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identityor expression, age, marital status,
political belief, religion, immigration status, or mental or physical disability.

Social and Political Action (6.04)

(d) Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate domination of, exploitation
80 of, and discrimination against any person, group, or class on the basis of race,
 ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or Ethical Codes

expression, age, marital status, political belief, religion, immigration status, or

mental or physical disability.

NOTE:
It is important that a mention is made regarding the code of ethics proposed by
IFSW. It also provides a widely accept modern definition for Social Work. The
attempts at indigenization of this aspect also cannot be sidelined. Drawing insights
from NASW code of ethics, a group of Maharashtra based professionals in India,
has come up with a set of declarations on the ethical aspects of Social Work practice
in India.

81
Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy
UNIT 5 FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN VALUES
Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Value of Society
5.3 Value of Life
5.4 Value of Love
5.5 Value of Freedom
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Further Readings and References

5.0 OBJECTIVES
As responsible citizens, you should know the fundamental human values that promote
philanthropic activities in a society. In this unit you are introduced to some of the
most fundamental human values, such as:
l Value of Society
l Value of Life
l Value of Love and
l Value of Freedom
These are introduced in such a way that, after going through this unit, you could be
inspired to promote these values among those who are often deprived of these
values, the poor and the marginalized of society.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes.
They reflect a person’s sense of right and wrong. They tell people what is good,
beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable, constructive, etc. Afundamental
human value is a foundation upon which other values are based. Societies have values
that are largelyshared bytheir members. The values identifythose objects, conditions
or characteristics that members of the society consider important, valuable. The
values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract
than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify
what should be judged as good or evil. For example, flying the national flag on a
national day of importance like the Republic Day and the Independence Day is a
norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism.

5.2 VALUE OF SOCIETY

Society is constituted of groups related to one another in different social systems.
The lifelong socialization process takes place almost entirely in group contexts which
shape our social behaviour and personalities. Throughout life, most of our daily
82
activities are performed in the company of others. Whether our purpose is working, Fundamental
Human Values
raising a family, learning, worshipping, or simply relaxing, we usually pursue it in
groups, even if the group is as small as two or three people. Our need for meaningful
human contacts is not merely a practical one; it is a deep psychological need as well.
If people are deprived of groups, of the company of others for prolonged period,
mental breakdown is the usual result. Even the Geneva Convention, an international
agreement that regulates the treatment of prisoners of war, recognizes this need. It
regards solitary confinement for more than thirty days as a cruel and barbarous form
of torture. In its strictest sense, a group is collection of persons interacting together
in an orderly way on the basis of shared expectations about each other’s behaviour.
The members of a group feel a common sense of belonging.Agroup differs from an
aggregate, a collection of people, such as the passengers in a bus or a crowd in a
street. The members of an aggregate do not interact together and have no common
sense of belonging.
Some of the major groups that promote the fundamental values of societyare family,
education, economy, politics, and religion.

1) Family
Family is a relatively permanent group of people established through marriage, and
whose adult members assume responsibility for the young. At the most basic level,
the institution of the family is derived from a set of imperatives that are unique to
human species. The fact that human sexual relations are not restricted to a brief
breeding season encourages the formation of stable, long-lasting bonds between
mates. In other species, the offsprings are generally able to fend for themselves quite
soon after being born or hatched. The human infant, however, is helpless and in
need of constant care and protection (both physical and psychological) for several
years after birth.
The family exercises several important functions. Some of them are the following:
Regulation of Social Behaviour: No society allows people to mate at random,
and no society regards sexual behaviour purely as a matter of privet choice. The
marriage and family system provides a means of regulating sexual behaviour by
specifying who may mate with whom and under what circumstances they may do
so. Replacement of Members: A society cannot survive unless it has a system for
replacing its members from generation to generation. The family provides a stable,
institutionalized means through which this replacement can take place, with specific
individuals occupying the social roles of mother and father and assuming defined
responsibilities. Socialization: Newborn infants do not become fully human until
theyare socialized, and the primarycontext for this socialization is the family. Because
the child is theirs, the parents normally take particular care to monitor its behaviour
and to transmit to it the language, values, norms, and beliefs of the culture. Care and
Protection: The family is able to offer the care, protection, security, and love that
are vital to its members. Infants need warmth, food, shelter, and affection. The family
provides an intimate atmosphere and an economic unit in which these needs can be
provided. Social Status: Legitimate birth into a family gives the individual a stable
place in society. We inherit from our family not only material goods but also our
social status. We belong to the racial or ethnic group and usually to the same religion
and social class as that of our parents. Our family background is the most significant
single determinant of fundamental human values in society.

83
Concept, History, Ethics and 2) Education
Values of Philanthropy
The word ‘school’ comes from an ancient Greek word meaning “leisure.” The link
between the two words may not seem obvious today, but in pre-industrial societies
schooling was reserved for the children of a privileged elite. No society could afford
more than a handful of educated people. Schooling did little to increase a person’s
productivity and was thus considered to be wasteful. Education was undertaken
only by those with the time and money to pursue the cultivation of the mind for its
own sake.With the rise of industrialism, however, mass schooling became a necessity,
knowledge expanded rapidly, the pace of social change increased, and many new
economic roles were created. In its broadest sense, ‘education’ is almost synonymous
with ‘socialization,’ since both processes involve the transmission of culture from
one person or group to another. The distinguishing feature of education today is that
it has become an institutionalized, formal activity. Modern societies deliberately
organize the educational experience, make it compulsory for people in certain age
groups, train teachers, and provide locations and equipment for the teaching and
learning process. Education can thus be described as the systematic, formalized
transmission of knowledge, skills, and values.
Functionalist Perspective: The functionalist perspective provides a useful way of
explaining the central importance of the schools in maintaining the social order as a
whole. Several important functions of education can be identified. Cultural
Transmission: If society is to survive, its culture must be transmitted from one
generation to the next. In a complex modern society, the schools are used to provide
the young with the knowledge, skills, and values that the societyconsiders especially
important. This function is a conservative one, for the schools are transmitting the
culture of the past, or best the present. Social Integration: Modern industrial societies
frequently contain many different ethnic, racial, religious, or other subcultures.
Education serves to integrate the young members of these subcultures into a common
culture, encouraging thedevelopment of a relativelyhomogeneous societywith shared
values. Personal Development: In both the formal curriculum and in informal
interaction with peers and teachers, students learn a great deal about themselves
and about the world that surrounds them. Much of this learning is more valuable for
personal, emotional, social, and intellectual development. Screening and Selection:
By screening the academic performance of students, the schools effectively select
particular types of students for particular types of occupations. From the elementary
years onward, the schools constantly test students and evaluate their achievements,
channeling some toward technical vocation and others towards academic subjects.
The credentials that people possess at the end of their education have a strong
influence on their life chances. Innovation: Educational institutions do not merely
transmit existing knowledge; theystimulate intellectual curiosityand critical thought,
and partly because college and universityteachers usually conduct research that will
increase self-knowledge. Latent Functions: But education also has functions of a
latent type, functions that are not generally recognized and were never intended. For
example, schools serve as ‘baby sitting’ agencies. They free mothers from their
child-rearing tasks and permit them to work outside the home. The educational
institutions also serve as ‘marriage venues’ by giving young people of fairly similar
background a chance to interact with one another in a way that would not be possible
if their social orbits were restricted to the home and work. In addition to their formal
curricula, the schools also teach habits of punctuality, docility and obedience to
authority.

84
3) Economy Fundamental
Human Values
Humans need food and shelter in order to survive: these are basic biological
necessities. Humans need also other goods and services as well. Whether these
needs are biologically determined necessities or socially defined desirables, they
can usuallybe satisfied onlybyhuman effort.Afew of the material goods and personal
services that people want are freely available, like the air they breathe or such care
as they receive from adults when they are children. But most goods and services are
scarce. People must work to produce them and must find some way of distributing
them among the various members of the society. This activity is the substance of
economic life. The economic order is the institutionalized system for producing and
distributing goods and services.

4) Politics
The political order is the institutionalized system through which some individuals and
groups acquire and exercise power over others. Politics is about power – about
who gets it, how it is obtained, how it is used, and to what purpose it is put. Max
Weber defined power as the ability to control the behaviour of others, even in the
absence of their consent. Put another way, power is the capacity to participate
effectively in a decision-making process. Those who for one reason or another
cannot affect the process are therefore powerless. Power may be exercised blatantly
or subtly, legallyor illegally, justly or unjustly. It may derive from many sources, such
as wealth, status, prestige, numbers, or organizational efficiency. Its ultimate basis,
however, is the ability to compel obedience, if necessary through threat or use of
force.

5) Religion
Religion is a system of commonly held beliefs and practices that are oriented toward
some sacred, supernatural realm. Religions can be divided into four main types:
religions of simple supernaturalism, animism, theism, and abstract ideals. Simple
Supernaturalism: This type of religion, which is fairly common in very simple pre-
industrialized societies, recognizes the existence of supernatural forces in the world.
This kind of religion does not include a belief in gods or spirits, but the believers
assume that there are supernatural forces that influence human events for better or
worse. Animism:Animism recognizes active, animate spirits operating in the world.
These spirits may be found both in people and in otherwise inanimate natural
phenomena such as rivers, winds, mountains, and weather. The spirits are assumed,
like human beings, to have motives, will, and emotions. Theism: Theism centres on
beliefs in gods.Agod is presumed to be interested at least to some extent in human
affairs, and to be worthy of worship. Abstract Ideals: This type of religion centres
on the way of thinking and behaving. The goal is to reach an elevated state of being
and consciousness, and in this way to fulfill one’s human potential to the utmost. The
best-known religion of abstract ideals is Buddhism, which is not concerned with the
worship but with the attempt to promote the values of life through many years of
meditation.

5.3 VALUE OF LIFE

Ever since Plato, Western thinkers have dreamed of better life, that could perhaps
never be fully realized, but which at least gave us something to aspire to – noble,
beautiful visions of life. Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, More, Descartes, Spinoza,
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Concept, History, Ethics and Leibniz, Berkley, Hegel, Bergson et al painted pictures of a life in which there is a
Values of Philanthropy
strong sense of liberty, fraternity and equality rooted in an ontological spirituality, in
which human lifeis fulfilling through a conviction of immortality. Now, at the dawn of
the 21st century, this long tradition of imagination, vision and conviction seems
vanishing under the pressure of consumerism and materialism. By reducing life to the
question ofmaterialism, the present thinkinghas consigned themoredifficult questions
about life to oblivion: the immortal and eternal source of life. If we are to provide a
more inspiring ideal, then it is time we devoted more thought to the question on how
to understand life more scientificallyand philosophically, and thus, comprehensively.

Story of Life
Scientists agree that life did not always exist on earth. They estimate that it began
about four billion years ago.About four billion years ago, Aries, the first prokaryotic
cells appeared on earth. On account of the balance of earth’s own internal dynamics
and its position in the structure of the solar system, matter existed as solid, liquid,
and gas and flowed from one form into another to provide an incessantly creative
chemical womb from which arose Aries, the first prokaryotic living cell. The primal
prokaryotic cells had the power to organize themselves, as did the stars and galaxies.
The cells could also remember significant information, even the patterns necessary
to knit together another living cell. The cells also possessed a new order of creativity
to catch the pockets of energy hurled by the Sun at the speed of light and to use
these quanta as food. Aries and the prokaryotes gathered hydrogen from the ocean
and released oxygen into Earth’s system, which saturated the land and the seas.
However, the prokaryotes unknowingly pushed Earth’s system into an extremely
unstable condition byaltering earth’s chemistrywith this element of explosive power.
Consequently, the prokaryote communities perished as their interiors were set ablaze
by the oxygen. But out of this crisis arose Vikengla, a new and radically advanced
being. Vikengla was the first eukaryotic cell, which was capable of shaping oxygen’s
dangerous energy for its own purposes. The eukaryotes invented meiotic sex by
which the universe’s diversityexpanded a hundredfold, through sexual union. Finally,
the eukaryotes took that daring step of submerging themselves into a larger mind as
trillion of them gathered together and evoked Argos, the first multicellular animal.
About 600 million years ago, there arose multicellular organism. They included the
coral, worm, insects, clams, starfish, sponges, spiders, vertebrates, leeches and
other forms oflife. Theanimals followed the plants onto land heaved with amphibians,
reptiles, insects and dinosaurs.About 67 million years ago there was an astronomical
collision that changed earth’s atmosphere and climate, which nearly destroyed all
forms of animal life on earth, including the dinosaurs. But such destructions opened
up new possibilities seized upon bythe birds and the mammals. The mammals entered
earth’s life about 200 million years ago. They developed emotional sensitivity, a
new capacitywithin their nervous systems for feeling the universe. This mammalian
emotional sensitivity was deepened with the human nerval capability, the self-
consciousness. Four million years ago inAfrica, human (a young female hominid,
now designated as “Lucy,” lived in southern Ethiopia) stood up on just two limbs,
and later, about two million years ago, they began to use tools. Beginning around
thirty-five thousand years ago, they began a new form of celebration that displayed
itself in cave paintings deep within Earth. About 12 thousand years ago, the first
Neolithic villages were formed in Jericho, Catal Hüyük and Hassuna. It was the
most radical social transformation ever to occur in the human venture. In this period,
the decisive developments in language, religion, cosmology, arts, music and dance
86 took their primordial form. The urban civilization began to shape itself about five
thousand years ago giving rise to new power centres: Babylon, Paris, Persopolis, Fundamental
Human Values
Banaras, Rome, Jerusalem, Constantinople, Sion, Athens, Baghdad, Tikal of the
Maya, Cairo, Mecca, Delhi, Tenochtitlan of the Aztec, London, Cuzco, the Inca
City of the Sun.

Basic Unit of Life

This origin and development of life is essentially a problem lying in the domain of
organic chemistry, the chemistry of carbon compounds which are responsible for
the structure, organization and function ofthe cells.Alivingcell is like afairlycomplex,
well-organized chemical factory which takes in one set of organic molecules as food
and breaks them down into smaller units and then recombines them. The cell strings
special sets of small molecules together into long chains usuallyunbranched to make
the vital macromolecules of the cell: the nucleic acids, the RNA, DNA, proteins and
polysaccharides. The first level of organization is the lowest at which atoms are
bound together to form molecules. Single carbon atom is a fairly symmetric object.
However, more intricate structures and combination of atoms such as molecules
and macromolecules have a ‘handedness’: right handed or left handed. They rotate
the plane of polarization clockwise or anticlockwise. It shows that biochemical
molecules do not exist in isolation. They interact with other molecules. Nevertheless,
all the infinite number of organisms use only the left handed molecules, never the
right handed although nature produces them or human can synthesize them in the
laboratory. It is a mystery that all the molecules involved in each of the cells of every
organism have the same hand. It is a clear indication that all life emerged from the
first primordial living cell.
There are many other biochemical features, which are astonishingly alike in all the
cells of the organisms. The actual pathways, the precise ways in which one small
molecule is converted into another, and structural features are similar. Much of the
structure and the metabolic activities of the cell are based on that family of molecules
called proteins. Aprotein, precisely made with every atom in its correct place, is a
macromolecule containing thousands of atoms. Each type of protein forms an intricate
three-dimensional structure, which allows it to carryout catalytic orstructural function.
Thethree-dimensional structureis formed byfoldingupan underlinedone-dimensional
chain based on one or more polypeptide chains. A sequence of atoms along the
backbone consists of pattern of six atoms, and a typical backbone has hundreds of
them. Not surprisingly, the synthetic machineryof the cell constructs these polypeptide
chains by joining together a particular set of small molecules called amino acids. The
amino acids determine the exact nature of proteins. A protein is like a paragraph
written in twenty alphabets, namely, the twenty amino acids which are exactly same
or universally present throughout nature. Yet, there are also other kinds of amino
acids in a cell. Nevertheless, onlytwentyis used for proteins in all the living organisms.
Besides proteins, there is also a second very different language which carries the
genetic information of an organism: the nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. DNA
is concerned with protein manufacture, and plays an essential part in cell division. It
is a long, thread-like molecule similar in shape to a rope ladder twisted into a spiral.
The upright sides of the ladder are made of alternate sugar and phosphate molecules
joined into a chain. The rungs of the ladder are made of chemical bases, of which
there are four types: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. They are often
referred to by their initial letters: A, G, C, and T.
The genetic code is formed by the sequence in which these four chemical bases are
arranged along the length of a DNAmolecule. Most of a cell’s DNAis contained in
87
Concept, History, Ethics and the chromosomes in its nucleus, but proteins are made in the cytoplasm of a cell.
Values of Philanthropy
Somehow the coded instructions for protein manufacture must pass from the nucleus
to the cytoplasm and then be transcribed. This task is carried out by two types of
substance such as ribonucleic acid (RNA) which work in conjunction with
microscopic granules in the cytoplasm, ribosomes. The two types are called
messenger RNA and transfer RNA. In the nucleus, part of DNA molecule opens up
exposing the gene for a particular protein. Messenger RNA copies the sequence of
bases which make up the gene. Transfer RNA picks up amino acid molecules and
carries them to the ribosome where the amino acids are linked together forming a
protein molecule. The sequence of amino acids in the protein molecule depends
upon the way transfer RNA molecules fit into messenger RNA, and this depends
upon the sequence of bases in the gene. In this way, the genetic code relates the
four-alphabet language of the genetic material, the DNA, to the twenty-alphabet
language (twenty amino acids) of the proteins. To translate the genetic message on a
particular stretch of nucleic acid (a gene), the sequence of the side chain (nucleotides)
is read off by the biochemical machinery in groups of three (called the codons) from
some fixed point. Since the nucleic acids have just four nucleotide bases, there are
sixty-four possible triplets. Sixty-one of these codons stand for one or the other
amino acid. The remaining three triplets stand for the ‘end chain’ and ‘the start
chain’.
All living beings use the same genetic code.All living beings use the same four-letter
language (of the DNA and RNA) to carry genetic information and pass it on to the
progeny. It has now been revealed that in terms of the number of genes in our cells,
we humans are only a little better than the lowly roundworm which has just over
19,000 genes and the fruit fly some 13,600. Results published by two teams of
scientists, in February, 2001 put the number of genes in the human genome at around
30,000, that is, less than a third of what was estimated earlier (c. 100,000). However,
humans being very thrifty with their genes are able to do more with their genes than
other species. For instance, instead of producing only one protein per gene, as
believed earlier, the average human gene has been found to produce three different
proteins. Moreover, each gene directly interacts with four or five on average and
thus functions in a collective manner. It is also surprising to know that in the 75 % of
repetitive DNA sequences, which are known as junk DNA and were considered to
be useless, there are sequences that are still active and may be coding for proteins.
The genome sequence also shows that every person on Earth shares 99.99 % of the
same genetic code with all other people, a fact that should help settle the question of
racial, ethnic, or even caste superiority.
Moreover, all humans are oriented towards immortality or life after death. The
immortality of the human, from a rational viewpoint, can be established from the
immateriality or spirituality (as distinct from materiality) of certain fundamental
operations in human. The fundamental operations are knowing, willing and
remembering, which are immaterial or spiritual in themselves.As theyare spiritual in
themselves, they are intrinsically (internally) independent of matter and extrinsically
(externally) dependent on matter or material conditions. It means human cannot
know, or will, or remember without body or material conditions. Yet, the material
conditions cannot cause or internally determine any of these operations. If the
operations—knowing, willing, remembering—are spiritual, the corresponding
faculties—intellect, will, memory—from which these operations proceed should also
be spiritual.Although these faculties have their own distinct functions, they are not
separate or apart from each other as they are coordinated bya coordinating principle,
88 which must also be spiritual as the spiritual cannot originate from what is material,
but only from the spiritual. The spiritual is simple (i.e., without quantitative parts or Fundamental
Human Values
sections). The simple, having no parts, is not composed. What is not composed
cannot be decomposed. What cannot be decomposed cannot die, since death is
basically decomposition. What is not subject to death, therefore, is immortal. Hence,
human possesses at least a principle, which is spiritual and immortal. In this way,
when we look at humans we find that humans, once born, cannot disappear like
others beings. Humans, in some way, continueto live forever. Human life is invaluable
and immortal. It demands of everyone to respect and take care of it as precious and
valuable. Nobody can and should try to destroy such a life. For the value of human
life is greater than all other values.
Some of the several reports of the Near Death Experiences seem to be confirming
the continuity and immortality of human life. For instance, The Reader’s Digest
(October 2003) reports of a scientific case for after life of human. The following is a
gist of the same: In the summer of 1991, Pam Reynolds, a 35-year-old mother of
three children, learnt that she had a malignant bulge in her brain. Neurosurgeon
Robert Spetzler told her that in order to operate he would have to stop her heart
and she would be dead for up to an hour.As Spetzler powered the surgical instrument
to open the patient’s skull, she felt herself ‘pop’ out of her body, and then saw
vividly the whole operation from a vantage point just above Spetzler’s shoulders.
‘But even though her eyes and ears were effectively sealed shut, what she perceived
was actually happening.’As life left Reynold’s body, she found herself travelling
down a tunnel towards a light. At its end, she saw some of her departed relatives
and friends.An uncle, one of the departed, led her back to her body. Then, Reynolds
told Spetzler all that she’d seen and experienced.
To conclude: The remarkable unity of life, resulting from the fundamental equality
and universality, does not end at the level of protein synthesis, but runs down into the
structural, organizational and reproductive mechanisms of all living beings. This
marvellous unity is further heightened by the astounding accuracy in the process of
duplication of the cell, the transcription of the genetic code, and the immortality of
the human life on which depends the highest and deepest value of life, which has to
be respected by everyone. Value of life is best respected when we love everyone.
Love is the best way to promote the value of life.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Discuss the role of family in promoting the fundamental values of society.
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2. What in your opinion is the value of life?

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Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy 5.4 VALUE OF LOVE
Any lover who tries to love the beloved must face towards the beloved and
concentrate full attention on the latter. This full attention draws upon all three levels
of the lover’s being: biological, psychological, and moral. This full attention of the
lover to the beloved calls for total devotion or dedication of the lover to the beloved.
Hence, this total dedication is total self-giving or self donation of the lover to the
beloved. It is the self-giving of the being of the lover to the beloved. The best gift is
self-gift, giving of one’s being to another. In classical Greek, especially in Plato’s
Symposium, there are two terms for love. These are eros and philia. Eros is based
on strong feelings toward another. It usually occurs in the first stages of a man-
woman relationship. It is based more on physical traits. For example, when a man
says he has ‘fallen in love’ for a woman because ‘she looked like an angel.’ Or,
when a woman ‘falls in love’ for a man because he is intelligent, has good breeding,
etc. It is based more on self-benefit, of what can benefit for oneself rather than the
other person. When the person doesn’t feel happy anymore in loving that person,
she/he is led to believe that she/he has fallen out of love. Philia is love based on
friendship between two persons. Undoubtedly, friendship is the foundation of a
successful relationship. This is true whether it is marriage, relationship between family
members, relationship with co-workers, employer, etc. This is in contrast to a man-
woman romantic relationship which starts out by eros. With eros, one sees only
each other’s strengths/good side, everything is rosy.
Philia is based on “give-and-take,” where two people benefit each other in a mutual
relationship. One partner is still concerned with what she/he can take, but at the
same time is also concerned with her/his partner’s benefit and therefore gives back
in return. It is a higher type of love than eros. Philia is a mutual, “give-and take”
relationship, while eros is a self-based form of love that is more concerned with self-
benefit. There is also a third Greek term ‘agape’, “which occurs rather infrequently
in Greek usage” [of course, the verb agapao=’to love’ was common in classical
Greek, occurred in the Bible borrowed from the popular Egyptian dialect]. It is love
above philia and eros. It is a love that is totally selfless, where a person gives out
love to another person even if this act does not benefit her/him in any way. Whether
the love given is returned or not, the person continues to love even without any self-
benefit. Say, for instance, one helps another person even though that person hates
her/him. Or one takes insults from one’s partner without hitting back, all the while
forgiving and helping the partner toamend her/his ways. Themanifestations of agapeic
love are kindness, compassion, gentleness, patience, humility, forgiveness and
reconciliation. That is the core message of the Vedas and the Upanishads, of all
religions which uphold and teach the value of freedom too.

5.5 VALUE OF FREEDOM

Freedom is a fundamental value that humans are prepared to give anything to acquire,
to protect and to preserve it. It is one of the characteristics by which humans are
distinguished from animals. ‘To be human’necessarily implies ‘to be free.’Freedom
may be defined as distance and transcendence from binding necessities through
self-possession. All creatures, including the humans, are thrown to some necessity
or givenness. In the case of the non-humans, there is hardly any chance of ‘standing
out’ from their givenness. They are bound to it. The birds are necessitated to make
their nests in the very same way they have been doing from the beginning of creation.
90
They cannot improve upon it. But the humans are not bound to their givenness or Fundamental
Human Values
necessity. They can transcend it, and thus they are able to grow and create themselves
by merit of their freedom.
Freedom can be understood negatively or positively. Negatively, freedom means
‘being free from,’ i. e., the relation of not being bound, of being independent from
something. This negative concept is also a relative one since every being is related to
other beings in the world. It may be free from direct relationships to this or that, but
not from all things. Beings, for instance, which are free from insertion into civilization
and history, are all the more fully involved in nature and the universe.Abeing fully
free in the negative sense could not be a being in the world. Afully isolated being,
without any relationship, would be based on nothing and be nothing. Negation is
always based on something positive. If negative freedom were conceived as an
absolute, such a fully indeterminate being would be without a world and reduced to
nothingness. In contrast to the negative, relative concept, there is a positive, absolute
concept of freedom. Abeing is positively free insofar as it is in possession of itself
with the sufficient condition for all its being and relations. Hence, freedom means
also self-possession, of being completely present to oneself. Self-possession is the
essence of ‘person’too. A person is in possession of oneself and is not possessed
by another. When we look at freedom in this way, human freedom is neither merely
negative and relative nor fully positive and absolute. Of course, human has some
dominion over oneself and so also over parts of the world. But one is at the same
time inserted into the world and dependent on the beings among which one finds
oneself. Thus human freedom is constituted by isolation and power, and being ‘free
from’ and being‘free to.’ This basic mode of human freedom maybe called ‘universal
freedom’ which is the fundamental value of human by which human alone can say ‘I
am.’ Human can contrast all things with oneself as ‘beings’ and so understand them
in their proper perspective. In this way, human has the capacity of distancing all
things from oneself and oneself from all things. In distancing all things from oneself,
human also transcends all things through self-possession (self-consciousness),
transcends the necessities to which one is otherwise bound.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Discuss ‘love’ as a fundamental human value.
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2. Why is freedom important to human beings?

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91
Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy 5.6 LET US SUM UP
Values are broad preferences for appropriate course of actions. Theyreflect a person’s
sense of right and wrong in a society constituted of groups related to one another in
different social systems. Some of the major groups that promote the value of society
are family, education, economy, politics, and religion, which form the basis of human
life. Many thinkers have dreamed of better life, that could perhaps never be fully
realized, but which at least gave us something to aspire to. Most scientists agree that
life began about four billion years ago with Aries the first prokaryotic cell. This
origin and development of life is essentiallya problem lying in the domain of organic
chemistry, the chemistryof carbon compounds which are responsible for the structure,
organization and function of the cells. The remarkable unity of life does not end at
the level of protein synthesis, but runs down into the structural, organizational and
reproductivemechanismsofalllivingbeings.Thismarvellousunityisfurtherheightened
by the astounding accuracy in the process of duplication of the cell, the transcription
of the genetic code, and the immortality of the human life on which depends the
highest and deepest value of life, which has to be respected by everyone. Love is
the best way to promote the value of life. Love is the self-giving of the being of the
lover to the beloved. The best gift is self-gift, giving of one’s being to another without
any condition, agapeic love. The manifestations of agapeic love are kindness,
compassion, gentleness, patience, humility, forgiveness and reconciliation exercised
in freedom, which is distance and transcendence, from binding necessities, through
self-possession (self-consciousness).

5.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Bartholomew,Anita. “After Life: The Scientific Case for the Human Soul.” Reader’s
Digest. 163 (October 2003).
Bhushan, Vidya and Sachdeva, D. R. An Introduction to Sociology. Allahabad:
Kitab MahalAgencies, 1987.
Bottomore, T.B. Sociology as Social Criticism. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company
Ltd., 1979.
Encyclopedia of Sociology. Vols.1- 4, Edited by Edgar F Borgatta and Marie L
Borgatta, New York, Oxford: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992.
Hoffman, Martin L. Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring
and Justice. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Johnson, Allan G. Human Arrangements: An Introduction to Sociology. London:
HBJ Publishers, 1989.
Johnson, Harry M. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction. Bombay: Allied
Publishers, 1973.
Miller, Howard S. The Legal Foundations of American Philanthropy, 1776–
1844. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1961.
Morowitz, Harold. “Cell.” In: Lexicon Universal Encyclopaedia. Vol. 4. New
York: Lexicon Publications, 1989.
Müller, Max. “Freedom.” In: Sacramentum Mundi. Vol. II, Edited by Karl Rahner
with Cornelius Ernst and Kevin Smith. Bangalore: Theological Publications in India,
1978.
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Padiyath, Thomas and Panthanmackel, George. “Life.” In: ACPI Encyclopedia of Fundamental
Human Values
Philosophy. Vol. I, Edited by Johnson Puthenpurackal and George Panthanmackel.
Bangalore:Asian Trading Corporation, 2010.
Panthanmackel, George. Society in Being: Metaphysical Foundation of
Sociology. Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2003.
Panthanmackel, George. “From Violence to Peace: Agapeic Ontology as a
Philosophical Response.” In: Violence and Its Victims: A Challenge to
Philosophizing in the Indian Context. Edited by Ivo Coelho. Bangalore: Asian
Trading Corporation, 2010.
Prinz, Jesse. The Emotional Construction of Morals. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2006
Puthenpurackal, Johnson. “Freedom in the Indian Constitution.” In: The Constitution
of India: A Philosophical Review. Edited by George Panthanmackel. Delhi: Media
House, 2003.
Robertson, Ian. Sociology. New York: Worth Publishers, 1980.
Science Reporter (March, 2001).
Swimme, Brian and Berry, Thomas. The Universe Story. NewYork: Harper Collins,
1994.
Theory Building in Sociology. Edited by Jonathan H. Turner. New Delhi: Sage
Publications, 1989.
Website: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural). Retrieved on 12-02-
2011.

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Concept, History, Ethics and
Values of Philanthropy
UNIT 6 FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS
AND DUTIES
Contents
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Concept of Rights
6.3 Concept of Human Rights
6.4 Concept of Human Duties
6.5 Fundamental Human Rights and Duties
6.6 Salient Features of Universal Declaration of Human Rights
6.7 Articles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
6.8 Let us Sum Up
6.9 Further Readings and References

6.0 OBJECTIVES
It is important to understand the concept and meaning of human rights that should be
protected and promoted through philanthropic activities. Similarlyevery right entails
corresponding duties. As philanthropic social worker, it is essential to know the
various duties that one should promote in order to protect and promote human
rights.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
l understand the concept of rights;
l explain the meaning of human rights and duties;
l explore the fundamental human rights and duties in social work profession; and
l enlist the salient features of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Rights are primarily a legal concept, an advantage granted under a certain legal
system.As a moral term, they refer to what is fair and just. Some authors distinguish
between primary and secondary rights: Primary rights include ‘good faith’ rights,
such as the enforcement of a contract, marital loyalty, safeguarding from injury, and
protection of property. Secondary rights are associated with a legal instrument
used in cases where the primary rights are not observed, such as the right to
compensation for damages, dissolution of marriage, and restitution of stolen property.
Human Rights were originally primary rights, but gradually with the recognition of
legal protection included in international treaties, human rights progressivelycame to
resemble secondary rights. Thus, the concept of human rights has two basic
meanings. The first refers to the inherent and inalienable rights of a man/woman
simply by virtue of his/her being human. These are moral rights, and they aim at
ensuring a person’s dignity as a human being. The second sense is that of legal rights
94 which are established through the law-creating processes of societies, both national
and international. In a layman’s language, human rights are those minimal rights, Fundamental Human
Rights and Duties
which every individual must have by virtue of his being a “member of human family”
irrespective of any other consideration (Tiwari, 2003; Meijer, 2001; Sen, 1998).
Originally, the term Human Rights means an abstract respect for human beings. It is
an ideology, a concept, and a belief system, which is considered to be the most
revolutionary of our times. In simple language, human rights are certain basic rights
inherited by virtue of being human. The term as we know it today was concretized
after the Second World War which caused unprecedented misery, death and
destruction and large scale violation of human rights. The United Nations (UN)
formed in 1945, together with its other specialized agencies viz. UNESCO, ILO,
UNICEF, UNDP, have contributed substantially towards the promotion of Human
Rights. Apart from the UN, various local, national and international voluntary
organizations, viz. Amnesty International, Asia Watch, Commonwealth Human
Rights Initiative (CHRI), People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL), South
Asian Human Rights Documentation Center (SAHRDC), People’s Union for
Democratic Rights (PUDR), Center for Democracy (CFD), International
Committees for Red Cross, International League for Human Rights, the
International Commission of Jurists etc. are working for the promotion &
protection of human rights in every continent and in almost every country in the
world (Tiwari 2003, Tilak, 1998).
The Constitution of India acknowledges rights of human beings as persons, citizens,
members of sexes, religions, regions and cultural communities, and seeks to protect
rights of oppressed castes, tribes and classes. Through the Preamble, Fundamental
Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy, the Indian Constitution not
only ensures fundamental rights to every citizen but also requires the State to ensure
promotion and protection of Human Rights to bring about a just and equitable social
order.
Despite these various legal remedies, constitutional provisions and institutional
mechanisms, there are massive violations of human rights in India – both Civil and
Political Rights and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

6.2 CONCEPT OF RIGHTS

Any discourse of Human Rights must begin with the concept of Rights and address
the basic question, why Human Rights? What exactly does it mean to have a Right?
At its most fundamental, a right is a claim, on other persons, that is acknowledged
and reciprocated among the principals associated with that claim. It is a justified
claim on someone, or on some institution, for something, which one is owed. In
English, “right” has two principal moral and political senses. “Right” may refer
to what is right, the right thing to do. Thus we say that it is right to help the needy or
wrong (the opposite of right) to lie, cheat or steal. “Right” may also refer to a
special entitlement that one has to something. In this sense, we speak of having,
claiming, exercising, enforcing, and violating rights (Thakur, 2000).
The Oxford English Dictionary suggests a threefold definition of a right:
1. That which is morally or socially correct or just; fair treatment,
2. A justification or fair claim,
3. A thing one maylegallyor morallyclaim, the state of being entitled to a privilege
or immunity or authority to act.
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Concept, History, Ethics and The word “rights” is a chameleon like term, which can describe a variety of
Values of Philanthropy
relationships.
Morton E. Winston (1999) (as cited in Cheria, Anita & Edwin, Sriprapha
Petcharamesree, 2004) defines rights as ‘An agent (A) has a right to a particular
good (G) if and only if the possession of the right (R) by agent (A) provides the basis
for a justified moral/legal claim that other members of society have duties (D) to
protect agentA’s enjoyment of goods’. Winston further explains that the particular
goods referred to can range over many different sorts of things e.g. interests, liberties
and powers, or access to the necessarymeans of satisfying one’s interests or exercising
one’s liberties or powers. The claims derived from rights can be either moral or legal
or both. These claims call forth duties from other members of societydirected towards
the rights-holder. The corresponding duties of society can be ascribed to various
different agents, e.g. governments, individuals, or in some cases, non-governmental
organizations such as private agencies or corporations. It may include duties to
provide access to goods to the rights holders. However, Rights involve a special
set of social institutions, rules, or practices. Rights place right-holders and
duty-bearers in a relationship that is largely under the control of the right-holder.
Right-holder ordinarily exercise his right more or less as he sees fit.Also, claims of
rights ordinarily take priority over other kinds of demands, such as utility or
righteousness (Cheria,Anita & Edwin, Sriprapha Petcharamesree, 2004; Thakur,
2000).
The most basic of rights is a principle of interaction between the people. It is a
claim to freedom of action (including that of securing privacy). This is the basis for
the ‘basic golden rule’, which is “do nothing unto others as you wouldn’t want them
to do unto you”. In other words, it is the principle, which involves that if a person
insists of being left alone, he/she has an implied obligation to leave others alone in
turn. Other than that, an entity (person or group) can make any sort of claim on
other persons, but those claims remain simple assertions until the other persons
acknowledge that claim as binding upon them.At that point, the claim becomes a
privilege (a one-sided acknowledged claim). If all parties (including the original
claimant) also agree to reciprocate acknowledgement of such a claim, it becomes
applicable to all, that is, applicable to everyone in the same sense and at the same
time, and thus a right (Thakur, 2000).
As Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes said, “The right to swing my fist ends where the
other man’s nose begins’. Rights must apply to everyone in the same sense at the
same time. So rights must therefore be limited to claims of freedom to do anything,
which does not violate the freedoms of others. This requires recognizing, respecting
and abiding by anyone else’s wishes to be left alone whenever he wants, and his
wishes to be free to do anything which doesn’t violate others. This is why no one
can claima ‘right’to interferewith your life inanywaywithout yourexplicit, personally
given consent for a specified purpose. There can be no such thing as a ‘right’ for
anyone (or any group) to mess with you whenever he wants (or whenever they
want) since it obviously isn’t applying to YOU in the same sense at the same time
(Thakur, 2000).
Some rights may be categorized into negative rights – rights that require only that
everyone refrain from certain actions, and not that anyone actively perform any
action, e.g. right not to be assaulted. In order to enjoy such a right, it is necessary
that other people don’t assault. This also applies to the Government of India. e.g.
Article 14 of the Indian Constitution provides that the State shall not deny any person
96
equality before the law or the equal protection of the law within the territory of India Fundamental Human
Rights and Duties
(Thakur, 2000).
A statist /authoritarian approach of rights rest on the assumption that rights exist
only if they are dispensed by an authoritative body. According to this approach,
rights are infringed when a person who assaults, steals, cheats etc, is offending against
the grantor of Rights-the king or the State-by breaking its rules/laws. The repudiator
is entirely controlled by the authority as the offence against the authority, and not
technically, against the victim (Thakur, 2000).
In jurisprudence and law, a right is the legal or moral entitlement to do or refrain
from doing something. Rights are significant only where corresponding duties and
responsibilities exist to enforce them – because people must be motivated to
undertake these duties and their associated risks (e.g. resisting arrest, fighting back).
These rights can normally only be truly enforced by a government that can collect
taxes and pay police and court personnel. Generally speaking, a right corresponds
with a complementary obligation that others have on the same object or realm; for
instance if someone has right on a thing, simultaneously another party or parties have
an obligation to do something in order to respect that right or to give concrete
execution to that right, e.g. property rights (Thakur, 2000).
Therefore, a right can be a faculty of doing something, of omitting or refusing to do
something or of claiming something. Some interpretations express typical form of
right in the faculty of using something and this is more often related to the right to
property. Other interpretations consider the right as a sort of freedom of something
or as the object of justice.
Rights can be divided into individual rights, that are held by citizens and individuals
(or corporations) recognized by the legal system, and into collective rights, held
by an ensemble of citizens or a subgroup of citizens whose actions are regulated by
the same system. There is a tension between individual and collective rights (http://
en.wikipedia.org).
Rights provide thebasis for‘justified’claims ofthe actual enjoyment ofcertain liberties,
goods, powers or immunities by persons or peoples to be protected by society
against standard threats. Thus, the concept of rights covers the broad gamut of
making a justified claim, to delivering certain duties and responsibilities.
For human rights purposes, it can be said that a right is a human right, if and only if
being a human being is sufficient reason or condition for possessing that right.
Rights apply to living beings who rely on their conscious choice-making abilities to
live, as they are an integral part of their codes of ethics – meaning guides to decision
making- in cases where other decision makers are involved. On earth, this applies
only to human beings and their interactions with each other. The human person
possesses rights because of the very fact that it is a person, a whole, master of itself
and of its acts, and which consequently is not merely a means to an end, but an end,
an end which must be treated as such. The expression ‘the dignity of the human
person’means nothing if it does not signify that by virtue of natural law, the human
person has the right to be respected is the subject of rights and possesses rights.
There are things, which are owed to man because of the very fact that he is man.
These words reflect a fundamental principle, which emphasizes the worth of the
individual human being and recognizes their rights simply because of their being
human. Understanding the nature of the “right” involved can help to clarify our
consideration of the degree of protection available, the nature of derogation or 97
Concept, History, Ethics and exceptions, the priorities to be afforded to various rights, the question of the
Values of Philanthropy
hierarchical relationships in a series of rights, and similar problems (Cheria,Anita &
Edwin, Sriprapha Petcharamesree, 2004; Symonides, 2002).

