PLANT REPRODUCTION (PLS 407, 3 UNITS)

REPRODUCTIVE SYSYEM IN CROP PLANTS

The term reproductive system refers to the various morphological and physiological
mechanism that control reproduction in plant and animal population. Higher plants are the
individuals that differentiate into males and females on the basis of the sex chromosomes
carried by them. Individual plant carried either the male or female reproductive organs and
the two sexual organisms have to remain together in order to reproduce. In many plant, male
and female reproductive organ are borne either in different or the same flowers on the same
or separate plant. For these reasons some crops are highly self-pollinated while many others
are cross pollinated.

A plant is self or cross pollinated when people on mere visual observation of the
morphological and floral structure such as the branching habit, flower colour fruit size, fruit
shape and many other physical features.

Scientifically however, a clear understanding of whether a plant is self or cross pollinated can
be achieved only when an investigation has been carried out on the study of the floral
structure such as:

I. Whether the plant is monoecious or dioecious, protandrous, protogynous etc ;

II. Practical assessment of the frequency of self and cross pollinated within and between
the plant populations;
III. Estimation of the level of reduction in the vigour of F1 hybrid selfing which is
referred to as inbreeding depression;
IV. Conduct of the test of self and cross compatibility in the plant species

Types of reproductive system in plants

There are two broad types of reproductive system in crop species

They are (i) the sexual (Amphimixis) (ii) the asexual (apomixes)

All plants population that reproduce sexually are called the Amphimicthic populations while
those of them that posses free gene exchange are called the Panmictic.

The panmictic population shown variation that no two of them are exactly alike in their
compositions, habitat condition and sizes even though they belong to the same specie.

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Panmictics are the product of the following factors:

i. Modification due to the external environment;

ii. Mutation ;
iii. Segregation and recombination of alleles

Reproductive Plant Parts

External plant structures such as leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds are known as
plant organs. Each organ is an organised group of tissues that works together to perform a
specific function. These structures can be divided into two groups: Sexual reproductive and
vegetative.

Sexual reproductive parts produce seed; they include flower buds, flowers, fruits and seeds.

Flowers

Sexual reproduction is the sole function of flowers, often the showiest part of a plant. Flowers
beauty and fragrance evolved not to please humans but to attract pollinators (insect or birds),
which are central to the reproductive process.

Flowers also help classify plants

The system of plant nomenclature we use today was developed by Carl von Linne (Linnaeus)
and is based on flower, reproductive parts of plants or both.

One reason his system is successful is that flowers are the plant parts least influenced by
environmental changes. Thus a knowledge of flowers and their parts is essential for anyone
interested in plant identification.

Structure

As a plant”s reproductive part, a flower contains a stamen (male flower part) or pistil (female
flower part), or both, plus accessory parts such as sepals, petals and nectar glands.

The stamen is the male reproductive organ. It consist of a pollen sac (anther) and a long
supporting filament. This filament holds the anther in position, making the pollen available
for dispersal by wind, insects or birds

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Petals generally are highly colored portions of a flower

The pistil is a plant’s female part. It generally shaped like a bowling pin and is located in the
flower’s centre. It consist of a stigma, style and ovary.

The stigma is located at the top and is connected by the style to the ovary.

The ovary contains eggs, which resides in ovules. If an egg is fertilised, the ovule develops
into a seed.

Sepals are small, green, leaflike structures located at the base of a flower bud. Collectively,
the sepals are called calyx.

Petals generally are the highly coloured portions of a flower. Like nectar glands, petals may
contain perfume. Collectively the petals are called corolla. The number of petals on a flower
often is used to help identify plant families and genera.

Types of flowers

There two types of flower namely: i. complete flower ii. Incomplete flower

1. Complete flower is when a flower has a stamen, pistil, petals and sepals.
E.g roses flowers
2. Incomplete flower is when of the floral parts such as stamen, pistil, petals
and sepals is missing.

Differences between complete and incomplete flowers

i. The stamen and pistil are the essential parts of a flower and are involved in
seed production.
ii. A flower that contains both functional stamens and pistils, it is called a
perfect flower, even if it does not contains petals and sepals.
iii. Imperfect flower lacks either stamens or pistils.

Plants with imperfect flowers are classify into monoecious and dioecious

Monoecious: this is a plant having separate male and female flowers on the same plant e,g
corn.

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Dioecious species have separate male and female plants e.g pawpaw plant. In order to set
fruit, male and female plants must be planted close enough together for pollination to occur.

Types of inflorescences

Some plants bear only one flower per stem, which is called a solitary flower while plants with
cluster of flowers is called floret.

Formation of seeds

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma either by wind or by pollinators
such as insects, animals, or birds

CELLULAR REPRODUCTION IN PLANT

Plant growth, development, regeneration, tissues repair and transmission of hereditary factors
are achieved through cellular reproduction. Cell reproduction can posses asexual
reproduction in simple organisms through:

i. binary fission found in one celled animals such as amoeba and paramecium and in
one celled plant such as bacteria and pleurococcus;
ii. budding in yeast and hydra;
iii. sporulation as in many fungi such as bread mould, mildews, rust and wilt fungus

Unicellular organism goes through series of mitotic cell division to produce millions of its
type

Sexual reproductions occurs in higher plants and animals through gametes production during
meiotic cell division. A complex organism starts its life has the cell derive from the union of
a male and female gamete which may later consist of trillions of specialised cells produced
through mitotic cell multiplications. However, many of the cells that make up the body of a
living organism do not always remain alive for a long time because many of them are easily
destroyed as a result of injury, disease attack and old age.

In plant however, permanent change is not common but when it occurs particularly through
severe disease attack it leads to outright death of the plant. The rate at which cell multiplies
depends on the genetic constitution of the organism concerned, the function it performs, the
age of the organism and the environment under which it function. In plant the rate of cell

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multiplication differs from one part of the plant to the other e.g the growing apex and the root
tip of the plant.

PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CELL REPRODUCTION

The two processes that involved in cell reproduction are mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis leads to the production of two genetically identical cells from one cell e.g Asexual
reproduction

Meiosis occurs only in mature sexually reproducing organism and it results in the production
of cells carrying only half the genetic information of the original cell.

The gamete produced through meiosis are very diverse rather than being identical as found in
mitosis.

The process of meiosis provides the mechanisms of heredity transmission in sexually

reproducing organisms.

THE CELL

The cell is the basic unit of life in all living thing and it is the centre for the coordination of
all physiological processes within the organisms.

A plant cell consist of:

i. The cellulose wall;

ii. The protoplasm in which the following are found:

The cytoplasm

The nucleus

The cytoplamic organelles such as the golgibodies the endoplamic reticulum, the
mitochondria, plastis etc

The non-protoplasmic components of the cytoplasm such as the vacuoles and the crystals.

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In all living organisms, the cytoplasm is the location of cellular functions such as protein
synthesis through the ribosome, carbohydrates synthesis through the chloroplasts and energy
transformation through the mitochondria.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

In sexual reproduction, an offspring is the product of the union of sexual gametes produced
by its male and female parents through meiotic process. In crop plants and except for the few
dioecious plants the male and the female reproductive organs are not always located in
different individuals plants. Many of the cultivated plants anywhere in the world are
essentially hermaphrodites since they bear the male and female organs in the same flower.

The hermaphrodites are therefore capable of both self and cross pollination depending on
their natural reproductive systems. For these reasons plants have an array of methods by
which they reproduce within their populations.

These method of reproduction in plant are broadly classified into sexual and asexual types of
reproduction. The results or consequence of all types of reproduction is the formation of new
living organisms.

Higher plants are characterized by sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction results at the
production of an offspring during the union of specialized reproductive gametes produced by
the male and female parents.

In higher plants the female reproductive organ produce the ovule while the male anther
furnishes the pollen grains through meiotic cell division. When the female gamete were in
contact, hey fused and fertilization occurs leading to a production of a zygotes (The fertilized
egg) which develops into an embryo and seed through mitotic cell division.

FUSION OF MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES TO PRODUCE A ZYGOTE AND

A SEEED

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Reproduction by seed is the major method by which plants reproduced in nature and it is
efficiently used in the production of cultivated plants.The young plants grown from seeds are
referred to as seedlings in horticulture and agriculture.

The seedlings are products of the inherent property of totipotency in the zygotes which from
the beginning has all the genetic information needed to produce mature plants and to initiate
the seedling cycle of the next generation.

The main instruments of sexual reproduction are the sex cells. Sex cells are the materials that
fact it is the fusion of the male and female gametes that determines what an organisms would
be. The sex gametes are formed in the flowers of crop plants through a series of processes
commonly referred to as GAMETOGENESIS.

GAMETOGENESIS IN PLANT.

The term gametogenesis referred to the processes of formation of sex gametes in living
organisms. Research findings have shown that even though the end product of gametogenesis
is gamete formation, the gametogenesis event are known to be dissimilar in plant and animal
cells.

In plants the sequence of gametogenesis are in two phases thus:

1. Megasporogenesis (Development of female megaspore)

2. Microsporogenesis(Development of male microspore)

The two are differ from one another but a reduction division is involve in the formation of the
sexual gametes. In plants, gametes formation does not follow the normal processes of
meioses directly. Also the process of pollen grains formation (Microsporogenesis) and the
development of the female embryo sac (Megagametogenesis) differ from one another in
plants.

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The significance aspect of gametogenesis is that its end products are haploid cells in all living
organisms.

Microgametogenesis:

This is the term used to describe the processes that are involved in the development of pollen
grains (Microspore) from the primary sporogenesis (Microspore mother cells) within the
immature anthers (Microsporagium). Each anther contains four elongated cavity in which the
pollen grains are produced. At the immature or bud stage of flower developments the cavity
contains many cells called the microsporocytes which also called the pollen mother cells.

At the commencement of microgametogenesis, a microspore mother cell which has the same
chromosomes number (2n) as all other ordinary cells of the plants undergoes meiotic cell
division to produce four microspores(Tetrad of microspores) each of which goes through
mitotic cell division to furnish the mature pollen grains (Microgametophytes) which carries
half the number of the chromosomes(n).The microspore are unicellular structures with half
the number of chromosomes in the ordinary cell of the plants.

As shown below, the microspore go through microgametogenesis to produce the gametes

called the pollen grains which contains the sperm cells that are involved in fertilization.
These pollen grains developed in the anther, the main organs of the flower where they
undergo dehydration before their release for pollination.

FORMATION OF POLLEN GRAINS IN THE ANTHER OF A SEED PLANT.

The microsporophyte separate from one another and attain shapes or forms which differs
from one species of the seed plants to another. The nucleus of each microsporoophyte divides
mitotically to produce a generative nucleus and a tube nucleus each of which contains the
haploid (n) number of chromosomes. The mature pollen grains are liberated for effective

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pollination at the time of anthesis (A process when the pollen sac opens and the pollen grains
are dispersed ).

MEGAGAMETOGENESIS

This is the process of formation of the embryo sac, which is called the ovule or the female
gametophtyes. The origin of the ovule is in the nucellus where a single large cell called the
megaspore mother cells goes through two successive meiotic cell division to form haploid
megaspores which are arranged as tetrad megaspores. Further development of the four
megaspores called megagametogenesis leads to the formation of the female gametophytes
also called megagametophytes or the egg.

