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17 views18 pagesMechanics Notes
Notes
Uploaded by
gamingconquorCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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/ 18
MOTION AND FORCE
4. Providing Motion
Input force and/or motion transformed into output force and/or motion
|Mechanical systems can be made up of other mechanical systoms
=> &4g.a blonder is made up froma moter, drive bel, a bearing and a gear box.
We assume that the output of a mechanical system provides given force at agiven velocity
= Sometimes the force/torque is the important output and sometimes the movement i; and
sometimes both are equally as important
2. Six Degrees of Freedom
Kinetics: The study of forces in a mechanical system
Kinematics: The study of motion
ey ene enn
Spatial (3D) mechanism
=> 6 Degrees of freedom
=> Can translate (Le. move in a straight le) along 3 axls
> Can Rotate about 3 ax
=> In transmitting force and motion, mechanisms move objects along and/or rotate objects one
(or more of the three axis, and constrain motion against the others.
Planar (2D) mechanism
=> There are 3 degrees of freedom for planar mechanisms ot ce a
3. Linear Motion
Linear: any motion based on a straight line
> Motion in any direction can be described by some combination of movement along each
degree of freedom
=> Can be quantified into properties:
Definition ‘S1Unit
Position Distance along a given axis from a given reference Metres (m)
on | Metres per second |
(m/s)
Distance moved atong axis
~ timetaken
‘Acceleration Rate of change of linear velocity ‘Metres per second
a} squared
Change in Velocity (m/s?)
Time Taken
Alinear motion variant is reciprocating motion
= Reciprocating motion: Uninterrupted movement in a straight line backwards and forwards
between two points in a regular cycle
=> Throw of motion: The distance between two extreme positions.
u
Period of cycle: The length of time it takes to complete one full cycle from one extreme to
the other and back again
Relating the desired change in position or velocity to acceleration v(t) = vp + at; s(t)
v(t) isthe volocity of the object after time (seconds);
+ dat?
ot Fa
= s(t) isthe distance of the object from its starting position after [seconds];
1s the starting velocity ofthe object (zero, if stationary);
> ais the acceleration of the object, which must be constant
> for the
equations to apply (time)
4. Rotary Motion
Rotary: Motion about a fixed point
=> Quantified into
item Definition
Orientation’ | Angle from a given reference
(e) axis
“Angular Velocity Rate of change of angular Radians per second
(0 position
‘Angular Acceleration Rate of change of angular | Radians per second squared
(a) velocity (rad/s!)
‘To change angular velocity requires angular acceleration
> Such as causing.a stationary object to start rotating, and then
‘Oscillatory Motion (equivalent to reciprocating motion): Motion
a(t) = wo bat; ©
= 1a(0) is the anguler velocity ofthe object after time (seconds)
bringing it back to rest
‘moves back and forth in an
t+ har?
wot + 5
=> 8(¢) isthe onentation of the object relative to ts starting orientation after time (seconds)
+ 0s the starting angular velocity of the object (zero, iit is stationary)
=> ais the angular acceleration of the object, which must be constant over the duration t for
these equations to apply.
5. Intermittent and irregular motion
Intermittent: Stopping and starting at regular (or irregular) intervals,
Irregular: Following a complex path that cannot be easily described by a straight line or arc
6. Force and Torque Force: causes an objact to undorgo a change in velocity or shape (speed, direction, or both)
=> Force is the only way that a change in velocity can be effected, as stated by Newton's First
Law of Motion
“A body at rest will remain at rest o, if moving with a given velocity will continue to move with that
velocity, unless a resultant force acts upon it.”