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What is your understanding of rights?
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2) What is the difference between individual rights and collective rights?

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6.3 CONCEPT OF HUMAN RIGHTS

The term Human Rights indicates both their nature and their source: they are ‘rights’
that one has simply because one is ‘human’. They are held by all human beings;
irrespective of any rights or duties one may (or may not) have as citizens, members
of families, workers, or parts of any public or private organization or association
(Thakur, 2000).
Human Rights are a special type of right. In their most fundamental sense, they are
paramount moral rights. The concept of Human Rights is founded on the ancient
doctrine of natural rights based on natural law. Ever since the beginnings of civilized
life in a political society, the shortcomings and tyranny of ruling powers have led
people to seek higher laws. The concept of a higher law binding human authorities
was evolved, and it came to be asserted that there were certain rights anterior to
society. These were superior to rights created by human authorities, were universally
applicable to people of all ages in all regions, and are believed to have existed prior
to the development of political societies. These rights were mere ideologies and
there was no agreed catalogue of them and no machinery until they were codified
into national constitutions (Thakur, 2000; Nirmal, ed. 1999).
Human Rights are those inherent, inalienable and universal rights, which everyhuman
being is entitled to enjoy byvirtue of his being a member of the human family. Human
Rights are
1. Inherent because they are the birthright of all human beings. People enjoy
these rights simply by reason of their humanity and, as such, they do not have
to be granted or bestowed by a sovereign for them to be enjoyed.
2. Inalienable in the sense that people cannot agree to give them up or have
them taken away from them.
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3. Universal for human rights do not just apply to some groups of people but to Fundamental Human
Rights and Duties
all persons, regardless of their nationality, status, sex, race, etc (Cheria, Anita
& Edwin, Sriprapha Petcharamesree, 2004).
These concepts are recognized and confirmed in the various International Documents
on Human Rights, the major one being the Universal Declaration on Human Rights.
In a modern sense, Human Rights can be defined as the ultimate legitimate basis
for a human community. Human community refers to an ideal association of human
persons that is conceived for the individual and collective benefit of its members.
One “needs” Human Rights when they are not effectively guaranteed by national
law and practice. If one can secure food, equal treatment, or free association through
national, legal processes, one is unlikely to advance human rights claims. Therefore
the question of rights arises with the question of violation of those rights (Thakur,
2000).
The original content of the philosophyofhuman rights was limited to civil and political
rights of the individual. These were often referred to as “first generation” rights.
Civil and political rights include the rights to life, liberty, securityof the person, privacy
and property; the right to marry and raise a family; the right to a fair trial; freedom
from slavery, torture and arbitrary arrest; freedom of movement and to seek asylum;
the right to a nationality; freedom of thought, conscience and religion; freedom of
opinion and expression; freedom of assembly and association; the right to free
elections, universal suffrage and participation in public affairs.
The “second generation” rights included economic, social and cultural rights as it
was realized that without guaranteeing economic, social and cultural rights, full
enjoyment of civil and political rights was not possible. Economic and social rights
include the right to work and for a just reward; the right to form and join trade
unions; the right to rest and leisure, and to periodic holidays and pay; the right to a
standard of living adequate to health and well being; the right to social security; the
right to education and the right to participate in the cultural life of a community.
As the meaning of the concept expanded, the “third generation” rights emerged
which included: right to self determination, right to sovereignty over natural wealth
and resources of the country and, right to development as well as rights of
disadvantaged groups to special protection. These are the collective rights.

6.4 CONCEPT OF HUMAN DUTIES

When we discuss about human rights, we should also discuss about human duties
and responsibilities. In some countries while the freedom, democracy and the rule of
law have gained ground, there are other countries where the situation is worse. The
most basic of all human rights is the right to life and security, but this right seems to
be in danger. The number of ward waging in various parts of the world has affected
millions of people. People are either killed or wounded or drift around as refugees.
Many are expelled from their homes as part of “ethnic cleansing” – a common
phenomenon not only in former Yogoslavia but also in many other civil war type
conflicts.All these are serious human rights violations. But how can theybe redresses?
Can the international community be held responsible and asked to intervene in all
these cases to help the victims of war, oppression, persecution to assert their human
rights? Can the United Nations possibly be expected to be mounting peace-making
and peace-keeping operations in 50 war type conflicts around the globe? Who is
99
Concept, History, Ethics and supposed to provide the troops, the logistics, and the money for such a gigantic
Values of Philanthropy
undertaking?
The eight million people in a war ridden country like Somalia have the right to live in
peace and personal freedom and security. But they also have the duty to compromise
and to bring their own house in order. Ahandful of tribal clans cannot hold a whole
nation to ransom and cause a chaos which costs the international community billions
of dollars. Enormous relief funds are needed to mitigate the effects of relentless civil
wars. Much more money will still be needed for peacekeeping operations once the
wars come to an end. The interventions of United Nations in these areas are motivated
by humanitarian concerns and intended to safeguard human rights. But we should
not forget that it is the foremost duty and responsibility of the people in the area to
find solutions. The right to self determination cannot mean that everyvillage becomes
a sovereign state.
Further, when we speak of a ‘right to development’we must also talk about the duty
of the more prosperous groups in a society to share their wealth with the less fortunate
ones. In a developing society, it is the fundamental duty of all wealthy individuals to
invest their capital in their own countries and to pay their taxes to enable the state to
help the poor.
So, if we want to promote human rights, we must shoulder our human duties. As
philanthropic social worker, we should understand and promote the duty to keep
the peace at home and to work for compromise between the various groups in the
society and the duty to balance out the economic interests and remove the
discrepancies in incomes and standards of living.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What do you understand by human rights?
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2) What are the three generations of human rights?

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3) Why is it important to accept and practice human duties?

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 Fundamental Human
6.5 FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND Rights and Duties

DUTIES
The concept of human rights was inherently present in ancient and medieval India.
The most celebrated and well-recognized rule of welfare in ancient India was based
on the principle of equation of armed units. In the use of weapons also, the principle
of parity was followed. Manudharma and other ancient writings enumerated military
targets and what should not be attacked. In war too, they followed Dharmayudda
and special mention is made of the treatment of prisoners of war, the sick and the
wounded in the Mahabharata. The principle of universal equality was propounded
by vasudheva kutumbakam (we are all one human family), and the concept of the
universality of the human soul was inherent in tattvam asi (Thou art that) and
aham bramhmi (I am that). Moreover, ahimsa (non-violence towards all creation
in words and deed) laid down the universal conduct tolerance, respect for the
individual, peace and cooperation. Furthermore, the concept of chakravarti in
political theory visualized a one world government to establish peace. Manu wrote
his code of law, the Dharmashastra, for the entire human race, not for any particular
nation.
Humanitarian ideas became popular from the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The abolition of Sati (1829), slavery (1811) and female infanticide (1830), the
formation of the Torture Commission in the Madras Presidencyin 1855, introduction
of widow remarriage by legislation (1856) and prohibition of child marriage (1929),
were restraints imposed on tradition and the beginning of humanitarian legislation.
The enactment of the Indian Penal Code in 1860 (XLV) and a series of prison and
jail reforms by regulations and acts was based on reformist tendencies. For preserving
the rights of the female children, theAge of ConsentAct of 1891 and theAbolition
of the Child MarriageAct of 1929 were passed. In addition, the Madras Government
passed the Madras Children’s Act and the Madras Elementary Education Act in
1920 to safeguard children and provide better education at the primary level. These
humanitarian legislations prepared the ground for an awareness of human rights during
the war years.
TheHuman Rightstradition followed duringthe Freedomstrugglemovement. Struggle
for independence has a glorious saga. The method of struggle was unique-the non-
violent method- a method unknown and therefore untested hitherto. This unique
method influenced many earlier declarations and pronouncements, which ultimately
gave the final shape to India’s constitution.
After Independence a new spirit emerged in the minds of the framers of the Indian
Constitution in the sphere of human rights and human welfare. The Constitution of
India was drafted in 1949, but it was adopted in the climate of the deliberations for
the Universal Declaration (1950). While framing the constitution, the authors referred
not only to the constitutions of various countries but also to the UN Charter on
various political, economic and social matters. It makes several provisions for respect
and the protection of human rights. The Preamble of the Constitution of India reflects
the inspiring ideals, with the specific mention of ‘dignity of the individual’. The
Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy are based
on the principles of humanitarianism and human rights. On the basis of the Directive
Principles of State Policy the Union Government enacted a number ofActs related
to Human Rights, such asAbolition of UntouchabilityAct, Suppression of Immoral
Traffic Act, 1956. The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 have enabled the
101
Concept, History, Ethics and setting up of the National Human Rights Commission and State Human Rights
Values of Philanthropy
Commissions in 14 States till date. To ensure human rights and safeguard the interests
of minorities and weaker sections of the community, the Constitution has created
several independent bodies such as the Minorities Commission, the Schedule
Castes and Scheduled Tribes Commissions, National Commission for
Women, etc. The Constitution of India promotes Gender Rights, Rights of the Child,
Rights of the Disabled, Rights of the Bonded Labour etc (Begum, 2000; Nirmal,
1999).
From theabove discussions, the followingrights maybe consideredas thefundamental
humanrights:
1. Right to Life
2. Right to Live with Dignity
3. Right to Equal Treatment and not to be discriminated against
4. Freedom from torture, forced labour, wrongful arrest
5. Right to a fair trial
6. Freedom from Information, thought, conscience, religion
7. Right to privacy
8. Right to free speech and expression
9. Freedom to associate with others and take part in Government, public and
communityaffairs
10. Right to food, housing, health, a clean environment, education, work, equal
pay for equal work, strike and
11. Right to preserve one’s culture and way of life
It is the fundamental duty and responsibility of every citizen to uphold the above
fundamental human rights.As philanthropic social worker, it is our responsibility to
spread the message of fundamental human rights to the people who are unable to
access information. Every individual should become aware of their rights and strive
to perform their duties and responsibilities in an appropriate manner. For example, it
is the duty of every consumer to be cautious about their rights and in case of any
violation, one should be aware of the existence of the consumer court.

6.6 SALIENT FEATURES OF UNIVERSAL

DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and
proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The Assembly
called upon all Member countries to publicize the text of the Declaration and “to
cause it to be disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in schools
and other educational institutions, without distinction based on the political status of
countries or territories.” (Retrieved on March 29, 2011from www.un.org).

Preamble
The Preamble to the UDHR recognizes the following:
i) Inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the
human family. This is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world;
102
ii) Disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which Fundamental Human
Rights and Duties
have outraged the conscience of mankind. Freedom of speech and belief and
freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of
the common people;
iii) If it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort,
to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be pro-
tected by the rule of law;
iv) It is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between na-
tions;
v) The peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in
fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in
the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social
progress and better standards of life in larger freedom;
vi) The Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with
the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of
human rights and fundamental freedoms;
vii) A common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest impor-
tance for the full realization of this pledge.

Finally the preamble reaffirms the following:

“Now, Therefore THE GENERALASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL
DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement
for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of
society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and
education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive
measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition
and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among
the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction”.

6.7 ARTICLES IN THE UNIVERSAL

DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
There are thirty articles in the UDHR which are given below:
Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another
in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this
Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin,
property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made
on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the
country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent,
trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4: No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade
shall be prohibited in all their forms.

103
Concept, History, Ethics and Article 5: No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading
Values of Philanthropy
treatment or punishment.
Article 6: Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the
law.
Article 7: All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to
equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against
anydiscrimination inviolation ofthis Declaration andagainst anyincitement
to such discrimination.
Article 8: Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national
tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the
constitution or by law.
Article 9: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10: Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an
independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and
obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
Article 11:
1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent
until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the
guarantees necessary for his defence.
2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or
omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or interna-
tional law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be
imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was
committed.
Article 12: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy,
family, home or correspondence, or to attacks upon his honour and
reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against
such interference or attacks.

Article 13:
1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the bor-
ders of each state.
() Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to
his country.

Article 14:
1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from
persecution.
2) This right maynot be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from
non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the
United Nations.

Article 15:
1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.
2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to
change his nationality.
104
Article 16: Fundamental Human
Rights and Duties
1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or
religion, have the right to marryand to found a family. They are entitled to equal
rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intend-
ing spouses.
3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the State.

Article 17:
1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with
others.
2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18: Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion;
this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom,
either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and
observance.
Article 19: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right
includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek,
receive and impart information and ideas through any media and
regardless of frontiers.

Article 20:
1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Article 21:
1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or
through freely chosen representatives.
2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will
shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal
and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting
procedures.
Article 22: Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is
entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-
operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of
each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for
his dignity and the free development of his personality.
Article 23:
1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and
favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal payfor equal work.
3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensur-
ing for himself and his familyan existence worthy of human dignity, and supple-
105
mented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.
Concept, History, Ethics and 4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his
Values of Philanthropy
interests.
Article 24: Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation
of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.

Article 25:
1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-
being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical
care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of
unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of live-
lihood in circumstances beyond his control.
2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All
children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social
protection.

Article 26:
1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compul-
sory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available
and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality
and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, ra-
cial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for
the maintenance of peace.
3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to
their children.

Article 27:
1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community,
to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests
resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the
author.Article 28: Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in
which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.
Article 28: Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the
rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

Article 29:
1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full develop-
ment of his personality is possible.
2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to
such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due
recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting
the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a
democratic society.
3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the pur-
poses and principles of the United Nations.
106
Article 30: Nothing in this Declaration maybe interpreted as implying for any State, Fundamental Human
Rights and Duties
group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the
destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.

6.8 LET US SUM UP

The unit explains the concept of rights, human rights and human duties. The unit also
enlists the various fundamental human rights. Finally, the salient features of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights have been presented.

6.9 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Begum, S. M. (2000): Human Rights in India: Issues and Perspectives, New Delhi,
A.P.H.Publishing Corporation
Cheria, A. & Edwin, Sriprapha P. (2004): A Human Rights Approach to
Development, Resource Book, Bangalore Books for change
Chitkara, M.G. (1996): Human Rights: Commitment and Betrayal, New Delhi,A.P.H.
Publishing Corporation
Hosbet, S. (2003): Fundamental Rights as Human Rights, Mumbai, Sabrang
Communications and Publishing Private Ltd.
Jose, M. (2001): An Exploratory Study into the Interface between the National
Human Rights Commission and Non-Governmental Organizations, A Research
Project submitted to the Tata Institute of Social Sciences in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for Master ofArts in Social Work.
Levinson, D. (ed.) (2002): Encyclopaedia of Crime and Punishment (2002), Vol.
l2, Editor, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2002, pg 861-866
Nirmal, C.J. (ed.) (1999): Human Rights in India: Historical, Social and Political
Perspectives, Oxford University Press, New York
Rosenbaum, A.S. (ed.) (1980): The Philosophy of Human Rights: International
Perspectives, Connecticut, Greenwood Press
Sarangi, P. (1997): Notion of Rights in Rawls, Indian Journal of Human Rights, Vol.
I, No. 1, 1997, pg 9
Shestack, J.J. (1998): The Philosophic Foundations of Human Rights, Human Rights
Quarterly 20.2, 201-234
Symonides, J.(ed.) (2002): Human Rights: Concepts and Standards, UNESCO,
Paris, France
Thakur, L.K. (2000): Comparative & International Human Rights, New Delhi,
Author Press.
Tiwari, A. (2003): A Report on the Human Rights situation in India, Submitted
to the Board of Research Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.
University of Hyderabad (1998): Reading material of the Post Graduate Diploma in
Human Rights, Centre for Distance Education.

107
 Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of SocialWork
MSW-010
INTRODUCTION TO
PHILANTHROPIC
SOCIAL WORK

Philanthropic Social Work 2

 Indira Gandhi
National Open University
MSW-010
School of Social Work Introduction to
Philanthropic Social Work

Block

2
PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK
UNIT 1
Concept and Meaning of Philanthropic Social Work 5

UNIT 2
Professional Social Work and Philanthropy 18
UNIT 3
History of Philanthropic Social Work 30
UNIT 4
Contemporary Issues in Philanthropic Social Work 41
UNIT 5
Human and Financial Resources for Philanthropic Social Work 55
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. J. Prasant Palakkappillil Prof. P. K. Ghosh Dr. Koteswar Raju
Principal Head of Department Director
Sacred Heart College Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan D.N.R. College, Bhimavaram
Thevara West Bengal
Dr. Ashutosh Pradhan
Dr. V.M. Thomas, Dr. Udaya Mahadevan Associate Professor
D.B. Institute of Management Department of Social Work Department of Social Work
Guwahati Loyola College, Chennai Central University of Himachal
Pradesh
Prof. Anjali Gandhi Dr. Suresh Pathare Dharmashala, Kangra Distt.
Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi Director, CSRD, Ahmednagar Himachal Pradesh
Fr. Nadackal George Dr. S.R. Billore Dr Joseph Xavier
Director Barkatullah University, Bhopal Indian Social Institute
Don Bosco Ashalayam
Dr. Sayantani Guin Bangalore
New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. C.P. Singh
Prof. Gracious Thomas
Prof. A.S. Inamshashtri Chairman
IGNOU
M.G. Kashi Vidyapeeth Department of Social Work
New Delhi
Varanasi Kurukshetra University

Block Preparation Team

Units 1 to 5 Dr. Suresh Pathare
Director
CSRD, Ahmednagar

Course Editor Course Coordinator

Prof. Gracious Thomas Dr. Sayantani Guin
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Print Production
Mr. Kulwant Singh
Section Officer (P)
IGNOU, New Delhi.

March, 2013
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2013
ISBN: 978-266-6367-5
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BLOCK INTRODUCATION
Welcome to block 2 of the course entitled ‘Introduction to Philanthropic Social Work’.
This block on, “Philanthropic Social Work” is the second block of MSW-010. It is
comprised of five units.
Unit 1 on ‘Concept and Meaning of Philanthropic Social Work’will enable you to
understand the concept, nature and scope of philanthropy. You will be able to analyze
the emerging trends in philanthropyand the need for a rational approach in philanthropy.
Unit 2 is on ‘Professional Social Work and Philanthropy’. This unit examines the
interrelationship among philanthropy, philanthropic social work and professional social
work. The unit also highlights the need and scope of philanthropic social work.
Unit 3 on ‘History of Philanthropic Social Work’examines the origin and development
to philanthropic social work, the role of religions in the development of philanthropic
social work and the modern trends in philanthropic social work. The historical origin
of the personal and organisational practice of philanthropic social work has also been
described in this unit.
The fourth unit on ‘Contemporary Issues in Philanthropic Social Work’focuses on
the changing trends in contemporary philanthropic social work, various challenges
faced by philanthropic agencies, the measures and strategies to overcome such
challenges and the role of professional social workers in this regard.
The fifth unit on ‘Human and Financial Resources for Philanthropic Social Work’
discusses the sources of funding for philanthropic social work. The unit concludes
with discussing the various means of fund raising and practical tips of resource
management.
On the whole, this block will provide you an overview of the the essentials of
philanthropic social work.
 Concept and Meaning of
UNIT 1 CONCEPT AND MEANING OF Philanthropic Social Work

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK

Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and Definition of Philanthropic Social Work
1.3 Methods of Philanthropic Social Work
1.4 Values and Principles of Philanthropic Social Work
1.5 Role and Skills of Philanthropic Social Worker
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are to learn the following:
l Meaning and Definition of Philanthropic Social Work;
l Methods of Philanthropic Social Work;
l Values and principles of Philanthropic Social Work;
l Role and skills of Philanthropic Social Worker.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit explains the meaning, definition, methods, values and principles of
philanthropic social work and the role and skills of philanthropic social workers.
Philanthropic social work as a professional course is unique and can be said to have
started for the first time in history at IGNOU in 2010. However, philanthropy is as
old as human history. There are several things similar and dissimilar between
philanthropy and social work. Some professionals place philanthropy diagonally
opposite to social work. However, it is not true. There are several areas common to
philanthropy and social work. The area of philanthropy where the social work
philosophy, methods, principles and values are applied is called philanthropic social
work. The relationship between philanthropy, philanthropic social work and
professional social work is explained in this unit.
There is historical relationship between philanthropy and social work. Social work
has emerged as a distinct profession from philanthropy. Several professional social
work institutions have a philanthropic origin. The history of philanthropic social work
is given in detail in unit three of this block. However, it is relevant to mention the
origin of philanthropic social work. The NewYork School of Philanthropy, the first
school of social work, was established in 1904. The School had its origins in 1898
with the first Summer School in Philanthropic Work offered in New York City. It
was the first higher education program in the United States to train people in the field
of social work. It began as a six-week summer program offered by the New York
Charity Organization Society. Initially the program was more like a workshop than
a college course. In 1904, the program was expanded to an eight-month course of 5
Philanthropic Social Work full-time graduate study at the newly renamed New York School of Philanthropy.
Soon after, it was expanded to a two-year graduate program. To ensure cooperation
with Columbia University, its president was made an ex-officio member of the
Society’s committee responsible for the School’s affairs. The New York School of
Philanthropy changed its name in 1917 to the New York School of Social Work.
The New York School of Social Work operated until 1963. It was fully merged into
Columbia University as the Columbia University School of Social Work (http://
www.columbia.edu)

1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK
Philanthropic social work is in all the sense professional social work. Philanthropic
social work is professional social work practices in the field of philanthropy.
Philanthropy is the major area of professional social work in India. Synonyms of
philanthropy are charity, compassion, humanity, patronage, generosity and
benevolence. The word, philanthropy derived from the Greek word, ‘philanthropos’,
combined two words: philos, “loving”in the senseof benefiting, caringfor, nourishing;
and anthropos, “human being” in the sense of “humankind”, “humanity”, or “human-
ness”.All the human care services are philanthropy. Social work being a human care
service is one part of philanthropy. In order to understand the meaning and concept
of philanthropic social work, it is necessary to understand the term ‘philanthropy’
and its relationship with philanthropic social work.

Meaning
The PlatonicAcademy’s philosophical dictionary defined Philanthropia as a state of
well-educated habits stemming from love of humanity; a state of being productive of
benefit to humans. In this sense, philanthropy is very close to professional social
work. Philanthropia was later translated by the Romans into Latin as, simply,
humanitas or humane-ness. And because Prometheus’human-empowering gifts
rebelled against Zeus’ tyranny (Greek myth about the origin of ‘philanthropy’),
philanthropia was also associated with freedom and democracy. Both Socrates and
the laws ofAthens were described as philanthropic and democratic, the idea being
that philanthropic humans are reliably capable of self-government. This extended
meaning of philanthropy reveals the scope of philanthropic social work.
In modern terms, “philanthropy” means ‘private initiatives for the public good’,
‘voluntary action for the public good’ and ‘the private giving of time or valuables for
public purposes’. The aim of philanthropy is improvement in the quality of human
life. Philanthropymaybest be defined as, ‘private initiatives for public good, focusing
on qualityof life’. This distinguishes it from government (public initiatives for public
good) and business (private initiatives for private good). The inclusion of ‘quality of
life’ ensures the strong humanistic emphasis of the Promethean archetype.
Contemporary understanding of ‘philanthropy’ is rather limited. While philanthropy
is merelygivinghelp, philanthropicsocial workis givinghelp forselfhelp.Philanthropic
social work differs from professional social work in the sense that professional social
work is help for self help as a paid service. Professional social work uses the term
‘service users’ who receive social work assistance from professional social workers
upon a service fee. Philanthropic social work is professional social work, performed
with a voluntary spirit and no service fee is collected from the service users. Funds
6
for philanthropic social work come from general and religious donations and Concept and Meaning of
Philanthropic Social Work
contributions. The motivation of the philanthropic social worker comes from self
fulfilment, self satisfaction, religious obligation (sometimes) and voluntarism.
It has been found in history that philanthropy has often been the forerunner of
professional social work. A wide range of personal motivations contributed to
philanthropic participation, as helping others was seen as emotionally and socially
stimulating. While much was accomplished by philanthropy, charitywas often erratic
and did not always fully meet the needs of the recipients (Robert Morris, 1986:117-
119). There was the felt need of professional approach to charity. In the modern
period, philanthropy has been recognised as the responsibility of a welfare state.
Social sciences began to be consulted more as philanthropists and the state sought
to identify and subdivide social problems, and to obtain information on specific
needs that would remedy the identified problems. The inclusion of social science in
social welfare organizations helped to make philanthropic endeavours more efficient
(Prochaska, 1980:133). Philanthropy in the 19th century was based on religious
tradition that was centuries in the making. Historically, wealthy people in society
gave to the poor as a religious duty. Charity was seen as a way of saving one’s own
soul while also helping those in need. Many of them believed that social conscience
demanded social action (Henry B Washburn, 1931:8-20).
Philanthropycan be defined as the provision of financial, material, and ideal resources
made for cultural, social, and educational institutions. During the course of time
these aims increasingly came to fruition through foundations, limited dividend
companies, membership organizations, or by bequests and donations, and were
generally facilitated by middle to upper class people (Thomas Adam, 2001:3-5).
Today it can be seen that philanthropy is a well organized social work activity.
Philanthropic organizations are managing charitable activities at local, state, regional,
national and international levels. There are visible network of philanthropic
organizations across the world and what is practiced in reputed philanthropic
organizations is philanthropic social work in its professional meaning.
In philanthropic social work the stress is on development of human resources. ‘The
development of human resource must be the central focus of social work practice.
This will prevent dependency and restore dignityto people. Social work interventions
in the Asia-Pacific region must not be primarily remedial, based on the medical
model approach. More emphasis should be placed on development and community
building. The promotion of self-help among people should be encouraged and
promoted’(Vasco S, 1998:1). It means that there is a need for integrated approach
(welfare and developmental) in philanthropic social work.

Definition
We have seen that there is little difference between professional social work and
philanthropic social work. Even if we can distinguish between philanthropy and
professional social work, it is not easy to distinguish between philanthropic social
work and professional social work. Philanthropic social work is very close to social
welfare in social work. It is easy to define philanthropic social work with the help of
some definitions of social work. ‘Social work is the art of bringing various resources
to bear on individual, group and community needs by the application of a scientific
method of helping people to help themselves’ (Herbert Hewitt Stroup, 1960:1).
Taking the conceptual framework of this definition, we can define that philanthropic
social work is the process of bringing various resources to meet the needs of helpless
7
Philanthropic Social Work individuals and groups and disadvantaged communities by the application of
systematic means ofhelping them to be self reliant to theextent possible. Philanthropic
social work deals with helpless individuals, groups and communities such as the
orphan, the destitute, the aged, the incurable, the infirm and the disabled individuals,
the refugees’ groups and the poorest of the urban and rural poor communities. Even
if making such people self reliant is next to impossible, all the efforts and scientific
methods, such as social case work, social group work, community organisation,
social action, welfare administration and social research are applied to help them to
be self reliant.
Philanthropic social work can be defined in the context of individual growth of
potentials. ‘Social work is concerned with helping people to realise their potential to
the maximum, while ensuring that the facilities which alreadyexists to assist them are
fully used and with supplementing those which they are lacking’(BritishAssociation
of Social Workers, 1977:77). This definition highlights the need and scope of
philanthropic social work. Philanthropic social work is a helping process to realise
the potential of the helpless people to the maximum, bymaking use of all the available
resources and facilities, both public and private and bysupplementing with additional
facilities and resources wherever required.
United Nations (1950) mentioned the social work characteristics which are very
much applicable to philanthropic social work:
1) It is a helping activity, designed to give assistance in respect to problems that
prevent individual, families, and groups from achieving a minimum desirable
standard of social and economic well being.
2) It is a social activity carried on not for personal profit by private practitioners
but under the auspices or organisation governmental or non governmental or
both, established for the benefit of members of the community regarded as
requiring assistance.
3) It is liaison activitythrough which disadvantaged individual, families and groups
may have all the resources available in the community to meet their unsatisfied
needs’ (United Nations, 1950:18).
There is flexibility in the area and scope of social work practice. The filed of social
work practice should be adjusted according to the changing needs of the mankind in
different time and place ‘that the conception of the field of social work should above
all be kept fluid in order to maintain in this profession at least an open mind toward
humanity’s changing needs and the best method for meeting them’(James H Tuffs,
1923:30-31). Philanthropy is the present field of social work in India and other
developing countries where the social security and social welfare measures are
inadequate to cover the entire population of the state. The need and scope of
philanthropic social work is further explained in unit two.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What do you mean by philanthropic social work?
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8 ...............................................................................................................
 Concept and Meaning of
2. Define philanthropic social work. Philanthropic Social Work

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1.3 METHODS OF PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL

WORK
We have found that there is little difference between professional social work and
philanthropic social work. While social work is an essential component of
philanthropy, philanthropy is the major field of social work. All the methods of
professional social work are useful in philanthropic social work. Problem solving
method of social work envisages the following process:
1) Problem explanation (identifying the problem and developing goals)
2) Problem analysis (collecting data and developing plans) and
3) Problem resolution (selecting a plan, implementing a plan and feed back)’
(Ronald W Toseland and Robert F Rivas, 1984:266).
These steps are common for any method of social work. Applied in philanthropic
social work, we need to clearly understand the problems of the people with whom
we are working, identify, define and explain their problem, develop goals for action;
analyse the various dimensions of the problem (problem tree analysis) which would
further help us to devise appropriate strategy for working; and finally resolving the
problem by selecting a plan of action, implementing, monitoring, evaluating and
documenting the same. This the general procedure of social work methodology.
Specifically the major methods of the social work are:
l Social Case work:
l Social Group work:
l Communityorganisation:
l SocialAction:
l WelfareAdministration
l Social work research

Social Case Work

Social case work is ‘An art in which knowledge of the science of human relations
and skill in relationship are used to mobilise capacities in the individual and resources
in the community appropriate for better adjustment between the client and all or any
part of his total environment’ (Suithum Bowers OMI, 1949:417). Social case work
in philanthropic social work is a method of problem solving at the individual level.
‘Social case work is a process used by certain human welfare agencies to help
individuals to cope more effectivelywith their problems in social functioning.Aperson
with a problem comes to a place where a professional helps his through a process.
The ‘person’ is a man, woman or child, anyone who finds himself, or is found to be
in need of help in some aspect of his social-emotional living, whether the need be for 9
Philanthropic Social Work tangible provisions or counsel. As he begins to receive such help, he is called a
client. The‘problem’ arises from someneed or obstacle oraccumulation of frustrations
or maladjustment, and sometimes all of these together, which threaten or has already
attacked the adequacy of the person’s living situation or the effectiveness of his
efforts to deal with it. The ‘place’ is a social service agency or a social service
department of another kind of human welfare agency. The ‘process’is a progressive
transaction between the professional help (the caseworker) and the client. It consists
of a series of problem-solving operations carried on within a meaningful relationship.
The end of this process is continued in its means; to so influence the client person
that he develops effectiveness in coping with this problem and / or to so influence the
problem as to resolve it or vitiate its effects’ (Helen Harris Pearlman, 1957:4-5).
The person in philanthropic social work is a helpless individual, such as the orphan,
the destitute, the aged, the incurable, the infirm, the disabled, the refugee and the
poorest of the urban and rural poor. Place is a philanthropic organisation and the
helping person is a philanthropic social worker.
Principles are rules of action for guiding performance. Principles of social case
work are:
1) Individualisation
2) Acceptance of the client
3) Non condemning attitude
4) Client’s right to self determination
5) Client’s participation
6) Keep the client’s case confidential
7) Controlled emotional involvement’(Grace Mathew, 1984:9-14).

Social Group Work

‘Social group work is a method of social work which helps individuals to enhance
their social functioning through purposeful group experience and to cope more
effectively with their personal, group or community problems’ (Gisela Konopka,
1963:20). Group approach is very useful in philanthropic social work. With the
support of group, the helpless person can improve his self confidence, problem
solving skills and capacity for self reliance.
Every social work method has a certain set of values and principles. The social
group work values [NASW, Code of Ethics, 1982] are the following:
1) Respect for human dignity and worth
2) Interrelationship of individual and their environments
3) Collaborative process in problem solving
4) Self determination
5) Mutual aid
6) Constructive differences and
7) Confidentiality’ (Leonard N Brown, 1991:85-86)
The principles of social group work are the following
1) The principle of planned group formation
2) The principle of specific objectives
10
3) The principle of purposeful worker-group relationship Concept and Meaning of
Philanthropic Social Work
4) The principle of continuous individualisation
5) The principle of guided group interaction
6) The principle of democratic group determination
7) The principle of flexible functional organisation
8) The principle of progressive programme experience
9) The principle of resource utilisation
10) The principle of evaluation’(Harleigh B Trecker, 1955:260-271)
Group work skills required on the part of a philanthropic social worker are the
following:
1) Skill in establishing purposeful relationship,
2) Skill in analysing group situation,
3) Skill in participation with group,
4) Skill in dealing with group feeling,
5) Skill in programme development: decide what, how and why of a programme,
6) Skill in using agency and community resources, and
7) Skill in evaluation’(Harleigh B Trecker, 1955:36-37).
Group worker’s role:
1) Accepting: by worker of person, feelings, ideas, or behaviour
2) Relating: member or group to worker; member or group to member; member
to group
3) Enabling and supporting: individuals or group to accept self or others; individu-
als or group to express themselves, accomplish or have feeling of accomplish-
ment; individuals or group to involve themselves in activity (programme), deci-
sion making, assuming and carrying responsibilities; individuals and group to
gain insight, understanding and security
4) Limiting behaviour: harmful to others or self; destructive to property and mate-
rial or to relationships
5) Guiding of discussions, activities and group movement
6) Alleviating: tension; conflict; fear and anxietyor guilt
7) Interpreting: function of group, worker and agency; individual’s or group’s
behaviour or feeling
8) ObservingandEvaluating(diagnosticapproval):individualbehaviour;individual’s
effect on group; group behaviour; worker’s effect on individual or group (own
practice)
9) Planning and preparing (by worker): group formation and composition;
programme; treatment or service’ (Henrietta Etla Saloshin, 1954).

Community Organisation
‘Community organisation is to mean a process by which a community identifies its
needs or objectives, develops the confidence and will to work at these needs or
objectives, finds the resources (internal and / or external) to deal with these needs or
objectives, takes action in respect to them, and in so doing extends and develops
11
Philanthropic Social Work cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community’ (Murray G
Ross, 1955:39). Philanthropic social worker applies this method while working with
the poorest of the poor urban and rural communities.

Social Action
Social Action ‘must be described as organised group effort to solve mass social
problems or to further socially desirable objectives by attempting to influence basic
social and economic conditions or practices’(John LHill, 1951:455).At times the
philanthropic social worker uses this method to address the issues of the poor and
helpless people with whom he or she works.

Welfare Administration
Welfare administration is the management of human and financial resources of
philanthropic social work. It includes identifying, recruiting and developing suitable
manpower for management of philanthropy. It also includes mobilising the required
financial and material resources by means of various fundraising strategies including
project preparation. Resource management and project administration are the major
aspects of social welfare administration in philanthropic social work.

Social Work Research

Social work research seeks to find explanations to unexplained social phenomena,
to clarify the doubtful and correct the misconceived facts of social life. Social work
research is also relevant in philanthropic social work, as it helps the social workers
to find explanation for unexplained philanthropicissues such as reasons for destitution,
causes of poverty etc. It also helps the philanthropic social worker to correct
misconceptions about poverty and helplessness and several other social facts.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Write a note on philanthropic social work methodology.
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2. What are the major methods of philanthropic social work?

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12
 Concept and Meaning of
1.4 VALUES AND PRINCIPLES OF Philanthropic Social Work

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK

Values are general guidelines of good conduct in any profession. A value can be
defined as a conception, explicit or implicit, distinct of an individual or characteristic
of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes,
means and ends of action. Basic values influence the key choices that shape the type
of life one builds and the kind of person one becomes. Values are necessary for
social stability; it can’t function unless every member agree on certain standards of
responsible behaviour and share basic values.
Social work is a value based profession. Social workers have the obligation to
guide the service users constantly regarding what is good and right things to do and
what are bad and wrong things that are not to be done. Values are important for
philanthropic social work. They have to keep in mind the professional values of
social work while taking any professional decisions. If one’s values are vague and
inconsistent, his behaviour will be aimless and confused. Values of social work
according to NationalAssociation of Social Workers’Standards for the Classification
of Social Work Practice, 1982 are the following:
1) Commitment to the primary importance of the individual in society
2) Respect for the confidentiality of relationship with clients
3) Commitment to social change to meet socially recognised needs
4) Willingness to keep personal feeling and needs separate from professional re-
lationship
5) Willingness to transmit knowledge and skill to others
6) Respect and appreciation of individual and group differences
7) Commitment to develop clients ability to help themselves
8) Willingness to persist in efforts on behalf of clients despite frustration
9) Commitment to social justice and the economic, physical and mental wellbeing
of all in society; and
10) Commitment to a higher standard of personal and professional conduct’
(Leonard N Brown, 1991:84)
National Association of Social Workers (NASW) of United States ofAmerica has
outlined some general code of conducts which are called ethical standards.
Professionals have ethical standards concerning professional practice in relation to
the client, agency (field setting), society, profession, to himself as a professional and
fellow professionals [NASW, Code of Ethics, 1982]. These ethical standards are
summarised below:

Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to Clients

l Commitment to clients
l Self-determination
l Informed consent with regard to communication of confidential matters
l Professional competence
l Cultural competence and social diversity
l Managing conflicts of interest 13
Philanthropic Social Work l Privacyand confidentiality
l Control on access to records
l Avoiding sexual relationships in the profession
l Restriction on physical contact
l Prohibition of sexual harassment
l Prohibition of derogatory language
l Conditions on payment for services
l Taking decisions regarding clients who lack decision-making capacity
l Regarding interruption of services
l Regarding termination of services

Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues

l Respect
l Confidentiality
l Interdisciplinary collaboration
l Disputes involving colleagues
l Consultation
l Referral for services
l Avoiding sexual relationships in the profession
l Restriction on physical contact
l Prohibition of sexual harassment
l Prohibition of derogatory language
l Regarding impairment of colleagues
l Regarding disclosure of incompetence of colleagues
l Unethical conduct of colleagues

Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings

l Supervision and consultation
l Education and training
l Performance evaluation
l Client records
l Billing
l Client transfer
l Administration
l Continuing education and staff development
l Commitments to employers
l Labour-management disputes

Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals

l Competence
14 l Prohibition of discrimination
l Private conduct Concept and Meaning of
Philanthropic Social Work
l Regarding dishonesty, fraud, and deception
l Regarding impairment
l Misrepresentation
l Solicitations
l Acknowledging credit and authorship

Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to the Social Work

Profession
l Integrity of the profession
l Evaluation and research

Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to the Broader Society

l Social welfare
l Public participation
l Public emergencies
l Social and political action

1.5 ROLE AND SKILLS OF PHILANTHROPIC

SOCIAL WORKER
Philanthropic social workers play a vital role in the society. They might play the role
of the guardian of social virtues. First of all they are very helpful persons. They play
the role of enabler, leader, facilitator, advisor, counsellor, teacher, manager,
philanthropist, teacher, trainer, advocate, parent, friend, philosopher and guide as
per the need of the people as well as the time. The primary role of philanthropic
social worker is to act as agents of social change, social reformation and social
progress. ‘The social worker is expected by society to be able (1) to assess, clarify
and help individual with the integration of their inner motives and the demands of
their social environment and (2) to help change social environment if it is detrimental
to the social development of individuals’ (Gisela Konopka, 1963:20).
Skills required for philanthropic social worker are the following:
1) Skills in understanding the person and his or her problems
2) Skills in diagnosis of the social problems especially in philanthropic field
3) Skills in developing a philanthropic programme that would address the identi-
fied social problems
4) Skills in establishing rapport with the service users of his professional work
5) Skills in participatory approaches – participatory planning, implementation,
monitoring and evolution
6) Skills in motivation and leadership
7) Skills in communication
8* Skills in documentation
9) Human relations skills of soft skills
10) Skills in various methods of professional social work and also the integrated
social work practice 15
Philanthropic Social Work
Check Your Progress III
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Write a note of values and principles of philanthropic social work.
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2. Explain the role of philanthropic social worker.