The commonest pattern of megagametophyte involves only one megaspores which is called
monosporic type. In the monosporic tpe of development the basal megaspores, the one farther
from the microoophle (Opening in the integuments through which h pollen tube enters) is the
megaspore that enlarges to become the functional megaspore (Megagametophyte) while the
remaining three disintegrate. The monosporic type of ovule development is described as
follows:

The pistle the female organ of the flower is comprised of the stigma (On which the pollens
are deposited), the style (A conduit between the stigma and the ovary) and the ovary ( Which
contains the ovules)

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO SAC IN THE OVARY OF

PLANTS

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The single functional megaspore goes through three consecutive mitotic divisions to produce
the eight nuclei which are arranged in the embryo sac also called the egg apparatus as
describe below:

1. Two polar nuclei (Usually without cell walls) around the centre of the
embryo sac. The two polar nuclei usually fused to form the central wall

2. Three antipodal cells at the chalazas end of the embryo sac.

3. The egg and two synergids at the micropolar end of the embryo sac.

The egg is the megagamates and the synergies are the helpers which in most cases become
disorganized and consequently disintegrates.

The embryo sac with the three groups of structures is the mature female gametophyte which
can be fertilized by the microgametophytes from the same flower or another flower of the
same plants species.

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For seed to be produced, pollination of flowers and fertilization of the female egg at the
central must take place.

POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma where they geminate
and produce pollen tube which grows down the style into the ovary where they effect
fertilization of the eggs in the embryo sac of the compatible plants.

AGENTS OF POLLINATION

The agents of pollination are:

Insects, wind and man.

These agents are responsible for the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
the flower.

In flowering plants, compatible pollen grains in contacts with the stigma adhere, hydrates
and germinates to form the pollen tube cells. The pollen tube which plots its course through
the stylar tissue is the conduit through which the fertilizing sperm cells can travel to reach the
embryo sac. The pollen tube cells are said to be guided by the stylar and embryo sac signals,
such as transmitting tissues protein (TTSP) in tobacco. The two sperm cells are eventually
emptied into the embryo sac where fertilization takes place

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 THE PISTLE SHOWING THE DEPOSITION OF POLLEN GRAINS ON THE
STIGMA, GROWING POLLEN TUBE AND THE EMBRYO SAC.

FERTILIZATION (SYNGAMY)

This is the process that occurs when mature male and female gametophytes come together
and fuse after successful pollinations. For fertilization to occur, compatible pollen grains are
recognized and permitted to germinate and produce pollen tube on the stigma surface of the
maternal parent. The pollen tube carrying the two male sperms is guided by the signalling
molecules to the seven -celled (following fusion of the two polar nuclei) female
gametophytes where double fertilization occurs. The female gametophytes, the embryo sac
contains: The three antipodal cells, the two synegids, an egg and the central cell (The fused
two polar nuclei).

The diploid embryo (2n):

This is produced as a result of the fusion of one of the two sperms and the egg cell. The
zygote develops further to become the embryo which carries the shoot (The plumule) and the
root (The radicle) axis and the cotyledons. Embryos are known to differ in their sizes in the
shoot, roots and the cotyledons. The seeds in which the embryo is the dominant part is said to
be nonendospermic whereas a seed with reduced embryo size in proportion to the endosperm
is endospermic. The diploid embryo contains one maternal and one parternal chromosomes
sets.

The triploid endosperm(3n):

This is the product of the union between the remaining sperm cell (n) and the diploid polar
nucleus also called the central cell (2n), a process referred to as double fertilization. This
leads to the formation of the endosperm nucleus which develops into the endosperm
following several rounds of mitotic cell division. The endosperm is the storage tissues which
forms the dominant portion of the seed. It stores starch, proteins, oil and other nutrients for
the growing seedlings. The triploid endosperm has two sets of maternal chromosomes and
one set of paternal chromosomes.

PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS

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 THE MECHANISM OF ZYGOTE AND SEED FORMATION IN PLANTS

The essential steps required in the formation of an embryo and the entire seed starting with
the microspore mother cell in the anther and megaspore mother cell in the ovary.

The seed covering (2n):

The seed covering (2n) also called the outer integument develops to become the seed coat
(The testa) which remains fibrous, hard and mucilaginous and many impervious to water. In
many plant families, the inner seed coat layer becomes membranous, transparent,
physiologically active and semi-permeable whereby the seed covering restrict movement of
nutrients, water and aeration. The seed coat provides mechanical protection for the embryo
against any form of damage. Seeds can therefore be transported over long distances and for
long periods of time with little or no damage.

SUMMARY OF THE PRODUCTS OF THE DESCRIBED FERTILIZATION

1. A diploid embryo (2n), a results of fusion of one of the two sperm cells and the female egg
cell. The embryo is the main reproductive part of the zygotes

2. A triploid primary endosperm nucleus (3n), the product of the union between the
remaining sperm cell (n) and the diploid polar nucleus (2n), a process referred to as double
fertilization.

The endosperm nucleus serves as the nutritive tissue for the developing embryo.

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STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF SEED IN PLANTS, STARTING WITH
MICROSPORE MOTHER CELL IN THE ANTHER AND MEGASPORE MOTHER
CELL IN THE OVARY.

NONZYGOTIC EMBRYO PRODUCTION

On some occasions, however, certain nonzygotic embryos may arise as a result of secondary
stimulus resulting from the act of fertilization. For example:

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1. The nucellus may on its own develop into an embryo as a result of the stimulus generated
by sexual reproduction. Nucellar embryos are diploid and their chromosomes are maternal in
origin because the development is directly from the female plant nucellus. This type of
nucellar embryo production is common in citrus and other seed crops.