+ Resultant force: fall the forces on an object are in equal opposition to each other, then they
cancel out, and the object won't change velocity
Force changes a motion: a lack of force means that motion remains the same
Resultant Force = Mass x Acceleration
Force unit: Newton
=> 1 Newton represents the force required to accelerate 1kg by 1m/s*
= Once an object has been accelerated to the required speed, we need to reduce the resultant
force to zero, oF the object will Just keep accelerating
‘Torque: The tendency of 2 force to cause rotation in objects that are free to rotate
=> Thought of as a twisting force, whereas ordinary linear force is a “pushing force’,
= Proportional to the force applied and to distance that force is from the hinge or pivot
Couple: the combination of force and distance from a pivot
=> The further from the pivot, the greater the torque
Torque = Force x Perpendicular Distance from Pivot x Sin
Force=
‘Torque about A = FD Sin 0
Member
Hinge, A
Distance to Pivot =D
Figure 4: Calculating Tongue
‘Where torque is measured In Newton-metras, force in Newtons, distance in metres ~ angle may
bbe measured in radians or degrees, The inverse is also true:
=> Hone knows the amount of torque applied to a hinge (if its being driven by a motor, or
turned by hand] then the force generated at different points along the beam can be
jonerated by dividing the torque by the distance along the beam,
‘The shift between force and torque is an important part of how mechanisms change the balance
between force and motion going Into and coming out of the mechanism. This relationship is
reflected in Mechanical Advantage.
Newtons second law of inertia can be applied to torqu
Torque = Rotational Intertia x Angular Acceleration
= Rotational inertia in complex, and will depend upon the shape and mass distribution of the
object relative to the axis of rotation
=> Point mass-> 1 = mr?
= Fis rotational inertia
© misthe mass of the object,
© ris the distance from the centre of the objects mass to the axis of rotation
7. Examples and Solutions
Let us suppose that | want to lft 500g can from my kitchen worksurface to a cupboard some Sem
above it. To do this, m going to start applying a force to the can to lft it up, and keep applying that
force until it reaches the height of the cupboard (that is, it has moved 50cm upwards).
11. What isthe absolute minimum resultant force I need to apply to achieve this?
a, Any resultant force above zero will cause the can to begin accelerating.
2. How much resultant force do | need it | want the canto reach the cupboard level within 1s?
a s@= vet Sat?
'b, We know that t= 3 second, and s(1
‘5m (Sem), we know the can is starting at
rest, 50 ¥O= Om/s
€ 05=04tet= 2
4, Re-arranged into > a
fe. So, we need an acceleration of 1m/s?, We can use Newtons Law to work out the
resultant force: Skg x
Resultant Force = Mass x Acceleration > F = ma
3. How fasts the can moving when itraaches cupboard level? Why Is this a problem?
a wy
b. We know that t=, ve
va) =0+0x1)
‘The can s moving at 1m/s when it reaches the cupboard, this Isa problem as the can
vy tat
anda = m/s?
m/s
will carry on past the cupboard as the force is continually being applied.
4, Does the calculation in Qi overestimate or underestimate the resultant force required to get
the can to the cupboard | want it to stop there 3 second after starting to lift it?
a, Itunderestimates it f| need to slow the can down before I reach the cupboard
level, then it’s going to get there ~ unless | accelerate it more in the early stages,
which required more resultant force.
POWER, WORK AND LOAD
1. Work and power
Force transfers energy from the source of effort to the output
= Effort force/torque: The force applied to a mechanism
=> Applied force torque: The force applied by a mechanism
‘Work: The amount of energy transferred ~measures the enerey being expanded
Work = Force x Distance Moved or Torque x Angle Moved in Radians
=> Work is measured in Joules
Power: The rate at which energy Is transferred.