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1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have learnt the meaning, definition, methods, values and principles of
philanthropic social work and the role and skills of philanthropic social workers. It is
found that philanthropic social work is little different from professional social work
except in the scope and area. There is marked difference between philanthropy and
philanthropic social work and the difference will be studied in detail in the next unit.

1.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

BritishAssociation of Social Workers (1977) in Fitzgerald (Ed) Welfare in Action,
London: The Open University Press.
Gisela Konopka (1963) Social Group Work A Helping Process, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.
Grace Mathew (1984) Social Case Work, Mumbai: Tata Institute of Social
Sciences.
Harleigh B Trecker (1955) Social Group Work – Principles and Practices, New
York: Whiteside Inc, (rev. Ed.).
Helen Harris Pearlman (1957) Social Case Work – A Problem Solving Process,
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Henrietta Etla Saloshin (1954) Development of an Instrument for the Analysis
of the Social Group Work Method in Therapeutic Settings (Ph. D Thesis),
Minneapolis: Universityof Minnesota.
Henry B Washburn (1931) The Religious Motive in Philanthropy, New York:
Books for Library Press.
Herbert Hewitt Stroup (1960) Social Work: An Introduction to the Field, New
Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House.
James H Tuffs (1923) Education and Training for Social Work, NewYork: Russell
16 Sage Foundation.
James V Bennett (1960) Corrections, New York: National Association of Social Concept and Meaning of
Philanthropic Social Work
Workers.
John LHill (1951) Social Action, in Social Work Year Book, New York:American
Association of Social Workers.
Leonard N Brown (1991) Groups for Growth and Change, New York: Longman
Publishing Group.
Murray G Ross (1955) Community Organisation: Theory and Principles, New
York: Harper and Brothers.
Prochaska FK (1980) Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England,
London: Clarendon Press.
Robert Morris (1986) Rethinking Social Welfare: Why care for a Stranger? New
York: Longman Inc.
Ronald W Toseland and Robert F Rivas (1984) An Introduction to Group Work
Practice, New York: McMillan Publishing Company.
Suithum Bowers OMI (1949) The Nature and Definition of Social Casework
Part III, Journal of Social Casework, No.30, December.
Thomas Adam (2001) Philanthropic Landmarks: The Toronto Trail from a
Comparative Perspective, 1870’s to the 1930’s, Urban History Review, October,
vol. 30(1).
United Nations (1950) Training for Social Work: An International survey, New
York: Secretariat for the Social Commission, Economic and Social Council of the
United Nations, February, E/CN.5/196.
Vasco S (1998) Social Work and the Development of Human Resources, Asia
Pacific Journal of Social Work, Singapore: National University of Singapore, Vol.8,
No.1, March.

17
Philanthropic Social Work
UNIT 2 PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL WORK
AND PHILANTHROPY
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Philanthropy and Professional Social Work
2.3 Philanthropy and Philanthropic Social Work
2.4 Philanthropic and Professional Social Work
2.5 Need for Philanthropic Social Work
2.6 Scope and Fields of Philanthropic Social Work
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are to learn about the following:
l Relationship between Philanthropy and Professional Social Work
l Relationship between Philanthropy and Philanthropic Social Work
l Relationship between Philanthropic and Professional Social Work
l Need for Philanthropic Social Work
l Scope and Fields of Philanthropic Social Work

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The interrelationship among philanthropy, philanthropic social work and professional
social work is the main theme of this unit. The need and scope of philanthropic
social work is also presented in this unit. Philanthropy and social work are similar in
many respects and dissimilar in many other aspects. The overlapping area is called
philanthropic social work. Philanthropy is one of the main fields of professional
social work. Whenever social work values, principles and methods are applied in
philanthropic works, it becomes philanthropic social work. Presentlythe overlapping
area is expanding and more and more philanthropic activities are being carried out
by professional social workers. It is very useful to know in detail the nature of the
relationship between these concepts.All these are concerns of social work and they
are dependent on each other. The following diagram illustrates the relationship
between philanthropy, philanthropic social work and professional social work.

Philanthropy Philanthropic Professional

Social Work Social Work

18
 Professional Social
2.2 PHILANTHROPYAND PROFESSIONAL Work and Philanthropy

SOCIAL WORK
Philanthropy is synonymous to charity, compassion, humanity, patronage, generosity
and benevolence. The word, philanthropy derived from the Greek word,
‘philanthropos’, combined two words: philos, “loving” in the sense of benefiting,
caring for, nourishing; and anthropos, “human being” in the sense of “humankind”,
“humanity”, or “human-ness”.All the human care services are philanthropy. Social
work being a human care service is one part of philanthropy. In modern terms,
“philanthropy” means ‘private initiatives for the public good’, ‘voluntary action for
the public good’ and ‘the private giving of time or valuables for public purposes’.
The aim of philanthropy is improvement in the quality of human life.
It has been found in history that philanthropy has often been the forerunner of
professional social work. A wide range of personal motivations contributed to
philanthropic participation, as helping others was seen as emotionally and socially
stimulating. While much was accomplished by philanthropy, charitywas often erratic
and did not always fully meet the needs of the recipients (Robert Morris, 1986:117-
119). Philanthropy can be defined as the provision of financial, material, and ideal
resources made for cultural, social, and educational institutions.
‘Social work is the art of bringing various resources to bear on individual, group and
community needs by the application of a scientific method of helping people to help
themselves’ (Herbert Hewitt Stroup, 1960:1). ‘Social work is concerned with helping
people to realise their potential to the maximum, while ensuring that the facilities
which already exists to assist them are fully used and with supplementing those
which they are lacking’(British Association of Social Workers, 1977:77).
‘(1) It (social work) is a helping activity, designed to give assistance in respect to
problems that prevent individual, families, and groups from achieving a minimum
desirable standard of social and economic well being.
(2) It is a social activity carried on not for personal profit by private practitioners but
under the auspices or organisation governmental or non governmental or both,
established for the benefit of members of the community regarded as requiring
assistance.
(3) It is liaison activity through which disadvantaged individual, families and groups
mayhave all the resources available in the communityto meet their unsatisfied needs’
(United Nations, 1950:18).

Similarities between Philanthropy and Social Work

Philanthropy and social work are similar in many respects. Some of their similarities
are mentioned here:
l Social service and social welfare are common goals of philanthropy and social
work.
l Philanthropy and social work are helping activities.
l Philanthropy and social work meet the needs of the people and solve their
problems to some extent.
l Philanthropy and social work are community activities and human beings are
mainly the beneficiaries of both.
19
Philanthropic Social Work l Philanthropy and social work require high level of commitment and sacrificing
attitude on the part of the service providers
l Philanthropy and social work are need based services. They take into consid-
eration the needs of the people for whom the service is provided.

Distinction between Philanthropy and Social Work

There are several points of differences between Philanthropy and social work.
l Philanthropy is mainlygiving charitywhich might make the receiver dependent
on the provider; while social work is not charity, but help for self help
l Philanthropy is often immediate benefit and relief, while social work is long
term empowering service
l Philanthropy is more result oriented, while social work is process oriented.
Philanthropy does not look into how the work has been conducted, but is
interested in how many people were reached by the service delivery within a
prescribed time limit.
l With regard to some sections of the population, only philanthropy is possible
and there is little scope for social work. For example, working with the
incurables, severely challenged children, the elderly who are under custodial
care, patients in trauma, infants etc. while social work is more effective with
people with the capacity for self determination
l Philanthropy is practiced by volunteers, politicians and religious people; social
work is practiced by duly trained and certified professional social workers.

Relationship (Overlapping Area) between Philanthropy and Social

Work
Philanthropy and social work are complementary to each other in many respects.
l Philanthropy is relief work and immediate assistance; while social work does
not give any immediate solution but long term solution. Both are complemen-
tary to each other. Whenever, an immediate assistance is required, philanthropy
is to be practiced and social work could begin later on. For example, for a
hungryman, giving food is charity, while giving him vocational training is social
work. However, the immediate need is food and philanthropy is to be prac-
ticed prior to social work in this situation.
l With certain group of people, showing charity or practising philanthropy is the
only possible social work. Philanthropy is the lowest level of social work. Even
practising philanthropy is doing social work at some levels. Where the social
work is not possible to practice, philanthropy may be applied. For example,
taking care of the mentally challenged children who are under custodial care
(severely disabled) is the only social work possible with them.
l The difference between philanthropy and social work is a matter of degree and
magnitude in the helping process or problem solving work.
l When professional social workers work in philanthropy applying social work
principles, values and methodology given in unit 1, philanthropy turns to social
work. In fact, social work is an outgrowth of philanthropy. Social work started
with philanthropy and they are inseparable in many respects.
l All social workers are philanthropists, while all philanthropists are not social
20 workers.
 Professional Social
Work and Philanthropy
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What are the common elements in philanthropy and social work?
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2. Write a short note on the relationship between philanthropy and social work.
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2.3 PHILANTHROPYAND PHILANTHROPIC

SOCIAL WORK
Philanthropic social work is the overlapping area between philanthropy and social
work. There are certain similarities and dissimilarities between the two. They are
also very closely associated to each other.
Philanthropic social work is that part of philanthropy where the values, principles,
methods of social work are applied. It is philanthropy practiced scientifically. It is
charity given in a professional way. It is compassion practiced judiciously. In
philanthropy, the giver’s satisfaction is more important than the receiver’s satisfaction.
In philanthropic social work, the receiver’s problem solving and satisfaction is more
important than the giver’s satisfaction. In philanthropy, the benefactor and the manager
are the same person. In philanthropic social work, social workers are employed to
manage the philanthropic activities on behalf of the benefactor or donor. In other
words, there is no middle man in philanthropy. When the philanthropist gets his
charitable work done through some professional person or agency, it becomes
philanthropic social work.
In philanthropy administrative cost is nil or minimum. It is a voluntary service or
giving away the material and financial resources to the needy. In philanthropic social
work, administrative cost is involved, because philanthropy is practised in a large
scale. There are professionals employed such as accounting staff, counsellors, social
workers etc. There is also travel and logistic costs involved in philanthropic social
work. In philanthropic social work, philanthropic funds are collected from different
sources and put together for the philanthropic social work.
Philanthropy is practiced by anybody who is compassionate, kind and resourceful.
Philanthropic social work is practiced by professional social workers, who are
knowledgeable and skilful in social work practices such as social case work, social
group work, communityorganisation, social research, social action and social welfare
administration. He need not have the material and financial resources to do
philanthropic social work, but is skilful to manage the philanthropic funds collected
from various sources bywayofprojects, fundraising activities and government grants. 21
Philanthropic Social Work Philanthropy is often practised by individuals, while philanthropic social work is
often practiced by the government and non governmental agencies in the field of
social welfare. Funds for philanthropy come from individual donations and charities,
while funds for philanthropic social work often comes from the government, donor
agencies and corporate social responsibility.
Philanthropyis essentiallyan act of giving without expecting anything in return or not
even following up of what happened to the receiver after the act of giving. Philanthropy
is not often interested to study the problems of the receiver in detail, make an
assessment before giving and see whether giving is the best wayof help. Philanthropic
social work is essentially an act of management. It is giving through a systematic
procedure, such as assessing the problems of the receiver, identifying the ideal type
of assistance required, mobilising the required assistance, giving the best help, making
a follow up and see whether the help has made him or her self reliant.
Philanthropic social work is the ideal way of practising philanthropy. While
philanthropy is often unsustainable and make the receivers dependent on
philanthropists, every care is taken in philanthropic social work to make the efforts
sustainable and make the receivers self reliant to the greatest possible extent.
There are also cases where philanthropic social work is not practical with regard to
some people and some situation, such as working with the helpless persons such as
meeting medical expenses of a terminally ill person, financial support provided for
survival of severely challenged or aged persons who are under custodial care, etc.
In such situations, philanthropy is the only option and it can be treated as the best
social work practice. Thus philanthropy is one part of social work and it is rightly
told that social work begins with philanthropy.Agood philanthropist can become a
good social worker. A social worker is not to hesitate to engage in philanthropy
whenever it is the only option of helping people. One who is not able to do such kind
of philanthropy will not be a good social worker.

2.4 PHILANTHROPIC AND PROFESSIONAL

SOCIAL WORK
Philanthropic and professional social works are very close to each other. Both make
use of values, principles and methods of social work. However, all the philanthropic
social work programmes are not professionalsocial work. Similarlyall the professional
social work activities are not philanthropic social work. Philanthropic social work is
verycloseto social welfare management. In philanthropic social work, the professional
social workers work with the helpless persons, groups and communities, to relieve
their distress, and to empower them. The least, the last and the lost ones in the
society are the subject of philanthropic social work. Professional social work deals
in addition to philanthropic field, the development field, such as working with youth,
women, students, employees, managers, other professionals across different walks
of life.
Professional social workers are more and more in the field of micro credit and
women empowerment which is very distant from philanthropic social work.
Development field is the ideal arena for professional social workers where there is
more scope for achieving the goal of self reliance faster than in philanthropic field.
For example, rural community development, urban community development and
tribal community development are typical areas of professional social workers.A
social worker who is striving to form an ideal village which is self supporting is not
22
doing philanthropy, but a typical professional activity of community organisation. Professional Social
Work and Philanthropy
Professional social workers are also in the field of labour welfare and human resource
management which are again distant from philanthropic social work. Professional
social workers are in the field of social research, social action and community
organisation which are not really philanthropic causes.
There is however, scope for practising social research, social action and community
organisation in philanthropic social work besides social case work, social group
work and community organisation. Philanthropic social workers can take up a
philanthropicissuessuch as causes ofdestitution, rehabilitation options forthe destitute,
causes of beggary, communitybased rehabilitation of theseverelychallenged children
and the aged, various options of giving care to the terminally ill, etc. These research
programmes would produce the knowledge that is useful for philanthropic social
workers. Philanthropic social workers can organise the destitute, the orphans, the
beggars, the terminally ill etc. and organise social movements in appropriate ways,
so that the society at large and the policy makers in particular are made aware of
various aspects of victimisation of social justice and the effective implementation of
social security provisions. Philanthropic social workers can use community
organisation techniques to organise the destitute of a particular region and begin
SHGs and other self supporting enterprises. Philanthropic social workers invariably
work with individuals and groups making use of social case work and social group
work techniques. They are the widely used techniques by philanthropic social
workers. Professional social work and philanthropic social work are not different in
terms of values, principles and methods of practice. The only difference is area of
practice.
The relationship between philanthropic and professional social work is that of part
whole relationship. The entire philanthropic social work is a part of professional
social work. Philanthropic social work is a field of social work practice. Much of
the social practice today is outside the field of philanthropic social work. Schools,
hospitals, municipal corporations, government agencies, development organisations
and social welfare agencies are the fields of professional social work. Philanthropy
is one of such fields. There is much scope for philanthropic social work in welfare
agencies. For welfare agencies are often working with the least, the last and the lost
ones of the society. There is also scope for the practice of philanthropic social work
in other fields of social work such as school social work, community work, the
poor, the disabled and the destitute children and micro credit.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Explain the relationship between philanthropyand philanthropic social work.
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23
Philanthropic Social Work
2. Write a short note on the relationship between philanthropic and professional
social work.
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2.5 NEED FOR PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL

WORK
Philanthropic social work is a growing field of professional social work. Capacity
building is the felt need of philanthropic social work. Philanthropyis widelypractised
in India and philanthropic social work is to be popularised as it meets the manpower
need in the field of philanthropic social work.
There is a lot of philanthropic activities undertaken by religious trusts, philanthropic
societies and generous individuals. The volume of philanthropic donations and
contributions received incertain religious pilgrim centres suchasTirupati, Shabarimala,
Amritsar, Ayodhya, Shirdi, etc. are substantial. Even if such funds are utilised in
good faith for philanthropic activities such as food distribution to the poor and the
pilgrims, provision of residence, medical care and education of the poor, application
of philanthropic social work would increase the efficiency of its utilisations.
Much of the good works undertaken by several philanthropic organisations goes
unnoticed, for want of professional assistance of monitoring, evaluation and
documentation. Several deserving philanthropic organisations do not get government
assistance for social service activities they have been doing for several decades.
Appointment of philanthropic social workers would add to the capacity of
philanthropic organisations. They would be able to prepare good project proposals
and attract government grants. They are also skilful in documentation.
There is much philanthropic resources available with government and non
governmental (national and international funding organisations) agencies that could
be released on good project proposals to the philanthropic organisations.
Philanthropic social workers can be of good help in this regard.
Philanthropy is good work with poor management. Philanthropic social work would
improve the management of philanthropy. There are a number of philanthropists in
India. Philanthropic social work would enhance their professional skills.

2.6 SCOPE AND FIELDS OF PHILANTHROPIC

SOCIAL WORK
Fields of social work practice is one of the most flexible fields of any profession.
‘that the conception of the field of social work should above all be kept fluid in order
to maintain in this profession at least an open mind toward humanity’s changing
needs and the best method for meeting them’ (James H Tuffs, 1923:30-31).
Philanthropic social work is practiced by philanthropic social workers at individual
and institutional levels. Philanthropic social workers who are resourceful would
undertake philanthropic social work with his or her own resources.
24
Philanthropic social workers also volunteer their services to various philanthropic Professional Social
Work and Philanthropy
organisations. Volunteering is a popular method of practice of philanthropic social
work.
Philanthropic social work is practiced at the organizational level through charitable
societies and a charitable trusts.Acharity, or charitable organization, is a particular
type of voluntary organization.Avoluntary organization is an organization set up for
charitable, social, philanthropic or other purposes. It is required to use any profit or
surplus only for the organization’s purposes, and it is not a part of any governing
department, local authority or other statutory body. All charities are voluntary
organizations, but not all voluntary organizations are charities.
For a voluntary organization to be a charitable organization or charity, its overall
goals, sometimes called the “purposes” of the organization, must be charitable.All
the purposes of the organization must be charitable, as a charity cannot have some
purposes which are charitable and some which are not.Acharity must also provide
a public benefit. Common charitable purposes of a voluntary organization according
to CharitiesActs, 2006 (England) are the following:
l the prevention or relief of poverty
l the advancement of education
l the advancement of religion
l the advancement of health or the saving of lives
l the advancement of citizenship or community development
l the advancement of the arts, culture, heritage or science
l the advancement of amateur sport
l the advancement of human rights, conflict resolution or reconciliation or the
promotion of religious or racial harmony or equality and diversity
l the advancement of environmental protection or improvement
l the relief of those in need, byreason of youth, age, ill-health, disability, financial
hardship or other disadvantage
l the advancement of animal welfare
l the promotion of the efficiency of the armed forces of the Crown or of the
police, fire and rescue services or ambulance services
l other purposes currently recognised as charitable and any new charitable pur-
poses which are similar to another charitable purpose.
Practice of philanthropic social work at organisational level involves number of legal
requirements. Detailed description of the same is given in unit 4.
Philanthropic social work can also be practised in various fields such as,
l Social welfare agencies
l Rural and urban community
l School set up
l Medical and hospital set up
l Industrial and corporate set up
l Religious and spiritual organisations

25
Philanthropic Social Work
Social Welfare Agencies
Social work agencies can broadly be classified into social development and social
welfare agencies. Social welfare agencies are those social work organisations which
are engaged in relieving human distress. Social welfare agencies primarilywork with
the destitute, the orphan, the women in distress, the socially and economically
backward sections of the society, the differently abled, the aged, the terminally ill,
the poorest of the urban and rural poor. Social welfare agencies work for the
mainstreaming and empowerment of the marginalised. There are government, semi
government (private agencies working under grant-in-aid scheme of the government)
and non government organisations in the field of social welfare. The motto of social
welfare is to restore social justice. The term ‘social justice and empowerment’ is the
right substitute for ‘social welfare’.
What is practised in social welfare agencies is typically philanthropic social work. In
social welfare field, the social workers working with individuals and groups who are
not able to procure social justice and social security on their own, because, they are
so poor that they have no time and convenience to spare a while away from their
day to day struggle for survival. Philanthropic social workers make case studies of
the service users of social welfare, diagnose their needs, devise a suitable treatment
or problem solving strategy, implement the plan, make proper follow up of the plan,
monitor the progress and document the impacts.
Today philanthropy is merged with social welfare or with religion and spirituality.
Otherwise, they would arise an independent field of philanthropy which is the chief
source for social welfare funds, for the practice of philanthropic social work.

Rural, Urban and Tribal Community

Apart from the framework of a social welfare agency, philanthropic social work can
also be practised in open communities in rural, urban and tribal context. There are
deserving individuals, groups and communities in rural, urban and tribal areas who
need immediate philanthropic assistance such as daily food, cloth, shelter, medical
care, basic education etc. Theyare the poorest sections of the society. While practising
development work with rural, urban and tribal communities, a social worker can not
ignore such marginalised sections of the communities. The social workers have to
practice philanthropic social work in such context. Philanthropy is also one of the
options in philanthropic social work. The philanthropic social worker need to make
immediate arrangement for meeting the basic needs of the least, the last and the lost
ones of the community and gradually try for their suitable rehabilitation by making
use of all their professional skills and abilities. ‘The development of human resource
must be the central focus of social work practice. This will prevent dependency and
restore dignity to people. Social work interventions in theAsia-Pacific region must
not be primarily remedial, based on the medical model approach. More emphasis
should be placed on development and community building. The promotion of self-
help among people should be encouraged and promoted’(Vasco S, 1998:1). SHG
has been a proved strategy to work with the poorest of the poor, the disabled, the
destitute and even the aged.

School Setting
There is ample scope for practice of philanthropic social work in educational field.
School social workers work in educational social work. There are also poor children,
26
HIV affected children, destitute children, and orphan children who attend the public Professional Social
Work and Philanthropy
and private schools whose basic needs are unmet on day to day basis. Due to these,
they might perform badly in the academic activities, become irregular in the classes,
become school dropout and sometimes become disciplinary problems. While
counselling such children the social workercomes to know theirneed for philanthropic
social work. The social worker has to immediately arrange for some basic facilities
for the children and gradually work with them to evolve a sustainable assistance
package.

Medical and Hospital Setting

Medical and psychiatric social workers work in hospital settings. Medical social
workers prepare case studies, assist the physician in proper diagnosis, treatment
and rehabilitation of the patients. Counselling of HIV/AIDS affected person is an
important responsibility of medical social worker. This is one of the popular fields of
philanthropic social work. Due to inadequate social security provisions in the state,
many individuals become bankrupt while undergoing expensive medical treatment.
Hospital social workers do come across a number of such persons and they need to
practice philanthropic social work in such situations. Several poor people do not
take appropriate medical treatment because of the enormous medical expenses.
Philanthropic social workers have the moral obligation to immediately arrange for
the treatment of the poor and also devise a suitable rehabilitation plan for them.

Industrial and Corporate Setting

Industrial social workers work with human resources and also with labour force.
There is ample scope for philanthropic social work in industrial set up. There are
several employees who have problems related to personal health, medical problems
of family members, personal injuries, accidents, poverty, educational and other
financial difficulties at home, because of which the employees would be irregular in
the factory. Sometimes due to poor wages, the employees of the lowest cadre might
facefinancial crisis, during which theindustrial social workers can studytheir problems
and arrange for the necessary assistance.

Religious and Spiritual Organisations

Today philanthropy is very much a part of religious and spiritual organisations and
foundations. Everyreligion and spiritual sect claims provision allotted for philanthropy
and there is ample scope for philanthropic social workers to get associated with
such enterprises.At present the religious volunteers are undertaking the philanthropic
works of the religions. The social workers with suitable religious and spiritual
inclinations will be successful in religious organisations. It is the growing trend in the
religious foundations to send religious personnel for social work education, so that
the philanthropic activities undertaken bythem would become a professional service.
This trend is encouraging and IGNOU has the most appropriate course on
philanthropic social work for such religious volunteers.

27
Philanthropic Social Work
Check Your Progress III
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What is the need for philanthropic social work?
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2. Explain the scope of philanthropic social work in rural community.

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3. Schools are good fields for philanthropic social work. Explain.

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4. What is the scope of philanthropic social work in religion?

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2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have learnt the relationship between philanthropy, philanthropic social
work and professional social work. We have seen that the overlapping area between
philanthropy and social work is the philanthropic social work. Philanthropic social
work is the area of philanthropy where the social work, values, principles, and
methods are used. We have also learnt the need and scope of philanthropic social
work. In the following sections we will learn the historical context of philanthropic
social work, challenges of philanthropic social work, and the sources of finance and
human capital for philanthropic social work.

2.8 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Henry B Washburn (1931) The Religious Motive in Philanthropy, New York:
Books for Library Press.
James H Tuffs (1923) Education and Training for Social Work, NewYork: Russell
28 Sage Foundation.
Prochaska FK (1980) Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England, Professional Social
Work and Philanthropy
London: Clarendon Press.
Robert Morris (1986) Rethinking Social Welfare: Why care for a Stranger? New
York: Longman Inc.
Thomas Adam (2001) Philanthropic Landmarks: The Toronto Trail from a
Comparative Perspective, 1870’s to the 1930’s, Urban History Review, October,
vol. 30(1).
Vasco S (1998) Social Work and the Development of Human Resources, Asia
Pacific Journal of Social Work, Singapore: National University of Singapore, Vol.8,
No.1, March.

29
Philanthropic Social Work
UNIT 3 HISTORY OF PHILANTHROPIC
SOCIAL WORK
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Etiology of Philanthropy
3.3 Origin of Philanthropic Social Work
3.4 Philanthropic Social Work and World Religion
3.5 Philanthropic Social Work in Contemporary Era
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to help you to understand the historical context of philanthropic
social work. The history of philanthropic social work can be related to the history of
charity, philanthropic motivation of various religious sects and the history of social
work. Thus the objectives of this unit are:
l To understand the etiology of philanthropy and philanthropic social work
l To learn about the history of social work and philanthropic social work
l To learn about philanthropic works of various religions
l To learn the contemporary trend in philanthropic social work

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Philanthropic social work as a professional course unique in the history and can be
said to have originated at IGNOU, Delhi in 2010. However, historical background
of philanthropic social work can be traced from various sources. In order to
understand the history of philanthropic social work, it is necessary to learn the
historical development of philanthropy and charity. While understanding the history
of charity and philanthropy, we come to know how charitable works are organised
in the religious context. In fact, much of philanthropic social work is undertaken by
religious sects and congregations. Spiritual and religious motivation is the undercurrent
of philanthropic social work. While analysing the historyof professional social work,
we come to know that even the professional social work originated from philanthropic
motives. The first of school of social work was in the name of philanthropic social
work in the year 1904. Social work especially the social welfare activities were the
initial steps and gradually such activities were professionalized. Most of the
professional social work institutes in India as well as abroad have philanthropic
origin.

30
 History of Philanthropic
3.2 ETIOLOGY OF PHILANTHROPY Social Work

Synonyms of philanthropy are charity, compassion, humanity, patronage, generosity

and benevolence. The word, philanthropy derived from the Greek word,
‘philanthropos’, combined two words: philos, “loving” in the sense of benefiting,
caring for, nourishing; and anthropos, “human being” in the sense of “humankind”,
“humanity”, or “human-ness”. There is a Greek myth that accounts for the origin of
philanthropy. It’s believed that the word was coined 2500 years ago in ancient
Greece by the playwright, Aeschylus, or whoever else wrote Prometheus Bound.
There the author told as a myth, how the primitive creatures that were created to be
human, at first had no knowledge, skills, or culture of any kind—so they lived in
caves, in the dark, in constant fear for their lives. Zeus, the tyrannical king of the
gods, decided to destroy them, but Prometheus, a Titan whose name meant
“forethought,” out of his “philanthropos tropos” or “humanity-loving character” gave
them two empowering, life-enhancing, gifts: fire, symbolizing all knowledge, skills,
technology, arts, and science; and “blind hope” or optimism. The two went together—
with fire, humans could beoptimistic; with optimism, theycould usefireconstructively,
to improve the human condition. The two gifts in effect completed the creation of
humankind as a distinctly civilized animal. ‘Philanthropia’ (loving what it is to be
human) was thought to be the key to civilization. Prometheus’ philanthropic work
could be the first instance of philanthropic social work.
The PlatonicAcademy’s philosophical dictionary defined Philanthropia as a state of
well-educated habits stemming from love of humanity; a state of being productive of
benefit to humans. Philanthropia was later translated by the Romans into Latin as,
simply, humanitas or humane-ness.And because Prometheus’human-empowering
gifts rebelled against Zeus’tyranny, philanthropia was also associated with freedom
and democracy. Both Socrates and the laws ofAthens were described as philanthropic
and democratic, the idea being that philanthropic humans are reliably capable of
self-government.
In modern terms, “philanthropy” means ‘private initiatives for the public good’,
‘voluntary action for the public good’ and ‘the private giving of time or valuables for
public purposes’. The aim of philanthropy is improvement in the quality of human
life. Philanthropymaybest be defined as, ‘private initiatives for public good, focusing
on qualityof life’. This distinguishes it from government (public initiatives for public
good) and business (private initiatives for private good). The inclusion of ‘quality of
life’ ensures the strong humanistic emphasis of the Promethean archetype.
While philanthropyis merely giving help, philanthropic social work is giving help for
self help. Philanthropic social work significantlydiffers from professional social work
which means help for self help as a paid service. Professional social work use the
term ‘service users’ who receive social work assistance from professional social
workers upon a service fee. Philanthropic social work is professional social work,
performed with a voluntary spirit and no service fee is collected from the service
users. Funds for philanthropic social work come from general and religious donations
and contributions. The motivation of the philanthropic social worker comes from
self fulfilment, self satisfaction, religious obligation (sometimes) and voluntarism. It
has been found in historythat philanthropyhas often been theforerunnerofprofessional
social work.

31
Philanthropic Social Work
3.3 ORIGIN OF PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL
WORK
Philanthropy is as old as human history. Philanthropy has been the starting point for
professional social work. It can rightly be stated that professional social work has
grown out of philanthropic works. Philanthropy has been one of the development
stages of professional social work. Historically the order of events is philanthropy
(selfless social service) first, then social work (extension education and community
assistance for self reliance) and finally professional social work (as academic
discipline). Often the professional social workers denounce their philanthropic past.
Now, philanthropic social work has become a new branch of knowledge for
professional social workers. However, searching for the origin of philanthropic social
work is something recollecting the past or reviving the childhood sweet memories.
Therefore origin of philanthropy could be traced in the history of every reputed
school of social work in India as well as abroad.
We can explore the philanthropic origin of reputes social work schools in India,
such as Delhi School of Social Work (presently Department of Social Work,
University of Delhi), Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), CSRD-ISWR (Centre
for Studies in Rural Development Institute of Social Work and Research) etc. They
were once upon a time reputed philanthropic organisations which graduallyevolved
as institutes of professional education. This is true with regard to the origin of the first
school of social work in the world, i.e. Columbia University School of Social Work.
Even the University of Pennsylvania has a philanthropic origin. Let us study the
origin of these two institutions in brief.
The New York School of Philanthropy was established in 1904. The School
had its origins in 1898 with the first Summer School in PhilanthropicWork offered in
New York City. It was the first higher education program in the United States to
train people in the field of social work. It began as a six-week summer program
offered by the New York Charity Organization Society. Initially the program was
more like a workshop than a college course.
In 1904, the program was expanded to an eight-month course of full-time graduate
study at the newly renamed New York School of Philanthropy. Soon after, it was
expanded to a two-year graduate program. To ensure cooperation with Columbia
University, its president was made an ex-officio member of the Society’s committee
responsible for the School’s affairs. The NewYork School of Philanthropy changed
its name in 1917 to the New York School of Social Work. The NewYork School of
Social Work operated until 1963. It was fully merged into Columbia University as
the Columbia University School of Social Work (http://www.columbia.edu).
In Philadelphia, Franklin created perhaps the first personal system of civic
philanthropy in America.As a young tradesman in 1727, he formed the “Junto” - a
12 member club that met on Friday evenings to discuss current issues and events.
One of the four qualifications for membership was the ‘love [of] mankind in general’.
Two years later (1729) he founded the Philadelphia Gazette, and for the next thirty
years the Gazette mobilized public support, recruited volunteers, raised philanthropic
fund and created America’s first subscription library (1731), a volunteer fire
association, a fire insurance association, theAmerican Philosophical Society (1743-
4), an “academy” (1750—which became the University of Pennsylvania), a hospital
(1752—through fundraising with a challenge grant), the paving and patrolling of
32 public streets, the finance and construction of a civic meeting house, and manyothers.
Similarlyseveral renowned social work institutions started as philanthropic initiatives. History of Philanthropic
Social Work
Therefore, origin of philanthropic social work is always connected to the origin of
professional social work. Philanthropyis somethingclose to human sprit and is integral
to human nature. Philanthropy is as old as human being. The only contemporary to
philanthropy is the religion. The real beginning of philanthropic social work is from
the religious context. It is relevant to explore the philanthropic spirit, vision and
mission of world religion in order to realise the real historical context of philanthropic
social work.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What is the meaning of philanthropic social work?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

2. Write a brief note on the origin of philanthropic social work.

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3.4 PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK AND

WORLD RELIGIONS
Charity is the synonym of philanthropy. Philanthropy or Charity is love for fellow
human beings, often expressed in a donation of goods and services to those in need.
It is the spirit of active good will toward others, demonstrated in deeds to promote
their welfare. The word charityis taken from the Latin work, caritas, or love. Thomas
Aquinas called charity the greatest of the virtues. It has been said before that the
family is the oldest charitable and social welfare organization on earth. The family
feeds, protects and nurtures in a variety of ways all family members. One could say
historically that two processes have been going on at once in the family, mutual aid
and nurturance, and protection from outside forces. In earlyhistory, aid and protection
gradually expanded to include other extended family members, and other members
of the tribe. All the major world religions developed teachings on proper conduct,
including on charity (http://wweb.uta.edu).
A detaileddiscussion on philanthropyand world religion is givenin Unit 1 ofBlock 3.

3.5 PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK IN

CONTEMPORARY ERA
While the world religions have been emphasising the practice of philanthropy or
charityat personal level, the present trend is institutionalisation and professionalization.
Philanthropy is a more organised activity today. Political agencies under the aegis of 33
Philanthropic Social Work ‘welfare state’ are also in the field of philanthropic and humanitarian services.
However, government initiatives are purposely excluded from the scope of
philanthropic social work. It is restricted to individual and voluntarywork for human
welfare. There are a number of philanthropic organisations doing philanthropic social
work, such as Salesians of Don Bosco (SDB), Society of Jesus (SJ), Missionaries
of Charity, Rama Krishna Mission,ActionAid, Caritas, World Vision, Helpage etc.
They are very active in relief operations, child and women development, community
development, poverty alleviation etc. It has been observed that religious motivation
had been the primary inspiration for philanthropic social work in the past and it is still
the chief causative factor even today. Corporate charitable giving byway of corporate
social responsibilityis the latest trend in philanthropic social work. The contemporary
trend in the field of philanthropic social work is described in this section with an
illustrative example of Rama Krishna Mission.

Philanthropic Social Work in Modern Europe

In the period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the enactment of the first
Elizabethan Poor Law in 1601 philanthropy was characterized byvarious hierarchical
relationships within the feudal structure. Help for others was pre-eminently a matter
of royal contributions, but was also greatly supplemented by personal charity on the
part of the wealthy. Religion and concerns about life after death drove many to
charitable works. Churches continually increased their position in societyand began
to take a prominent role in philanthropic endeavours. Over time the church’s role
evolved, becoming one of the main instruments of charitable actions. Awide range
of personal motivations contributed to philanthropic participation, as helping others
was seen as emotionally and socially stimulating. While much was accomplished in
this period, charity was often erratic and did not always fully meet the needs of the
recipients (Robert Morris, 1986:117-119).
Charity organization movements were one of the key characteristics of Victorian era
philanthropists. With the emergence of nation states prior to and during this period,
poverty and social welfare gradually became embodied in law. State advocated
reform was often frenzied, highly bureaucratic, and humiliating to the poor who
received aid. However, as the duties of governments increased, aid societies and
philanthropists also expandedtheirorganizational efforts. Civiland religious structures
for taking care of the poor began to mix, resulting in a more bureaucratic and
regimented approach to philanthropy. Social sciences began to be consulted more
as philanthropists and the state sought to identify and subdivide social problems,
and to obtain information on specificneeds that would remedythe identified problems.
The inclusion of social science in social welfare organizations helped to make
philanthropic endeavours more efficient (Prochaska, 1980:133).

Religious Motive in 19th Century Philanthropy

Philanthropy in the 19th century was based on religious tradition that was centuries
in the making. Historically, wealthypeople in society gave to the poor as a Christian
duty. Charity was seen as a way of saving one’s own soul while also helping those
in need. Protestants, especially those with strong evangelical leanings, believed that
social conscience demanded social action. They held that by coming into contact
with human nature, particularly with those in need, that they were able to come in
contact with Christ (Henry B Washburn, 1931:8-20). Religious philanthropists
believed that byhelping the needy, theywere helping their own kin because everyone
34 was a child of God. Good works were, and are part of the foundation of Christianity,
and pave the way to salvation. Through the 19th century, the church increasingly History of Philanthropic
Social Work
became the vehicle of private and public social work. However, it should be noted
that though philanthropy was rooted in religious and church tradition, it also spread
outside the church. Philanthropy and religion are intertwined throughout history, but
are not necessarily dependent on each other.