2. Also the antipodal cells or the synegids may as a result of stimulus develop into embryo on
their own without ant fertilization. The embryo thus produced are haploid as found in cocoa.
The haploids embryo are very useful in the production of isogenic lines which are very
useful in genetic studies.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

Alternation of generations refers to the two phases of diploid and haploid formation in the life
cycle of sexually reproducing plants. The diploid phase is the sporophyte (2n) whereas the
haploid(n) is the place showing the formation of reproductive gamates. Alternation of
generation occurs in many organisms ranging from simple organisms like fungi and
liverworts to the large flowering plants, such as the crop plants.

In many lower plants, the more prominent phase is the gametophyte while the sporophyte
remains a small spore producing structures as found in liverwort (Pellia epiphylla). Even in
most animals the gametes are produce as a result of the reduction process that occurs at
meiosis. Fusion of two gametes, one from male and the other one from the female parents
leads to a diploid zygotes production. In sexually reproducing animals, all crop plants
undergoing sexual reproduction go through a process of alternation of two generations. In
such plants the gametes phase is the haploid gametes which fuse to produce the diploid
zygote (2n). The zygote develops to yield the sporophyte (2n) generation which undergoes
meiosis to produce the haploids spores.

STRUCTURE OF GENERALISED ALTERNATION OF GENERATION IN PLANTS.

This is the model of reproduction in all the sexually reproducing crop plants. The process of
alternation of generations have been suggested to evolve at the early stages in the

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development of sexuality among the primitive photosynthetic algae. All flowering plant are
believed to have develop from such eukaryotic algae.

In many tropical flowering plants, such as maize, soyabeans and cowpea the sporophytes is
the dominant phase, while the gametophyte is the tiny reproductive gametes produced in the
reproductive organs in the flowers of mature plants. E.g Soybean (Glycine max)

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN SOYBEAN (Glycine max)

ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

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1. There is a creation of infinite array of genetic diversity. The diversity is easily noticeable
ppboth within populations and between siblings (Offspring of the same parents)

2. The genetic variability found in sexual lines allows evolutionary responses under varying
environmental conditions.

3. Sexual reproduction plays a fundamental role in the creation of linkage groups. The
process of sexual reproduction permits many genes to come together in tight linkage on the
same chromosomes. It is obvious, therefore, that sexual reproduction can promote useful
linkages and it can eliminate damaging ones.

DISADVANTEGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Sexual plants produce male and female gametes to enhance reproduction. Therefore sexual
reproduction are productively fitted when at least half of their offspring are male

2. The variability in sexual plants normally leads to production of individuals that can survive
in a wide variety of locations but it can also give rise to some individuals that will not thrive
in any location.

3. Sexual plants are usually less productively efficient than asexual plants under conditions of
limited cross -pollination, particularly when pollinating agents are not very effective.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

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1. Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in which the union of male and female
gametes are not required for plant reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

(i) Vegetative reproduction

(ii) Apomixis

Vegetative reproduction:

Vegetative reproduction: This is said to occur when vegetative part of plants are used in the
production of new plants. When Vegetative reproduction takes place, a portion of a mother
plant is used in the production of another plant which under conducive environment, the plant
grows to become an independent plant.

There are vegetative structures used in reproduction which are:

i. The modification stems and roots which are food storage organs, such as the
tubers, corms, bulbs etc
ii. The vegetative plant parts that are used by man in grafting, budding, layering and
micro propagation

Method of Vegetative Reproduction:

The common methods of vegetative reproduction are;

1) Vegetative reproduction through specialized vegetative structures as the bulbs,

rhizomes, tubers, corms, offsets;
2) Vegetative reproduction based on tissue regeneration as demonstrated in grafting and
budding;
3) Vegetative reproduction enhanced by adventitious roots and shoot production as in
the use of cuttings and layering;
4) Vegetative reproduction based on the techniques employed in tissue culture, also
referred to as the in-vitro culture or micropropagation.

In many plants, plant reproduction by layering, cutting, grafting and micropropagation is

mostly done artificially by man whereas in the rhizomes, tubers, stolons, bulbs and corms can
reproduce vegetatively under suitable natural condition without human interference.

The method of vegetative reproduction helps in the multiplication of desirable plants in

commercial quantities, however Vegetative reproduction is more expensive than seed
propagation methods.

Due to the Utilization of specialized vegetative structure there are presence of many
specialized plant parts that serve as source of materials for Vegetative reproduction of plants.
For examples, the production of large quantities of onions, yams, banana, plantain, potatoes
etc

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Others are reproduce by means of rhizomes (ginger), tuber (yam) corm (cocoyam) sucker
(banana &plantain) bulb (onion) etc. These specialised stem and root organs has the ability to
ensure survival and reproduction through production of new buds even under adverse
conditions.

Vegetative reproduction through specialized vegetative structures

Tubers: These are fleshy portions of plants which function as underground storage organs
and it has high quantities of starch. There are two categories of tubers are ;

(i) The stem tuber: Stem tubers are produced as a result of the enlargement of the
hypocotyls part of the plants e.g potatoes and yams.
(ii) The root tuber: Root tuber are formed through enlargement of secondary roots e.g
sweet potatoes and cassava.

The stem tubers contain large amount of starch and are usually produced in one growing
season only to remain dormant and to reproduce new shoot the following season.

The shoots produced by the tuber sections utilised the stored food in the older tuber which
finally disintegrates and given root to the new plants to grow.

DRAWING OF STEM TUBER

A= white potato B=white yam

DRAWING OF ROOT TUBERS

A= Sweet potato

B=cassava

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Bulbs: These are specialised stems with fleshy leaf scales bulbs develop from buds at the
axes of the leaf scales examples of bulb is the onion. Onion reproduces through continual
production of new offsets from the scale buds, Asexual reproduction in bulb is achieve
through the development of scale buds.

A STRUCTURE OF ONION BULB WITH MANY LEAF SCALES AND BULBLETS

Rhizomes: These are specialised plant structures in which the main axes of the plant grow
horizontally just below the ground surface. Most rhizomes are monocotyledonous plants e.g
sugarcane ginger, many grasses and ornamental plants. In rhizomes stem section are used to
propagate the plant.