Power = Force x Velocity, or Tarque x Angular Velocity
=> Power Is measured In Watts
2. The Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created o destroyed, only transferred from one form to another
=> Unless a mechanism has the capacity to store energy, then whatever work is applied to the
‘mechanism must also be applied by the mechanism,
=2 Amechanism cannot introduce new energy into the system, but it can shift the balance
between force and movement, getting more of one at the expense of the other
Input Work = Output Work ‘Since the time period over which the work is done Is the same for both input and outout:
Input Work _ Output Work
Time Time
Hence:
Input Power
Output Power
Effort Force x Input Velocity = Applied Force x Output Velocity
‘Therefore, with re-arrangement;
Input Velocity
* Output Velocity
3. Mechanical Advantage and Speed Ratio
Both quantify the behaviour of mechanisms
= Determine the relationships batween the input force and motion, and the output force and
‘motion
Ideal Mechanical Advantage ~ Speed Ratio
However, efficiency dictates otherwise, but ideal tells us;
‘ Applied Force __Input Velocity
‘Meal Mechanical Advantage = “Crore Force ~ Output Velocity
Speed ratio dictates the relationship between input and output distances or angles
Input Velocity _ Input Distance/Time _ Input Distance
Speed Ratio = ee eet
et Output Velocity ~ Oupur Distance/Time — Output Distance
Input Angualr Velocity __Input Angle/Time
Speed Ratio = Nt Mga Tey Supt ee
ieee Output Angular Vetocity — Output Angle/Time
MA and speed ratio tell whether a mechanism is sacrificing movement to increase force, or
sacrificing force to increase movement
‘Mechanical Advantage Force Movement
>t Increases Decreases
a Decreases increases
=r ‘Stays the same Stays the same
4. Efficiency
Ina real life system, some work (and therefore power is lost as heat (friction), and part of the
Effort Force goes into overcoming this friction
=> The loss always comes from the force ~ never the motion: the speed ratios unaffected,
<5 The efficiency is denoted using 7 Applied Force
Actual Mechanical Advantage = Fras Force
=n x Speed Ratio
=> Or the ratio of output work to input work
Output work = 9 x Input work
fa mechanism is “ideal” (100% efficient) then there are no losses, and all the work put into the
‘mechanism is applied by tat the other end
=> For ll real mechanisms, 11, and some losses occur
5. Mechanical Load
Leads: Transmit force from one place to the other
=> External forces that oppose the movement of the system
Load can describe the force or the torque that tries to resist the movernent of the mechanical
system
=> The difference between the two gives the resultant forces that determine the rate at which
the object will be accelerated
Resultant Force
ipplied Force ~ Load Force
=> Paiced with Newtons second Law;
Applied Force ~ Load Force = Mass x Acceleration
=> Load can as easily apply to a torque, and can be given as a torque that resists the applied
torque, trying to prevent rotation.
= itis the resultant torque that causes motion, and this can be calculated as:
Resultant Torque = Applied Torque ~ Load
Load forces can come from a variety of sources
=> Someone applying a direct force against the mechanism (e.g. springs)
= Air resistance
> Gravity
Friction
6. Gravity
When motion s vertical, the effect of gravity comes into play
= The gravitational pul ofthe earth causes every object to have a downward force equal tots
weight in newtons
= Any system trying to move against gravity wll need to overcome this force in order to
accelerate the object upwards
Force due to gravity = Mass x Acceleration due to gravity => Where force is given in Newtons, mass in kg and on earth, at sea level, acceleration due to
gravity is given by the constant ‘g', which is equal to 9.81m/s
Ifthe force applieg to lft an object is loss than the gravitational pull on the objoct, it will
accelerate downwards, unless there is something below to supply a reaction force
7. Friction
Friction: the force that resists movement between two surfaces
=> Arises because no surface is perfectly smooth: amalified sufficiently, even the smoothest
surface features a whole series of microscopic ridges and valleys that catch against each
other as the surfaces try to move
Efficiency: Represents the losses that occur due to friction inside a mechanism
=> Thisisn’t the only friction that might affect movement: we also need to consider the friction,
affecting any object that we are trying to move
Friction can take a variety of forms
= Kinetic Friction: Friction between two moving objects
tiction’~ friction between two stationary objects
‘+ _Stiction represents the force that must be overcome before the object will move
relative to one another, and its effect is generally greater than that of kinetic,
friction
= The load due to friction is proportional to:
=> The coefficient of friction between two surfaces (j!|~A measure of how rough surfaces are
+ The normal force between the two surfaces (N)~ The perpendicular reaction force
Applied Force [Load due to Friction,
SEER
‘Normal Foree, N
‘Figere 1 Loads rsing the apptiod fers of esha siti daigned os taley up lps
‘The value of F Is calculated using
F
~ jis determined by the perpendicular pair of surfaces involved
uN
= Values are separately for co-eificient of kinetic friction and co-efficient of static friction => Nis the reaction force balancing those acting down on the object, typically its weight (given
boy mg: mass x acceleration due to gravity)
+ Friction isa resistance, rather than a force
= Ifthe applied force is lass than the force due to stiction, the abject remains stationary It
doesn’t accelerate the opposite direction
> Ifthe applied force is greater than the force due to stiction, the object will begin to
accelerate, but the resultant force will be reduced by the amount of kinetic friction involved
Examples and Solutions
Let us suppose that | want to lift @ 500g can from my kitchen worksurface to a cupboard some
50cm above it. To do this, 'm going to start applying a force to the can tollftit up, and keep
applying that force until it reaches the height of the cupboard (that is, it has moved 50cm
upwards).