Philanthropy and Ramakrishna Mission

Bythe end of 19th centuryAD, Ramakrishna Mission began its philanthropic activities
in India. The history of the Ramakrishna Order’s relief services is as old as that of
the Mission itself. Besides their multifarious permanent constructive works, from
their veryinception, the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission have been
promptly organizing ameliorative and healing services whenever the nation has been
faced with sudden calamities caused by freaks of nature, follies of men, or scourges
of epidemics. The Order’s first organized relief work was started by Swami
Akhandananda just two weeks after the Mission was founded by Swami
Vivekananda on 1 May 1897. When the Ramakrishna Mission started its first relief
work in 1897, there were hardly any other organized services in the field. It was in
fact a pioneering activity of the movement. SwamiAkhandananda drew inspiration
for his humanitarian services primarily from Sri Ramakrishna himself. The Master
used to say, ‘If God can be worshipped in an image, can He not be worshipped in
a living person?’SwamiAkhandananda literally transformed relief and rehabilitation
into acts of worship.
To date the Ramakrishna Mission and Math have together conducted hundreds of
relief works in India, Burma, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, during calamities and
hardships issuing from such a variety of causes as famines, floods, fires, epidemics,
cyclones, tornados, riots, earthquakes, landslides and droughts. Relief works for
evacuees and refugees were carried out on a very large scale during some of the
worst national calamities.After helping people to survive the devastating calamities
caused by nature and human folly, the movement is often faced with the urgency of
rehabilitating the suffering people.
Some key elements of the Order’s approach to and methodology of relief are:
l Worship of God in humans as the guiding ideal.
l Strictly apolitical conduct of activities and avoidance of populist publicity.
l Financial accountability through detailed records of the sources and utilization
of funds.
l Reaching out to the neediest through careful field surveys.
l No discrimination on religious, ethnic, sectional or other grounds.
l Involvement of local people in planning as well as implementation of specific
programmes.
l Rapid and efficient provision of services and use of current technology wher-
ever feasible.
l Time-bound programmes and avoidance of ‘indiscriminate charity’to prevent
wastage of resources and dependence among beneficiaries.
l Participatory approach involving monks, volunteers and technical experts.
l Focus on development—socio-economic, environmental and cultural—em-
powerment, and preventive strategies in rehabilitation.
35
Philanthropic Social Work Sri Ramakrishna used to say, ‘Man is Narayana Himself. If God can manifest Himself
through an image, then why not through man also?’ He declared very categorically
that God-realization is the aim of human life. ‘Does God exist only when the eyes
are closed and cease to exist when the eyes are opened?’ he observed. He also
pointed out that ‘an empty stomach is no good for religion’, and took steps to
mitigate such wants.
Although he warned against philanthropy being demeaned by desire for name and
fame, he commended selfless acts of charity as being ‘very noble’. He told Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar, the famous educationist and humanitarian, ‘You are distributing
food and learning. That is good too. If these activities are done in a selfless spirit
they lead to God’. He coined the term daridra-narayana, God in the form of the
poor, and asked us to serve Him: ‘Where should you go to seek God—are not all
the poor, the miserable, the weak, Gods? Why not worship them first?’This concept
of ‘service as worship’ defines the outlook of the Ramakrishna Order in all its social
service undertakings.
Swami Vivekananda drew attention to four forms of service: ‘The gift of spirituality
and spiritual knowledge is the highest, the next gift is secular knowledge, the next is
the saving of life; and the fourth is the gift of food.’ He had a comprehensive
‘developmental perspective’even for famine relief. When Swami Akhandananda
was involved in the Mission’s first famine relief, Swamiji wrote, ‘All the wealth of the
world cannot help one little Indian village if the people are not taught to help
themselves. Our work should be mainly educational, both moral and intellectual.’
This holistic-empowerment perspective remains the binding vision of the order to
this day.
The empowerment that Swamiji conceived of was based on practical or applied
Vedanta. For the members of the Ramakrishna Order, service is ‘Vedanta in practice’.
We need to serve others because their suffering is, in fact, our own. Making them
happy is the only way we can make ourselves happy. This is the spirit behind
Ramakrishna Mission’s relief activities (http://www.belurmath.org/
relief_news_archives/relief.htm).

Philanthropic Organisations
Philanthropic social work is practiced at the organizational level through charitable
societies and a charitable trusts.Acharity, or charitable organization, is a particular
type of voluntary organization.Avoluntary organization is an organization set up for
charitable, social, philanthropic or other purposes. It is required to use any profit or
surplus only for the organization’s purposes, and it is not a part of any governing
department, local authority or other statutory body. All charities are voluntary
organizations, but not all voluntary organizations are charities.
For a voluntary organization to be a charitable organization or charity, its overall
goals, sometimes called the “purposes” of the organization, must be charitable.All
the purposes of the organization must be charitable, as a charity cannot have some
purposes which are charitable and some which are not.Acharity must also provide
a public benefit. Common charitable purposes of a voluntary organization according
to CharitiesActs, 2006 (England) are the following:
l the prevention or relief of poverty
l the advancement of education
36 l the advancement of religion
l the advancement of health or the saving of lives History of Philanthropic
Social Work
l the advancement of citizenship or community development
l the advancement of the arts, culture, heritage or science
l the advancement of amateur sport
l the advancement of human rights, conflict resolution or reconciliation or the
promotion of religious or racial harmony or equality and diversity
l the advancement of environmental protection or improvement
l the relief of those in need, byreason of youth, age, ill-health, disability, financial
hardship or other disadvantage
l the advancement of animal welfare
l the promotion of the efficiency of the armed forces of the Crown or of the
police, fire and rescue services or ambulance services
l other purposes currently recognised as charitable and any new charitable pur-
poses which are similar to another charitable purpose.
The unincorporated association is the most common form of organization within the
voluntary sector. An unincorporated association is essentially a contractual
arrangement between individuals who have agreed to come together to form an
organization for a particular purpose.An unincorporated association will normally
have as its governing document, a constitution or set of rules, which will deal with
such matters as the appointment of office bearers, and the rules governing
membership. The organization is not though a separate legal entity. So it cannot start
legal action, it cannot borrow money, and it cannot enter into contracts in its own
name. Also the officers can be personally liable if the charity is sued or has debts.
ATrust is essentially a relationship between three parties, the donor of some assets,
the trustees who hold the assets and the beneficiaries (those people who are eligible
to benefit from the charity). When the trust has charitable purposes, and is a charity,
the trust is known as a charitable trust. The governing document is the Trust Deed or
Declaration of Trust, which comes into operation once it is signed by all the trustees.
The main disadvantage of a trust is that, as with an unincorporated association, it
does not have a separate legal entity and the trustees must themselves own property
and enter into contracts. The trustees are also liable if the charity is sued or incurs
liability.
In India, NPOs are commonlyknown as Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).
They can be registered in four ways:
l Trust
l Society
l Section-25 Company
l Special Licensing
Registration can be done with the Registrar of Companies / Societies. The following
laws or ConstitutionalArticles of the Republic of India are relevant to the NGOs:
l Articles 19(1)(c) and 30 of the Constitution of India
l Income Tax Act, 1961
l Public TrustsActs of various states
l Societies RegistrationAct, 1860
37
Philanthropic Social Work l Section 25 of the Indian Companies Act, 1956
l Foreign Contribution (Regulation)Act, 1976
There is a growing movement within the “non”-profit and “non”-government sector
to define itself using more proactive wording. Instead of being defined by “non”
words, organizations are suggesting new terminology to describe the sector. The
term “civil society organization” (CSO) has been used by a growing number of
organizations. The term “citizen sector organization” (CSO) has also been advocated
to describe the sector as one of citizens, for citizens. ‘Innovators for the Public’ is
another terminology. However, use of terminology by a nonprofit of self-descriptive
languagesuch as“publicserviceorganization”orotherterm that isnot legallycompliant
risks confusing the public about nonprofit abilities, capabilities and limitations.

Corporate Strategic Philanthropy

Corporate charitable giving by way of corporate social responsibility is the latest
trend in philanthropic social work. Strategic philanthropy directs contributions to
stakeholders and to societal issues that are important to the success of business
strategic plans. The aim is to do well by doing good. Professionalization of Corporate
Philanthropy is the practice of the time.
A well-managed program of corporate philanthropy requires a set of goals and
objectives; guidelines for determining how much money will be allocated to the
program; criteria for making grants and for evaluating their use; and either in-house
professional staff or access to competent consultants. Increased professionalism
can result in a more focused approach to giving as corporations expand their
contributions programs. Professional contributions managers can define the
educational, cultural, and social commitments that best serve society and the needs
of the company. Strategic philanthropy, as it has evolved, represents the integration
of contributions management into the overall strategic planning of the corporation.
Increased global competition has left corporations with limited dollars for charity.
As a result, companies, through the strategic management of contributions, are
focusing more resources on fewer social issues and on those that directly affect
business success.

Women and Philanthropy

Philanthropycan be defined as the provision of financial, material, and ideal resources
for cultural, social, and educational institutions. During the course the 19th century
these aims increasingly came to fruition through foundations, limited dividend
companies, membership organizations, or by bequests and donations, and were
generally facilitated by middle to upper class people (Thomas Adam, 2001:3-5).
The growth of the middle classes in the 18th and 19th centuries gave rise to increased
public participation on the part of women.
Work in charitable groups and institutions became an avenue for entry into elite
society for women and gave them a sense of place and direction outside the home.
By the 19th century women were increasingly better educated, and viewed by some
aspects of society as an underutilized resource. Philanthropic work was seen as the
ideal situation for the inclusion of women because charity work seemed to be a
natural extension of their maternal qualities into wider society. Adistinctive feature
of women’s philanthropic work in the 19th century is the degree to which they
applied theirdomestic experience and education outside the home. Thesaying “charity
38 begins at home” had wider meaning than it’s originator suspected for it was believed
that it was in the home where women developed the sympathies and skills necessary History of Philanthropic
Social Work
to perform good works in a wider sphere. As the family received more and more
attention as the paramount social unit in society, women, believed to be the natural
guardians of the household, gained new confidence (Prochaska, 1980:5-8).
The rise of evangelism in the 19th century also contributed greatly to women’s
expanding roles in institutional philanthropy. As a religion of duty which placed
service above doctrine, evangelism particularly appealed to women as religious
sensibilityand social pitystood much higher in their minds than abstract arid theology
(Prochaska, 1980:10). Women’s industriousness in household management also
proved to be beneficial for the often cash-strapped organizations. In addition to
fundraising through bazaars, dinner parties, banquets, and collection boxes women
took on extra household work, and sold handiworks to earn extra cash for their
organizations. Women brought a caring and industrious influence to institutional and
private philanthropy that may have been lacking had philanthropic work been left
solely to their male counterparts.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What are the modern trends in philanthropic social work?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

2. Write a note of corporate philanthropy.

...............................................................................................................
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3.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have learnt the origin and development to philanthropic social work,
the role of religions in the development of philanthropic social work, the modern
trends in philanthropic social work. Historical origin of the personal and organisational
practice of philanthropic social work has been described in this unit. It has been
made clear that the professional social work emanated from philanthropy and
philanthropic social work is nothing but practice of philanthropy in a professional
way. There is a great need for doing philanthropy with professional spirit and skills.
There are also a number of opportunities for social workers in the field of the
philanthropic management. The present issues and challenges in philanthropic social
work will be dealt with in the next unit.

39
Philanthropic Social Work
3.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES
Bruce D. Friedman (2002) Two Concepts of Charity and Their Relationship to
Social Work Practice, Social Thought 21(1), pp. 3-19
Henry B Washburn (1931) The Religious Motive in Philanthropy, New York:
Books for Library Press.
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/buddhism/charity.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/gcsebitesize/religious_education/
poverty_and_wealth/sikhism_poverty_wealth_and_charity_rev.shtml
http://www.belurmath.org/relief_news_archives/relief.htm
http://www.columbia.edu
http://www.hinducounciluk.org/newsite/circulardet.asp?rec=49
http://www.hvk.org/articles/0807/126.html
http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_101_150/charity_in_islam.htm
http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-faith-column/2009/04/charity-love-god-
christians
https://www.shrisaibabasansthan.org/new/new_eng%20template_shirdi/
online%5Conlinedonations.html
Ibrahim B. Syed (2010) Charity in Islam, Louisville (USA): Islamic Research
Foundation International, Inc. (http://www.irfi.org).
Prochaska FK (1980) Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England,
London: Clarendon Press.
Robert Morris (1986) Rethinking Social Welfare: Why care for a Stranger? New
York: Longman Inc.
Shastry, HVS (2007) Hindu Religion on Poverty and Charity, UK: Hindu Council,
August 25, 2007 (http://www.hinducounciluk.org)
Thomas Adam (2001) Philanthropic Landmarks: The Toronto Trail from a
Comparative Perspective, 1870’s to the 1930’s, Urban History Review, October,
vol. 30(1).
Watts, Thomas D (2006) Charity in Mehmet Odekon, ed. Encyclopaedia of World
Poverty Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing, pp.143-145.

40
 Contemporary Issues in
UNIT 4 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN Philanthropic Social Work

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK

Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Changing Trends in Philanthropic Social Work
4.3 Contemporary Challenges to Philanthropic Social Work
4.4 Strategies for Meeting the Contemporary Challenges and Role of
Social Worker
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES
It is important to know the changing scenario of philanthropic social work and the
emerging challenges. This would help us to overcome such challenges with caution.
The aim of this unit is to help you:
l To understand the changing trends in philanthropic social work in the historical
context
l To understand the contemporary challenges to philanthropic social work
l To understand the possible strategies for meeting the contemporary challenges
and role of social worker in this regard

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Philanthropycan be defined as the provision of financial, material, and ideal resources
for cultural, social, and educational institutions. Philanthropic social work is doing
professional social work with philanthropic and voluntary motives. Philanthropic
social work is the work for the poor and the marginalised who do not have the
purchasing power to procure social work services from any agency. The chief
motivation is ‘giving away’ but with the intent to empower and self help. During the
course the 19th century these aims increasingly came to fruition through foundations,
limited dividend companies, membership organizations, or bybequests and donations,
and were generally facilitated by middle to upper class people (Thomas Adam,
2001:3-5). Religion has been the chief sponsor of philanthropic social work in the
past and the present as well. Religious obligation compelled many people to engage
in philanthropic social work at individual level.
Gradually philanthropic organisations came into existence with legal status. Tax
benefits given by statutory bodies to the individual and institutional donors for
philanthropic activities boosted the sources of income for the philanthropic works.
Philanthropic organisations, such as charitable societies, Public Trusts, educational
and charitable foundations under prescribed legal framework havecome into existence
transcending national boundaries. Charitable organisations augmented to the welfare
work of the government machineries. Large numbers of professional social workers 41
Philanthropic Social Work have been recruited byphilanthropic organisations. Instead of individual contributions,
corporate donations have become a major source of philanthropic social work.
This is the contemporary scenario of philanthropic social work. Several challenges
in terms of manpower and resources have been faced byphilanthropic organisations.
Empowerment of philanthropic social workers and philanthropic agencies is the
main challenge for the social work profession.

4.2 CHANGING TRENDS IN PHILANTHROPIC

SOCIAL WORK
During medieval period, help for others was pre-eminently a matter of royal
contributions, but was also greatly supplemented by personal charity on the part of
the wealthy. Religion and concerns about life after death drove many to charitable
works. Churches continually increased their position in society and began to take a
prominent role in philanthropic endeavours. Over time the church’s role evolved,
becoming one of the main instruments of charitable actions.Awide range of personal
motivations contributed to philanthropic participation, as helping others was seen as
emotionally and socially stimulating. While much was accomplished in this period,
charity was often erratic and did not always fully meet the needs of the recipients
(Robert Morris, 1986:117-119).
Charity organization movements were one of the key characteristics of Victorian era
philanthropists. With the emergence of nation states prior to and during this period,
poverty and social welfare gradually became embodied in law. State advocated
reform was often frenzied, highly bureaucratic, and humiliating to the poor who
received aid. However, as the duties of governments increased, aid societies and
philanthropists also expandedtheirorganizational efforts. Civiland religious structures
for taking care of the poor began to mix, resulting in a more bureaucratic and
regimented approach to philanthropy. Social sciences began to be consulted more
as philanthropists and the state sought to identify and subdivide social problems,
and to obtain information on specificneeds that would remedythe identified problems.
The inclusion of social science in social welfare organizations helped to make
philanthropic endeavours more efficient (Prochaska, 1980:133).
Philanthropy in the 19th century was based on religious tradition that was centuries
in the making. Historically, wealthy people in society gave to the poor as a religious
duty. Charity was seen as a way of saving one’s own soul while also helping those
in need. In Christianity, some held that by coming into contact with human nature,
particularly with those in need, they were able to come in contact with Christ (Henry
B Washburn, 1931). Some believed that social conscience demanded social action.
Religious philanthropists believed that by helping the needy, they were helping their
own kin because everyone was a child of God. Good works paved the way to
salvation. However, it should be noted that though philanthropywas rooted in religious
and church tradition, it also spread outside the church. Philanthropy and religion are
intertwined throughout history, but are not necessarily dependent on each other.
Changing trends of philanthropic social work can be analysed as the following:
l From individual philanthropy to institutional and organisational philanthropy
l From religious motivation to secular and humanitarian consideration
l From individual donation to corporate donations
l From private initiative to government sponsorship and grant in aid initiatives
42
l From secret, informal and anonymous philanthropy to organised, formal and Contemporary Issues in
Philanthropic Social Work
legalised procedure for philanthropy

From Individual Philanthropy to Institutional and Organisational

Philanthropy
Philanthropyoriginallywas an individual affair of giving donations and service to the
poor out of personal and religious concern as has been seen in the previous unit.
There was religious pressure on individuals to do charity in the ancient and medieval
era. Thereweretangibleand intangiblepunishments envisaged forfailureto accomplish
the ritualistic charities. There were also hard and fast rules of charity (eg. Zakah)
imposed on individuals. Graduallythe individual efforts were combined, coordinated,
got organised under organisational frameworks. Institutional arrangements were made
to receive donations and manage donations. Tax benefits and other encouragements
were offered by statutory bodies for charitable contributions both individual and
institutional. Under CSR rules certain percentage of the annual outlay is set apart for
philanthropy. Rulesand regulations came intoexistencefor the registrationof charitable
organisations. Individual compulsion for charitable donations was graduallyreplaced
by systematic and strategic public fund raising campaigns.

From Religious Motivation to Secular and

Humanitarian Consideration
At one point in history religious obligation was the chief inspiration for philanthropy
as has been explained in the previous unit. Dana in Budhism, Yajna in Hinduism,
Zakah and Sadaqah in Islam, Tzedakah in Judaism and Agape in Christianity are
some examples of obligatoryphilanthropy. Religious motivation prevailed during the
ancient and medieval era. Once the modern democracy replaced the ancient and
medieval political institutions of monarchy and feudalism, religious sanction for
philanthropy has graduallybeen replaced by secular and humanitarian consideration.
Human rights awareness and democratic values of equality, fraternity and universal
brotherhood, motivated people of every nation to do charity for humanitarian works
such as relief operations in any other part of the world. Human suffering invoked
concern to the mankind in general and assistance reached to the needy from all parts
of the globe.

From Individual Donation to Corporate Donations

Corporate donations are something unknown in the past. Philanthropywas considered
as individual donations of the wealthy for the cause of the poor. The rich were made
aware that they were custodians of wealth (trustees) for the sake of the benefit of
the poor. In the capitalist economy, wealth began to get accumulated in corporate
entities such as companies and firms. It was felt that the corporate world has some
social obligation. They need to give back to society a part of the profit they earn
from the business. It is known as corporate social responsibility. Commercial firms
have transcended the national barriers in the process of business expansion. Today
the multinational and international firms are holding the key industries in the world.
Corporate donations have also expanded to cover all the needy locations on globe.
Corporate donations have been flowing to deal with global dangers such as HIV,
incurable diseases like cancer, malnutrition and the problems of women, children
and the aged. Philanthropy has become better organised and the role of social
workers in philanthropy management has become crucial.
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Philanthropic Social Work
From Private Initiative to Government Sponsorship and Grant in
Aid Initiatives
Philanthropyin its original form was aprivateinitiative.Wealthypeople, out ofreligious
and customary obligations, spent part of their wealth for the welfare of the needy as
it has been explained in the previous unit. Gradually philanthropy has become the
responsibility of the government. In the medieval periods royal donations were the
chief means for philanthropy. It was also the responsibility of the government to take
care of the destitute, the poor and the sick. Under the auspices of the welfare state,
philanthropy has been managed by the government. Even today the care of the
poor, the destitute and the orphans is the primary responsibility of the state. However
the mode of its management is tremendously changing. Government agencies have
become reluctant to manage philanthropic activities directly due to unreasonable
administrative cost involved. Private organisations have taken up much of the
philanthropic responsibilities of the state under various schemes of the government
sponsorship and grant-in-aid. Charitable organisations and trusts pool, public, private,
religious and corporate donations to undertake various philanthropic activities. Most
of the welfare functions of the state are being outsourced to private agencies under
the aegis public private partnership (PPP). Charitable organisations that function
under grant-in-aid have the tendency to behave like semi government organisations
with cumbersome procedure and bureaucracy.

From Secret, Informal and Anonymous Philanthropy to Organised,

Formal and Legalised Procedure for Philanthropy
Philanthropy had been practiced in the ancient period secretly and informally. The
efficacy of philanthropy was ascribed to anonymity of its practice. Individuals were
encouraged to make donations without expecting anything in return even the
acknowledgement. It was not uncommon that people make large volume of donations
and contributions to temples and religious causes without revealing their identity.
Eternal reward was expected by such philanthropists for their anonymous act of
charity. In the modern times people make donations formallyand through appropriate
legal procedure. Philanthropicorganisations are advised not to receive anyanonymous
donations and contributions. Every contribution is to be received with
acknowledgement and proper receipt is to be made. Philanthropic contributions are
accounted legally and account statements of philanthropic enterprises are public
documents. Charitable organisations are recommended to treat donations as public
money and due care and caution is applied to its utilisation. Donations to charitable
trusts are often tax exempted and the donors would claim an income tax exemption
for their philanthropic contributions.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What are the changing trends in philanthropic social work?
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 Contemporary Issues in
2. Philanthropy is more organised today than in the past. Discuss. Philanthropic Social Work

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4.3 CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES TO

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK
In the changed scenario philanthropic social work faces a number of challenges.
The main difference between the practiceof professional social work and philanthropic
social work is with regard to the source of fund. Professional social work is a paid
service and as any other profession like law, medicine and engineering, professional
social workers collect a service fee from the service users for the help they render to
them. In philanthropic social work, the social workers are paid from the philanthropic
funds collected from the general public or from public grant-in-aid and the service is
given free of charge. To the service users, the service they receive is charitable or
free of cost. In this context the challenges for philanthropic social work are the
following:
l Conceptual issues
l Dependency
l Lack of professionalism
l Capacity building
l Founder’s syndrome
l Resource mismanagement
l Sustainability

Conceptual Issues
What is the distinction between professional social work and philanthropic social
work? Is the distinction made regarding the collection of service charge in professional
social work sufficient to distinguish professional social work from philanthropic social
work? When a grant-in-aid is given to a charitable organization for undertaking
social work activities, the organization is augmenting to some of the welfare functions
of the government. The charitable organization is acting on behalf of the government.
When the service users enjoy the services freely, there grows the tendency in them
to be perpetually dependent on the agency.
Any service given free of cost is not sustainable. The service users would always
look for services from various sources free of cost. Therefore, the distinction between
philanthropic social work and professional social work may be on the issue of
dependence. Professional social work does not make the service users dependent,
while philanthropic social work has the tendency to make them more dependent. In
India, the sphere of philanthropic social work is more than professional social work.
The renowned social workers and social work enterprises are of philanthropic nature.
In Indian context, philanthropic works (work models of BabaAmte, Mother Teresa,
Sai Sansthan, Rama Krishna Mission, Street children’s work of Don Bosco society,
45
Philanthropic Social Work Society of Jesus (SJ), working with the HIV infected, leprosy patients and working
with the poor etc.) are the major domain of social work and professionalism is the
felt need in all these fields. Wherever, social work is practiced whether in philanthropy
or in profession, the work should be empowering and enabling self reliance.

Dependency
As it has been mentioned earlier, there is a tendency in philanthropic social work to
encourage dependence on the part of the service users. To a large extent, it is
unavoidable. However, every effort has to be made in philanthropic social work to
reduce such tendencies. Since the service users in philanthropic social work are the
poorest of the poor, the incurables, the destitute, the orphans, the helpless and the
disabled, they are not able to demand any social services on their own. Most of
them are in the realm of survival struggle. Unless philanthropists take care of them,
they would not have even survived. The moment such services are withdrawn, the
service users would fall back to their helpless state. The welfare needs catered by
philanthropists are crucial ones, therefore, dependence is often a natural phenomenon
in philanthropic social work.
Dependence in philanthropic social work is rather unavoidable. We can illustrate
this with an example. It is strongly recommended that the disabled should be
rehabilitated in their own community by way of community based rehabilitation
approaches. Institutional approach to the rehabilitation is detrimental to the inclusive
rights of the disabled. Mainstreaming of the disabled is possible only through
community based strategies. In this context, what will happen to those disabled who
are destitute? Several disabled persons who are in need of custodial care are
abandoned in thestreet. Theydo not have a communityto be rehabilitated. Institutional
care is the only option for such persons. Institutional care often creates dependence
and institutional approach is considered as unsustainable. Once a person is
institutionalised, he or she would spend the rest of his or her life in the institution.
Therefore, the dependence is an issue to be dealt with in philanthropic social work.

Lack of Professionalism
Lack of professionalism in philanthropic social work management and the resulting
problems are significant issues even today. Philanthropyis the mother of professional
social work. We have seen in the historyof philanthropic social work that professional
social work has often preceded philanthropic social work. Several professional social
institutions in India and abroad were initially philanthropic concerns. Even today,
much of the social work activities in India are done in philanthropic arena.
Professionalisation is gradually taking place. Many well known social workers in
India are philanthropists.
Organisational, manpower and material resources are plenty in philanthropy. What
is lacking is the number of professional social workers to manage the philanthropic
social work. Social workers need to be appointed in the management of philanthropy.
Even if philanthropy is more in prevalent in religious context, professional social
workers canstill beengaged inmanagingphilanthropy.What islacking in philanthropic
social work is the professional approach. Professional social work approach would
focus on empowerment and selfrelianceoftheserviceusers andminimize the tendency
of dependence. It has been found that unprofessional personnel are recruited in the
management of philanthropyand resource mismanagement, dependenceof the service
users and un-sustainability are the result. There is no lack of dedication and
46
commitment on the part of voluntary social workers. Many a time, mistakes occur Contemporary Issues in
Philanthropic Social Work
unintentionally on the part of voluntary social workers. They need to groom their
professional skills such as social case work, social group work, community
organization, social welfare management, research and social action skills, so that
philanthropic enterprises would become fruitful.

Capacity Building
Capacity building is an ongoing problem faced by philanthropic organisations for a
number of reasons. Most philanthropic organisations rely on external funding
(government funds, grants from charitable foundations and direct donations) to
maintain their operations. Changes in these sources of revenue may influence the
reliabilityor predictabilitywith which the organization can hire and retain staff, sustain
facilities, create programs, or maintain tax-exempt status. Major issues in this regard
are unreliable funding, long hours of work and low pay which can lead to employee
burnout and high turnover rates.
Philanthropy is essentially using private fund for public good. The sources of funding
are often unpredictable or unorganised. When there is uncertainty in the source of
funding, the capacity building of the organisation is affected. There will not be any
regularity or sustainabilityfor the programmes of the agency. It will also risk efficient
manpower for the organisation. The organisational capacity will drain off. Social
workers who look for a regular occupation would not prefer to work in a philanthropic
organisation where there is always the risk of programme termination and workers’
turn over.

Founder’s Syndrome
Founder’s syndrome is an issue organizations face as they grow. Dynamic founders
with a strong vision of how to operate the project try to retain control over the
organization, even as new employees or volunteers want to expand or limit the
project’s scope and try new things. Philanthropic organisations grow to the limits of
the founders and all the employees and staff members of the organisation are expected
to share the founder’s vision and mission. Otherwise, the unity and integrity of the
organisation is affected. There can not have multiplicity of vision. Usually there are
no statutoryregulations in the functioningof an organisation except that for registration
purpose. Creative and dynamic social workers often find constraints in working
within the limit of the founder’s vision.This particular phenomenon is called founder’s
syndrome and it an issue to be managed in philanthropic social work.
Founder’s syndrome is unavoidable, as the organisation might have developed out
of the financial and material resources donated by the founders. As long as the
founders are alive, the philanthropic organisations are encouraged to carryon working
up to the expectation of the founder. Once the founder retires or expires, the vision
and directionof theorganisation would changeaccording to thetalent and commitment
of the successor. In short, democratic decision making is not always practised in
charitable organisations with regard to top administrative decision taking and policy
making. The management may be functioning in a democratic way, however the
founder’s syndrome limits the scope of democratic functioning in a philanthropic
organisation.

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Philanthropic Social Work
Resource Mismanagement
Resource mismanagement in philanthropic organisations is acommon problem. Often
the employees are not accountable to anybody with regard to the handling of the
resources of a philanthropic organisation. For example, an employee may start a
new program without disclosing its complete liabilities. The employee may be
rewarded for improving the agency’s image, making other employees happy, and
attracting new donors. Liabilities, promised on the full faith and credit of the
organization, not recorded anywhere, constitute fraud. Often it so happens that the
resources of a philanthropic organisation are acquired free-of-cost and the
management and employees would not feel responsible for their maintenance and
due care. It is also possible that the philanthropic organisations are not accountable
to anybody with regard to their assets and resources, which relieves the stress of the
management for taking care of them well. Therefore, resource mismanagement is a
commonly reported issue of philanthropic organisations.
Due tolimitation in democratic functioning, the director orchairmanoftheorganisation
takes decisions solely which might drain off the organisation’s resources. If the
organisation performs well the director would be appreciated and if it performs
badly, the director will be blamed. Several situations will be there which demand
quick decision making, which might go wrong sometimes and result in resource
mismanagement. Philanthropic organisations are often quicker in decision making
and execution ofaprogrammecompared to government organisations.Themonitoring
mechanism of a philanthropic organisation might be weak on account of limited
resources which again result in resource mismanagement.

Sustainability
Sustainability is the major issue of philanthropic organisations. Philanthropic
organisations depend on the donations and contributions from general public and
donor agencies including government agencies. Such philanthropic donations are
not regular and fixed. At times the agencies receive a bulk grant with which the
agency would appoint a large number of staff members and implement a great deal
of activities. Once the grant is over, the agency would not be able to retain the staff
appointed and continue the programmes started. It is not easy to predict the funding
sources of a philanthropic organisation and it is also difficult to predict how far a
philanthropic organisation would survive or sustain itself. Several charitable trusts
and organisation cease to exist once the founder expires or retires from the
organisation.
Philanthropic organisations sometimes mushroom where the funds are available.
They also change their objectives and policies as per the requirements of the donor
agencies. If something happens to the donor agency or its policy, the funding stops
without prior information. In such situations, the agencysuddenly stops functioning.
For example the recent economic depression in Europe and the USA, affected the
flow of charitable funds to other developing countries and several philanthropic
organisations that were dependent on such funds had great difficulty to sustain
themselves. Employees were retrenched in large numbers and activities were cut
short abruptly.

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 Contemporary Issues in
Check Your Progress II Philanthropic Social Work

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

1. What are the challenges today faced by philanthropic social work?
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2. Sustainability is the main concern of philanthropic social work. Comment.

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4.4 STRATEGIES FOR MEETING THE

CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES OF
PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK AND
ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER
With regard to various challenges described above, philanthropic social workers
can take several protective measures. Some of the measures suggested are the
following:
l Proper vision and mission statement
l Completion ofnecessarylegal formalities regardingregistration and maintenance
of tax benefit status
l Maintaininggood publicrelations especiallythe fundingbase through appropriate
measures of documentation and communication
l Appointment of necessary professional staff who would take precaution
regarding sustainability
l Appropriate fund raising strategies
l Need and issue based programme development
l Proper management of philanthropic projects
l Research and development
l Capacity building of the organization by timely modification of the strategies
and appropriate manpower development
l Appropriate human resource development and management strategies such as
performance appraisal, merit based promotion, incentives, training and various
other staff welfare measures
l Encouraging and facilitating democratic functioning
l Social auditing, maintenance of proper accounts and filing of income tax returns
intime
l Measures to enhance sustainability 49
Philanthropic Social Work Overcoming the contemporarychallenges is the most important task of philanthropic
social worker. Let us look into detail the above listed measures in the following
section:

Proper Vision and Mission Statement

A philanthropic organisation should have a clear vision and mission statement which
will be communicated to the public, the service users, the prospective philanthropic
donors and the appropriate registering authorities. This would make the functioning
of the organisations smooth. The prospective employees and associates would get
clear idea about the direction of the organisation. Example of a vision statement of a
philanthropic organisation for the disabled is ‘equal opportunities for all’ and mission
statement is ‘mainstreaming the disabled’. In addition to them there can be a number
of aims and objectives for the organisations such as ‘inclusive education, community
based rehabilitation, integrated health care, women empowerment, community
development, child care etc.’
Programmes and projects further embody any one of the aims and objectives of the
organisation. There could be annual planning for the projects and programmes to be
undertaken by the organisation. There could be a long term plan for five or ten years
prepared in a logical framework. Such documentation could be displayed in the
organisation prominently. These efforts would properly communicate the founder’s
vision to the line of staff in the organisation. The management of the philanthropic
organisation might take the assistance of professional social workers to frame vision,
mission, aims and objectives and above all the strategic planning. Strategic planning
reveals to the staff members of a philanthropic organisation where the organisation
stands, where it goes and where it should go. Such a planning would attract
prospective philanthropic donors.

Completion of Necessary Legal Formalities Regarding

Registration, Day to Day Functioning and Maintenance of Tax
Benefit Status
A philanthropic organisation is to be registered properly as per the laws of the land.
Organisational climate would give a lot of freedom for the execution of charitable
enterprises. In India, Society’s Registration Act and Public Trust Act are the most
popularActs for the registration of philanthropic enterprises. Besides the primary
registration, the organisations have to be registered as charitable organisations under
12 A of Income Tax Act 1961, so that they would acquire and maintain movable
and immovable properties that are tax exempted. They might apply for registration
under 80 G or 35AC of Income Tax Act 1961 which would give tax benefits to the
philanthropic donors of the organisation. Such status would attract the tax paying
citizens to make considerable donations to the philanthropic organisations. Section
80 G entitles 50 per cent exemption to the donations made, while section 35 AC
gives 100 per cent tax exemption on the donations made. These are incentives for
the individuals and institutions to make generous donations to the philanthropic
organisations.
An additional registration under the Foreign Contributions Regulations Act 1976
(FCRA) would entitle the philanthropic organisation to canvass and receive foreign
donations with the acknowledgement to the Home Ministry by way of filing annual
return. All the legal formalities apart from annual auditing and timely income tax
returns are necessary for the smooth functioning and sustainability of philanthropic
50
organisations in India. Professional social workers would take care of such legal Contemporary Issues in
Philanthropic Social Work
requirements of the philanthropic organisation where they are employed. Other legal
requirements for the philanthropic organisation are payment of minimum wages to
its employees, provision of provident fund (PF) and its monthly submission to
Employees Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO). Proper procedure is to be
employed with regard to appointment of employees, leave provisions, service rules,
initiation of disciplinary actions, termination, retrenchment and retirement as per the
prevailinglabourlaws.Otherwisethe organisation would getinto unnecessarylitigation
and labour disputes.
Unless periodical submission of TDS (tax deducted at source), annual auditing,
annual filing of income tax returns and FCRA returns, and timely renewal of 80 G
status are made without fail, the tax benefit status of the philanthropic organisation
can not be maintained.Appointment of a responsible auditor and efficient accounting
staff is a necessity for smooth functioning of a philanthropic agency.Aprofessional
social worker would assist the founder and the management of the organisation in
this regard.

Maintaining Good Public Relations Especially the Donor Base

Through Appropriate Documentation and Communication of the
Progress of Charitable Works of the Organisation
A philanthropic organisation can survive bymaintaining good relations with the public
at large and the donor agencies in particular. Preparation of periodical progress
reports and newsletters and communication of the same to the public and to the
different stake holders of the organisations including the donors via website and mail
service are very important for maintenance of proper public relation. Suitable case
studies need to be prepared. Written documents should be supplemented with
appropriate action photographs. Such documentation and communication would
satisfy the donors of the organisation that their contributions are properly utilised
and also motivate them to further their donations.
Whenever new programmes and activities are undertaken, appropriate promotional
literature in terms of brochures, leaflets, appeals and press releases need to be
prepared and communicated to the stake holders of the organisation. Preparation of
circulation ofperiodical literature is animportant activityof aphilanthropicorganisation
and a professional social worker can be of great use in this regard.

Appointment of Necessary Professional Staff who Would take

Precaution Regarding Sustainability
Appointment of the required number of professional social workers who would
take care of the sustainabilityneed of the organisation is essential for the good conduct
of a philanthropic organisation. Professional social workers need to know the legal
as well as practical requirements of the smooth running ofa philanthropic organisation
and such workers are assets to the organisation. The management would identify
such professional staff members appoint them in key positions, give them suitable
climate for working and autonomy and also provide them with cooperative and
efficient clerical assistance. Philanthropic activities have always been on the rise in
the religious as well as secular fields. The need for professional social workers in the
field of philanthropic management is becoming more and more crucial. The founders
as well as the top administers who are not professional social workers need to
realise the professional need of their humanitarian enterprises. 51
Philanthropic Social Work
Appropriate Fund Raising Strategies
Philanthropic organisations need to devise innovative strategies for fundraising
whenever theyneed it.About fundraising for philanthropy shall be discussed in detail
in the next unit (unit 5).All the media resources should be used for fund raising. It
also includes personal appeal and appropriate project preparation, timely submission
and incessant followup of the same.Aprofessional social workershould be competent
to take care of all the fundraising and project development needs of a philanthropic
organisation.

Need and Issue Based Programme Development

A philanthropic organisation should be mindful to conceive need and issue based
programmes for their service users. Keeping in mind the vision, mission and general
aims and objectives of the organisation, the need of the service users should be
identified, interpreted, and appropriate programme should be formulated, so that
prospective donors would be impressed to fund them. Social workers are competent
in developing need based philanthropic programme development.

Proper Management of Philanthropic Projects

A philanthropic organisation must be careful in managing philanthropic projects
undertaken up to the satisfaction of the donor agency as well as the service users.
Managing the project is equally important as project development. For the effective
management of project suitable project staff is to be recruited, field surveys are to
be undertaken wherever necessary, other resources (capital and material) are to be
arranged, programmes should be conducted, properly monitored, evaluated,
documented and communicated to all the stakeholders.Aprofessional social worker
would be competent to manage a philanthropic project.

Research and Development

Research and development (R & D) are two simple terms that summarise the quality
management and organisational development of a philanthropic organisation.
Whenever the organisation fails to perform effectively research is to be conducted
to diagnose the limitations and barriers in the organisational functioning and
improvements need to be undertaken to mitigate them.Aprofessional social worker
should be competent to undertake appropriate R & D activities for a philanthropic
organisation. R & D is essential for sustainability, quality management and
organisational development.

Capacity Building of the Organization by Timely Modification of

the Strategies and Appropriate Manpower Development
Organisational capacity in terms of efficiency and technical expertise of the staff
members, organisational procedure, communication pattern, public relations, and
project management is to be assessed periodically and appropriate inputs via suitable
training programmes are to be supplemented. It will enhance to the sustainability of
the organisation.Aladder of promotions and performance based incentive schemes
should be established to sustain the motivation of the key staff of the organisation.A
professional social worker would be skilful in undertaking the capacity building
activities of the organisation.
52
Appropriate Human Resource Development and Management Contemporary Issues in
Philanthropic Social Work
Strategies Such as Performance Appraisal, Merit Based
Promotion, Incentives, Training and Various other Staff Welfare
Measures
Any organisation to sustain, requires appropriate human resource development and
management strategies such as performance appraisal, merit based promotion,
incentives, training and other staff welfare measures such as medical benefits, pension
schemes, provident funds, insurance benefits, educational allowance, canteen,
transportation and residential facilities would sustain the motivation of the staff of the
organisation. Philanthropic organisation is not an exception to these organisational
behavioural patterns. Human resource is the most valuable asset of any organisation
and appropriate human resource is essential for the success of a philanthropic
organisation.Aprofessional social worker should be competent to undertake all the
personnel function of a philanthropic organisation.

Encouraging and Facilitating Democratic Functioning

Everyphilanthropic organisationwill survive if it encouragesand facilitates democratic
functioning. Proper communication and consultation at appropriate levels would
enhance to the efficiency of the philanthropic organisation. The administrators can
take suggestions from all levels of staff members for the sake of suitable improvement
in the functioning of the organisation. Sometimes the staff members who have been
associated with the organisation for a very long duration would forward viable
suggestions to the organisation to overcome an unexpected crisis. Professional social
workers should be guardians of democracyin anyorganisation where theyare placed.

Social Auditing, Maintenance of Proper Accounts and Filing of

Income Tax Returns in Time
Participatory approaches should be encouraged to implement, monitor, evaluate
and document philanthropic projects. Social audit would assess the social benefit of
the project. All the account statement of the organisation could become public
documents and anyone could cross check them with the physical achievement of the
project. Proper auditing and timely filing of the income tax returns will make the
organisation creditworthy and donors would be happy make donations to such
transparent organisations. Professional social workers have significant role in
maintaining the transparency of the organisation, they are associated with.