A rhizome appears segmented because it comprises of node and internode. The stem is
segmentrical and the growth is naturally through elongation of the growing points at the
terminal end of the rhizome.

Rhizome are reproduce by cutting them into sections with each piece having at least a node
from which adventitious roots and new shoot normally develop e.g the runners, the stolons
etc. Reproduction in sugarcane showing the shoots and root development from the nodal
buds.

REPRODUCTION IN SUGARCANE SHOWING THE SHOOTS AND THE ROOTS

DEVELOPING FROM THE NODAL BUDS.

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Corms: These are specialised solid plant structures containing nodes and internodes e.g
cocoyam is a good example of corm-forming plants that is found growing in the tropics.

COCOYAM, A CORM-FORMING TROPICAL PLANT

Corms are reproduced by their division into piece with each piece carrying a bud which
produces the roots and the shoots to become a new cocoyam plant. The bulk of a corm consist
of storage tissues which is composed of parenchyma cells.

The flowering shoot is at the apex of the corm but propagation of corms is by division of the
parent corm into several pieces. The number of piece of the new corm obtained depends on
the size of the parent corm.

Suckers: The shoots arise on a plant tissue below the ground surface. Sucker production is
common among plantain banana and pineapple. A sucker arises from an adventitious bud on
a root.

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A TYPICAL PLAINTAIN, A SUCKER PRODUCING-TROPICAL PLANT.

For the purpose of reproduction, sucker are detached from the parent plant before they are
planted in a suitable environment. When suckers are not removed they continue to grow
under the parent plant and bear fruits. A single banana plant under very conducive
environment may furnish more than fifty suckers within few years of its existence.

Bulbils: These are produced by some plants e.g Garlic (Allium sativum), some of the lower
flowers of the inflorescence become modified into small multicellular bodies known as
bulbils which grow up into new plants. Sometimes bulbils grow on the plant itself in some
plants the reproductive buds or bulbils often take the place of many flowers of the
inflorescence e.g wild yam(Dioscorea bulbifera).

A DRAWING OF BULBIL OF WILD YAM

Vegetative Reproduction through Tissue Regeneration

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Tissue regeneration occurs when two piece of living plants are brought together in an
intimate association in such a manner that the two components unite, grow and develop as
one plant. The techniques of grafting and budding are artificially used to achieve tissue
regeneration in crop plants such as mango, cocoa, cola and many tree crops.

Grafting: This is the joining of two or more pieces of living plant tissues together to produce
a union which subsequently grow and develop as a single plant.

In any grafting operation the section of the union that will produce the shoot is the scion or
the graft while the part that produces the roots is the rootstocks. When the graft combination
is made up of more than the scion and the rootstock the middle piece is called the interstock
and the process of reproduction is referred to as double working.

Importance of Interstocks:

They are used as intermediaries when the scion and the stock are not readily compatible but
the interstock are compatible with the two components of the graft.

Interstocks may possess particular characteristics that are not possessed either by the
rootstock or the scion. Interstock have considerable influence on the growth development and
reproduction of the grafts.

Budding: Budding involves the use of one bud and a small section of the back with or
without wood. Often many biologists refers to budding as bud grafting because the
physiological processes involved in it are the same as in grafting. Grafting and budding
succeed as a result of the cambial tissues of the rootstock and that of the scion which are in
intimate contact. When these components of the union are in contact callus tissue formation
occurs and a continuous connection between the rootstock and the scion is established. The
callus tissue which is responsible for the union process is generally formed as a result of the
wounding on both the stock and the scion. When the callus tissues are active they intermingle
with the interstock and differentiate to produce the continuous vascular tissue which make
movement of manufactured carbohydrate soil nutrients and water possible within plants.

Method of Grafting and Budding:

Grafting and budding processes are used in the propagation of many crop plants. These two
methods of plant reproduction generally allow the combination of the desirable
characteristics of both the scion and the rootstock.

The scion retain all its good and desired characters. The adapted rootstock provides water and
soil nutrients for itself and the scion. The two components are therefore able to function as a
single plant. In this way grafting and budding are used in the production of desired
characteristics. For instance, a high fruit yielding citrus varying may be budded or grafted on
a highly adapted apomictic rootstock to enhance efficient utilisation of water and soil
nutrients coupled with high yield in a single citrus plant. Grafting and budding propagation

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procedures are used immensely in the improvement of fruit, ornamental and tree crops such
as citrus mango, cashew etc

The common methods of grafting are:

(i) Side grafting

(ii) Cleft grafting
(iii) Bridge grafting

The common methods of budding are:

(i) Patch budding

(ii) Shield budding
(iii) T-budding
(iv) Flute budding

It is however important to note that budding operation are easier to carry out than the
simplest method of grafting.

Callus is a mass of parenchyma cells in various stages of lignifications and its growth. Callus
production is the precursor for adventitious root formation in woody plants. During cutting
production callus develops at the basal end of the wound surface under favourable
environment conditions.

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DRAWING OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF GRAFTING AND BUDDING

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Factors Affecting Grafting And Budding

The following are the factors affecting grafting and budding.