1. What isthe absolute minimum applied force | need to provide to achieve this?
a
We Identified that any resultant force will achieve some acceleration. So, how much
oad noeds to be applied to achieve a resultant force that Is greater than zoro?
Resultant Force = Applied Force ~ Load
‘And since the resultant force is greater than 0: Applied Force — Load > 0
Rearranged to: Applied Force > 0+ Load
‘So as long as the applied force is more than the load, we get some acceleration
The load in this case is the force on the object due to gravity, this is given by
F = Mass x 981 =0.5x981 =4.905N
2. How much applied force do I need if| want to can to reach (but not stop at) the cupboard
level within 1s? What if| want to reach this level in 0.55?
‘A resultant force of 0.5N is required to accelerate rge can enough for it to reach the
cupboard level in 1s
So Applied farce — load
jesultant Force = 0.5N and the fact that Load due
to gravity is 4.905
Applied Force
‘oad + 0.5N = 4.905N + 0.5N = 5.405N
‘Therefore, If the time taken is to be reduced the acceleration needed will need to be
recalculated €. s(t) = vo + bat? = (0 x 05s) + ($a x (05)*) = 0.5m
4. Rearranged:
8. Resultant Force
h. Resultant Force
4.905N = 6.905
3. If .can apply a vertical force of 25N on the can, what Is the minimum Mechanical Advantage
that is required to apply the force requited to reach the required level in 0.55? Is there any
‘advantage to applying such MA?
a, Available effort is 25N
Applica rover _ S948
b, Mechanical Advantage = “22iss tore — svi
0.2762
Input speed Input Distance
© Speed Ratio = priput speed ~ Output Distance
4d, Input Distance = Output distance X Speed Ratio = 05 x 0.276;
0.1381m
e, Hence, a mechanism with the given mechanical advantage would only need me to
‘move the ingut about 14cm to move the output the required S0cm. Useful f | have
00d strength, but limited reach
4. If the user ability s only SN, what MA is needed to lift the can to the desired level in 0.55?
What is the disadvantage to applying this mechanical advantage?