Measures to Enhance Sustainability

In order to enhance to the sustainability of the organisation, the social workers can
find out a number of innovative strategies such as widening the donor bases, explore
grant-in-aid schemes of the government agencies which are rather permanent source
for undertakingphilanthropic activities such asrunninghostels for theorphans, children
of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes, running old age homes, homes and
educational institutions for the differently abled etc. Enhance to the image of the
organisation in the eyes of the public by initiating several community aid activities
and public interest activities that do not involve much financial implications.
Professional social workershavesignificant rolein makingaphilanthropic organisation
sustainable.

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Philanthropic Social Work
Check Your Progress III
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. How to overcome the challenges today faced by philanthropic social work?
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2. What are the legal requirements for the functioning of a philanthropic

organisation?
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4.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have learnt the changing trends in contemporary philanthropic social
work, various challenges faced byphilanthropic agencies, the measures and strategies
to overcome such challenges and especially the role of professional social workers
in this regard. It has been made clear that Philanthropic social work is an important
field for professional social workers. Main challenge for philanthropy is regarding
the fundraising. In the next unit we will concentrate on the sources of funding for
philanthropic social work.

4.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Henry B Washburn (1931) The Religious Motive in Philanthropy, New York:
Books for Library Press.
Prochaska FK (1980) Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England,
London: Clarendon Press.
Robert Morris (1986) Rethinking Social Welfare: Why care for a Stranger? New
York: Longman Inc.
Thomas Adam (2001) Philanthropic Landmarks: The Toronto Trail from a
Comparative Perspective, 1870’s to the 1930’s, Urban History Review, October,

54
 Human and Financial
UNIT 5 HUMAN AND FINANCIAL Resources for
Philanthropic Social Work

RESOURCES FOR
PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK
Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Human Resources for Philanthropic Social Work
5.3 Financial Resources for philanthropic Social Work
5.4 Resource Management for Philanthropic Social Work
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 Further Readings and References

5.0 OBJECTIVES
There are number of fulltime and part time volunteers from every walk of life who
have made themselves available for philanthropic social work. Financial resources
are also available for philanthropic social work, by way of religious donations,
charitable contributions, government grants and corporate donations. Resource
management is the chief task of philanthropic organisations. Therefore, the aim of
this unit is to help you:
l to learn about the human resources available for philanthropic social work;
l to study about the financial resources available for philanthropic social work;
l to understand the importance of resource management and the role of social
workers in this regard.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Philanthropy has been a social work field in India for many years in the past. After
studying the concept of philanthropic social work (unit 1), relationship between
professional and philanthropic social work (unit 2), historical background of
philanthropic social work (unit 3) and contemporary challenges to philanthropic
social work (unit 4), now we will study about the human and financial resources
available for philanthropic social work.
There are more philanthropic social workers in India than professional social workers.
Religion had been the chief sponsor for philanthropic social work in India as well as
abroad. There is no dearth of human and financial resources for philanthropic social
work. People with strong religious and spiritual inclination donate financial resources
for philanthropic work for attaining spiritual benefits. There is also government, non
government and corporate sources for financial resources available for philanthropic
social work. Resource management is one of the major challenges the philanthropic
organisations face.

55
Philanthropic Social Work
5.2 HUMAN RESOURCES FOR
PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK
Volunteers from a number of religious sects and congregation have been the bulk of
human resources for philanthropic social work. Catholic priests, nuns, Brahma
Kumaris and monks have set apart their entire life for philanthropic works for the
sake of spiritual benefit. No professional social workers can compete with them
with regard to the quantity and quality of the philanthropic works undertaken by
them. Religious volunteers who form the major part of the human resource for
philanthropic work have been organised into registered bodies such as Missionaries
of Charity (founded by Mother Theresa), Salesians of Don Bosco, Society of Jesus
(Jesuits), Rama Krishna Mission, Sai Sansthan and many more. The voluntary
manpower, these organisations have, constitute the backbone of philanthropic social
work in India and abroad. Many volunteers of these philanthropic organisations
have been trained social workers.
Volunteers are the chief human resources for philanthropic work. Human resources
for philanthropic social work can be analysed as the following:
l Fulltime volunteers
l Part time volunteers
l Volunteers organised into registered and unregistered social bodies
l Social workers recruited by Philanthropic organisations
l Women in philanthropic social work

Fulltime Volunteers
There are fulltime volunteers available for philanthropic work in various religious
sects. Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Budhism, Jainism, Judaism and Hinduism have a
number of volunteers who are fulltime in philanthropic activities such as care of the
sick, the differently abled, the destitute, the poor, the aged, the orphans, and the
incurables. They do humanitarian service selflessly and often the religious
congregations and sects sponsor their living. They normally lead a simple life that is
identified with the poor. They do the philanthropic service with the objective of
gaining spiritual progress, eternal reward, bliss in the life after death, self satisfaction,
agape (unconditional love for humanity), unitywith cosmic self (nirvana or moksha)
etc. Many of them believe that the worldly life is transcendent or passing.
Human beings are born with the inclination for a life after death in heaven or with the
almighty. The life on earth is for serving the needy and the poor. They are fulltime in
humanitarian service and they really enjoy such service. They often feel thankfulness
that they are given one more day in their life to serve the mankind. They do believe
that the almighty appears before them everyday in the form of a sick, destitute or
orphan human being and while they serve the man in misery they are really serving
and worshiping God.
Many of the fulltime volunteers in the field of philanthropic social work remain
unmarried and they believe that family obligations are hindrances for fulltime social
service. Theyhave profound love forhumanityand mankind. Theybelieve that serving
mankind is serving God. Losing the worldly pleasures is gaining eternal bliss. They
do service without expecting any monetaryor material remuneration. They are often
supported by various religious organisations. They do not even hesitate to beg for
56
carrying out their duties. To illustrate the lives of fulltime volunteers, I would like to Human and Financial
Resources for
give the example of Prison MinistryVolunteers. Philanthropic Social Work

Prison Ministry India is a Catholic organisation serving the prisoners all over India.
The Ministry has over 6000 volunteers, many of whom are fulltime volunteers. Till
recently it was an unregistered body. Most of them are Catholic priests, nuns and
brothers. Their principles of life are ‘Inconvenience is our convenience’ and ‘Begging
is our life style’. They visit the prisoners in the jails all over India, teach the prisoners,
counsel them, visit their families, educate the children of prisoners, take care of the
victims’families, andfinallyrehabilitate the released prisoners.St. Maximillion Kolbe,
a Catholic Monk, who laid his life in exchange of another prisoner in Nazi
concentration camp during second world war is the patron of Prison Ministry India
(PMI). PMI volunteers have even a home inside the prison campus in Bangalore,
where the fulltime volunteers live and serve the prisoners round the clock.

Part Time Volunteers

There are a number of part time volunteers in the field of philanthropy. Religious and
spiritual motivation again is the chief factor for part time volunteers. While fulltime
volunteers are largely from various religious sects, part time volunteers are from all
walks of life, every profession and fields. There are several types of part time
volunteers. Some volunteers set apart some duration of their life for philanthropic
works, such as one week or one month every year, some hours daily or weekly, etc.
Some students spend their holidays for philanthropic social work. Several foreign
students as well as professionals especially doctors and student social workers opt
for philanthropic works in the developing countries. Several such part time volunteers
are coming to India and serve the sick, the slum children, the rural women, the
destitute in Missionaries of Charities’ destitute home. There are several philanthropic
organisations in Indiawho welcome part time volunteers nationallyand inter nationally
for carrying out various philanthropic activities.
Through National Service Scheme (NSS) voluntary social service has become a
co-curricular activity in Indian Universities. Voluntary philanthropic work has been
made a part of university education. Part time philanthropic work is also a custom in
University education abroad. In order to illustrate the part time service of students
and professional in philanthropy, I would like to mention an incident took place in
Maharashtra. NASEOH, India is Mumbai based national organisation working in
the field of disability. During the month of July, 2003 NASEOH conducted a month
long training of CBR Workers, parents of the disabled, the primary health workers
form PHCs on basic disability management skills with the help of threeAustralian
professionals (2 Physiotherapist and 1 Occupational Therapist from University of
Sydney) who volunteered their services. In the Process NASEOH was able to train
3 CBR Workers, 30 health workers from PHCs, 15 health workers from an NGO
i.e. Comprehensive Rural Health project of Dr. RajnikanthArole and 30 parents of
the disabled. This is an example of how effectivelythe service of part time volunteers
can be utilised in philanthropic social work. Such incidents are many in India.
Professionals and students enjoy the involvement in part time philanthropic services,
as it gives them a refreshing break from the busy professional career. They also
derivethesatisfactionthat theyhavespent some timeof theirlifefor some humanitarian
cause. Monetary or material rewards are insignificant for part time volunteers. It has
been observed that some such volunteers are ready for fulltime service, provided
they are supported by some organisations for the same.
57
Philanthropic Social Work A number of urban based philanthropic organisations such as organisations working
in metropolitan cities have the advantage of getting the service of part time
professionals.Amar Jyoti, Prayas, CRY, Butterfly, Sulabh International etc. are some
of such organisations working in Delhi, who receive voluntaryprofessional assistance
on part time basis. If properly organised, philanthropic organisations in India can
attract a number of international volunteers on part time basis. Social workers have
a positive role in this regard.

Volunteers Organised into Registered and Unregistered Social

Bodies
Manpower for philanthropic social work are volunteers and it has been found that
most of the fulltime volunteers are working under the aegis of registered bodies.
Registration entitles the philanthropist to manage financial and material resources in
the name of the registered body rather than the individuals. Most of the religious
orders are registered bodies and there are also unregistered bodies of volunteers
who are in the fulltime philanthropy. Examples of volunteers organised into registered
bodies are Society of Jesus (SJ), Vincent De Paul Charitable Trust, Salesians of
Don Bosco, Missionaries of Charity, RamaKrishna Mission, etc.The chief motivation
of philanthropic social work is ‘giving away’ but with the intent to empower and self
help. During the course the 19th century these aims increasingly came to fruition
through foundations, limited dividend companies, membership organizations, or by
bequests and donations, and were generally facilitated by middle to upper class
people (Thomas Adam, 2001:3-5).
Organisation gave the fulltime volunteers the legal protection as well as tax
exemptions. Incorporation gave transparency to the work of the fulltime volunteers.
Undesirable impacts of ‘Founders’ syndrome’, which we studied in unit 4, were
minimised because of incorporation. Even resource mismanagement was greatly
controlled due to statutory provision of auditing and income tax returns of the
organisation. The accountability of the fulltime volunteers increased due to
incorporation.
Philanthropists were greatly encouraged to get themselves organised as a registered
body to work as charitable societies or trusts. This would improve the public image
of the philanthropic works undertaken by them. The donors and benefactors would
be happier to make philanthropic contributions to registered bodies, as they will be
able to claim income tax benefits. Corporate donations as well as government grants
are available only to the registered bodies.

Social Workers Recruited by Philanthropic Organisations

Initiallyphilanthropywas individual enterprises. Graduallyphilanthropic organisations
came into existence with legal status. Maintaining the legal and charitable status of
the organisation involved a lot of procedures which required recruitment of
professional staff in philanthropic organisations. Tax benefits given bystatutorybodies
to theindividual and institutional donorsfor philanthropic activities boosted thesources
of income for the philanthropic works. Receiving of proper donations also entails
the responsibility of maintaining proper records, activity reports and progress reports.
All these responsibilities required professional assistance. Fulltime as well as part
time professional were engaged by philanthropic organisations for accounting and
documentation purpose.
58
Philanthropic organisations, such as charitable societies, Public Trusts, educational Human and Financial
Resources for
and charitable foundations under prescribed legal framework and with competent Philanthropic Social Work
professional assistance have come into existence transcending national boundaries.
Charitable organisations augmented to the welfare work of the government
machineries. Large numbers of professional social workers have been recruited by
philanthropic organisations. Instead of individual contributions, corporate donations
have become a major source of philanthropic social work. Professional social workers
have been employed in key managerial positions of philanthropic organisations.
A wide range of personal motivations contributed to philanthropic participation, as
helping others was seen as emotionallyand sociallystimulating. Religion and concerns
about life after death drove manyto charitable works. While much was accomplished,
charity was often erratic and did not always fully meet the needs of the recipients
(Robert Morris, 1986:117-119). Today it is felt that lack of professionalism has
adversely affected the management of philanthropy. In philanthropy, the personal
satisfaction of the donors is more important than that of the receivers. In philanthropic
social work, the need and satisfaction of the service user is more important and
professional intervention is required in this context. Social sciences began to be
consulted to identify and subdivide social problems, and to obtain information on
specific needs that would remedy the identified problems. The inclusion of social
science in social welfare organizations helped to make philanthropic endeavours
more efficient (Prochaska, 1980:133).

Women in Philanthropic Social Work

The growth of the middle classes in modern era gave rise to increased public
participation on the part of women. Work in charitable groups and institutions became
an avenue for entry into elite society for women and gave them a sense of place and
direction outside the home. Women with better education were viewed by some
aspects of society as an underutilized resource. Philanthropic work was seen as the
ideal situation for the inclusion of women because charity work seemed to be a
natural extension of their maternal qualities into wider society. Adistinctive feature
of women’s philanthropic work is the degree to which they applied their domestic
experience and education outside the home. The saying “charity begins at home”
had wider meaning than it’s originator suspected for it was believed that it was in the
home where women developed the sympathies and skills necessary to perform good
works in a wider sphere. As the family received more and more attention as the
paramount social unit in society, women, believed to be the natural guardians of the
household, gained new confidence (Prochaska, 1980:5-8).
Women’s industriousness in household management proved to be beneficial for the
often cash-strapped organizations. In addition to fundraising through bazaars, dinner
parties, banquets, and collection boxes women took on extra household work, and
sold handiworks to earn extra cash for their organizations. Women brought a caring
and industrious influence to institutional and private philanthropythat mayhave been
lacking had philanthropic work been left solely to their male counterparts.

59
Philanthropic Social Work
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What are sources of human resources for philanthropic social work?
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2. What are the advantages of registration for a philanthropic organisation?

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5.3 FINANCIAL RESOURCES FOR

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK
Financial resources forphilanthropycametraditionallyfromreligious and humanitarian
donations, charitable donations from schools, other organisations including corporate
houses, and government grant in aid. Philanthropy in the 19th century was based on
religious tradition that was centuries in the making. Historically, wealthy people in
society gave to the poor as a religious duty. Charity was seen as a way of saving
one’s own soul while also helping those in need. In Christianity, some held that by
coming into contact with human nature, particularly with those in need, they were
able to come in contact with Christ (Henry B Washburn, 1931). Financial resources
and its procurement can be described as the following:
l Source of finance for philanthropic social work
l Legal requirements for receiving organised donations
l Fund raising

Source of Finance for Philanthropic Social Work

Main source of finance for philanthropic works include individual donations,
government grants, institutional aids under corporate social responsibility, subsidies
on loans, other donations and contributions (foreign and indigenous). Organisations
are in a better position to receive funds in philanthropy. Charitable organisations can
avail legal benefits under several legislations in India. Donations madeto the charitable
organisations will get some tax exemptions for the donors. Major sources of finance
for philanthropic social work are described in the following section.

Individual Donations
Individual donations made in the context of religious worship had been traditionally
the major source of philanthropic work. Such individual donations are utilised for
various charitable purposes. Annadan at Shirdi Sansthan, Langar at Gurudwara,
60 Zakat in Islam are some examples for utilisation of religious donations. Judaism
prescribes one tenth of individual’s income as religious cess (donations). In Islam Human and Financial
Resources for
Zakat is about 2.5 per cent of the net income of the individual. In Bahai Sect, one Philanthropic Social Work
dollar per day per earning member has been prescribed as religious donations. All
the other religions encourage individual donation for charitable and humanitarian
purposes.Christianity,BudhismandJainism givemuchemphasisonindividualdonation
of money, shramdan, and donation of materials.While describing thehistorical context
of philanthropic social work (unit 3) the religious obligation of the individuals of
different faith traditions was analysed in detail.

Government Grants
Governments give philanthropic grants to eligible philanthropic organisations for
undertaking social welfare activities such as running destitute homes, orphanages,
old age homes, running street children’s homes, short stay homes for women in
distress, managing remand (observation) homes, running Ashramshalas, educational
and training centres for the backward classes etc. Care of the aged, the orphans, the
destitute, the infirm, the socially and economically backward communities, the
scheduled tribes, street children, the juvenile delinquents and women in distress is
basically the responsibility of the government. Governments have found out an easy
wayto managethis responsibilitybygettingassociatedwith philanthropicorganisations
under the scheme of grant-in-aid.
Grants-in-aid are given to eligible organisations, which are registered, whose annual
accounts are audited, income tax returns are filed, who have adequate manpower
and infrastructure and make application in prescribed formats in time. Periodical
progress reports need to be sent by the grantee organisations. Periodical inspection
and monitoring of the philanthropic services of the organisation will be taken by the
government officials.

Institutional Aids Under Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate houses (business houses, industries and limited companies) have to set
apart at least 10 per cent of their net profit towards philanthropic purpose (social
and charitable). This fund is called the charitable fund available under corporate
social responsibility. Corporate houses sometime form their own philanthropic
foundations and transfer this money to the foundation’s account and take up various
social welfare activitiesin the localities wherethemain production units ofthecompany
are located. Often they give awaythis fund to reputed and creditworthy philanthropic
organisation that undertake humanitarian services such as treatment of incurable
diseases like HIV/AIDS, Cancer, heart diseases, etc.; care of the destitute children,
the elderly and the women in distress etc. Some of the well-known corporate
philanthropic foundations are Ford foundation, Bill Gates (Microsoft) charitable
foundation, etc. Indian Oil Corporation, BPCL, Kirloskar, Crompton, Tata, GMR,
Birla and L&T are some of corporate houses in India who have made noteworthy
contributions under CSR. CSR reports of these and other corporate houses are
available in the internet.

Other Donations and Contributions (foreign and indigenous)

Other donations both foreign and indigenous are available for philanthropic purposes.
Some eminent personalities set apart a portion of their life long earnings and wealth
for philanthropic purposes byinstituting some trusts orfoundations. Foreign donations
are also a major source for philanthropic organisations in India. European Union,
61
Philanthropic Social Work GTZ, Caritas, Miserior, Foreign Embassies, USAID, UNICEF, UNESCO, UNDP,
AIFO, etc are some of the foreign donors. These agencies have prescribed terms
and conditions for funding. For example,AIFO fund is given exclusively for Leprosy
care and rehabilitation; UNDP fund is mainly for refugee care; UNICEF fund is for
children etc. Such donations are often project based and the philanthropic
organisationsthatareutilisingsuch fundsneed to fulfil severalformalitiesand procedure
for monitoring and documentation of the project. Some of these conditions will be
discussed in the following sections.

Legal Requirements for Receiving Organised Donations

In order to receive government grant and institutional including corporate donations,
a philanthropic organisation has to fulfil several legal criteria. Some of these legal
requirements for receiving organised donations in India are:
l Registration under appropriate legislation (Societies’RegistrationAct or Public
and Charitable TrustAct)
l Tax exceptions under 12A, Income Tax Act 1961
l Registration under 80 G or 35 AC of Income Tax Act 1961
l Permission to receive foreign donations under FCRA, 1976

Registration and its Maintenance

Registration under appropriate law gives the philanthropic organisation a unique
legal identity.As a legal person, the organisation becomes capable of holding property,
power to enter into contract with other organisations and individuals, and make
transactions of money and materials as an individual. In order to have registration,
memorandum of association and a byelaw (rules and regulations) for day to day
functioning are to be prepared. Memorandum of association and byelaw include a
unique name for the organisation (name clause), a set of aims and objectives (objective
clause), constitution and conduct of governing body of the organisation, constitution
and conduct of general body, provision of new membership, termination of
membership, powers and responsibilities of governing body and general body. The
memorandum of association ensures that the registered organisation has members
who are not related by blood to each other and it functions democratically.
Provisions for periodical election to the governing body (once in a year or 4-5
years), annual general body in which approval of annual budget, presentation of
annual report, approval of audited statement, appointment of the auditor and
discussion on new membership are taken place, are made in the memorandum of
association and byelaw. The list of governing body is to be filed with the registrar
every year.Audited statements of the organisation need to be filed with Income Tax
Department.

Tax Exceptions Under 12A, Income Tax Act 1961

Registration under section 12Aof IncomeTaxAct 1961 ensures that the philanthropic
organisation is a charitable one and its income and assets are exempted from income
tax. This registration has to be done immediately after the registration of the society.
This registration limits the scope of the functioning of the philanthropic organisation.
Organisations registered under 12Aare not permitted to take up any profit making
activities, as their intention is onlyphilanthropy.This charitable status is also necessary
for registration under 80 G or 35 AC which gives tax benefits to the donors of the
62
organisation.
Registration as a charitable society entitles the organisation to acquire movable and Human and Financial
Resources for
immovable assets which are supposed to be used exclusively for philanthropic Philanthropic Social Work
purposes. While there is an income limit for every citizen beyond which his or her
incomes are taxable, there is no such income limit for a charitable organisation and
the assets and wealth of a charitable trust or philanthropic society are not taxable.
They can hold wealth as a trust for the benefit of the disadvantaged people they
serve. This is an encouragement and moral support provided by the government to
philanthropic organisations as they take part in the government’s welfare functions.

Registration Under 80 G or 35 AC of Income Tax Act 1961

Registration under 80 G or 35AC of Income Tax Act 1961 gives additional benefits
to the philanthropic organisations as it entitles the donors and benefactors for a
claim of tax exemption for their philanthropic donations. Registration under 80 G
gives 50 per cent tax benefit, while registration under 35AC gives 100 per cent tax
benefit for the donations given bythe benefactors of the organisation. The registration
status of 80 G need to be renewed every 3 years by filing the details of the donations
received during that period and the whereabouts of the donors to the Income Tax
Department. This monitoring mechanism ensures that the donations received by the
philanthropic organisations are properly acknowledged and the donations are used
exclusively for philanthropic purposes.
Registration under 35AC is project based and with prescribed income limit. Under
35 AC, a Philanthropic organisation will be entitled to receive certain volume of
funds (usually in several lakhs or crores) for undertaking a specific project for a
specific duration of time. The donations and contributions received for the execution
of the project shall be 100 per cent tax exempt. This is a boost for the donors of the
philanthropic organisations.

Permission to Receive Foreign Donations Under FCRA, 1976

Philanthropic organisations are required to get registered under Foreign Contributions
RegulationAct (FCRA) 1976 in order to receive foreign donations and contributions.
There are international sources of funds available for philanthropy such as Foreign
embassies, European Union, USAID, etc. Unless the organisation is given explicit
permission by the Home Ministry, bymeans of a unique FCRAregistration number,
the organisation is prohibited to receive foreign contributions. FCRA is a regulating
mechanism to control the flow of foreign moneyto India. Philanthropic organisations
need to apply for registration under FCRA in prescribed format after three years of
its regular registration.
Philanthropic organisations registered under FCRA need to file foreign contributions
returns every year to the Home Ministry, which includes the details of the foreign
contributions received during the reporting year, the whereabouts of the international
donors and funding organisations, the purpose for which the donations have been
used and the unspent balance of the donations received. This is the way, the receipt
and utilisation of foreign contributions are monitored by the Central Government.

63
Philanthropic Social Work
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What are the sources of financial resources for philanthropic social work?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

2. What are the legal requirements for a philanthropic organisation to receive

organised grants and foreign donations?
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Procedure for Fundraising

Philanthropic organisations applya variety of methods and strategies for fund raising.
Fund raised by fund raising campaigns is an important source of financial resources
of philanthropic organisations. Help Age India Foundation has been conducting
innovative fund raisingcampaigns for several years. Philanthropicpurposes are always
appealing for the general public to make donations. In order to raise fund through
specific fund raising campaigns, a philanthropicorganisation need to do the following:
l Identify a philanthropic cause for fund raising
l Search for agency / individual / corporate interested in funding the cause
l Application in prescribed format and follow up the application
l Conduct charity shows
l Other strategies:

Identify and Highlight a Philanthropic Cause for Fund Raising

In order to devise a fundraising campaign, first of all a philanthropic cause has be
found out and it should be presented in an appealing way making use of all the
impressive modern mass media. Causes like destitution, natural disasters like tsunami,
earth quake, flood, famine and fire, environmental protection, rehabilitation of HIV
affected children, cancer patients, leprosy affected persons, child and women abuse
etc. are suitable causes for philanthropic fundraising. Posters and pictures of recent
related events can be used for fundraising campaigns. Highlight also the tax benefits
to be received by the donors. Media like website, email, sms, telephone, post and
couriers can be used for spreading the campaign.

Search forAgency/Individual/Corporate Interested in Funding the Cause

After identifying a deserving cause for fundraising, the philanthropic organisation has
to search for all the possible sources of funds for the campaign and approach all the
agencies, individuals and corporate houses who might probably make a donation
64
for the cause. For example, medical companies might be interested in making a Human and Financial
Resources for
donation for a health related issue. Schools maybe interested in making contributions Philanthropic Social Work
for the education and training of disadvantaged children. Women organisations and
church institutions may be interested to make a contribution for the cause of
disadvantaged women. Vehicle companies may be interested in making a donation
for the causeof accident victims. In stead of a general appeal, identifying a prospective
donor group and approaching them personally will be more effective.

ProjectApplication in Prescribed Format and Follow Up

In order to collect corporate donations for a fundraising campaign, application is to
be forwarded in prescribed formats. Funding organisations have prescribed project
format for submission of a philanthropic project. Philanthropic organisations should
be competent to prepare scientific project proposals which would necessitate
professional assistance of a social worker. Several institutions like schools, church
organisations, banking institutions, government and semi government organisations
would require the philanthropic organisations to make formal application along with
copies of registration certificate, copy of 12Aregistration certificate, copy of 80 G
registration, annual reports, audited statements of accounts of the previous years,
etc. so that theymight make sure that the philanthropic organisation has the credibility
to receive philanthropic donations and capacity to utilise them effectively.
Once the application is made, it is important to make necessary follow up of the
application, till the donation is received. Once the donation is received, it should be
duly acknowledged. Once the activity is conducted a utilisation certificate from the
auditor along with a colourful activity report is to be submitted to the donor agency.
These acts would add to the trustworthiness of the philanthropic organisation which
might get thedonations in futurefrom thesame donor agencies. Several donor agencies
demand a prominent display of their identity in the venue of the activity conducted
for which the contribution is received.

Conduct Charity Shows

Charity shows such as musical concerts, poster or painting exhibition, film or
documentary show, magic shows, cultural events, anniversary celebrations, sports
and games show (friendly match) etc. are good means of fund raising. Donation
coupons are issued as entry pass to the events. Through this method the donors are
given some benefit in terms of some entertainment, knowledge giving events, or
recreation facility for the donations they make. The benefit given maynot match with
the donations collected. The peculiarity of charity show is that the event conducted
is not important, but the philanthropic purpose assigned to the utilisation of the
proceedings of the show is always highlighted. People donate actually towards the
philanthropic purpose and the donors do not necessarily attend the charity shows.
The chief sponsors’identity may be displayed at the charity show.
Musical concerts (live shows) are the most commonly organised charity show.
Popular celebrities, politicians, professionals, film stars and bureaucrats maybe invited
to the charity show to make their presence and if possible give a short message
towards philanthropic cause. Media coverage is often given to charityshows. Charity
shows are a good means for fundraising.

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Philanthropic Social Work
Other Strategies
Other strategies for fundraising campaigns include donation coupons; lucky draws;
instalment schemes; call for voluntaryservices to save moneyon manpower, technical
input etc.; call for donation in kind to save expenditure on provisions, stationery,
cloth, learningmaterials, buildingmaterials, foodetc. Thesearewidelyusedfundraising
means which are often specific programme, project or issue based. Collecting
advertisement and publishing promotional literature such as souvenir, annual reports,
brochures, leaflets and periodicals is another means for fundraising. Sale of souvenirs
of different types including handicraft goods, paintings, drawings, articles made out
of recycled materials etc. is also a widely used fundraising strategy. There are many
more innovative fundraising strategies that are devised as per the need of the situation
by social workers who are creative.
These fundraising strategies become successful in person to person campaign strategy.
Such personal approaches will also spread social awareness among the public
regarding the philanthropic purpose for which the fundraising campaigns are being
undertaken. Once the financial resources are managed by appropriate fundraising
campaigns, the funds should be effectively used. Resource management in
philanthropy is a crucial aspect of philanthropic social work. Without discussing
about effective resource management, this unit about human and financial resources
for philanthropic social work will be incomplete. Therefore, let us discuss about the
resource management in philanthropic social work.

5.4 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL WORK
Resource management is an important aspect of philanthropic social work. In this
unit we have learnt about the sources of human and financial resources for
philanthropic social work. Finally we have to learn some tips of effective utilisation
of philanthropic fund. Some of the general guidelines of resource management in
philanthropic social work are the following:
l Not to incur expenses on infrastructure
l Minimum administrative cost: meeting administrative cost as local contribution
l Maximum expenditureon intended philanthropic purposeand upon beneficiaries
l Appropriate documentation
l Human resource management

Not to Incur Expenses on Infrastructure

Public funds (donations, contributions, government grants and project grants) are
not to be used for acquisition of immovable property, creation and maintenance of
infrastructure unless the donation is collected exclusivelyfor that purpose. The modern
trend is towards communitybased approach which does not permit institution building
approach. Funds are seldom available for institution building. Therefore, the
philanthropic organisations should be cautious in spending the resources exclusively
for the predetermined purposes. Organisation’s own funds and collections from the
society members are to be utilised for infrastructure development. Usually the
prospective benefactors donate to philanthropic organisation with the intention of
spending it for philanthropic purposes or directly for humanitarian services.
66
Minimum Administrative Cost: Meeting Administrative Cost as Local Human and Financial
Resources for
Contribution Philanthropic Social Work

Philanthropic funds are not to be used for administrative purposes. Even if it is used
for meeting administrative costs such as travel, postage, accounting, computer
expenses, hospitality etc. it should be minimum, for example it should not exceed 10
per cent of the total outlay. FCRAprescribes the upper limit of administrative cost
as 10 per cent in the utilisation of foreign contributions.At least 90 per cent of the
donations should be used for philanthropic purposes or directly for the programme
of social welfare services for which the fund is collected.Administrative cost is to be
generated as localcontribution ortheorganisation’s own funds.Administrativeservices
can be met by voluntary assistance. No office bearers of a philanthropic organisation
are to be remunerated for their service to the organisation. Their service should be
free of charges.
Constraint on philanthropic organisation to incur huge administrative cost is a factor
of non appointment of professionals for the office work of the organisation.

Maximum Expenditure on Intended Philanthropic Purpose and Upon

Beneficiaries
This is the thumb rule of resource management in philanthropic social work. The
donor agencies and individuals will be happy to know that their donations have been
100 per cent spent for the philanthropic purpose for which the donations have been
made. No donor appreciates the administrative cost incurred from their donations.
Several benefactors make philanthropic contributions just to save the administrative
costs and inconveniences involved otherwise. For example, when a person donates
some amount for the procurement of food for the destitute children, he or she would
not like the transportation costs incurred from his donation. The donors will be glad
to know that the total amount of donation has been spent for procurement of food
for the destitute children.
Philanthropists are expected to render his service free of cost especially to discharge
the administrative and managerial responsibilities of the organisation. It is with this
intention, the government grants charitable status to philanthropic organisations and
tax benefits to the organisation as well as its benefactors.Administrative cost is main
factor of distinction between a philanthropic organisation and a corporate or a
government agency.

Appropriate Documentation
Finally appropriate documentation of the projects undertaken with contributions,
donations and grants received from various sources is the essential aspect of resource
management. Documentation includes not only the recording of the result (physical
and financial performance), outcomes and the impacts of the project, but also of the
procedure of spending, additional resource mobilised and utilised, the monitoring
undertaken, the evaluation or impact analysis undertaken to assess the effectiveness
of the project. Summary recording, process recording, verbatim recording, narrative
recording, audio visual recording, power point presentation, all the relevant accounting
statements properlyaudited (income and expenditure statements, receipt and payment
statements and auditor’s report) and fund utilisation reports are important documents
to be furnished at the end of a project or philanthropic programme. The completion
report shouldmention the volumeofservices provided to thepublic, acknowledgement
67
Philanthropic Social Work of the recipients of the philanthropic services wherever applicable (for example
distribution of aids and appliances for the disabled), filing the proper accounts with
appropriate government agencies (foreign contributions to the home ministry and
local contribution to the income tax department), receipts and vouchers of the
expenditure incurred, relevant photographs and video clippings of the philanthropic
activities undertaken, future plan or a proposal for continuance of the project or
expansion of the project.
Timely documentation helps the organisation to prepare periodical progress reports,
annual reports, press releases, project proposals in future, case studies, and
preparation of other promotional literature. It also improves the public relations of
the philanthropic organisations, especially the relationship with donor agencies and
other stakeholders of the philanthropic activities.

Human Resource Management of Philanthropic Organisations

For the effective management of human resources, appropriate human resource
development and human resource management strategies are to be resorted such as
appropriate, impartial, merit based recruitment procedure, training and development,
democratic managerial decision making procedure, proper organisational
communication procedure, performance appraisal, performance based incentives,
promotions, minimum wages, annual increment, formulation of service rules and
leave rules, application of appropriate labour laws and labour welfare provisions,
residential and transportation facilities for the staff wherever possible, suitable
disciplinary action taking procedure, appropriate retrenchment, retirement and
termination procedure etc. Salaries and personnel costs should be integrated to the
programme cost wherever possible, otherwise, these costs get added to the
administrative costs which will adversely affect the overall financial performance of
the organisation.

Check Your Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What are the means of fund raising?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

2. What are the tips of financial resource management?

...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

68
 Human and Financial
3. Write a short note on human resource management in philanthropic social Resources for
Philanthropic Social Work
work.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

5.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have learnt about different sources of human and financial resources
for philanthropic social work, various means of fundraising and practical tips of
resource management.With this unit wehave completed the essentials of philanthropic
social work. We have started with concept of philanthropic social work (unit 1) and
ended with resources and their management in philanthropic social work. In order
to summarise, we can state that philanthropic social work is professional social
work applied in the management of philanthropy. Philanthropy has been the most
attractive field for professional social work. Philanthropic social work requires a
number of professional social workers today. We hope these units are useful reading
materials for prospective philanthropic social workers.

5.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Henry B Washburn (1931) The Religious Motive in Philanthropy, New York:
Books for Library Press.
Prochaska FK (1980) Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England,
London: Clarendon Press.
Robert Morris (1986) Rethinking Social Welfare: Why care for a Stranger? New
York: Longman Inc.
Thomas Adam (2001) Philanthropic Landmarks: The Toronto Trail from a
Comparative Perspective, 1870’s to the 1930’s, Urban History Review, October,
vol. 30(1).

69
 Indira Gandhi
National Open University
MSW-010
School of Social Work Introduction to
Philanthropic Social Work

Block

3
STAKEHOLDERS IN PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL
WORK
UNIT 1
Religions 5

UNIT 2
Government 22
UNIT 3
Corporate Sector 32
UNIT 4
Non-Profit Organizations (Donor Agencies) 46
UNIT 5
Civil Society 59
Expert Committee
Dr. J. Prasant Palakkappillil Prof. P. K. Ghosh Dr. Koteswar Raju
Principal Head of Department Director
Sacred Heart College Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan D.N.R. College, Bhimavaram
Thevara West Bengal
Dr. Ashutosh Pradhan
Dr. V.M. Thomas, Dr. Udaya Mahadevan Associate Professor
D.B. Institute of Management Department of Social Work Department of Social Work
Guwahati Loyola College, Chennai Central University of Himachal
Pradesh
Prof. Anjali Gandhi Dr. Suresh Pathare Dharmashala, Kangra Distt.
Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi Director, CSRD, Ahmednagar Himachal Pradesh
Fr. Nadackal George Dr. S.R. Billore Dr Joseph Xavier
Director Barkatullah University, Bhopal Indian Social Institute
Don Bosco Ashalayam
Dr. Sayantani Guin Bangalore
New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. C.P. Singh
Prof. Gracious Thomas
Prof. A.S. Inamshashtri Chairman
IGNOU
M.G. Kashi Vidyapeeth Department of Social Work
New Delhi
Varanasi Kurukshetra University

Block Preparation Team

Unit 1 Dr. J. Prasant Palakkappillil CMI
Principal
Sacred Heart College, Thevara
Units 2 & 5 Dr. Ashutosh Pradhan
Associate Professor
Department of Social Work
Central University of Himachal Pradesh
Dharmashala, Kangra Distt.
Himachal Pradesh
Units 3 & 4 Prof. P.K.Ghosh
Head, Department of Social Work
Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, Dist: Birbhum
West Bengal
Course Editor Course Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas Dr. Sayantani Guin
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Print Production
Mr. Kulwant Singh
Section Officer (P)
IGNOU, New Delhi

March, 2013
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2013
ISBN: 978-266-6368-2
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeography or
any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open
University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be
obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi,
by Director, School of Social Work.
Laser typeset by Nath Graphics, 1/21, Sarvapriya Vihar, New Delhi-110 016.
Printed at :
BLOCK INTRODUCATION
Welcome to block of the course entitled ‘Introduction to Philanthropic Social Work’.
This block on, “Stakeholders in Philanthropic Social Work” is the third block of
MSW-010. It is comprised of five units.
Unit 1 on ‘Religions’ explains the meaning & purpose of religions and the salient
features ofthe various religions. Theunit attempts to understand religions as stakeholders
in philanthropic social work.
Unit 2 is on ‘Government’. This unit examines the role of government as a stakeholder
in philanthropic social work in Indian context.You will be able to analyze the regulatory
role played by the government in the establishment and management of philanthropic
organizations.
Unit 3 on ‘Corporate Sector’examines the development of corporate philanthropy
and corporate responsibility during the 20th century in India. The unit also highlights
the development of corporate sector and its relations to social work professionals in
the country.
The fourth unit on ‘Non-Profit Organizations (DonorAgencies)’focuses on the types,
forms, purpose, mission and vision of non-profit organization and donor agency. The
unit will enable you to understand the role of social work professionals in strengthening
the non-profit organizations and donor agency.
The fifth unit on ‘Civil Society’provides a basic understanding of civil society, its
various forms and their role as a stakeholder in the philanthropic sector. The unit
discusses the policy implications on the growth and development of the civil society
sector and outlines the stake of civil society in development and promotion of justice.
On the whole, this block will provide you an overview of the stakeholders in
philanthropic social work.
 Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of SocialWork
MSW-010
INTRODUCTION TO
PHILANTHROPIC
SOCIAL WORK

Stakeholders in Philanthropic Social Work 3

 Indira Gandhi
National Open University
MSW-010
School of Social Work Introduction to
Philanthropic Social Work

Block

3
STAKEHOLDERS IN PHILANTHROPIC SOCIAL
WORK
UNIT 1
Religions 5

UNIT 2
Government 22
UNIT 3
Corporate Sector 32
UNIT 4
Non-Profit Organizations (Donor Agencies) 46
UNIT 5
Civil Society 59
Expert Committee
Dr. J. Prasant Palakkappillil Prof. P. K. Ghosh Dr. Koteswar Raju
Principal Head of Department Director
Sacred Heart College Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan D.N.R. College, Bhimavaram
Thevara West Bengal
Dr. Ashutosh Pradhan
Dr. V.M. Thomas, Dr. Udaya Mahadevan Associate Professor
D.B. Institute of Management Department of Social Work Department of Social Work
Guwahati Loyola College, Chennai Central University of Himachal
Pradesh
Prof. Anjali Gandhi Dr. Suresh Pathare Dharmashala, Kangra Distt.
Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi Director, CSRD, Ahmednagar Himachal Pradesh
Fr. Nadackal George Dr. S.R. Billore Dr Joseph Xavier
Director Barkatullah University, Bhopal Indian Social Institute
Don Bosco Ashalayam
Dr. Sayantani Guin Bangalore
New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. C.P. Singh
Prof. Gracious Thomas
Prof. A.S. Inamshashtri Chairman
IGNOU
M.G. Kashi Vidyapeeth Department of Social Work
New Delhi
Varanasi Kurukshetra University

Block Preparation Team

Unit 1 Dr. J. Prasant Palakkappillil CMI
Principal
Sacred Heart College, Thevara
Units 2 & 5 Dr. Ashutosh Pradhan
Associate Professor
Department of Social Work
Central University of Himachal Pradesh
Dharmashala, Kangra Distt.
Himachal Pradesh
Units 3 & 4 Prof. P.K.Ghosh
Head, Department of Social Work
Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, Dist: Birbhum
West Bengal
Course Editor Course Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas Dr. Sayantani Guin
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Print Production
Mr. Kulwant Singh
Section Officer (P)
IGNOU, New Delhi

March, 2013
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2013
ISBN: 978-266-6368-2
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeography or
any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open
University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be
obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi,
by Director, School of Social Work.
Laser typeset by Nath Graphics, 1/21, Sarvapriya Vihar, New Delhi-110 016.
Printed at :
BLOCK INTRODUCATION
Welcome to block of the course entitled ‘Introduction to Philanthropic Social Work’.
This block on, “Stakeholders in Philanthropic Social Work” is the third block of
MSW-010. It is comprised of five units.
Unit 1 on ‘Religions’ explains the meaning & purpose of religions and the salient
features ofthe various religions. Theunit attempts to understand religions as stakeholders
in philanthropic social work.
Unit 2 is on ‘Government’. This unit examines the role of government as a stakeholder
in philanthropic social work in Indian context.You will be able to analyze the regulatory
role played by the government in the establishment and management of philanthropic
organizations.
Unit 3 on ‘Corporate Sector’examines the development of corporate philanthropy
and corporate responsibility during the 20th century in India. The unit also highlights
the development of corporate sector and its relations to social work professionals in
the country.
The fourth unit on ‘Non-Profit Organizations (DonorAgencies)’focuses on the types,
forms, purpose, mission and vision of non-profit organization and donor agency. The
unit will enable you to understand the role of social work professionals in strengthening
the non-profit organizations and donor agency.
The fifth unit on ‘Civil Society’provides a basic understanding of civil society, its
various forms and their role as a stakeholder in the philanthropic sector. The unit
discusses the policy implications on the growth and development of the civil society
sector and outlines the stake of civil society in development and promotion of justice.
On the whole, this block will provide you an overview of the stakeholders in
philanthropic social work.
 Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of SocialWork
MSW-010
INTRODUCTION TO
PHILANTHROPIC
SOCIAL WORK

Stakeholders in Philanthropic Social Work 3

Stakeholders in Philanthropic
Social Work
UNIT 2 GOVERNMENT
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Government as a Stakeholder
2.3 Government as a Welfare State
2.4 Relationship between the Philanthropic Sector and Government
2.5 Regulatory Function of the State in Philanthropy
2.6 Role of Government in Promoting Philanthropy
2.7 Provision of Tax Relief for Philanthropic Contributions
2.8 Policy Relating to the Voluntary Sector in India
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit is designed to provide the reader a basic understanding of the role of
government as a stakeholder in philanthropic social work in Indian context. After
studying this unit you would be able to:
l discuss the role of government as a welfare state;
l enumerate the regulatory role played by the government in the establishment
and management of philanthropic organisations;
l understand the role of Government in promoting philanthropy;
l outline the stake of government in the healthy growth of philanthropy;
l specify policy implications on the growth and development of the philanthropy
sector.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Theroleof the state inphilanthropyis crucial forthedevelopment ofthisveryimportant
sector. This is clearlyindicated in the Constitution of India and made explicit reference
to in the recentlyadopted National Policyon the Voluntary Sector of 2007. Elsewhere
in the US, where philanthropy has developed fast and has made visible contribution
to the provision of social and developmental services, consecutive governments
have madetheir contributions for theestablishment of the non-profit and philanthropic
sector on a strong footing.
It is worth mentioning that the creators of the first foundations in the US appeared to
agree with the traditional relation between philanthropyand government enunciated
so clearly by President Franklin Pierce when he vetoed an effort to establish a
national program for mental institutions (Karl 1985). His statement that government
intervention would dry up the wellsprings of charity turned out to be a landmark in
the growth of the philanthropic movement. He shared the view that the serious
22
dislocations faced bythe working populations ofindustrial societywerea responsibility Government

that the society as a whole would have to face. The new breed of philanthropic
endowments and foundations posed themselves as alternatives to government
intervention.