(i) Plant materials

(ii) The environment
(iii) Handling by the operators

Plant Materials:

The plant materials needed for grafting and budding are the root stock and the scion. These
materials must be vigorous and virus free. The materials are expected to produce healthy
callus for adequate vascular bundles development. For good performance scion has to remain
dormant for a short period of time to ensure vigorous growth of scion however in some cases
rootstock and scion fail to develop continuous vascular tissues as expected and they fail to
combine to produce a single living plant this situation arises as a result of stock and scion
incompatibility. The level of compatibility between the rootstock and the scion varies
depending on the plant materials when incompatibility is strong enough between a scion and
a rootstock, an interstock that is compatible with the two of them is usually used as a bridge
material to achieve compatibility

Incompatibility is as a result of presence of virus

The environment:

Environmental factors are known to play very major roles during budding and grafting of
plants the factors are;

(i) Temperature
(ii) Humidity
(iii) Moisture

Temperature: Callus formation increase directly with increase in temperature up to a limit in

varying environment in tropical regions, temperature is high enough to support callus
formation in other regions the temperature is optimal at about 27 to 29c (80 to 85F)

Humidity: Too high relative humidity affects callus formation adversely. Humidity should
however be a type that can support the union of the root-stock and the scion.

Moisture: Adequate moisture is needed to make the union possible adequate moisture
prevents desiccation of the delicate callus tissues in the dry environment irrigation helps to
invigorate the rootstock and keep the scion healthy require quantity of waxes used to
conserve moisture for the graft and wound to be protected

Handling of grafting and budding processes:

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Trained and Experienced Personnel: Personnel have to be employed. For example, tissue
regeneration is retarded when there is injury to the cells during grafting and budding the
operator should know how and when to use the wax to prevent moisture loss he must know
when to water and the quantity of water to use.

Requirements for successful grafting and budding operations

(1) The rootstock and the scion must be compatible

(2) Grafting and budding operation should be done at the appropriate age two young or too
old plant parts could not yield very superior tissue regeneration
(3) The cambium region of the scion must be placed in intimate contact with that of the
rootstock
(4) After grafting and budding operations the cut surfaces should be held together tightly
and be protected from desiccation
(5) All buds and grafts must be properly catered for after the operations all shoots coming
from the rootstock below the point of cut have to be removed to protect the shoot
coming from the scion against being choked to death by unwanted shoots the scion
must be tired to the rootstock to prevent it from falling off

Advantages of Grafting and Budding

(1) Tissue regeneration in the form of grafting and budding helps in the improvement of
field crops it enhances interaction of two or more genetic components of plants to
ensure acceptable growth dependable disease resistance or tolerance and worthy
hardness in plant
(2) Graft and bud onion provide vascular continuity of the xylem and phloem. It promotes
movement of hormones, minerals water and viruses within the plant vascular system.
The free movement of viruses in the transport system formed by the stalk and scion is
very dangerous but it is useful in the process called indexing. Indexing is a procedure
used in virus disease identification in plant. Indexing identifies plants that are
suspected to carry virus infection but would not show the morphology symptoms.
They are generally identified by grafting or budding them on related plant which are
sensitive to the virus. The sensitive plant will then show the symptoms of the
infection.
(3) The technique used in budding however, are generally simpler than those used in
grafting budding operations and they are easily performed by amateur and farmers.
Budding is more economical in its uses of bud sticks than a graft operation these is
because only one bud is required in a scion where as many bud is required for grafting

Disadvantages of Grafting and Budding

(1) The facilities or material required in the operations are very extensive and must be
handled by skilled personnel
(2) Storage facilities for stock piling of propagules with its attendance are costly

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(3) The risk of contamination during budding and grafting operation is always high. It is
therefore necessary to carry out indexing of all plant lines or plant genotype.

Formation of Adventitious Roots In Plants

This occurs as a result of the division, differentiation and elongation of plant cell.
Adventitious roots are derived from (A) herbaceous (B) woody plants

(A) Adventitious Root Formation in Herbaceous Plants: This is demonstrated in the

brace root development in maize, sorghum and generally from monocotyledonous
crop species in these crops adventitious roots arise from the intercalary regions at the
base of the internodes these roots could also be found between the vascular bundles
and near the phloem
(B) Adventitious Root Formation in Woody Plants: In woody plants such as cocoa,
cashew, mango and citrus adventitious root formation occurs directly in the
parenchyma cells of the phloem. However, in leaf cuttings adventitious roots are
initially in the cells between the vascular bundles whereas shoot initiation occurs in
the cells of the epidermis or the cortex.

Vegetative reproduction based on adventitious root and shoot production.

In many tropical plants vegetative reproduction is accomplished through the induction of

adventitious roots and shoots during layering and cutting productions. Layering occurs
when the induction of new roots or shoot takes place in a vegetative plant part still
attached to the parent plant e.g sugarcane, potato, yam, cocoyam, cutting occurs when the
induction takes place on a vegetative plant part that has been detached from the parent
plant e.g cassava, cashew, cocoa, tree cutting.

Adventitious Roots are formed before the Shoots appear

Adventitious roots and shoot formation are possible because of the ability of cuttings and
layers to develop into complete plants through regeneration of missing parts, a
fundamental characteristic of plant known as totipotency and differentiation

Layering is in many useful tool in the hands of plant breeders and plant geneticists it is a
very simple and effective means of reproducing outstanding crops

Techniques of Crop Reproduction by Cuttings

Reproduction by cuttings involves the use of a portion of stem, root or leaf in the
production of another plant. This can be involved to produce roots and shoots through

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 mechanical chemical and environmental manipulations. The end product of rooting any
portion of a plant is the production of clones.

Reproduction by cutting is achieved by thrusting pieces of the plant into the ground to
produce roots and shoots crop plants such as yam, potato, sugar, banana, and plantain are
readily propagated by separation or division of the tuber, rhizomes, suckers and other
vegetative structures.