a. Mechanical Advantage = *22istoret —
'b, Now, enough force cannot be generated to reach the desired acceleration, so a
‘mechanical advantage that will increase the force coming out of the mechanism,
This means it will reduce movement ~ | will need to move my hand more than SOcm
to get the desired distance in the required time,
Sm x 1.381 = 0.691m
‘This does highlight an issue with mechanical systems: you can gain force at the expense of
Input distance = Outout Distance x Speed Ratio
‘movernent, or movement at the expense of force. f your user cant generate enough force or
enough movement, you have two options:
=> Change the movement to a position or type where they can generate more force; or into a
position where they can generate appropriate movement; or
= Use an actuator, a device that will convert external power {such as electricity) into
‘mechani
| power. GETTING POWER INTO A MECHANISM: CRANKS
AND MOTORS
1. Human Effort
Human Effort: The user presses or twists the input part of the mechanism in order to provide the
necessary power
> Power Is always conserved (
er created), and ft is not 100% efficient, some power Is lost
Changing the balance of force and movement is stil useful
= It may allow changing an awkward movement into one that is easler to perform
2 Or reorient a movernent into a plane that makes life easier, or means you work with gravity
rather than against
= Equally, you may be willing to allow slower moverent in order to reduce the force the user
needs to apply to a lower amount
‘There are two ways this can be done:
> By direct effort
> Using a crank to generate torque around part of the mechanism
Its possible to use a crank as an input
Figure 4: Aran, convo
arto rtarymeten
2. Electric Actuators
‘Actuator: A device that generates force and motion from 2 power source
= This power source is olectricity and the motion provided is rotary, in which case the actuator
Is anelectrie motor
2 However, pneumatics and hydraulics can also be used 3. Basic Principles of Electric Motors
‘Treated as2 black box that takes electrle power in and produces rotary motion and torque
=> DC motors (Direct Current) and AC motors (Alternating Currant)
‘© AC=this alternation in current happens automatically, as its the fundamental
property of AC
+ DC~The current supply is constant, and switching must be done mechanically.
Thisis either achieved using wire ‘brushes’ on the rotor, which make contact
With the poles of the power supply, providing an impuise to the rotor and
causing it to spin so that the brushes make contact with the opposite pole,
providing a further impulse and so on.
‘+ DC motors are unsuitable for use ina flammable environment
Why bother with a DC motor?
=> Not all power sources are AC: a battery is DC, and this isthe only option for many portable
devices
=} The behaviour of OC and AC motors are not the same
4. Torque-Speed Curves
‘When choosing a motor, we need to consider the speed at which it rotates (angular velocity) and
the torque it provides
Generally, the more torque a motor needs to provide, the slower it runs, but this isnot a simple
linear relationship
= Different types of motor have different torque-speed characteristics, and deciding which i,
‘most appropriate to the application is an important part of selecting the right motor.
However, all torque-speed curves have two features In common
> Ano-load speed and a stall torque
=> The no-load speed (119) describes the speed at which the motor runs when the torque Its
required to produce is zero:
+ Le, whon itis unloaded
2 The stall torque (7), Is the torque at which the motor will be reduced to a speed of zero and
stall
* While stalled the motor will continue to produce torque, but can suffer
permanent damage mb Set Cre iti
‘The torque required by a motor depends upon the load {in Nn) itis required to move. This can
also be described by a torque-speed curve, representing the torque required to move the load at
a even speed,
Often we assume that torque is constant, as shown in Figure 3a. In practice, torque requited
often increases with speed, as frictional resistance increases as the load moves faster, as shown
In Figure 3b.
rorque
(eycomamisat 9) Lan nrmong wth pen hon
adage
‘As long.as the torque supplied by the motor is higher than the torque required for the load, the
motor will accelerate. ifthe torque required by the load is greater than the torque supplied by
the motor, the motor will decelerate.
‘This means that the motor will run at the first point where the torque-speed of the load
Intersects the torque-speed curve, as shown in figure 4 5. Stepper Motors, Serve Motors, and Linear Actuators
Stepper Motor: works in exactiy the same way as a conventional DC motor, but does not use
brushes or microcontrollers to repeatedly switch current direction and so generate continuous
impulses,
= Instead it switches on different pairs of electromagnets, causing the motor to turn to one of
given number of positions. Stepper motors are designed to provide a given angular
position, not speed:
‘+ steps per Revolution: The numberof steps in a full turn of the motor these will
be equally spaced (hence a 24 steps per revolution motor will have 15° between
steps, whereas a 200 steps per revolution motor will have 1.8" between steps).
‘© Holding Torque: the maximum torque the motor can resist betore it is forced to
‘move from its intended position,
= Stepper motors are designed to be kept stationary ~ do not sufter stalling problems
Servo Motors: Uses 2 feecback loop to bring itself to @ target position
=> The benefits ofthis include, if something pushes the servo out of position, or prevents it
from reaching its positions, it will continually try moving Itself back to its Intended position
=> This means that it doesn't need to draw current when itis in the right position ~ the
downside is that a sufficiently high torque keeping the servo motor from its target position
il cause it to stall in the same way as a DC motor: it will keep trying to draw current, with
all the electrical power being converted to heat until the motor burns out:
+ Range: The range of angles the servo motor can take.