2.2 GOVERNMENT AS A STAKEHOLDER

Every government whether capitalist or socialist has an agenda for the development
of the nation and its citizens. There is an attempt to cause social development and
equitable growth. It also works to achieve universalisation of services – education,
health, employment, etc. as also welfare services to the elderly, the differently abled,
scheduled groups & populations, and the socially excluded. It seeks the assistance
of various sectors like the nonprofit organisations, business and corporate bodies,
individual businessmen, and other private players to meet these varied objectives
and in mitigating various social problems and crises including the impact of large-
scale disasters.
It is importantto understand theroleof ‘government as principal’and thephilanthropic/
non-profit sector as ‘a set of agents’from whom, collectively, the government wants
to maximize service provision. Essentially, the role of government as ‘stakeholder’
imposes a normative perspective from which we need to assess the philanthropic
sector. There are a number of reasons for the state to foster a philanthropic/non-
profit third sector that supplements for-profit and government provision of basic
commodities (Brown 2006).
Weisbrod (1975) argues that democratic choice of governmental levels of provision
will leave high-demand citizens or the poor and needy unsatisfied, and their residual
demand is addressed through nonprofit provision or as an outcome of philanthropic
action. Hence, there is a need for a proactive role of government in the field of
philanthropic and nonprofit sector.
If we considerthe government as a stakeholder in the philanthropic sector, the question
arises as to what role do and should governments play in philanthropy and the
management of philanthropic organizations? How do governments matter in this
regard? Should we have more or less government regulation with respect to the
control over the financial assets and properties held by trusts and other philanthropic
organisations, the nature of functions they fulfill and the services they provide, all of
which affect philanthropic organizations directly? This debate will continue as long
as government and the culture of giving and such issues exist in society that demands
governmental attention.

2.3 GOVERNMENT AS A WELFARE STATE

The Welfare state is a system whereby the state undertakes to ostensibly protect the
health and well being of its citizens, especially those in financial need. “A welfare
state is a state in which organized power is deliberately used (through politics and
administration) in an effort to modify or control the play of private and market forces
in at least three directions – first, byguaranteeing individuals and families a minimum
income; second by narrowing the extent of insecurity by enabling individuals and
families to meet certain ‘social contingencies’ (for example, sickness, old age and
unemployment) which lead otherwise to individual and family crises; and third, by
ensuring that all citizens without distinction of status or class are offered the best
23
Stakeholders in Philanthropic standards available in relation to a certain agreed range of social services.” (Briggs,
Social Work
1967:29).
The first and second objects may be accomplished, in part at least, by what used to
be called a ‘social service state’, a state in which communal resources are employed
to abate poverty and to assist those in distress. The third objective, however, goes
beyond the aims of a ‘social service state’. It brings in the idea of the ‘optimum’
rather than the older idea of the ‘minimum’. It is this idea of reaching-out to and
serving more and more people that determines the government’s policy of adopting
diverse modes and channels for meeting the needs of citizens. This has been realized
due to the promotional policies ofthe government fortheestablishment and functioning
of philanthropic organisations and foundations as also non-profits. Further, the
conception of‘socialcontingencies’isstronglyinfluenced bythefall-outofindustrialism
and economic recession on the poor and financially & socially excluded.
Some studies having a capitalist lineage reject the role of government in many ways
than not. In the context of the discourse on ‘social justice’ and ‘social inclusion’
many thinkers and mainstream writers consider the government as a major player in
the public policy process and its role in society. It has the avowed role of maintaining
a just social order and also to cater to the needs of the lesser citizens of the country.
In this sense, it is a major stake holder.
Philanthropy has been important in India since the middle of the nineteenth century,
largely due to a strong heritage of community influence and paternalism among
traders-turned-entrepreneurs. In the Indian context and as enshrined inArticle 37 of
the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part-IV of the Constitution of India it is
stated that it is the responsibilityof the “State to secure a social order for the promotion
of welfare of the people”. To meet this end and for proper and healthy governance,
governments have an explicit role to institute laws and frame policies that would help
in establishing a social order for the welfare of all and especially the vulnerable and
needy.

2.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE

PHILANTHROPIC SECTOR AND GOVERNMENT
Mutually-reinforcing relationships between government and the domains of private
initiative became evident globally in the second half of the twentieth century. The
greatest and most rapid growth for philanthropic and other nonproprietary entities
paralleled the rise of the welfare state in the decades following World War II. In the
US, most of these were non-stock corporations registered with the federal
government as charitable tax-exempt/”nonprofit” organizations. In India most of the
philanthropic organisations and foundations are registered as Societies, Trusts, or
Non-profit Sec.25 Companies both sectarian and non-sectarian.
Over the years there has been an exponential growth in the number of nonprofits
and charitable institutions. No wonder this dramatic expansion is because of the
grant support, tax exemptions and other incentives provided by the central/federal
or state governments to encourage its growth. While it is government that has the
prime responsibility for social welfare; the private sector – that includes NGOs,
individual businessmen, and corporate bodies – continues to play an important role
in the provision of social welfare. The role played by the government is both as
promoter and regulator in this sector.
24
From a social welfare perspective, philanthropyis concerned chieflyif not exclusively Government

with abnormal groups. The philanthropic intervention of the State has been on behalf
of its weaker classes, and especially of those classes when their distress results from
some special and incalculable disability (Kirkman 2009).

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Discuss the role of government as a welfare state.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

2. What is the relationship between the philanthropic sector and government?

...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

2.5 REGULATORY FUNCTION OF THE STATE

IN PHILANTHROPY
India has a long tradition of philanthropy. Much of it has been of a religious nature,
and motivated byones’ own faith and religious affiliation. It was believed that giving
is an essential ingredient of life and salvation. And much of this is in the nature of
providing relief to the poor and destitute, by way of alms in cash or kind, or donations
for places of worship which would ultimately reach the poor and deprived. Other
forms of giving were often for the support of educational institutions or health care
facilities, again more as a charitable responsibility than as a systematic contribution
to generating community self-reliance or national development. To ensure a sense of
transparency and accountability in the way donations are utilized and managed it is
critical for the government to regulate the way the non-profit and philanthropic
organisations are functioning.
It is known to all and sundry that philanthropic work in contemporary society is
undertaken in a large-scale byphilanthropic organisations established for the purpose.
In the context of the development sector in general and the philanthropic arena in
particular the government is a major stakeholder because it has to regulate the
functioning of philanthropic and charity organisations so that public funds and
resources are managed properly.
Charity in India is on the concurrent list of subjects where both the Center and the
States are competent to legislate. Accordingly some of the laws are Central and
applicable all over India, while others are enacted by individual states. Philanthropic
and charity based organisations in India are established in the form of Societies,
Trusts, Waqfs and other endowments and can be placed in four broad groupings:

25
Stakeholders in Philanthropic i) Societies registered under the Societies RegistrationAct, 1860 enacted for the
Social Work
country as a whole and separately amended Societies Registration Acts of
States like that of Rajasthan (1958), Mysore (1960), Karnataka (1960), West
Bengal (1961), Madhya Pradesh (1961), Tamil Nadu (1975), Manipur (1989),
Meghalaya (1983), Jammu and Kashmir (1998), Andhra Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh (2000). There is a Registrar of Societies in each state to register and
regulate organizations registered under suchActs.
ii) Trusts and charitable institutions registered under the Indian TrustsAct, 1882;
Charitable Endowments Act, 1890; the Bombay Public TrustsAct, 1950; and
similar other State Acts. There is however no Central Act for registering or
regulating public charitable trusts.Avariation of the Indian TrustsAct of 1882,
which applies only to private trusts, is in force in different states. Maharashtra
and Gujarat have offices of the Charities Commissioner, created under the
Bombay Public Trusts Act, 1950, to oversee charities in these states; Tamil
Nadu has a Department of Religious and Charitable Endowments, and other
states have some similar organization for charitable trusts.
iii) Under Schedule 7 of the Indian Constitution, the subject ‘Trust and Trustees’
finds mention at Entry No.10 in the Concurrent List. ‘Charities & Charitable
Institutions, Charitable and religious endowments and religious institutions’ find
place at Entry No.28 of this list. The first legislation on this subject was enacted
by the then State of Bombay in 1950. Known as the Bombay Public Trusts
Act, 1950, it was meant to deal with an express or constructive Trust for either
public, religious or charitable purposes or both and included a temple, a math,
a Waqf, or any other religious or charitable endowment and a Society formed
either for a religious or a charitable purpose or for both and registered under
the Societies Registration Act, 1860 – Section 2(13).
Trust is a special form of organisation which emerges out of a will. The will
maker exclusively transfers the ownership of a property to be used for a par-
ticular purpose. If the purpose is to benefit particular individuals, it becomes a
Private Trust and if it concerns some purpose of the common public or the
community at large, it is called a Public Trust.
It is worthwhile to note that, the possibilityof mismanagement of trusts is higher
due to an undemocratic governance style. The government and offices of the
Charity Commission have more power to intervene in the affairs of the trust as
compared to societies.
iv) Those engaged in pure religious and charitable work, that represent various
religious or sectarian denomination, registered under the Religious Endowments
Act, 1863; the Charitable and Religious TrustsAct, 1920; the WaqfAct, 1995
and similar other StateActs;
v) Non-profit Companies registered under Section 25 of the Companies Act of
1956. It is administered by the Registrar of Companies.
The Legal Frame-work - The following Acts enacted by central and state
governments regulate the establishment and functioning of philanthropic/non-profit
organisations:
a. The Acts related to Societies were enacted partly to give organisations
working in the field of charity and social service a legal standing and social
recognition. While the originalAct of 1860 was remarkably clear in not intro-
ducing any form of State interference into affairs of such institutions, except
26
 routine matters of filing annual statements, manyof the Statelegislations (through Government

post-Independence amendments) went for widespread governmental controls

to deal with abuses, malfeasance and nonfeasance of Societies. The legal mea-
sures include: State’s power of enquiry and investigation; cancellation of regis-
tration and consequent dissolution of Societies; supersession of the Governing
Body; appointment of administrator; dissolution; and deletion of defunct
organisations. Property of the society cannot be shared by the governing body
or executive members. On dissolution of the society even, the act provides for
the transfer of such property to other organisations working in the same field or
to the government.
b. The Charitable Endowments Act, 1890 – is an Act to provide for the vest-
ing and administration of property held in the trust for charitable purposes. In
thisAct charitable purpose includes relief of the poor, education, medical relief
and the advancement of any other object of general public utility. However, it
does not apply to institutions of a purely religious nature with its purpose relat-
ing exclusively to religious teaching or worship for which separate laws have
been passed from time to time as given below.
c. The Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment Act, 1951 – This Act
allowed the state governments to take over Hindu Temples. TheAct bestows
several powers on the governments like auditing temple funds, appointing
archakas (priests), constituting a committee to monitor temple affairs, creation
of a common pool fund, regulation of investment of funds and use of surplus
funds.All appointments, property, finances, renovations, Pujas etc. are moni-
tored and controlled.
d. The Charitable and Religious Trusts Act, 1920 - This Act provides more
powerful control over the administration of charitable and religious trusts. It
extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. Al-
though thisAct does not provide for any administrative machinery to exercise
supervision over the Waqfs, any interested person could apply to the court of
the District Judge to seek information, from the trustee regarding value, condi-
tion, management, nature and object of waqf. The court direction could be
obtained to get the accounts examined and audited. However, thisAct applied
only to waqfs created for public charity, and in particular, it did not apply to
private waqfs.
e. The Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) – Organizations re-
ceiving foreign funds must abide by thisAct and are regulated by the Ministry
of HomeAffairs. It is a central act to regulate the acceptance and utilization of
foreign contribution or foreign hospitality by certain persons or associations,
with a view to ensuring that parliamentaryinstitutions, political associations and
academic and other voluntary organizations as well as individuals working in
the important areas of national life mayfunction in a manner consistent with the
values of a sovereign democratic republic, and for matters connected there-
with or incidental thereto. Bilateral development assistance to NGOs contin-
ues to be governed by the Foreign Contribution (Regulation)Act, 1976. Only
organizations registered under the act—nearly 30,000 at present—are permit-
ted to receive bilateral assistance.
To ensure that funds from outside sources do not land in the hands of illegal operators
of crime and terror or in creating instability in the country or a region the Govt. of
India has to ascertain the sources of funds and the purpose for which it is used. The
welfare of the citizens in general is paramount to the interest of the government. It is, 27
Stakeholders in Philanthropic therefore, mandatorythat onlyorganisations which have been registered under FCRA
Social Work
are eligible to receive funds from outside sources. This helps in keeping a track on
the activities of the organisations and to ensure and enforce that funds are not utilized
for the purpose of sedition, propagation of sectarian feelings, terrorism, communal
strife, etc.
As a representative of its citizens the government will keep a tab on the way in which
the money is being spent. Each organisation in receipt of foreign funds is restricted
to maintain only one bank account for receiving money so that they can be tracked
and monitored by the Home Ministry. However, for purposes of utilization they can
maintain multiple accounts but in the same bank as per Section 17 of the FCRA Bill
2010.

2.6 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN PROMOTING

PHILANTHROPY
At a global level, large endowments by individual philanthropists like John D
MacArthur and Ted Turner and more recently Bill Gates and Warren Buffet have
benefited thedevelopment sectorextensively. In Indiatoo we find examples ofbusiness
families involved in philanthropy, though they are not very organized and evenly
spread throughout the country. Two of the earliest global pioneers of large scale
development-oriented philanthropy were, in fact, from India businessmen - Jamsetji
Tata, and GD Birla and their families, setting models of the highest order for systematic
giving, with no expectation of personal gain. In more recent times, philanthropic
contributions of High Net Worth (HNW) individuals and businesses have been made
for development-related a cause, which has usually come from wealth created by
these entrepreneurs or enterprises. Philanthropic giving byHNW Indians has started
very recently and will pick up in the years to come, following the early footsteps of
the family foundations of IT bigwigs like Narayan Murty & Sudha Murty, Azim
Premji, Nandan Nilekhani and Rohini Nilekhani and Deshpande, but currently the
total amount given by them to recipients independent of them is not yet very large.
Government can encourage and facilitate the work of philanthropy in numerous
ways. To supplement its own work in achieving its goals of a welfare state the
government has been working closely with the NGO sector and civil society
organisations by providing grants and assistance for the launching of various
developmental programmes. Currently, the Government of India on its part has been
offering tax exemptions to philanthropic giving under Sections 12 (g) and 35 (i) or
35 (a) of the Income TaxAct in order to promote philanthropy and the growth of the
philanthropic sector. HNW Philanthropists are in a unique position to influence
government policies and actions by pioneering innovations, demonstrating results
and lobbying. A much broader and more systematic set of policies is needed to
encourage philanthropic activity, especially aimed at socio-economic development.

2.7 PROVISION OF TAX RELIEF FOR

PHILANTHROPIC CONTRIBUTIONS
To promote the non-profit and philanthropic sector and facilitate the mobilization of
resources from philanthropicdonations, the Government of India offers three principal
forms of tax relief for philanthropic and voluntary organizations under the Income
Tax Act.
28
1. Section 80G allows voluntary organizations working in specified areas deemed Government

to be charitable to register with the income tax authority. This enables donors
(individuals and companies) to claim tax relief on 50% of the amount donated,
up to 10% of the donor’s income. The beneficiary organizations are required
to issue a receipt or certificate in a prescribed format to the donor to enable the
donor to claim tax deduction. This is the most widely used tax benefit for chari-
table giving.
2. Section 35AC allows contributions to be 100% deductible. However its ap-
plication is specific to projects, generally research projects, rather than to or-
ganizations. To benefit under this section, the recipient organization must typi-
cally be implementing the project itself. Approval must be sought from the
National Committee for Promotion of Social and Economic Welfare based in
New Delhi. Donations made to various funds set up by the National or State
Government (like the National Defence Fund, the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial
Fund, the Prime Minister’s Drought Relief Fund, and the National Foundation
for Communal Harmony) qualify for 100% tax rebate (i.e., the whole of the
amount donated is allowable as a deduction).
3. Section 35 (I to III ) provides for a similar 100% exemption for donations to
approved scientific research associations such as universities, colleges, or other
institutions for scientific research, research in social science, or statistical re-
search.
4. Section 25 businesses are exempt from paying income tax on profits “inciden-
tal to the attainment of the objects of the nonprofit organization,” as long as
separate books of account are maintained.

2.8 POLICY RELATINGTO THE VOLUNTARY

SECTOR IN INDIA
The country had to wait till 2007 for a comprehensive policy relating to the voluntary
and philanthropic sector. For ages together there was a lot of adhocism relating to
the promotion and regulation of the voluntary sector. The Union Government in its
National Policy on the Voluntary Sector, formulated by the Planning Commission
and approved by the Union Cabinet in May, 2007, is an attempt by the central
government to urgentlyaddress the need to identifysystems bywhich the government
could work in close collaboration with voluntary and philanthropic organisations in
an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect and with shared responsibility.
The main objectives of the policy include:
i) Creating an enabling environment for Voluntary Organisations (VOs) that not
only stimulates their effectiveness but also protects their identity and safeguards
their autonomy.
ii) Enabling VOs to legitimately mobilize the necessary financial resources from
India and abroad.
iii) Identifying systems by which the Government may work together with the Vol-
untary Sector.
iv) Encouraging VOs to adopt transparent and accountable systems of gover-
nance and management.
Inthepart‘EstablishingEnablingEnvironment’itwillexaminethefeasibilityofenacting
a simple and liberal central law to register societies, trusts and non-profit companies. 29
Stakeholders in Philanthropic Under ‘Partnership in Development’, three instruments of partnership between the
Social Work
Government and the voluntary sector have been recognized and elaborated upon.
In the part ‘Strengthening the VoluntarySector’, there is a commitment to encourage
independent philanthropic institutions to provide financial assistance to deserving
voluntary organisations. The National Policy on the voluntary sector aims to provide
an enabling environment for the voluntary sector and also make it accountable, so
that VOs can play their constructive role in development activities effectively.
The policy is expected to encourage the voluntary sector to improve governance,
accountability and transparency. This may address the concerns raised bythe general
public that refers to complaints of mis-utilisation and lack of accountability in using
funds, lack of cooperation and constraints in mobilising resources.
The government as well as the NGOs at large are hopeful that this policy will
encourage the voluntary sector to come forward for collaboration between states
and its various agencies and NGOs in many areas.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Enlist the various acts to regulate the establishment and functioning of
philanthropic organizations.
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2. Discuss the objectives of the national policy on the voluntary sector.

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2.9 LET US SUM UP

The role of government in promoting and regulating the philanthropic and non-profit
sector in India as outlined above is quite favourable to an extent. However, there is
still an overarching cause for concern because of a lack of political will. More than
anything charityadministration suffers from thefact that charityorphilanthropycomes
way down in the priority list of the government, both at the central and state level.
Though the government expects a lot from the non-profit sector for assisting it with
nation building, it is yet to create commensurate conditions to enable it to play its
proper role.As a result charity regulatory agencies suffer not only from poor budget
allocations, but overall neglect.
To add to the doubts of citizens on this sector, philanthropy is also being used for
political reasons, both because of the huge pool of funds represented by some of the
big trusts, and the potential the laws offer for political control. Influential people
running schools and hospitals for profit are able to get politicians to waive action
30 against them. Hence reform is possible only if the administration and the public
perceives a will to act. As mentioned earlier, several committees and commissions Government

and task forces have made recommendations, and very few have been adopted.
Unless the charities sector is seen to be of importance in national life and resourced
with funds and people accordingly, reforms will remain on paper.

2.10 FURHTER READINGS AND REFERENCES

1. Powell, Walter W., and Richard Steinberg. 2007. The nonprofit sector: a
research handbook. 2nd Ed. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2. Noshir H Dadrawala. 1996. Management of philanthropic organisations,
Bombay: Centre forAdvancement of Philanthropy.
3. Rosenblum, Nancy L., and Robert Post. 2002. Civil society and govern-
ment. The Ethikon series in comparative ethics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press.
4. Sundar, Pushpa. Beyond Business: From Merchant Charity to Corporate
Citizenship: Indian Business Philanthropy through the Ages. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw-Hill Pub. Co, 2000. Print
5. Sundar, Pushpa. 2004. A Review of Charities Administration in India, New
Delhi: The Planning Commission, GOI.
6. Planning Commission. 2007. National Policy on the Voluntary Sector, New
Delhi: Planning Commission, Govt. of India.

31
Stakeholders in Philanthropic
Social Work
UNIT 3 CORPORATE SECTOR
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning of Corporate Social Responsibility and Corporate Philanthropy
3.3 Emergence and Growth of Corporate Sector in India
3.4 Why Corporate Sector take Responsibility for Social Development?
3.5 Indian Corporate and CSR – Few Cases
3.6 Social Work and Corporate Citizenship
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
Social work owes its origin to charity and philanthropy which formed an integral
part of every household in India. The corporate philanthropy, of course, is the fallout
of industrial revolution that emerged during the period between 18th, 19th and 20th
century across the world. This unit covers the development of corporate philanthropy
and corporate responsibility during the 20th century in India.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
l narrate the evolution of corporate philanthropy and corporate social responsi-
bility and other related terms;
l know the development of corporate sector and its relations to Social Work
Professionals in the country; and
l perceive the future direction of social work professionals and their contribution
to CSR to grow with sustainable social development;
l advocacy and consultancy with the corporate sector with social work methods
and its application in social development initiatives.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Corporate Social Responsibility in India originated from the merchant’s charity and
their benevolent work on religious faith. It is now growing fast due to initial concern
of some benevolent employers like Tata, Birla, Mahindra, and corporate business
magnets. There is some amount of community expectation and local pressure on the
neighbouring industrial enterprises. The national policy making business houses
responsible for development of the people around them is also an upcoming
phenomena and countries like Denmark has come up with legislations for compulsory
spending on social development out of the profit made by corporate. The business
organizations had the only concern for profit till the beginning of the 20th century.
The rise of competition among the business houses to promote citizenship and good
governance along with the business activity with profits for people and planet is now
a concern for the merchants too. Though government appeal and inspiration play a
32
vital role, yet the will of the business owners is the key to corporate philanthropy Corporate Sector

and social responsibility.As industrial organizations survive with the people and the
environment it is imperative that they also share the responsibility for development
of the people and preservation of the planet. ‘The semantics of the term ‘social
responsibility’ which accompany it are strongly loaded with the notions of intent,
good will, sacrifice, and voluntary initiative.’ Such semantics were appropriate when
oneis concerned with philanthropic activities although semantics become questionable
for those firms for which philanthropy is a part of corporate strategy.
There are a number of issues involved in the development of Corporate Social
Responsibility in the 1950s and late 60s. The pressure from the neighbouring
communities with their expectations from the business were on the rise and the
natural law of the state also had drawn the attention of the industrial houses to come
forward with social development programme which is due to such communities
around them. Its not just philanthropybut legitimacy i.e. legitimate expectation of the
people and the state from the industries. Poverty, ignorance, unemployment, and ill
health must be dealt by the state with concerted efforts of the industrial organizations,
affluent peopleand the institutions makingprofit from the society. Hence, the corporate
must share (with cost and effort) in development of thesocial and physical environment
at large. This position of industrial organization as one of the stakeholders of social
development is the center point of corporate social responsibility or responsiveness
developed in the early 20th century and turned into a full fledge programme of social
development of the corporate by1960s defining such initiatives as response to ethical
business and not simply a philanthropy.
Social work professionals can contribute immensely towards social development
interventions at various levels, especially industrial houses. It is therefore, very
important to review the interventions made and being made by the industrial
organizations in India and around. Advocacy and consultancy with the corporate
sector with social work methods and its application in social development initiatives
could be one of the career options for learners of this course.

3.2 MEANING OF CORPORATE SOCIAL

RESPONSIBILITY AND CORPORATE
PHILANTHROPY
Corporate Philanthropy denotes the social welfare programmes by the industrial
organizations forthecommunityto meettheir immediate needs fortheirholisticgrowth
and development. Though the work ‘Philanthropy’ indicates charity by individuals/
institutes for benefit of the people to meet their immediate or ultimate needs, there is
some amount of religious sentiments attached to it. Literally, corporate social
responsibility (CSR), also known as corporate responsibility, corporate citizenship,
corporate conscience, responsible business, sustainable responsible business or
corporate social performance. It is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated
into a business model. Ideally, CSR policywould function as an inbuilt, self-regulating
mechanism whereby business would monitor and ensure its support to law, ethical
standards, national and international norms. Consequently, business would embrace
responsibility for the impact of its activities on the environment, consumers,
employees, communities, stakeholders and all other members of the public sphere.
Furthermore, CSR-focused businesses would proactively promote the public interest
by encouraging community growth and development, and voluntarily eliminating
practices that harm the public sphere, regardless of legality. Essentially, CSR is the 33
Stakeholders in Philanthropic deliberateinclusion ofpublic interest into corporatedecision-making, and the honoring
Social Work
of a triple bottom line (TBL): -concern for people, planet, and profit for sustainable
business and ethics. It means, the industry is not onlyfor profit but also be concerned
for the people and the planet which are the key to success for sustainable business.
Both Friedman and Lodge have pointed out that value setting is the function of
politics, (state institutions) and not of private business. We shall give individual
businessman preferences of their own as given to other citizens; they should not use
the power of their positions freely outside the established norms of the society.
Conscience may be effective sensitizer to those norms, but perhaps not more so
than wisdom. The opinion of many reformers is that the business must forgo a part
of its profit to serve the social goal. Conservative Economist like Neil Chamberlin,
opines that there are not enough profits to forgo out of business to make much
difference. In other words, why should the industry shall forgo its profit as the profit
earned added up to the business capital for its growth and development to achieve
its goal.
There can be hundreds of rationale for and against CSR but the basic reason for
which the business must pay back to the social goal is that industry is social system
and survives for and with the contemporarysociety.And that is whyCSR or corporate
citizenship has been an integral part of business organizations. Further, it adds value
to the organizations. Source: Harvard Business Review article Strategy & Society:
The Link between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility
by Michael E. Porter
Sethi (1975) defines corporate social responsibility as ‘beyond economic and legal
obligations and behavior that is congruent with prevailing social norms, values and
expectations of society’. This interpretation on CSR relates to the norms and values
of the society, hence the industrial organizations are ethicallyresponsibleto the people.
True to this belief is natural law that governs our life in this planet.
Corporate philanthropy and charity are equated with the concept of service of such
philanthropic institutions and charitable organizations as the nature of services and
spirit of service convergent in many cases. Since the institutions earn from the people
some part of the earning should go back to the people.
To quote ECOSOC special event, “The corporate philanthropy community was
invited to remain engaged in this dialogue in the future. This special meeting was
seen as the launch of a series of exchange of views with the ultimate aim of enhancing
the impact of development assistance and of philanthropy”. The discussion concludes
and, “Panelists agreed that corporate philanthropy is becoming a force for social
change and can have a major development impact as it becomes more strategic in
its approach. Strategic philanthropy involves aligning the philanthropy of corporate
foundations with their core business competencies to address a social issue or cause.
In addition to financial contributions, through corporate philanthropy companies can
bring strategic assets to international development – a business model, an investment
approach to solving problems, advanced technical capacities, marketing acumen,
multi-country presence, name brand visibility and logistical expertise. This often
involves looking at the corporation’s product-sourcing and supply chain practices,
investing philanthropic moneyin areas that will maximize community benefits, and
partnering with other philanthropic organizations as well as businesses and
governments to achieve the highest degree of measurable effectiveness and impact”.
This indicates the concern for social development through corporate sector today.
34 In fact, all business houses which spend a modest profit or a part of the same in
Social Development programmes as corporate social responsibility in compliance Corporate Sector

with ethical business and show off the corporate citizenship. Some amount of legal
compliance is also attached as the organization needs ISO certification that creates
a positive branding of the corporation. The corporations today apply professional
expertise for sustainable human development as well as philanthropy by aiding the
voluntary/ non-government organizations with finance and material/equipment to
address the special needs of the vulnerable population.

3.3 EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF

CORPORATE SECTOR IN INDIA
The genesis of philanthropy could be traced in India with active involvement of the
kings, landlords, and the merchant communities who were found in carrying out
charitable work by serving the poor, vulnerable persons, and the travelers. Since
they earned a lot from the people of the society, they cherished in spending on
benevolent activity on moral and religious count. There are two basic reasons of
doing charity. One, as an act of religious merit to earn virtues, and other is to acquire
name and fame and show off good citizenship to acquire people’s recognition (social
recognition) and support. This is why most of these charities were organized in
temples, mosques or forming a Trust in memory of persons who made remarkable
contribution in human service or by a wealthy person. Giving water, food and clothes
were the primary and providing shelter and taking care of all the needs of the people
in case of natural calamity were the secondary concerns of individuals and religious/
philanthropic institutions. Household charity was mainly confined to religious act of
merit and the belief that they served the god by giving alms to the beggars, the
vagrants, the aged, the challenged and persons vulnerable to some situation. This
tradition continued till the industrial revolution which impacted India in the mid
nineteenth century. The joint family played the vital role in providing shelter and
other essential necessities of life to all categories physically, mentally or otherwise
challenged persons, including the widows, and the orphans. Reference may also be
made to community responsibility towards the service for the needy in ancient and
medieval India. Merchant’s charity formed one of the major source of aid and
assistance during the medieval period. The British invasion and rule in India added
to Christian philanthropy with the establishment of a number of Missionaries across
the country. The traditional charity or corporatism, however, was limited to the
individual’s spiritualityand institutional mission for service to the mankind and other
living being. Modern corporatism is the bye-product of industrial revolution and
post modernism era of the contemporary society. This unit reviews the modern
corporate sector, in other words, the current business organizations initiating social
development programmes for the people around them as well as the general
populations to restore or improve their social environment in the state. This is one of
the components in compliance with theTriple Bottom Line (TBL), (business, society
and environment) i.e. concern for Profit, People and the Planet. The discussion also
covers the corporate sector and professional social work practice –its need, scope
and potential for intervention.
The wind of change –acceptance of corporate social responsibility;
The Corporate Society in the world was the outcome of industrial revolution and
their Responsibility towards the society (CSR) emerged after the II World War
while business organizations were beginning to engage them for national interests
and for the well-being of society at large. To quote, Crowther “Organizations must 35
Stakeholders in Philanthropic be responsible to community values”. Therefore, it has to consider its “economic,
Social Work
legal, moral and social impacts (Crowther, 2004) but the true father of Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) is Bowen with his 1953 landmark book “The Social
Responsibilities of the Businessman” (Carroll, 1999). Two famous American
Philanthropists, Carnegie Rockefeller and Ford, used their own means for donations
and the voluntary provisions of social service. Their policies were in contrast to
other business were mainly following Ricardo’s theory, that consider workers just
one of the factors of production costs, they can be well replaced whenever not
profitable (Walton, 1999). Industrialists had no concern even for the people working
for the organizations during the initial period of industrialization but slowly the
employees drawn the attention of the government through organized movement and
succeeded to bring in human conditions of work. The people in general are the last
beneficiarywith theintroduction of corporate social responsibilityon the consideration
of ethical and sustainable business.
Since 1960s the concept and meaning of social responsibility has drastically changed
from philanthropic and ethical to social responsiveness and compulsion under state
and public pressure. Peter Drucker writes ‘One is responsible for one’s impacts,
whether they are intended or not. This is the first rule. There is no doubt regarding
management’s responsibility for the social impacts of its organization. They are
management’s businesses. The first job of management is, therefore, to identify and
anticipate impacts-coldlyand realistically. The question is not “what we do right?” It
is what “Is what we do what society and the customer pay us for?”And if an activity
is not integral to institution’s purpose and mission, it is to be considered as a social
impact and as undesirable.
Indian society and social structure including its values and norms went through sea
change, especially, during the British rule (1757-1947). The impact of industrial
revolution in India could be observed during the same period beginning from mid
19th century with British government initiative to further their trade and business in
the country potential with natural and human resources. Notably, this trend still
continues with industriallydeveloped countries investing in the southAsian countries
under developing even today due to the opportunities stated above including
marketing of products in these densely populated countries. However, growth of
business and industry in India brought corporate philanthropy one step ahead as the
industrialists of the country like Tata’, ‘Birla’and others emerged as big corporate at
early part of the 20th century. In India, Gandhi, the Father of the Nation (The Man of
the Century) moved the concept of ‘Trusteeship’making employers and employees
equal stakeholder for the business organizations. Both are shareholders and
accountable to the society as they share the profit out of the business. Hence, all are
responsible to natural and social environment that get affected by the business
operations. Sir Dorabji Tata is the first corporate man in India who believed that one
should give back to the communityfor whom the organization is growing and making
profit. He promulgated the concern for the employees and the people (consumers)
for whom the business runs and earns. Corporate conglomerate like Tata, Birla,
Godrej, Shriram, Mohindra, Singhania and Sarabhai groups were active in social
reform in India including industrial development. Theystill continue to spend a percent
of profit after tax for CSR programme around their plant or wherever there is need
for financial or other assistance. However, in recent times, the corporations have
been influenced by several factors to swing away from charity and traditional
philanthropy towards direct engagement of mainstream development with greater
concern for vulnerable groups of our society. This has emerged both internally by
36
corporate will and externally by increased governmental, NGOs and public Corporate Sector

expectations. Corporate citizenship, therefore, is both ethical and sustainable business

and a compelling public benefit adding credibilityto industrial establishment.
CSR in India can be divided in four phases. The first phase of CSR from mid
nineteenth centuryto early twentieth centurywhen the industrial enterprises normally
aided the philanthropicorganizations and charitable institutions, werelimited to certain
extent as the industries were just in formation stage and the concept of corporate
philanthropy was non-existent.
The second phase from 1920 to 1960 was dominated by Gandhi’s ‘trusteeship’–
advocating the ownership of industrial enterprises and accountability of employers,
employees and the people of the society to which all resources belongs. Each one of
the state and society are due for the benefit out of the business, hence the profit must
be shared –the owners must give back to the masses.
The third phase from 1961 to 1980 was the period of formations stage of CSR as
both private and public sectors were growing faster in mixed economyof the country.
The government regulations on environment and labour were getting stricter with the
operations of the industry and its effect on the general masses. Tata, Birla, Mahendra,
Sarabhai and others started introducing the CSR projects of their own showing their
commitment and concern for the people.
The fourth phase of the CSR i.e. from 1981 till date is overwhelmed by traditional
philanthropic engagement, organizations who were the players in the international
market followed CSR mandate corporate volunteerism as well as by steps taken to
integrate CSR into a sustainable business and social development strategy (Chahoud,
2007). The country opened up the trade and business and went for globalizations
putting all industrial enterprises to compete with international standards. Naturally,
the international business policy that follows Triple Bottom Line approach had to be
incorporated into their business policy.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What is corporate social responsibility?
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2. Discuss the various stages of CSR in India.