Different Types of Adventitious Root and Shoot

In making the herbaceous and soft wood cutting the following must be done:

(1) Cutting materials such as fast growing tender or soft shoots are undesirable and
should not be used because they are likely to deteriorate before rooting is
accomplished.
(2) Also, older woody stems are always very slow to root or may not root at all weak thin
and too thick shoot should not be used
(3) The best cutting materials are from the branches of the parent plants. Leaves are
retained at the upper parts while the leaves on the lower portion are removed. Large
leaves are to be reduced in size to lower the transpiration rate all flowers or flower
buds are to be removed.
(4) Cuttings are to be gathered early in the day and must be kept cool in moist
environment either in a sealed polythene bags or pots under shade.
(5) Temperature should be maintained at 4 0C to 8 0C or 40 0F to 47 0F for one or two
days if refrigerated.

Environmental Factors Affecting Rooting of Tropical Crops

Many environmental factors have remarkable effects on the rooting of plants cuttings and
layering. The factors are;

(1) Light
(2) Temperature
(3) Humidity
(4) Rooting medium

Light: In order to accelerate stem rooting, high light intensity should be allowed in the
nurseries where cutting production is done. Light serves to prevent any reduction in the
photosynthetic activities of the cuttings. For example, soft wood and herbaceous cutting
are known to respond positively to light intensity because of its role in photosynthesis
however it has been shown in some instances that high light intensity may inhabit root
initiation. For example hardwood cuttings contain sufficient stored food in the parental
stock and they root best in the dark. Cocoa cuttings are usually covered and to reduce
water loss from the cuttings.

Temperature: Stem rooting is considerably promoted when the temperature of the

rooting medium is just about the room temperature. This occurs because at this

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temperature cell division is stimulated and it occurs rapidly in the wounded section of the
stem in the tropical region the daytime air temperature is optimum for the rooting of most
tropical plant species

Humidity: This plays very significant roles in the induction of adventitious roots in stem
cuttings. Under inadequate relative humidity the moisture in the air is adversely affected
leading to rooting failure and death of the cuttings as a result of desiccation. However, in
order to prevent cutting desiccation biologist recommended the removal of the leaves or
just a portion of the leaves to reduce excess transpiration. The removal of leaves has been
shown to be undesirable but repeated application of water mist around the cutting to
maintain high humidity should be encouraged this procedures leads to a reduction in the
air and leaf temperature.

Prevention of excess water application is however necessary because it is harmful to

many crop plants.

Rooting Medium: Rooting medium must be the type that can provide moisture oxygen
and nutrients for the cuttings. An idea medium must be free of pathogens and be efficient
in its water holding and its drainage properties. Materials such as sands, humus peat and
dropping of fowls are commonly used in the rooting of cutting and layer. Some are
appropriate quantities of fertilizers could be added. The rooting media are needed for the
following major reasons;

(i) It holds the cuttings in place for rooting

(ii) It provides sufficient nutrients moisture and oxygen for growth of the cuttings
(iii) It makes dark environment available so as to reduce light penetration to the
cutting base.

Vegetative Reproduction through Micropropagation

Micropopagation refers to the application of tissue culture techniques in the propagation

of plants using very small plants parts grown aseptically in petridishes or test tubes.
Micropopagation is interchangeably used as in-vitro culture and tissue culture, in-vitro
culture is the production of any part of an organism in a medium in petridishes or bottles
as against in-vivo reproduction which takes place within a living organism. Tissue culture
is the aseptic culture of excised plant tissue organs or embryo for the purpose of asexual
reproduction.

These three terminologies (n-vitro) culture, tissue culture and micropropagation) point in
the same direction which is aseptic. Culturing of plant parts on media for the purpose of
achieving asexual reproduction also entails the;

(i) Regeneration of cells and protoplasts

(ii) Multiplication of cells and protoplasts
(iii) Culture of embryo
(iv) Induction of many in explants
(v) Production of many vegetative plant parts

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 The procedures of micropropagation have been well adapted to industrial reproduction of
many tropical crop plants and it has led to rapid multiplication of improved crop species.
Tissue culture or micropropagation procedure have formed very important part of modern
processes of crop improvement referred to as plant biotechnology.

Steps Involved in Micropropagation:

To achieve a successful micropropagation operation, the following steps should be

considered:

(i) Plant material for micropropagation

(ii) Explants collection
(iii) Disinfection of explants
(iv) Preparation of culture medium
(v) Aseptic transfer of explants
(vi) Multiplication of explants

Plant Material for Microprpagation:

Micropropagation procedures vary depending on the purpose for the propagation and the crop
species to be propagated all parts of plants have so far been successfully vary from one crop
species to the other. In some plants the stems are the best whereas in other plants the cells are
the most suitable to use. The plant parts commonly used in micropropagation are the shoot
apical meristems, stem, leaves, petals, cotyledons and other plant tissues.

Explant collection:

Explant are part taken from healthy and vigorous plant that are neither too old nor too woody.
The size is usually varies from as small as 1mm to as large as 5mm in thickness. Explants are
to be taken fresh and when it is not for immediate use it has to be well preserved to prevent
loss of water of all the plant parts. The shoot tips have been known to have the highest rate of
cell division and to establish more quickly because of its faster growth rate.

Disinfestations of explants:

Disinfestations is necessary in order to remove the contaminates from the surface of the
explants but the disinfestations has no effects on any microbes living in the explants.
Examples of common disinfectants includes sodium or calcium hypochlorite (with 5.25%
active ingredient) and about 80% alcohol (which may be methyl ethyl or isopropyl alcohol)

The explants should be thoroughly washed after disinfestations to prevent interference of the
chemicals which are capable of inhibiting callus roots and shoots formation and consequently
a reduction in the success achieved.

Preparation of culture medium:

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 The types of culture medium determine the success achieved because the growth and
differentiation of the explants depends on them. Most culture media formulations consist of
combination of sugar, amino acid, vitamins, coconut water and yeast extract.

Auxin-cytokini balance of a culture medium is the most crucial. For example a high auxin-
cytokinin favours root formation while a high cytokinin-auxin promote shoot production.