+ Resolution: The smallest increment between angles the servo can manage.
‘+ Maximum Torque: The maximum torque a servo motor can manage to
overcome any resistance in moving to the target position. Any load higher than
this will cause stall,
6. Unear Actuators
= Allthe motors so far are either rotary speed, ora rotary position to a mechanism.
=> Unear actuator provides linear movernent ‘linear actuator can only move across a defined range, before it runs out of length,
=> Accordingly, a linear actuator is characterised by the following information:
‘+ Stroke: the distance between the fully retracted and fully extended positions of
the plston, normally reported in mm,
© Dynamic Load: The maximum amount of force that the actuator can deliver,
when moving. Normally given in W
‘+ Speed: Like a DC motor, this varias with load — from a no-load speed toa
dynamic load speed. Like a DC m this can be characterised as a force-speed
curve that is equivalent to the torque-speed curve of a DC motor. Often given in
mm/s.
‘+ Static Load: Unlike a motor, when a linear actuator stops moving, it locks in
place, and can resist a much greater force before it is damaged or displaced. This
is captured by the static load, which is useful if you want linear actuator to
keep its position while a load is applied to it, but will remove the load before the
actuator moves, Normally given in N.
7. Solenoids
Solenoid: similar to 2 motor, uses electromagnetism, using a current in a wire collto create a
magnetic fleld, and thereby pull a plunger along.
= These are often sprung, s0 thatthe plunger will return to its orignal psition when not being
Used. These generally are only ever open or closed, unlike a linear actuator that can be
‘moved to any point along its tenet
+ Stroke: The same asa linear actuator: how far the plunger moved between the
‘open’ and ‘closed! postions
+ Force: How much force solenoid can apply
+ Closing/Opening Time: The time it takes for the solenoid to complete its stroke.
= Solenoids are generally quite weak, but move very quickly
= Good for low load applications that require a rapid response time
Examples and Solutions
Take @ look at the datasheet for the DN22 DC motor series:
Inttosi//docs.rs-online.com/da4e/0900766b8053605e. pdf
This datasheet has two torque speed characteristics, as the DN22 comes in two varieties ~ a High
Speed and a Middle Speed. Each graph also has two lines on it~ one is for current (marked i) and the other is the Torque-Speed Characteristic (labelled N). You need the Torque-Speed
Characteristic and the inner graph scoles (speed in r/min (revolution per minute), torque in g-
cm (ram-centimetres)). The outer axes are for the current-torque graph (labelled | irvitatinaly,
Torque is on a different scale here).
For our purposes, you can assume thot Lgcm = 0.0001Nm. Also, 1 RPM = 0. trad/s (or close
‘enough for our purposes!)
11. Based on the shape of the torquo-spead curve, what type of DC motor is this?
2. Atorque-speed curve is linear (Straight), so t's a Compound Wound DC motor
2. How fast will each of the two types run against a load of?
a. 50gem (0.005Nm)
|. Reading from the graph, this is about the middle-speed type runs at
4000RPM (400 Rad/s). The high-speed type runs at GOCORPM (600 rad/s)
b. 100gem (0.01Nm)
|. Middle-speed runs at 1500RPM (150 rad/s). The high-speed runs at
3500RPM [350 rad/s)
3. Using your answers to 2, how much power will each of the two types of motor consume
when against a laod of:
a. 50cm
l. Power = Torque x Vetcoity ~inNm and Rad/s
OUSNin x 400 Rad = 2Wates
005Nm x 600 Rad = 3 Watts
li, Midale speed type: Power
i, High Speed type: Power
4. What ae the stall torques of each ofthe 2 types of motor? Under what name are the stall
torques listed in the table?
a. The middle speed has 2 stall torque of about 125gcm; and the high speed about
260g