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37
Stakeholders in Philanthropic
Social Work 3.4 WHY CORPORATE SECTOR TAKE
RESPONSIBILITY FOR SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT?
The industry or business survive and grow with the society and the people. The
growth of any business depends on the development of the people in the society.
Naturally, industry facilitates the consumers with easy access to goods and services
and the consumers in turn strengthen the business economy. It’s the natural law that
governs the universe. There is varied and wide range of opinions and justification in
this regard and questions the programmeof social development initiatives of industrial
organizations. Some of these are;
1. The industry earns profit out of its business using the natural and human re-
sources and selling the same to the people, hence some amount must be spent
for common causes like developing, preserving and regenerating the resources
for the development of the people and social environment. It’s natural law and
government regulation as well, making the industry responsible and account-
able.
2. The government and business houses accept it as social and moral responsibil-
ity of the industry in the interest of their survival in harmonywith the people, the
profit and the planet (Triple Bottom Line).
3. It can be described as Social Justice Philanthropy which aims at reaching out
the poorest, the disadvantaged and the marginalized. They need to be cared by
corporate philanthropy and that’s what is called ‘inclusive development’. This
eliminates sociallyand culturally rooted inequality, stigma and discrimination.
4. Companies take the competitive advantage out of the social development
programme in the modern business scenario by acquiring the faith of the people
creating a brand name and reach out the targeted customers for use their prod-
uct. So, it’s in the business interest -the organization’s profit.
5. Above all, its national and international standards for ethical business and each
company are legally bound to be concerned about the natural and social envi-
ronments which are largely affected by the industrial operations.
6. Critics say, since the companies earn huge profit out of their business, some
take it as the avenue for saving tax or divert a part of the profit in CSR. It may
not be the true but such allegations against the business organizations have
been prevailing since the introduction of the CSR programme of the industrial
enterprises.
Denmark has a law on CSR. On 16 December 2008, the Danish parliament adopted
a bill making it mandatory for the 1100 largest Danish companies, investors and
state-owned companies to include information on corporate social responsibility
(CSR) in their annual financial reports. The reporting requirements became effective
on 1 January 2009. The required information includes:
l Information on the companies’ policies for CSR or socially responsible invest-
ments (SRI)
l Information on how such policies are implemented in practice, and
l Information on what results have been obtained so far and managements ex-
pectations for the future with regard to CSR/SRI.
38
Its like government’s right to information on company’s trade and business. There is Corporate Sector

no such law in India but the companies are accountable to the government and
communities in manyways like compliance with the environment norms and keeping
the books and accounts for government examination.
Whatever may be the cause and effect, CSR is viewed as social responsibility of
each business organization as it’s ethical and legal in nature. The national as well as
international business organizations is coming up with CSR programmes of varied
nature in the area of agriculture, livelihood, entrepreneurship, environment, health
and education.

3.5 INDIAN CORPORATE AND CS – FEW CASES

The Mahindra Group defines Corporate Social Responsibility as making socially
responsible products, engaging in sociallyresponsible employee relations and making
a commitment to the community around it.At the Mahindra Group, Corporate Social
Responsibility is not just a duty; it’s a way of life. In 2005, the Group celebrated its
60th anniversary by renewing its commitment to Corporate Social Responsibility. It
pledged to dedicate 1% of its profit (after tax), on a continuous basis towards
Corporate Social Responsibility.Aunique kind of ESOPs - Employee Social Options
was launched to enable Mahindra employees to involve themselves in socially
responsible activities of their choice. The Group also announced a special gift: to
provide free cochlear implants to 60 profoundly hearing-impaired, under-privileged
children.
JRD Tata (1969) wrote, “Every Company has a special continuing responsibility
towards the people of the area in which it is located. The company should spare its
doctors, managers to advise the people of the village and supervise near development
undertaken byco-operative effort between them and the company”. The above quote
not only illustrates the ethos, but also summarizes the guidelines laid down by Tata
steel’founder, Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata. The facet of the Founder’s remarkable
breadth of conception was his recognition that, corporate social responsibility
was fundamental to India’s drive for industrialization, one of his defining tenets being,
‘the wealth which comes from the people must as far as possible go back to the
people’. TATA STEEL, one of the pioneering corporate sectors to evolve social
responsibility, adhering to J.N. Tata, the founder`s dreams established Tata Steel
Rural Development Society (T.S.R.D.S.) in 1979 to share its resources with the
rural areas within which the company operates its business. The areas of operation
extend to mines and collieries, spread over Jharkhand and Orissa..
The objectives of Tata Steel Rural Development Society (TSRDS):
l To create a self sustaining process of integrated rural development
l To build a model that could be replicated by like minded industrial houses and
other organizations elsewhere with similar Socio-economic situation in India.
l Networking with agencies- Government, Non-Govt., national & International
for bringing best available resources and practices to the rural community it
works with.
The pledge of the organization thus reads:
“We dedicate ourselves to the community we exist in.
We shall constantlystrive to be knowledge-based catalysts, enabling the community
to achieve economic independence and social integration. 39
Stakeholders in Philanthropic We shall ensure sustainabilitythrough continuous participation and empowerment of
Social Work
the people.
We shall adopt current management practices to achieve our goal”.
It shows thecommitment ofthe companyto TBL, business ethics and its accountability
to the general population belonging to the vulnerable sections of the society.
Compliance to this mandate on the part of the company is an international standards
like ISO-14001 that relates to environment policy i.e. concern for the people and
environment.
The Lupins Labrotaries Ltd. is one of the leading pharmaceutical industries in India
has made commitment to more 250 communities in Bharatpur andAlwar districts
for a total transformation of their quality of life through CSR programme where the
development strategies are in partnership with the state, beneficiaries and the
company. The Lupins Human Welfare and Research Foundation go ahead with
sustainable projects contributing one-third of its share and organizing it scientifically
in association with professional expertise.

Obstacles for CSR

The industrial organizations are controlled by the share holders. They dominate with
their decision making power. The major share holders are the owners of industrial
establishments. The share holders as stakeholders from out side can not vote out
them under any circumstances. The attitudes of owners having more than 50 per
cent share is important for CSR initiatives. Tata, Birla, Mahindra & Mahindra and
hundred others have shown positive attitudes and come up with some program or
other as part of corporate citizenship.
Dr. Suad Husnan (1999) in the project report forAsian Development Bank, stating
the situation in Indonesia writes “One disastrous result of this closed system was the
decision of Indonesian corporations to run up huge foreign currency debts in the
years prior to the Asian crisis, as result of which several collapsed after 1997 and
many today are technically insolvent. The same scenario has been played out
throughout Asia, with varying degrees of severity”. Industrial slackness since last
few years has halted the growth of industry and its viable future. The organizations
are severely affected in terms of their financial involvement of corporate in social
development initiatives.
Other temporary obstacles for the corporate are poor business performance and
industrial recessions like last few years (2007-2010) every Indian industry had to
cut cost in all heads of accounts to save the organization. Should the business house
continue to carry on their CSR programme unaffected is dependant upon the major
shareholder’s will and the company’s chairperson’s move to continue in confidence
of improving the business economy in the years ahead.

3.6 SOCIAL WORK AND CORPORATE

CITIZENSHIP
Social work as a professional education in India was introduced by Sir Dorabji Tata
–the then leading industrialist in 1936 i.e. during the II phase of the development of
CSR. In fact, 1920 to 1960 is the period when corporate social responsibility was
taking a formal shape and concern for both industrialists and consumers including
those who were getting affected bythe industrial development. The founder chairman
40 of a corporate house introducing social work education in India has special
significance when we talk about corporate sector and social work. The basic Corporate Sector

objectives of the course curriculum was train the social development professional as
well as the Welfare Officers employed by the corporate for their plants. Over the
time these professionals were taking over the employee relations matters including
personnel administration. By the turn of the century in 2001 about 14% of the
Personnel/Human Resource Managers (National Institute of Personnel Management)
in industrial organization were from social work professional. The separation of
personnel management and industrial relations from social work began in the 1970s
but there a good number of institutes/schools of social work offering specialized
courses in labour welfare, personnel management and industrial relations. Of late,
this specializationin social work educationis renamed as human resource development
and management. Social work education in India is approaching the platinum jubilee
and has made its presence felt to all the social development organizations initiated
either bythestate or bythe non-state institutions. The contributions of the professionals
are well recognized by the social development organizations. The curriculum and
syllabi in social work education has been passing through continuous change over
the past few decades, specially, to address to the need of hour in a fast changing
society. However, the basic approach and core domain of social work to such
development initiatives remains people centered, participative and inclusive in nature.
The knowledge and skills required addressing the issues like poverty alleviation;
education and health care demand a number of coping strategies with knowledge
and skills, which has been ever changing through the core skills of social work like
skills in human relations, need assessment/identification through analysis, community
mobilization, coordinatingthe individuals and organization, administrating the welfare
programmes, research and development remains the same or similar. The
processionals nowmust be pro-active and visualize the immediate and ultimate impact
of the interventions planned and executed. Skills of monitoring the progress of work
continuously are one of the key elements in the performance of professional social
workers.
The basic tenets and objectives of social work profession are to organize and
empower vulnerable to come up and become self-reliant and make the member of
themainstreambycreatingan enablingenvironment wheretheultimategoal is achieved
with sustainability. The integrated and generalist social work practice matches the
holistic development approach which is the current look out of CSR projects planned
and administered by the corporate houses. Therefore, the CSR projects are the
potential avenues for the professional to contribute and enhance the credibility of the
profession.
The business organizations initiating the corporate social responsibility programmes
expect the professionals to be equipped with the knowledge; skills and attitudes are
stated below;
i) shall possess a thorough knowledge about the social structure of the society
and functioning of people in the community, including its norms, values and
ethics
ii) must be well versant with the prevailing social environment and behaviour of
such populations
iii) acquire thorough knowledge about the culture, political dynamics and chang-
ing attitude of the people
iv) perceiving the present psycho-social and economic conditions of the people
and analyzing the same with pros and cons for change to be bought in 41
Stakeholders in Philanthropic v) planning the total project with timeline, cost and expected output in a given
Social Work
period of time
vi) a strong base of skills in human relationship making it - ‘people’s programme’
effecting them with full participation in their own development
vii) research for analyzing the situation, need assessment and planning the interven-
tion for optimum and sustainable solutions to issues which, need immediate
attention
viii) be able to develop strategies for implementing the project with fund flow on
time for effective utilization of human and other resources
ix) be capable of mobilizing people and other resources in the desired direction
for planned change
x) shall be competent to develop indicators for continuous monitoring and peri-
odical evaluations and communicate others about effectness of interventions.
Over the years, Social Workers have been engaged in planning, monitoring and
evaluating social development programmes. The CSR initiatives since last few
decades have been demanding professionals to work for their organizations and in
such interventions social work professional have been found to be effective in
organizing and implementing CSR initiatives. This indicates that the professional
education in social work matches the need of industrial organizations for CSR
programme in this country. Logically, Social Work Professionals need to equip them
with necessary attitude, knowledge, skills and abilities to cope up appropriately and
enhance the confidence of corporate sector and further social work professionals
participation to make programmes need based and sustainable.
It is evident from the above discussion that Corporate Social Responsibility,
Corporate Responsiveness, Corporate Citizenship is an outcome of Conscience
based on mutual give and take relationship between the industry and the society.
Interestingly, such relationship was key element on which the Indian ancient and
medieval society was based on. We cannot deny the existence of such relationships
as reveals from the CSR or corporate citizenship practices adopted by the industry
today is one of the latest forms of mutual give and take relationship.
We can further strengthen this relationship with our skill based and evidence based
practice in social work convincing the corporate sector with our input in development
initiatives and citing the output comparing the cost and sustainable benefit to the
people and society at large. This calls for understanding the perspectives of industry
and the society and identify the areas of intervention for mutual benefit. Social work
professional must carry on the advocacy for ethical and legal provisions for CSR as
done in Denmark.
The triple bottom line guidelines i.e. concern for people, profit and the planet, is now
a code of conduct for corporate and compulsions under the law in few industrially
developed countries. It is now taking off in developing countries too opening up
opportunities for professionals to put up their expertise for sustainable social
development.
The corporate sector has introduced CSR programme leavingaside their philanthropic
and charitable approach of the past to ensure holistic and sustainable development.
Therefore, the journeybegun with corporate philanthropy or volunteerism has taken
the shape with corporate responsiveness and corporate conscience and will continue
to enhance its contribution to the society in the days ahead.
42
 Corporate Sector
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What obstacles does CSR face in India?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................

2. Enlist the skills and attitudes required for an effective CSR professional.
...............................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................

3.7 LET US SUM UP

Corporate, meaning industrial organizations, initially were interested in maximizing
their profit without much concern about the people and the planet, rather minimizing
the share of the people and the environment. The pioneer industrialists were moved
bythe philosophy of sustainable development and felt about a responsible and ethical
business as the profits were generated from the people of the society and the natural
resources which they were exploiting to maximize their financial gain and growth of
their business. The need for eco-friendly business and stakeholders of holistic social
development they decided to spend a part of the profit on the development of the
social and physical environment. Human and natural resources are the life blood for
the industrial organizations, hence their growth and survival rests on these two key
resources. Ethicallythe industryis responsible for their development which will make
the business sustainable. Government and people can not be the salient spectators
of the consumption of natural resources without any concern for its future and in the
same rule social development is their responsibility. People’s expectation and
industrialists conscience called for social and environmental development as these
are mutually beneficial to each other. Government laws and restrictions minimizing
the level of pollution and in the developed countries compulsion of the industries to
spend a part of the profit on social and ecological development took the corporate
social responsibility to ethical business and corporate conscience to address to the
need of the vulnerable population and endangered environment.
Social work professionals engaged in development initiatives of corporate social
responsibility has contributed and will continue to contribute in planning, organizing,
implementing and monitoring the social development programmes of the industrial
houses with their knowledge and skills effectively and innovatively to make it
successful in all respect when taken for sustainable and ethical business working in
the larger interest of the society.
43
Stakeholders in Philanthropic
Social Work 3.8 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES
Crowther, D. (2004), Perspectives on Corporate Social Responsibility. Ashgate
Publication,Australia.
Caroll, A.B (1999) Corporate Social Responsibility-Evolution of Definitional
Construct. Business and Society Vol 38(3).
Sethi, S.P. (1975), “Dimensions of Corporate Social Performance: An Analytical
Framework”, California Management Review, 17(3).
Porter, Michael; Mark Kramer. “The Link between Competitive Advantage and
Corporate Social Responsibility” (PDF). Harvard Business Review.
ECOSOC Special Event “How corporate philanthropy can contribute to advancing
the Millennium Development Goals, particularly for sustainable development”
ECOSOC Chamber, 25 February 2008.
ECOSOC Special Event “How corporate philanthropy can contribute to advancing
the Millennium Development Goals, particularly for sustainable development”
ECOSOC Chamber, 25 February 2008.
Chohoud, T. et al (2007) Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility in
India-Assessing the UN Global Compacts, German Development Institute, Bonn.
TSRDS, website; http://jamshedpur.nic.in/tsrdc.htm
Mahindra & Mahindra CSR initiatives, website. http://www.mahindra.com/
socialinitiatives/corporate social-responsibility.html
TSRDS, website; http://jamshedpur.nic.in/tsrdc.htm
TSRDS, website; http://jamshedpur.nic.in/tsrdc.htm
Suad Husnan Dr., “Indonesian Corporate Governance: Its Impact on Corporate
Performance and Finance”, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia, Nov. 1999, p-33,
a paper as part of the Regional Study on corporate governance for Asian
Development Bank.
Drucker, Peter F, (1974), Management -Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices.
Allied Publishers Ltd. New Delhi.
Friedman, Milton; “The Social Responsibility of Business Is To Increase Profits”,
New York Times Magazine, Sept. 13, 1970.
Lodge, George C., “Business and Changing Society”, Harvard Business Review,
March-April, 1974.
Walton, R. (1999), Business Systems, Sage, London.

Suggested Readings
Bhattacharya, Debasis, 2006, Corporate Social Develoment: A Paragigm Shift,
Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi
Clarkson, M. (1995). “A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating
corporate social performance”. Academy of Management Review. Vol.20, pp. 92–
117.
Davis, K.; R. Blomstrom (1975). Business and Society: Environment and
Responsibility, New York: McGraw-Hill.
44
Davis, Kevin R. (2007). “The Compliance Racket,” The Chronicle of Higher Corporate Sector

Education, Vol. 53, No. 20, p. B11.

Sen, Sankar, C. B. Bhattacharya and Daniel Korschun (2006). “The Role of
Corporate Social Responsibilityin Strengthening MultipleStakeholder Relationships:
A Field Experiment.” Journal of theAcademy of Marketing Science, 34 (2), 158-
66.
SMEs Focus.”Making Europe a Pole of Excellence on Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR).
Spence, L.; Habisch,A.; Schmidpeter R. (Editors) (2004). Responsibility and Social
Capital. The World of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises. Palgrave..
Visser, Wayne, Dirk Matten, Manfred Pohl, and Nick Tolhurst (Editors) (2007).
The Ato Z of Corporate Social Responsibility. London, England; New York, NY:
Wiley.
Waddell, S. (2000). “New institutions for the practice of corporate citizenship:
Historical Intersectoral, and Developmental Perspectives”. Business and Society
Review, Vol.105, pp. 323–345.
Wartick, S., P. Cochran (1985). “The Evolution of the Corporate Social Performance
Model”. Academy of Management Review, Vol.10, p. 767.
Wheeler, David; Maria Sillanpää (1997). The Stakeholder Corporation: a blueprint
for maximizing stakeholder value. London: Pitman.
Pitt, Orane (2010-08-23). “Social Responsibility towards Corporate”. http://
www.articlesbook.com/social-responsibility-of-business/. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
Wood, D. (1991). “Corporate Social Performance Revisited”. Academy of
Management Review, Vol.4, pp. 691–718.
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2001), The Business Case
for Sustainable Development: Making a difference toward the Johannesburg
Summit 2002 and beyond.
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2000), Corporate Social
Responsibility: Making good business sense.

45
Stakeholders in Philanthropic
Social Work
UNIT 4 NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATION
(DONOR AGENCY)
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Emergence and Growth of Non-Profit Organizations
4.3 DonorAgency
4.4 Non-Profit Organizations, DonorAgency and Social Work
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES
Non-profit organizations paved the way for the development of social work as a
profession in the United Kingdom and the USAat the turn of the 20th century. Most
of the social workers today work with the non-profit organizations and donor agency
where social work professional’s expertise is widely used, accepted and recognized.
It is therefore, essential to understand the historical background and current status
of ‘non-profit organizations’ and its life blood ‘donor agency’ for effective delivery
of services to the clientele. Social work education and practice is the skeleton and
nerves respectivelyforthe maintenance of non-profit organizations whether it belongs
to government, non-government or autonomous bodies.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
l Describe the types, forms, purpose, mission and vision of non-profit organization
and donor agency;
l Know the development and current status of non-profit –donor agency;
l Concerns of the non-profit and donor agency and conditions of funding;
l Role of social work professionals in strengthening the non-profit organizations
and donor agency.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The word ‘non-profit’ is distinctivelyused mostlyafter the emergence of the industrial
revolution though it is much older than the industrial revolution. The nation state
civilization had given birth to civil societyorganizations (CSO) with the objectives of
helping citizens to satisfy their primary and secondary needs and lead a good quality
of life. The basic focus, however, was to alleviate hunger, poverty and despair of all
kinds, the people suffered from due to inaccessibility to resources, ignorance and
neglect towards their potentialities or owing to natural and man made disasters. The
services of this nature provided by individuals or other bodies were not for profit but
for religious and spiritual satisfaction. The word ‘profit’ relates to gain made by
merchants or producers against the sale and manufacturing of products. The non-
profit organizations arealso known as civil societyorganization, voluntaryorganization,
46 non-government organization, or trusts. The ‘Non-Profit Organization’ (NPO) is
popularly used in the USA and Europe but these are known as ‘Voluntary Non-profit Organisation
(Donor Agency)
Organization’ (VO) and ‘Non-Government Organization’ (NGO) in India. These
are same or similar in nature in its constitution and program of work. The mission
and vision of NPOs are different from business or industry as it does not have any
profit motive. A non-profit organization (NPO) is also known as a not-for-profit
organization i.e. an organization that does not distribute its surplus funds to owners
or shareholders. Funds here are used to help people and pursue the organizational
goals that lead to social and economic development of the vulnerable sections. List
of such NPOs include charitable organizations, trade unions, public arts organizations
and civil society organizations. Most governments and non-government agencies
meet these essentialities of the definition, but in most countries they are considered
as a separate type of organization and not counted as NPOs. These organizations,
include the corporate in many countries which, are exempted from income and
property taxation.

Characteristics of Non-Profit Organizations

Ownership is the quantitative difference between for-profit and not-for-profit
organizations. For-profit organizations can be privately owned and may re-distribute
taxable wealth to employees and shareholders. By contrast, not-for-profit
organizations do not have private owners. They have controlling members or boards,
but they are stakeholders and cannot sell or distribute the surplus to others or
personally benefit in any way. If an NGO or NPO is able to earn a surplus at the end
of the year such earnings must be retained bythe organization for its self-preservation,
expansion and future plans. While some nonprofit organizations put substantial funds
into hiring and rewarding their internal corporate leadership, middle-management
personnel and workers. Other NPOs and NGOs employ unpaid volunteers and
even executives may work for no compensation. However, since the late 1980s
there has been a growing consensus that nonprofits organizations can achieve their
corporate targets more effectively by using some of the methods applied by the
profit making enterprises. These include effective internal management, ensuring
accountability for results, and monitoring the performance of different divisions or
projects in order to benefit from their capital and workers. These require effective
management and that, in turn, goes in consonance with the organization’s mission
and vision.
NPOs are often characterized by service organizations; they may be organized as a
non-profit corporation or as a trust, a cooperative, or may be purely informal.
Sometimes, they are also called foundations, or endowments that have large stock
funds.Avery similar organization called the supporting organization operates like a
foundation, but they are more complicated to administer, and are more tax favored,
organizing public charities that receive grants from donor agency and have a
determined relationship on the issues of intervention. Foundations give out grants to
other NPOs, or fellowships and direct grants to participants. However, the term
foundations may be used by any non-profit corporation — even voluntary
organizations orgrass roots groups.Applying Germanic or Nordic law (e.g., Germany,
Sweden, Finland), NPOs typically are voluntary associations, although some have a
corporate structure (e.g. housing cooperatives). Usually a voluntary association is
founded upon the principle of one-person-one-vote.
Dorothea Hilhorst observed “literature on NGOs has by and large taken for granted
their organizational properties.As a result, the question of what is non-governmental
about NGOs has been extensively debated, whereas the more essential one of what
47
Stakeholders in Philanthropic is organizational about them has largely been ignored”. It is true in the sense that
Social Work
what is non-governmental is run with government or public aid and on other side
organizational part is also questioned under many fronts due to vested as well as
common interests. The World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen and
the Fourth World Conference of Women in Beijing, both held in 1995 discussed,
debated and worked out the policies and principles of the focus of development
initiatives and prepared a common agendato be followed worldwidebut unfortunately
the follow up lacked in coordination.As a result the NGOs are now following their
old principles and policies which may be termed as NGO- for common platform but
for individual/institutional interests. The sustainability of the common purposes with
common interest is jeopardized.
A non-profit organization, voluntary organization, or non-government organization,
therefore, means an organization which is primarilyaiming at the welfareof the people
by adopting strategies to deal with immediate and long term needs of the society at
large. The immediate needs may refer to relief and rehabilitation while the long term
needs may be building capacity of the people to enable them to cope up with their
problem of poverty, health, and change in attitude of the people. The constitutions of
the NPO, VO, or NGO must include these components in its objectives. It has to
be run with democratic principles with governing body elected by the general body
members. Books of accounts are to be kept open for examination by members as
well as the authorities under the act in which it is registered. Each program of the
organization is to be approved by the governing body with administrative
responsibility to the chief functionary of the organization.Annual general meeting be
held at least once a year and meeting of the governing body in every quarter be held
and decisions are to be taken about the future course of action. It’s independent in
governance but not exception of law governing the management and accountability
to public interests. In India, NGOs now have wider scope and space to collaborate
with thegovernment and influence policymakingand implementing at different levels.
Of late, due to inefficient government management and high establishment and
administrative cost, the government has been sponsoring all social welfare programs
to NGOs. Since then, the registration of NGOs has been on the rise especially
during the last three decades. The profit making industries are also launching NGOs
and investing in social development on non-profit basis as one of the responsibilities
of business.Afew corporate houses like Tatas, Mahindra began to organize social
welfare and community development beyond the employees long ago. The
government of India has now moved to compel all the corporate to invest a part of
the profit (2% to 25% depending upon the nature of the industry) after tax in the
social welfare and ecological development programs as corporate social responsibility
under the law of the country.

4.2 EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF

NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
All religions havemaderemarkable contribution towards thedevelopment of voluntary
and non-profit organizations in India. The Hindus believe that serving human being is
equal to serving the god. Philanthropic activities, therefore, is the base for Hindus to
practice charity. Jesus Christ said ‘love thy neighbor’and extends all service when
others are in need. Muslims with the customs of payment of ‘Zakat’ –the annual
alms giving ceremony offer the savings of the household for the use of the poor and
the needy. Guru Nanak –the Sikh Guru said ‘the wealth those who do not give alms
48
will slip away’. Hence, non-profit organizations have its roots in the religious faiths Non-profit Organisation
(Donor Agency)
and values in India. In the beginning of the 20th century, different types of non-profit
organizations e.g. ‘Mahila Mandals’, Youth Clubs’ and ‘Seva Samities’ came
into being and joined the service organizations group mainlyworking for the women,
children, slum dwellers and poorer sections living in the rural areas.
Sreerampore Missionary was established in the 1880s to address the social ills like
poverty, polygamy, child marriage etc. but was not accepted by the Hindus as it was
basically a Christian Religious Institution. Bombay Mill Hands Association was
founded in 1890 for the education of workers and their children in Mumbai.
Ramakrishna Mission was founded in 1898 by Swami Vivekananda in Calcutta for
serving the poor and the sick. Later on it developed programme of education for
tackling different social and economic issues as its mainstream activities. One of the
most important objectives of Ramakrishna Mission was to mobilize the youth with
health and education for nation’s holistic development. ‘Seva Sadan’ in Pune was
established as another voluntary non-profit organization especially for women’s
emancipation and education. Hundreds of such voluntary organizations began to
emerge from the middle of the 20th century with the objectives of organized charity
and philanthropy.Textile LabourAssociation (TLA)was also founded with the similar
mission to which, Gandhiji was also associated. These organizations then spread its
activities to holistic social development of the workers in the respective areas.
‘Sewapuri’is an unique place in the district of Varanasi of Uttar Pradesh founded
with the philosophy of Gandhian constructive social work. The call of Gandhi to
work for the rural poor several activists engaged in freedom fighting came to work
for the organization. In 1956 Saghan Kshetra Vikas Samity was formed with the
objectives of empowering the artisans and promotion of agro-based industry to
support the farmers and strengthen their livelihood system. These institutions showed
the way to development organizations focusing on the sustainable development
through capacity building of the targeted population. The change could be observed
from charity approach to capacity building approach aiming at self-reliance and self
sufficiency.
There is a wide diversity of structures and purposes in the NPO landscape. For
legal classification and eventual scrutiny, there are, nevertheless, some structural
elements of legal importance:
l Economic activity
l Supervision and management provisions
l Representation & advocacy
l AccountabilityandAuditing
l Provisions for the amendment of the statutes or articles of incorporation
l Provisions for the dissolution of the entity
l Tax status of corporate and private donors
l Tax status of the foundation
Some of the above must be, in most jurisdictions, expressed in the document of
establishment. Others maybe provided bythe supervising authority at each particular
jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into
consideration in legal proceedings as an indication of purpose. Most countries have
laws which regulate the establishment and management of NPOs, and require
compliance with corporate governance regimes. Most of the larger organizations 49
Stakeholders in Philanthropic are required to publish their financial reports detailing their income and expenditure
Social Work
for the public. In many aspects they are similar to business entities though there are
often significant differences. Both non-profit and for-profit entities they must have
board members, steering committee members, or trustees who owe the organization
a fiduciary duty of loyalty and trust.Anotable exception to this involves churches,
which areoften not required to disclose finances to anyone, includingchurch members.
In the United States, nonprofit organizations are formed byincorporating in the state
in which they expect to do business. The act of incorporating creates a legal entity
enabling the organization to be treated as a corporation under law and to enter into
business dealings, form contracts, and own property as any other individual or for-
profit corporation may do. Nonprofits can have members but many do not. The
nonprofit may also be a trust or association of members. The organization may be
controlled by its members who elect the Board of Directors, Board of Governors or
Board of Trustees. Nonprofits may have a delegate structure to allow for the
representation of groups or corporations as members.Alternately, it may be a non-
membership organization and the board of directors may elect its own successors.
A primary difference between a nonprofit and a for-profit corporation is that a
nonprofit does not issue stock or pay dividends, (for example, The Code of the
Commonwealth of Virginia includes the Non-stock CorporationAct that is used to
incorporate nonprofit entities) and may not enrich its directors. However, like for-
profit corporations, nonprofits may still have employees and can compensate their
directors within reasonable boundaries. There are two major types of nonprofit
organization.
1. A membership organization elects the board and has regular meetings and power
to amend the bylaws. Here, organizations are run on democratic principles
from formation, to norms and action. Elections of members to the governing
bodyaremust under the rules of such organization. Decision making is collective
activity and done on democratic principles i.e. by majority.
2. A board-onlyorganization typically has a self-selected board, and a membership
whose powers are limited to those delegated by the board. A board-only
organization’s bylaws may even state the organization has no membership,
although the organization’s literature may refer to its donors as “members”, it
imposes manycomplexities and requirements on membership decision-making.
Accordingly, many organizations have formed board-only structures.
The National Association of Parliamentarians has raised concerns about the
implications of this trend for the future of openness, accountability, and understanding
of grassroots concerns in nonprofit organizations. Specifically, theynote that nonprofit
organizations, unlike business corporations, are not subject to market discipline for
products and shareholder discipline over their capital; therefore, without membership
control of major decisions such as election of the board, there are few inherent
safeguards against abuse. Adenial to this might be that as nonprofit organizations
grow and seek larger donations, the level of scrutiny rises, including expectations of
audited financial statements.
In India, the situation of non-profit organizations (NGOs) is different from the western
world. All the organizations in our country are registered under The Societies Act
1861 amended in 1961 or under the Indian TrustAct and are governed by bye-laws
of the act with control and accountability. If the organization makes profit in any
form it is liable to pay tax as per the rules of the income tax. The governing body is
50 usually elected by the general body members who may be classified as general
member, life member and honorary member, etc. Annual general meeting, reports Non-profit Organisation
(Donor Agency)
and financial returns are compulsoryfor sustaining its registration in compliance with
the norms of the state.
In 1945, the establishment of the United Nations Organization, non-governmental
organizations became extremelypopular.Although, before this time, there were other
organizations, such as the famous Rotary International, that began its operation in
1904. By the end of the year 1914, there were one thousand and eighty three
NGOs in existence. International NGOs played a vital role in the anti-slavery
movement, as well as in the movement for women’s suffrage. The official definition
of international NGOs was defined on February 27, 1950, by the resolution 288
(X) of the ECOSOC. It is difficult to estimate the number of non-agencies in India
but a rough estimate says that these are more than two hundred thousand in the
country. Within these, there may be many agencies that are defunct. Various types of
Non-governmental organizations include:
1. International NGOs are those organizations like Charity Organization Society,
OXFAM,ActionAid, DFID, UNDPetc, which have spread its branches across
the countries of the world and work or fund other agencies.
2. Donor Organized NGOs are the organizations which are concentrating on
Organizing and Networking the Donors at the individual, institutional, national,
levels to collect fund to help and organize social development programs at the
local, national and international level for the benefit of povertystricken, ignorant,
ill health populations living without any social security from the state.
3. Environmental NGOs areconfining and concentrating their work onlyto preserve
and promote environmental issues like pollution, disaster and global warming
issues at the local, country and international level. These organizations are more
concerned with the people and the planet
4. Government-operated NGOs are created by the central and state level to
address the basic issues and problems on health, education and livelihood etc,.
The National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) State AIDS Prevention
and Control Society (SAPCS) created by the states, and are working for
prevention and control of HIV/AIDS in the country. The terms of such state
created organizations may be limited to certain period.
5. Quasi-autonomous NGOs are again run by state bodies with autonomy to
function and render some services to special groups or communities.
6. Technical Assistance NGO are specialized institutions that render technical
services like project formulation, monitoring and evaluation, training in latest
technology to the organizations and people who are need of the professional
expertise to update or upgrade their services to others.
7. Grassroots Support Organization are engaged in supporting the NGOs, Clubs
and other grassroots organizations to build their capacity to initiate social and
economic activities.
8. MarketAdvocacy Organization like consumers forum advocate in the interest
of the consumers. These organizations are also promoting the bio-friendly
products and denounce the products that are harmful to human ecology and
social environment.
9. Faith Based Organizations (FBO) are basically institutionalized from a religious
faith or belief that leads to welfare and development of the people e.g. Catholic
Bishops Conference in India (CBCI). 51
Stakeholders in Philanthropic The above list is illustrative and not exhaustive. There are end number of NGOs,
Social Work
NPOs that are available across the world with varied objectives, mission and vision.
All the NGOs and NPOs till end of 20th century were dependant on funds from the
government or non-government donor agency. Of late, the donor agencies have
curtailed fund flow to such organizations and insisting on generating fund for their
projects. Rajashekar observed that “fragmented and compartmentalized development
models which still had charity and welfare components were replaced by integrated
development models. The gender justice, environmental concerns and human rights
were understood as a part and parcel of structural aspects of the society, which
together with class, caste and ethnicity, were responsible for the exploitation of the
marginalized section within society. The priorities and agenda of donor agencies
also influenced the development perspective and the programme at the grassroots
level.” This led to the change in the approaches to social development by NGOs
across the country with more focus on the sustainability.
To conclude the discussion on the emergence of NPOs let us consider the recent
concentration of voluntary and non-governmental organization which mostly work
for the poor to eradicate their poverty. The poor is now defined as those who are
powerless in exercising their will in accessing economic and social opportunities. In
this context, the poor in the state remain poor despite several government policies
and welfare schemes for eradication of poverty. The poor often understand, or are
made to understand, that development benefits are gratis handed down from above.
They lack in consciousness on their basic human rights. For instance, flood hit people
remain passive and silent even when relief is delayed. There is hardly any people’s
collective movement in the areas where starvation deaths are on he rise, with high
malnutrition among the people in the country. Such defeated attitude is deeply rooted
in the age old neglect of the poor and the marginalized. It is essential and a pre-
condition that the poor and marginalized people need to be enlightened and
strengthened with good health and sound economy. It is not futile to seek to strengthen
every poor person socially, nor is it worthwhile to deliver public goods from a top
down approach. We have already launched a bottom up approach with Panchayati
Raj Institutions (PRI) to make development need and people driven.Alternatively,
the whole system will sustain itself if the stakeholders’ collectives at bottom rung of
the societyare strengthened to achieve human dignity. Human dignitycan be achieved
by poor households if they are able to
i) access economic opportunities,
ii) improve their level of consciousness,
iii) improve their environment and health condition
iv) exercise their democratic rights as humankind.
The NPOs and NGOs work today mainly to prevent or eradicate poverty, illiteracy
and ill-health of the general populations of the society.

4.3 DONOR AGENCY

Donor agency refers to the agency which collects fund for specific purposes and
donating to other non-profit voluntary organizations or NGOs for welfare and
development of individuals, groups and communities. In other words, a donor agency
is an organization that donates funds for projects of social and economic development
at micro and macro levels. The donor agencies till 1950s weremarked as philanthropic
organizations only. Corporate donor agencies which came into being after 1950s
52
are basicallyindustrial houses and business organizations. Thesehouses are nowadays Non-profit Organisation
(Donor Agency)
concentrating on social development beyond their business activity as corporate
social responsibility and ethical business. The concern of the people and the planet
is also considered as corporate citizenship or corporate conscience as they are not
operating in isolations with those two. In fact, the business would not have existed
without the people and the planet. It’s therefore, can be termed as the tradition of
‘give and take’followed in Indian societysincetime immemorial. It maybe appropriate
to say that the family and religious institutions, which solely dominated the arena of
social welfare was taken over bythe donor agency in the modern era. On the contrary,
the families and religious institutions have shifted their responsibilities of individual
and community welfare to the non-government organizations and donor agencies.
Let us say that all individual and community welfare is dependant on the funding by
the donor agency except a few among those which has its own source of income. In
the pages of world history of charity, the United Kingdom and other developed
countries, the relief recipients became so dependant and fund available being so
limited that the policies had to be reverted to control the increasing demands of the
people. It was also found that not only dependency of the recipient increased but
also it demoralized their work habits and no sign of self reliance were observed.
With these lessons leant over the time, donor agencies today would like to assess
the feasibility and expected outcome to any investment for development. The donor
agencies nowadays have their focus on the issues of immediate concern and find out
potential fund from different sources so that the expected return is assessed in advance
of funding. The donor agencies are promoted by individuals, groups of individuals,
trustees and corporate business houses. Individual and corporate donors provide
life blood for donor agency.
There are government departments and sections which act as a donor agency with
recurring budget of the government from its own source. But major donor agencies
belong to trust and other bodies like, Tata Welfare Trust, CBCI, Action AID,
OXFAM, Global Trust Fund, Save the Children-India, Goal India, Child Fund –
India, DFID, Ford Foundation, Bill Gates Foundation etc. Each one of these has its
area of interest for funding as per the constitution of the agency. There are a number
of international funding agencies, donors, philanthropy groups and charity
organizations. The enlisted organizations are selected from the information provided
by NGOs, networks and various other sources. Funding agencies provide technical
support and funding to non-profits, grass-root level NGOs, and other organizations;
but these agencies provide funds and support according to their own guidelines,
terms and conditions structured in their parameters. Government of India has also
constituted a number of organization like CAPART (Council forAdvancement of
People and Rural Technology) mainly to fund the NGOs for development initiatives
in agri-business, public cooperation and capacity building, watershed management
for the people through local organizations. The Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment, Ministry of Health and FamilyWelfare, Department of Women and
Child Development, have established autonomous bodies like NIOH, NIHH, NIVH,
NIMH, Central Social Welfare Board and fund a good number of NGOs/NPOs
for providing services to a large clientele across the country. Hence, donors’domain
is wider with government than that of the private and non-government donors. The
basic function of a donor agency is to provide funding. Donor agencies can channel
theirfundingin two ways, through;official (government)channels and privatechannels
Traditionally, government donor agencies have channeled funds through government
agencies. Private funding agencies generallychannel funds through nongovernmental
53
Stakeholders in Philanthropic organizations (NGOs) to facilitate access to funds at the grass-roots level.Agrowing
Social Work
amount of development money is being channeled through NGOs frequently and it
has a cash ceiling, and may be limited to a specified percentage of any one project.
Donor agencies also collect funds from individuals citing its registration under section
80G of Indian Income TaxAct. The individual or industry donors can benefit against
payment of income if the NGO is registered under section 80 G of The Indian
Income Tax Act. This is applicable only to the person and organization who/which
donates fund to an NPO or NGO which has 80 G and issues a certificate stating the
amount of donation has been received for social welfare programs.

4.4 NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS, DONOR

AGENCY AND SOCIAL WORK
Social work has its roots to charity and philanthropy. Non-profit and Donor agencies
also found its roots in the charity and philanthropy. It is, therefore, pertinent to find
the relations between these two. Social workers initial platform to come up with
organized services to scientific services with these institutions and services supportive
to sustainable development. Social work is professional services that aim at solutions
of social, economic and cultural problems at the individuals, groups, and community
level through a self- sustainable means. The relationship between the Charity
Organization Society (COS) and Social Work Education could be taken to birth of
each other with professionalism. The outcome of indiscriminate charity in UK,
demoralizing work environment and scarcity of resources paved the way for
organizing charityfor efficient service delivery, restricting charityonlyto needy. Case
assessment by friendly visitors brought to the light a number of issues like controls to
serve one who has no other options but live on charity. The general populations who
were capable were asked to choose a trade or business to help them with an
understanding that the short term aid and assistance extended will result in long term
benefit to the persons. Therefore, training of the friendly visitors for case assessment
became essential. Todaythe engagement of social work professionals in NPO/NGOs
has widened up to such extent that the professional social workers and such institutions
live for each other. Let us consider social workers and NPO/NGOs in terms of
need, attachment, expertise and outcome.
The Need for social workers in NGOs as development functionary was strongly
felt by the charitable organizations in the early 20th century as these workers were
trained and were capable of understanding the psycho-social order in which the
client live. They can make a right assessment of the need of the person and find and
suggest appropriate strategy to deal with the same. The trained workers are competent
enough in terms of the human relations skill to manage, monitor and evaluate the
client’s improvement to cope up his/her problems. The organizations effectively need
such professionals to manage the increasing numbers of clients seeking help and
assistance with the limited resource available at their discretions. The professionals
need engagement or opportunity to perform with higher or meager compensation.
TheAttachment of social work professionals with the institution and clientele and
vice versa is essential as performance of experts as expected by the agency on the
contrary. Ethical values inculcated and practiced by social workers matters a lot to
the organizations and the clients. Hence, all the three parties i.e. worker, agency and
the clients are deeply attached to each other. Interestingly, workers and agencies
commitment to social order is deeply attached to each other. These attachments pay
54 back higher dividends to all the parties concern as expected from such attachment
and engagement while they interact with each other. The benevolent organizations
rendering services to the target population is also deeplyattached to their commitment Non-profit Organisation
(Donor Agency)
to a good quality of life.
The Expertise for which social worker is to perform the assigned task are multiple
in nature. The skills in human relations, identifying problems, analyzing, developing
strategies, mobilizing resources and implementing the program effectively, with
continuous monitoring and evaluating on an ongoing basis are some of the illustrative
expertise of the social work professionals. The agencies are having expertise in
delivering services in different fields of practice. Expertise organizations need
specialized skillsamongthesocial workersto which this profession has been delivering
with greater sincerity. Professional expertise is placed at the core of social dysfunction
and correction.
The Outcome of any intervention is assessed on certain parameters and indicators
decided before the implementation by the organization by its professionals. Social
work itself is multi-disciplinary approach. Social Worker, therefore, coordinates
with other professionals in the projects and outcome of the program is a collective
benefit of all the expertise availed of by the team. Say, there was a program for
advocacy with the government on the issues of poverty in a particular area. This was
done by mobilizing the people to draw the attention of the connected government
officials. The impact of such movement can be assessed by interviewing the officials
to find the change in their attitude towards the issue. Similarly, poverty alleviation
projects can be assessed by comparing the status of the beneficiary before and after
the intervention. Are we competent to predict the outcome before and assess after
the intervention? If yes, we are experts to work for such development initiatives and
bargain for the fees/compensation. The social work professionals must be capable
of visualizing the outcome of the intervention through study and plan for effective
methods of social development for implementation and assessment. Evidence based
practice in social work will then come true. This will draw the attention of the
government and non-government organizations to trust and engage us fruitfully.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Enlist the types of non-governmental organizations.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

2. What is the contribution of donor agencies to social work?

...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
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55
Stakeholders in Philanthropic
Social Work 4.5 LET US SUM UP
The above discussion on the concept of NPO/NGO and Donor agency gives us an
idea about its nature and functions for human welfare and development.Although
the roots of non-profit organizations lies in the Civil Societyand Religious institutions
they are engaged in welfare development work for the people and their initiatives.
They operate with or without fund from the government and donor agency but one
can not separated from the other. NPOs/NGOs rather are dependant on the fund of
Donor agency for executing welfare and development projects. There are varied
types of NPO/NGO with similar mission and vision but area of interventions are
different.
A non-government organization is an association which is based on the common
interests of its members, individuals, or institutions with no governmental status or
function, and is not created by a government, nor is its agenda set or implemented
byagovernment.Let us call upontheorganizations oftheUnitedNations Development
system, within theirorganizational mandates, and to further improve their institutional
accountabilitymechanisms. In this regard the development of performance indicators
for gender equalityand women’s empowerment (the scorecard) bytheUnited Nations
Development Group and encouraging their systematic use byUnited Nations country
teams. This includes, in particular, inter-governmentallyagreedgender equalityresults
and gender-sensitive indicators in their strategic frameworks. It takes note of their
progress. Paragraph 20 of General Assembly resolution 63/232, in which the
Assembly urged the funds and programmes and encouraged the specialized agencies
to carry out any changes required to align their planning cycles with the quadrennial
comprehensive policy review, including the implementation of midterm reviews as
necessary. This is to be reported to the Economic and Social Council on adjustments
made to fit the new comprehensive review cycle. The decision of the General
Assembly in its resolution 63/232 to hold its next comprehensive policy review in
2012 and subsequent reviews on a quadrennial basis. In this regard, requests of the
Secretary-General to continue to submit to the Economic and Social Council detailed
reports on results achieved and measures and processes implemented, in accordance
with paragraph 142 of Assembly resolution 62/208, at its substantive sessions of
2011 and 2012. Encourage the United Nations Development Group, in close
cooperation with the United Nations Development Programme, as manager of the
resident coordinator system, to develop standards for the type and level of staff and
options for operational support that need to be provided to ensure effective United
Nations system coordination in addressing the manyinterlinked development needs.
This must include those countries in transition from relief to development, taking into
account countries in complex situations and their challenges as well as the country-
specific character of those challenges. The United Nations funds and programmes
to reflect in their appropriate annual reports to the Economic and Social Council
and to their governing bodies, their specific contributions to and challenges faced in
the implementation of the management and accountability framework of the United
Nations development and resident coordinator system includingthe functional firewall
of the resident coordinator system, bearing in mind the authorities established for the
Council and the executive boards, including bythe GeneralAssemblyin its resolutions
61/16, 60/265 of 30 June 2006, 57/270 B, 50/227 of 24 May 1996 and 48/162 of
20 December 1993.
The contributions of NPO and NGO in furthering the process of social development
are immense. Their role and functions is benefiting hundreds of thousands of the
56
people in the underdeveloped and developing countries to come up with holistic Non-profit Organisation
(Donor Agency)
social development model with the help of the donor agencies belonging to the
national and international level. Interestingly, manysuch organizations are dependant
on the social work professional. Understanding the dynamics of NPO and NGO
including the donor agency, therefore, is key to the success of social workers to
perform their job satisfactorily. Networking with the national and international
organizations is also very important for the professional. The need for social work
professional and their expertise are on the rise, hence a good time to pick up the
work responsibly to share the effort for social development according to the need of
the hour.
Critical examination of the profile and activities of NGOs/NPOs and Donor agencies
in India, it observed that manyorganizations are doing extremelywell whereas many
are involved in corrupt practices and defames the good image of Civil Society
Organizations/ NGOs/NPOs.Although the state authorities are responsible to monitor
and evaluate the contributions of such organizations but there is hardly much effort
to ensure the transparency, accountability and effectiveness in the interest of the
beneficiary or the target community for whom the programs and projects are meant
for. The liability of the people and those who are involved (social development
professionals) in implementing the projects and programs can not be overlooked.
We need to mobilize the community people for raising their voice and bring the
culprits to the light to re-establish the reputation of the NGOs/NPOs/CSOs and
DonorAgencies.

4.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Dharmarajan, Shivani; NGOs as Prime Movers –Sectoral action for Social
Development, Kaniskha Publishers and distributors. 2001.
http://www.differencebetween.net/business/difference-between-ngo-and-non-profit-
organizations/#ixzz1D690lURp
Adapted from PRIA, 1991: 35 cited in Voluntary Action, Civil Society, and the
State by Dr. Rajesh Tandon; p-19, Mosaic Books, New Delhi, 2002
http://www.differencebetween.net/business/difference-between-leadership-and-
management/
Goel, O.P. Strategic Management and Policy Issues of NGOs, Isha Books, Delhi,
2004.
Gupta, R.C. Management of Savings and Credit Programmes by NGOs, Har-Anand
Publications, New Delhi, 1994.
Rajasekhar, D. Rural Development Strategies of NGOs, Journal of Social and
Economic Development, 1(2), 306-27. 1998.
Rajashekar, D.; PovertyAlleviation Strategies of NGOs; Concept Publishing Co.
New Delhi, 2004.
Sooryamoorthy, R. & Gangrade, K.D.; NGOs In India, Rawat Publications. Jaipur,
2006
Lewis, D. &Wallace, T. (Editors); Development NGOs and the Challenge of Change.
New Roles and Relevance. Rawat Publications, Jaipur. 2003.
The OXFAM
57
Stakeholders in Philanthropic The Kellogg Foundation
Social Work
The Ford Foundation, and
The TEAR Fund.
Funding a literacy program
Concept module: donor agency
LinguaLinks Library, Version 4.0, published on CD-ROM by SIL International,
1999
The Global Trust Fund

58
 Civil Society
UNIT 5 CIVIL SOCIETY
Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Civil Society: Concept and Definitions
5.3 Civil Society Organizations – Types and Functions
5.4 Role of Civil SocietyActors as Stakeholder Groups
5.5 Civil Society:ADynamic Entity
5.6 The Multiplicity of Civil Society Stakeholders
5.7 WhatAils the Civil Society Sector?
5.8 Role of Government in Promoting Civil Society
5.9 Let Us Sum Up
5.10 Further Readings and References

5.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit is designed to provide the reader a basic understanding of civil society, its
various forms and their role as a stakeholder in the philanthropic sector.After studying
this unit you would be able to:
l delineate the concept and forms of civil society;
l outline the stake of civil society in development and promotion of justice;
l discuss the role of civil society in democratic governance and in establishing a
just social order;
l specify policy implications on the growth and development of the civil society
sector.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern society has moved quite far in terms of technological advancement and
economic growth. However, what has not changed much is the fact that poverty still
persists and continues to adversely affect large populations mostly in the developing
and under-developed countries and regions. Violent conflicts continue to stall the
development of innumerable countries who are at war with one another. Ethnic and
state sponsored terrorism and civil strife has contributed to the woes of common
citizens and have also crippled the development agenda of states that have to invest
major portions of their funds in fighting terror and managing conflicts. Development
projects like mines, large industries, dams, etc. have adversely impacted the habitat
and livelihoods of indigenous populations over-riding upon their human rights. In
manycases thestate has colluded with market forces in snatchingthe basic entitlements
of the local people and indigenous populations in terms of land, natural resources,
and their livelihoods fostering insecurityand distrust among the common citizenry in
their relationship with the state.
59
Stakeholders in Philanthropic Civil society fulfills a variety of functions in the space between state and market:
Social Work
providing services, mobilizing interest and engagement, enabling the expression of
values and faith, and fostering social entrepreneurship (Antlöv, H., Brinkerhoff, Derick
W. and Rapp, Elke 2010).

5.2 CIVIL SOCIETY:CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS

The term “civil society” has been interpreted variedly and there is little agreement on
its precise meaning. It has become one of the most popular concepts among
academics, policy-makers, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), and activists over the last 20 years. Definitions typicallyvaryin the emphasis
theyput on some characteristics of civil societyover others: some definitions primarily
focus on aspects of state power, politics and individual freedom, and others more
on economic functions and notions of social capital and cohesion. None-the-less,
most analysts try to locate modern civil society between the family, the state and the
market, and is said to represent the sum of institutions, organizations and individuals
in which people associate voluntarily to advance common interests. This has been
aptly shown in figure-1 below:
State

party
l
ca

pu
liti

bl
po

social movement

trade union ic
religious congregation
ic
om

pr
nonprofit organisation

iva
on
ec

te
cooperative leisure club

firm nei ghbourhood circle of friends

Market open closed Family

Figure 1: The Civil Society Triangle: Location of Associations

Civil society is primarily about the role of citizens and the society they constitute in
relation to that of both the state and the market. The academic interpretation of the
term is closelyrelated to citizenship and is entangled with the role citizens are expected
to play in relation to the neglect or dominance of the state and the market forces that
may adversely affect people in general and disadvantaged populations in particular.
In a sense, it refers to limiting the power of the state and in the regulation of market
economy.
The mechanisms often adopted are creation of public opinion, awareness building
among the affected sections, making people and social institutions capable enough
to challenge and fight against adverse forces, in the protection of peoples’ rights and
fulfilment of entitlements. The prevailing modern view thus views civil society as a
sphere located between state and market - a buffer zone or shield strong enough to
keep both state and market in check, thereby preventing each from becoming too
powerful, dominant and exploitative.
In the words of Ernest Gellner, civil society is the set of “institutions, which is strong
enough to counterbalance the state, and, whilst not preventing the state from fulfilling
60 its role of keeper of peace and arbitrator between major interests, can, nevertheless,
prevent the state from dominating and atomizing the rest of society”. Civil society is Civil Society

not a singular, monolithic, separate entity, but a sphere constituted in relation to both
state and market, and indeed permeating both. It is represented by a multiplicity of
actors and players who play various roles in order to ensure maximum pressure on
the government for effective policy, legislative and programmatic interventions.
From among a myriad of definitions the post-modern conception of civil society
proposed by the Centre for Civil Society’s in the London School of Economics
(2004) stands out in presenting the importance of civil society in a changing global
social order:
Civil societyrefers to the arena of un-coerced collective action around shared interests,
purposes and values. In theory, its institutional forms are distinct from those of the
state, family and market, though in practice, the boundaries between state, civil
society, family and market are often complex, blurred and negotiated. Civil society
commonly embraces a diversity of spaces, actors and institutional forms, varying in
their degree of formality, autonomy and power. Civil societies are often populated
by organizations such as registered charities, development non-governmental
organizations, community groups, women’s organizations, faith-based organizations,
professional associations, trade unions, self-help groups, social movements, business
associations, coalitions and advocacy groups.
Civil society is the self-organization of society outside the stricter realms of state
power and market interests. As Jurgen Habermas has pointed out, “civil society is
made up of more or less spontaneously created associations, organizations and
movements, which find, take up, condense and amplify the resonance of social
problems in private life, and pass it on to the political realm or public sphere”. Ralf
Dahrendorf sees the concept of civil society as part of a classical liberal tradition,
and characterized by the existence of autonomous organizations that are neither
state-run nor otherwise directed from the central political power.
Goodwin (2005) described the term “civil society” as “a loose framework of
associations and activities that would allow ordinary people to engage one another
voluntarily around matters relevant and important to the common weal[th], but only
indirectlyrelated to governance or thestate.” Such activities includeattending religious
congregations; contributing to a charity; volunteering in the constructions of a temple,
or at a hospital or a place struck by a disaster or natural calamity; serving in the
parent-teacher association; or doing shramdaan (labour) in community development
projects on a voluntary basis like the construction of ponds, open wells, village
roads, etc. These are activities that neither involve the government nor commerce
and are initiated and funded by the people themselves.
Goodwin further goes on to argue that donor participation is a critical aspect of civic
engagement: “Only individual donors can provide an endless stream of new
perspectives on changing societal aspirations and needs, each one with the potential
of yielding a new charitable mission.”As a stakeholder in the development sector
donor standing serves as an “inducement to a particular type of donor engagement
within the charitable sector”- which often initiates a new and innovated charitable
mission, which in turn, “bespeak[s] a kind of civic imagination where private interests
stretch to encompass the interests of others; self-interest is imaginativelyreconstructed
as common interest.” It is therefore important that the philanthropic social work or
for that matter professional social work should engage with and develop strong
bonds with the donor community in supporting and carrying forward the cause of
civil society.
61
Stakeholders in Philanthropic
Social Work 5.3 CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS – TYPES
AND FUNCTIONS
Civil society organizations (CSOs) are non-state actors whose aims are neither to
generate profits nor to seek governing power. CSOs unite people to advance shared
goals and interests. They have a presence in public life, expressing the interests and
values of their members or others, and are based on ethical, cultural, scientific,
religious, orphilanthropic considerations. CSOs includenongovernment organizations
(NGOs), professional associations, foundations, independent research institutes,
community- based organizations (CBOs), faith-based organizations, people’s
organizations, social movements, and labor unions.

Type of CSOs
In the development sector CSOs are broadly categories into two types – (i)
Operational CSOs and (ii) Advocacy CSOs. Operational CSOs are the ones who
implement development programmes with resources raised byitself from its members
or the public in general, philanthropic organisations and foundations and occasionally
from the state. Operational CSOs directly deliver, or contribute to the delivery of,
welfare services such as emergency relief or environmental protection and
management. They work at the community, local, district, national, regional, and
international levels depending upon their funds and capabilities.
Advocacy CSOs highlight in the public domain specific issues, concerns, points of
view, or interests of the public in general or specific disadvantaged groups in particular.
Theyattempt to influence the policies, practices, and views ofgovernments; businesses
and multi-national companies; development institutions like theWorld Bank,ADB,
etc.; other actors in the development arena, the media, and the public at large. In
order to strengthen itself advocacy CSOs, ever since the mid-1990s, have come
together to form national and international networks and consortia that link groups
representing common, parallel, or convergent interests. They voice concerns and
raise issues in the public domain that they feel would otherwise not be articulated via
established social, economic, or political processes.

Types of CSOs in Terms of Function

Taking cue from the typology of CSOs as proposed by the UNEP (2004) the
following types of CSOs have been found to be in operation in society that are
playing an active role as stakeholders in the development of people and the
disadvantaged in particular.
1. Service-delivery CSOs - develop, monitor, and implement projects and pro-
grams for the delivery of essential services keeping in view the urgent felt needs
of the people they serve. They tend to work closely with community based
organisations (CBOs) which are often based at the community level. Such
CSOs strive to fulfil the role that most often govt. agencies fail to deliver.
2. Representation CSOs - provide a unified voice for the concerns of particular
disadvantaged sections of the population like the scheduled caste, the sched-
uled tribe, minorities, and the physically and mentallychallenged. These groups
include CSO umbrella and network organizations, as well as indigenous peoples’
groups. Such CSOs present before the authorities the stake these disadvan-
taged groups have in effective governance and the efficient deliveryof welfare
62 services and protection of their rights.
3. Advocacy and Policy Input CSOs - provide expertise and lobbying services Civil Society

relating to particular issues that are affecting large sections of populations. In-
cluded in their ranks are think tanks, research-oriented institutions, human rights
and “watchdog” groups, individual activists, and the like. Often such CSOs
use the media to the best effect in creating public opinion and pressurising the
government or large organisations like the MNCs in the review of its policies
that may be adversely affecting people at large.
4. Capacity-Building CSOs - support other CSOs in funding, training, and
awareness-raising activities. They often include foundations and major, well-
established CSOs involved at the national and international level. The belief is
that investing in capacity building may render the local organisations and citi-
zens in general to be more effective in voicing their legitimate demands before
the government and countering the oppressive forces prevailing in a market-
dominated economy.
5. Social Function CSOs - foster collective social activities. Religious groups
are often of this type. The avowed role they play is in the creation of social
capital that may help in building trust and solidarity among people that will in
turn be instrumental in making concerted attempts to fight against exploitative
and exclusionary forces.
6. Some CSOs, such as indigenous peoples’ networks, fall under more than
one of the above types as they perform multiple functions.
Philanthropic organisations and foundations align themselves with such CSOs that
are found to be having the same goals and objectives for which they themselves
strive for and provide funds and other support in the form of expertise and strategic
partnerships with organisations working in similar fields for scaling-up impact.

5.4 ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY ACTORS AS

STAKEHOLDER GROUPS
A dynamic civil society plays a crucial role in balancing, taming and reducing the role
of the state and in challenging the exploitative nature of the market and the corporate
sector. O’Connell (1999) observes that an active citizenship and civil society is
crucial to foster and preserve democracy and the rights and freedoms enjoyed by
the citizens of any country. The government and the market both have a monopoly
over various sectors of development from education to health, forest and other
natural resources, judiciaryto policing activities, and manymore; making the common
citizen a pawn in their hands. When the state fails in its duties and responsibilities and
the market becomes exploitative, this increases the woes of citizens and forces citizens
to organise themselves to fight against the monopolistic attitude of the state and
market. In such an environment civil society, first has a role of enabling the hitherto
voiceless and unorganised communities’ interests to be represented. In more specific
terms, civil society has a goal to empower local communities and people who are
adversely affected. Civil society can be considered as a “space” or a “public space”
that is free and accessible to everybody.
Civil society can also be considered as a “movement” that has to influence public
negotiation on public issues like health, education or social security. Contesting the
frameworks of development policies and programs, criticising the long-term effect
of un-fettered liberalization and a rampaging economic and cultural globalization,
large-scale displacement of people caused by large development projects, etc. The 63
Stakeholders in Philanthropic very purpose of such a role played by civil society is in the vision of leading a
Social Work
contestation movement.
The State and its various organs and agencies are a representative of the public and
are ultimately accountable to them. Enlightened and active citizens representing civil
society has a role of “ensuring the accountability” of the State in different spheres.
The Right to InformationAct of 2005 has been a product of an active and demanding
intelligentia and the NGO sector that provides common citizens of India a right to
access information from the public agencies, government and private both, on matters
that impinge on their welfare. To quite an extent the Official Secret Act has been
blunted and the erring officials, who have the duty to serve the citizens in non-
partisan ways, brought to the public eye and control. Thus said, civil society has the
monitoring function of holding “the law and order machinery accountable”. This
function implies the control of political parties and electoral process, the control of
local bodies etc.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What is civil society?
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2. Enlist the types of civil society in terms of function.

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5.5 CIVIL SOCIETY: A DYNAMIC ENTITY

Civil society is always seen as a dynamic entity and embraces the notion of social
movements. It also represents the dynamic side of citizenship, which engages itself
in pursuing the achievement of people’s basic needs as also fighting for social justice,
social development and social equity.
Actions of citizens or CSO’s are emotionally charged and spontaneous. Most often
it is a reaction to an existing socio-political condition and can bring together people
and organisations belonging to diverse groups and sections of society with the intent
to set right a wrong or a particular situation or social institution. In the context of the
role played by philanthropy and philanthropic organisations it can be said that, there
is an inherent tendency in philanthropy to sponsor and promote CSOs and in a
movement from the spontaneous to theplanned, from the impulsive acts of individuals
to the organized acts of groups. That dynamic imposes order and reason on a powerful
but notoriouslyunreliable emotion.
Moreover, the extent of impact of civil society actions and interventions depends on
64 the culture and organisation of the public at large, NGOs, voluntary groups, the
media, journalists, and the ability to develop networks among themselves at the Civil Society

grassroots, regional, state national and international level. The impact civil society
actions will thus depend on this ability of active citizens and organisations to work
collaboratively and in partnership for the manner in which it is organised, legitimised
and for its scope and intensity.
At the international level, what is observed is the pattern of relationship that has
developed between the Northern and Southern CSOs which in development lingo
is described as “partnerships”. Indeed, Southern CSOs value their relationship with
Northern CSOs for reasons other than the access it provides them to financial
resources.Among the features of North-South CSO relationships that maybe valued
are the following (Chapman and Wendoh 2007:31):
l Access to support for building up their own capacity
l Opportunities for international exposure, networking and dialogue
l Access to specific competencies or information
l Bonds of Solidarity
l Moral and political support.
However the relationship of the North-South CSO relationships’ effectiveness would
depend on the following characteristics:
l A long-term perspective based on a shared vision and dialogue around each
party’s development objectives and philosophies
l Responsiveness to Southern CSOs priorities and alignment with Southern CSO
systems and procedures
l Respect of differences and diversity, honesty and transparency
l Mutual trust and knowledge sharing
l Negotiated terms of mutual accountability.

5.6 THE MULTIPLICITY OF CIVIL SOCIETY

STAKEHOLDERS
Civil societyis represented byamultiplicityofgroups, organisations and congregations.
It occupies various vantage points too in order to make an impact on society as a
whole or on specific areas, concerns, sections of people or area.Alist of the various
types of civil society groups found in common literature has been presented.
i) Charitable organisations
ii) Clubs and voluntary associations
iii) Non-Governmental Organisations
iv) Unions
v) Religious groups and religious institutions
vii) CSR-based organisation
viii) Social movements
ix) Philanthropic organisations and philanthropic infrastructures

65
Stakeholders in Philanthropic i) Charitable Organisations
Social Work
A charitable organization is a type of non-profit organization (NPO). The term is
relatively general and can technically refer to a public charity(also called “charitable
foundation,” “public foundation” or simply “foundation”) or a private foundation. It
differs from other types of NPOs in that its focus is centered around goals of a
general philanthropic nature (e.g. charitable, educational, religious, or other activities
serving the public interest or common good).
The legal definition of charitable organization (and of charity) varies from one country
to another and from one state or region to another in which they operate. Charitable
organisations vary in size, resources, reach and influence. The smaller ones have
been found to be involved in providingdirect services to clients and specific population
or religious groups and the larger ones are involved in partnerships with organisations
in the implementation of large-scale programmes and specifically in influencing
government policy and governance. In the context of the definition of civil society
foundations with largecorpus and political links trywork in the field of policyadvocacy
and in the establishment of transparent institutions that would positively impinge
upon the lives of large sections of people.

ii) Clubs and Voluntary Associations

People at the community level often come together to address common issues and
problems which they are faced with from time to time. People of altruistic nature
have a tendencyto come together for a cause that would benefit the whole community
and especiallythe ones in need. The motivation often is also to build facilities in ones
community that would help improve the lives of people in general. Causes that often
attract people to come together are in the building of school buildings, village roads,
ponds and common wells, communityhalls, temples and places ofreligious discourses
called satsang in Hindi, and the like. Environmental modification, plantation and
protection of trees and village woodlots and other common property resources,
building and maintenance of playgrounds and promotion of sports and games are
other areas where community based organisations (CBOs) try to add value to their
community. To mobilise funds and other resources for such micro-projects the CBOs
and members of the community though make contributions of their own, they also
try and influence the local authorities like the Block and DistrictAdministration, the
local political representatives like Members ofLegislativeAssemblyand/or Parliament
to provide funds for such common causes and also to represent their concerns
before the government on their behalf. In recent decades it has been observed that
funding agencies and charities are increasingly promoting and seeking the assistance
of CBOs for creating local capabilities for the maintenance and upkeep of facilities
and infrastructure developed. It is believed that an active and responsible local level
civil society will help in making best use of the opportunities created for social and
human development.

iii) Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

NGOs are those non-state actors which are either registered or un-registered
organisations that work in the field of social development having varied interest and
objectives. Most of the NGOs registered are under the Societies Registration Act
1860 or the corresponding StateAct; theyare also registered as Trusts and Charitable
Institutions in India. Other than programme and project implementation in various
sectors like health, education, environment, social service, relief and rehabilitation,
66 livelihoods, social defence, and the like they also take up the cause of the poor, the
socially excluded, the exploited and marginalised and advocate for their rights in Civil Society

various forums drawing upon the attention of the State to take appropriate corrective
steps bymaking policychanges and through the institution of new legislations. NGOs
have been one of the most active of civil society actors to represent various sections
of society and staking a claim on their rights and the State’s obligations towards its
citizens.

iv) Unions
With the onset of industrial capitalism, it was essential for the state to coordinate the
chaotic markets and for redistributing their wealth, the notion took hold that social
equality in the industrial era could be achieved through constitutional safeguards and
legislative measures. However, the history of nations is replete with instances of the
role played by civil society in pressurising the State to pass appropriate legislations
to ensure humane working conditions in industries and reigning in the owners and
proprietors of industries to fulfil their role in meeting basic minimum needs of workers
and labourers. In India the formal industrial sector has been regulated with various
legislations enacted from time to time.
Social workers, social reformers, philanthropists and religious leaders who
represented civil society in the early days of industrial development initiated efforts
towards organising workers for their welfare mostly on humanitarian grounds. In
India in 1875, a few social reformers started an agitation in Bombay in order to
drawthe attention of the government to theappalling conditions ofworkers in factories,
and put pressure on the government to introduce legislation for the amelioration of
their working conditions. This led to the establishment of the Bombay Factory
Commission (1875) to study the conditions of workers in factories and industrial
establishments; eventually the first FactoriesAct was passed in 1881. ThisAct was,
however, inadequate in ensuring the rights of workers. Dissatisfied with the conditions
prevailing in the factories a large scale protest meeting of 1000 workers was organised
in 1890 under the leadership of N. M. Lokhande, a factory worker, which drew up
a memorandum containing demands for limitation of hours of work, weekly rest
days, mid-day recess and compensation for injuries. Lokhande established in 1890
the Bombay Mill-hands’Association, regarded as the first labour organisation in
India that was followed byother important associations like theAmalgamated Society
of RailwayServants of India and Burma (1897), the Printers Union, Calcutta (1905),
the Bombay Postal Union (1907), the Kamgar Hityardhak Sabha (1910) and the
Social Service League (1910). From here started the long journey of Labour Unions
who represented the problems and issues concerning the workers and labourers
working in industries.
Between 1919 and 1923, a number of unions came into existence all over the country.
In order to provide legal protection to trade unions concerted efforts were made by
representatives of these labour & trade unions that led to the passing of the Indian
Trade Union Act 1926. Consequently, federations of trade unions were also made
in order to give teeth to the labour movement in the country. The Indian Trade Union
Congress was established in 1920, theAll India Railwaymen’s Federation was formed
in 1922,All India Trade Union Federation in 1929 so on and so forth. These unions
and federations cover a wide sector that comprises of the manufacturing industries,
transport and communication, mining, textile mills, railways and insurance, and
plantations. These unions are mostly run with membership fees and donations.
However because of financial instability these unions have not been able to function
very effectively as has been observed by the National Commission on Labour.
67
Stakeholders in Philanthropic As a major stakeholder in representing the concerns of scores of labourers in
Social Work
Industries some of the important functions – protectionist and developmental – as
performed by unions listed by the National Commission on Labour are “(a) to secure
for workers fair wages, (b) to safeguard security of tenure and improve conditions
of service, (c) to enlarge opportunities for promotion and training; (d) to improve
working and living conditions, (e) to provide for educational, cultural and recreational
facilities, (f) to cooperate in and facilitate technological advance by broadening the
understanding of workers on its underlying issues, (g) to promote identity of interests
of the workers with their industry, (h) to offer responsive cooperation in improving
levels of production and productivity, discipline and high standard of quality, and
generally to promote individual and collective welfare”

v) Religious Groups and Institutions

Religious groups belonging to various religious denominations and sects float
charitable organisations that not onlywork for the establishment of temples, churches
and masjids but also serve their people and the societyat large in thefield of education,
health, relief services to the poor and needy and in times of calamities and natural
disasters, running various welfare organisations like old age homes, crèches, homes
for the widows and destitute, dharmshalas, etc. Minority educational institutions in
India run by Christian and Muslim communities have been given administrative
autonomy to run their educational institutions as per their own objectives and goals
that benefits their community.

vi) Media
The mass media is believed to act as the eyes and mouth of society and the citizens.
It identifies various social issues and problems and generates public opinion through
healthy debate and dialogue. Representatives of political parties, government, the
academia, business groups, and other civil society organisations are brought to a
common table for thrashing out the key concerns that impinge upon the welfare of
the citizenry. Issues are debated face-to-face and an air of transparency is promoted
thus. In recent years the mediahas been successful in highlightingissues like corruption
in government, environmental decay, povertyand sustainable livelihoods, deplorable
conditions of people affected by large projects like dams, mines, industries, etc. Of
late media houses have also associated themselves with the NGO sector in promoting
theircausebygivingthem spaceprimetime.Apartfrom highlightingsocial andenviron-
mental concerns for a broader reach, and as part of ‘strategic philanthropy’ this also
helps these channels, media houses & their promoters in enhancing their brand image.
The electronic and print media has been a very important platform, time and again,
for mobilising resources and funds in the event of natural disasters for philanthropic
organisations to fund for relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction activities through
local NGOs or the government bodies.
The mass media has the potential to reach out to people far and wide in raising
awareness among people about the issues and concerns that matter them most.
With the use of folk and vernacular media indigenous communities and people
belonging to diverse linguistic groups could be reached. Professional social workers
also have to develop networking and fund raising skills to meet the contingent needs
of philanthropic organisations that arise in the event of national calamities.
Recently, the media has been working in partnership with NGOs and other CSOs
for harnessing the influence of public opinion that becomes pivotal to introducing
68 standards that governments, institutions, and corporations will becompelled to follow.
Though philanthropic donors want to maintain anonymity, for cultural, religious and Civil Society

security reasons, they could however be motivated to give publicly. Such a model of
donor leaders can be leveraged by engaging the media or others to report on the
nature and impact of their giving. Profiles of generosity, engagement, and impact can
do much to inspire others. In India, the Nobel LaureateAmartya Sen used his prize
to establish foundations in India and Bangladesh, bringing significant credibility to
the practice of philanthropy. In the United States, the well-publicized giving of
entrepreneurs such as Bill Gates and George Soros has helped initiatea new generation
of young donors in the United States. It is also believed that Ted Turner’s creation of
the UN Foundation directly influenced Bill Gates.

vii) CSR-based Organisations

Although corporate philanthropic response to the needs of the social sector is not
enforced as are economic and legal responsibilities, it is increasingly practiced by
companies and is generally viewed as a sign of good corporate citizenship. The
motivation forcorporate giving is notinherentlyaltruistic. Corporate givingis areaction
to socio-political demands of the locality where corporate institutions and industries
operate, and it represents a reactive strategy crafted to counter pressures such as
stakeholder demands, threats of government intrusion into industry’s freedom, and
escalating public expectations (Zhang 2009). Corporate philanthropy may help a
firm establish reputation, brand recognition, and loyalty; promote itself as a ‘‘socially
responsible’’firm, or attract and maintain a work force (Sanchez 2000). Corporate
bodies through their independent arms established in the form of foundations and
non-profit organisations often run developmental programmes in and around their
industrial unitsespeciallyin thefieldofeducation, health, vocationaltraining, agriculture
development, social enterprise development, microcredit and micro-finance activities,
etc. With the corporates bringing-in their efficient and accountable management style
and practices, effective interventions are bound to happen. Successful interventions
and innovations implemented attract the attention of the government to get such
models replicated in a larger scale; and often in partnership with the government.
This also provides the corporate an enviable position to push forth their terms and
conditions that are essential for the effectiveness and success of such programmes
and projects.

viii) Social Movements

It is worth quoting the observations made by Rajni Kothari as regards the failed
Indian State, “Therole ofthe Statein social transformation in Indiahas got undermined,
‘development’has led to a striking dualism of the social order, and ‘democracy’has
become the playground for growing corruption, criminalisation, repression and
intimidation for large masses of the people whose very survival is made to depend
on their staying out of the political process and whose desperate economic state in-
capacitates them from entering the regular economic process as well.” To counter
the forces that are a barrier to the development of people and in the perpetration of
injustice, people and peoples’ organisations under the leadership of local leaders
and left-wing intellectuals mobilise themselves in large numbers to oppose the
administration and other formal institutions ofthe government as also non-state actors.
Such large scale mobilisation of people is termed as ‘social movements’. Some of
the important movements that are of recent origin and in which the NGOs played an
important role were the Narmada Bachao Andolan led by Medha Patkar for the
rights of the dam displaced, the Chipko Movement led by Sundarlal Bahuguna for
69
Stakeholders in Philanthropic the protection of forests, the GujjarAndolan in Rajasthan for claiming ST status and
Social Work
reservation in jobs, the Dalit Movement for asserting the rights and dignity of the
scheduled castes, etc. The older ones were the Peasant Movement, the Naxalbari
Movement, the Civil Rights Movement,Women’s Liberation Movement,Arya Samaj
Movement, Brahmo Samaj Movement, etc.
Recently the concept of ‘Transformative philanthropy’is gaining currency which
referred to as a mechanism for overturning the root causes of problems such as
poverty, inequality, and environmental destruction, which we see as founded in
capitalism or in an authoritarian regime or socialist republic that works against the
welfare of its citizens.

ix) Philanthropic Foundations and Philanthropic Infrastructure

Most of the philanthropic organisations and foundations have a longstanding social
commitment of their founders. They are dedicated to serving the common good by
encouraging social changeand contributing to society’s long-term viability.To achieve
this, they often maintain an ongoing dialog with all of society’s stakeholders. The
belief thatcompetition and civic involvement form an essential basis for social progress
is central to these foundations’ work. Each of these organisations applytheir expertise
in the area of their respective specialisation as effectively as possible in the areas like
Education, Health, Economics and SocialAffairs, International Relations, Corporate
Culture and Promoting Philanthropy.
It has been however said that philanthropic action has been quite dispersed and
non-contiguous. It is alleged that this is largely atomistic in terms of spread and
reach. There is a felt need to correct this situation by developing a philanthropic
infrastructure both at the national and international level that would set the tone for
an increased scale of operation and reach, especially catering to the un-reached, the
needy, the vulnerable and disadvantaged. Developing philanthropic infrastructure is
an important promotion strategy, particularlypopularamonginternational foundations.
Specifically, there has been a concerted effort to professionalize, strengthen, and
expand philanthropythrough the support of grant-maker associations, peer networks,
and other institutions devoted to promoting and strengthening philanthropy.

5.7 WHAT AILS THE CIVIL SOCIETY SECTOR?

Academics and general citizens alike feel that society is becoming increasingly
fragmented and polarized. Too many of our fellow citizens are being left behind, not
benefiting out of economic growth and a free society. This many believe to be a
result of a deterioration of our social morality. As a result life becomes harsher and
less civil for everyone, social problems multiply, and we lose the confidence that we
as a community or a nation state are united by shared values. Individualism, divisive
politics, caste and religious divide and intolerance, linguistic differences, regionalism,
secessionist overtures, communal extremism and the like have fractured civil society.
For a revival of an active and performing civil society - NGOs, enlightened citizens,
philanthropists, peoples’ partnerships, and a liberal state will have to work together
in unison.

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 Civil Society
5.8 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN PROMOTING
CIVIL SOCIETY
The Government of India in the recent past has evolved policies and programmes
that would help promote civil society. Some notable examples are the provision of
Gram Sabhas, under the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) brought about with the
73rd ConstitutionalAmmendment, where adults of the village are required to meet
and plan for the development of their own community as also in monitoring the
developmental works undertaken. The government in most of its infrastructure and
also developmental projects has adopted the PPP Mode i.e., Public Private
Partnerships. The involvement of private players and the NGO sector increases
transparency and ensures effective implementation of projects and programmes.
The framing of new policies like the Policy for the Voluntary Sector 2007 and the
space provided to common citizens and NGOs in the various policies and in the
implementation of government programmes has generated interest in the NGOs for
active involvement. The enactment of legislations like the Right to InformationAct
2005 has provided a legitimate space to the common man to demand information
relating to their concerns and problems faced in the deliveryof various public services.
The provision of Public Interest Litigation has given civil society a vital tool to make
governments and the corporate accountable to the Judiciary and the public in cases
of corruption and environmental hazards posed by polluting industries and projects.
The list of such pro-poor and pro-people policies and legislations of the government
is quite long. What is in fact needed is an active civil society that is willing to meet the
challenges it faces in the future and in the ability to join forces for a concerted effort
to tackle these challenges and adversities. The list of such pro-poor and pro-people
policies and legislations of the government is quite long. What is in fact needed is an
active civil societythat is willing to meet the challenges it faces in the future and in the
ability to join forces for a concerted effort to tackle these challenges and adversities.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Discuss the role of civil society as a stakeholder group.
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2. Enlist the various types of civil society groups.

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Stakeholders in Philanthropic
Social Work 5.9 LET US SUM UP
The role of civil society has to be understood in the light of the challenges society
faces from time to time. It has to be promoted and nurtured by philanthropists and
government alike. Professional social work will have to play an important role in
promoting an active civil society relying on their skills in network-building and
managing NGO and social movements.An active civil society will help in keeping
out of bounds corrupt people and make the government machinery accountable,
thus making the service delivery system more responsive to the public at large and
vulnerable & poorer sections of the population in particular.

5.10 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Anheier, H. K., & List, R. A. (2005).Adictionary of civil society, philanthropy and
the non-profit sector. London: Routledge.
Government of India (1987). Encyclopaedia of Social Work in India (Vol. I & III),
Ministry of welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, New Delhi: Government of India.
Edwards, Michael (2004) Civil Society, Cambridge: Polity.
Hall, J.A. (1995). Civil Society: Theory, History, Comparison. Cambridge: Polity
Press.
Kaviraj, S. and Khilnani, S. (2006). Civil Society – History and Possibilities, New
Delhi: Foundation Books.
Mishra, K. (2008) Development of NGO‘s and Civil Society, New Delhi: Manohar
Publications.

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