These two hormones like substances should be balanced in a medium so as to achieve

adequate root and shoot information. However crop species differ in their reaction to different
levels and auxins and cytokinins and are such the best approach is to determine the needs of
each crop plant species as regards its requirement for auxin and cytokinin.

Aseptic transfer of Explants:

After disinfectation, tissues, organs and embryo are placed on the culture medium/media in
what is known as the transfer hook or transfer box or the inoculating room. The transfer hood
is an equipment with high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters and positive air pressure
blowing outward from the rear of the hood. As the pressurized air blows, it prevents the
movement of air borne spores into the chamber and this prevents contamination by air borne
pathogens. The hood is able to do effective job because of the presence of the attached HEPA

In order to make the hood very efficient the surface of the chamber must be thoroughly
washed with disinfectants such as 95percent absolute alcohol, sodium or calcium
hypochlorite. All tools and equipments to be used such as forceps scalpels, Petri-dishes,
dissecting microscopes and containers should be sterilized using autoclaves or pressure
cooker. The propagators must wash their hands thoroughly , they should put on clean
laboratory coats and hand gloves. All instruments in use should be kept standing in a beaker
of methylated spirit in a corner of the hood . All your instrument must be assembled before
you start work to ensure that plant materials and media are not exposed for too long of period
of time.

APOMICTIC REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction in which seeds are formed without sexual
fertilization. It is the production of a zygote without the fusion of gametes. The product of an
apomictic reproduction is an embryo with the same genotype as the parent plant. Some plants
species produce only apomictic embryos and are thus referred to as obligate apomictics while
others that produce both apomictic and sexual embryo and are known as ‘facultative
apomictics’

In many crop improvement programmes apomictic processes have been extensively used in
the production of new cultivars of farm crops.

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Types of apomixes

There are two different types of apomixes which are:

(i) Vegetative apomixes (Vivipary)

(ii) Agamospermy

Vegetative apomixis (vivipary): Vegetative apomixis is often referred to as vivipary.

Vegetative apomixis (vivipary) is a type of plant reproduction in which some parts of the
plant that produce flower grow and become leafy shoot. In vegetative apomixis new plants
usually arise from undifferentiated or differentiated cells and neither embryo nor seeds are
produced as seen in many grasses.

Agamospermy: Agamaspermy is a form of apomixis in which reproduction occurs through

asexual formation of embryo and seeds. The embryo formed usually carry the same
chromosome number and the same genotype as the parent plant. Agamospermy takes place
through either adventitious embryony or gametophytic apomixis. Unlike vegetative apomixis,
seeds are produced through either of these processes but in all cases fertilization is by-passed.

Adventitious embryony leads to the development of diploid (2n) embryos from sporophytic
tissues such as the nucellus, the integuments or the megaspore mother cell through the
processes such as apospory and diplospory also referred to as re-current apomixis. In this, a
diploid embryo sac is form directly from nucellus or the integument whereas in diplospory,
the embryo sac developed from a megaspore mother cell, but in all cases meiosis is either
omitted or it does not lead to chromosomes reduction. The diploid embryo sac then
reproduces through parthenogenesis or pseudogamy to produce seeds

Steps in the formation of seeds through diploid and haploid embryo sac production.

The terms parthenogenesis and pseudogamy is the production of diploid embryos from
unfertilized nucellus, integuments and the megaspore mother cell. However, the two
processes are easily distinguished from one another based on the fact that in diploid
pseudogamy the endosperm development requires the stimulus of pollination before the egg
cell can develop into seed whereas no such pollination stimulus is required in
parthenogenesis. In some plants, haploid (n) embryos are formed by meiotic cell division, a
process referred to as haploid parthenogenesis or non-recurrent apomixis as shown above.
The antipodal cells or the synergids may develop into haploid embryo e.g cocao. The haploid
embryos, the antipodal cell and the synergids derived their haploid chromosome set from the
female parent only on some occasions, the process of zygotic or non-zygotic reproduction
leads to formation of more than one embryo per seed this is referred to as polyembryony e.g
coffee.

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 RELEVANCE OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND CROPS IMPROVEMENT

Asexual reproduction techniques are used in the production of plants which are identical to
one another and to the parent plant in their genetic and morphological characteristics. The
various forms of asexual reproduction generally leads to the production of clones. A clone
consist of genetically and morphologically uniform plants derived from a single unique
ancestor through any method of asexual reproduction. The major reasons for the acceptance
of clonal production border on the following factors

(i) Ease and economy of crop production

(ii) Uniformity within populations of clones
(iii) Possibility of combining desirable genes from two or more plant genotypes in
single plant genotypes
(iv) Improvement flowering and maturity times
(v) Possibility of repairing damaged plants parts through grafting

i. Ease and Economy of Crop Production

Many important tropical crops such as cassava, sugarcane and sweet potatoes are simply
reproduced by thrusting pieces of their stems into the ground to produce roots and shoots.
Vegetative parts of many tropical plants such as cocoa and cashew are easily grown in
sand and sawdust to which hormones such as indole butric acid (IBA) has been added to
promote growth of the cutting. The cutting produced are usually nurtured in the nursery
before their transplanting into the field for proper establishment. Crops such as yam,
cocoyam and sugarcane are reproduced by separation or division of tubers, bulbs,
rhizomes or other vegetative structures. In the laboratories large quantities of tiny parts of
stems, cotyledons, vegetative meristems and embryos are grown in culture media in
bottles and pedridishes. In this way, millions of such plants can be commercially
produced in limited spaces available in the laboratory. When asexually reproduced crop
plants are ready for reproduction there is no need for either natural or artificial pollination
to occur in the absence of the agents of pollination. Asexual plants can furnish their
maximum yield.

Asexually reproduced plants are identical to their parents, a characteristics that ensures
the presence of plant breeders.

ii. Clonal Uniformity and Fixation of Genetic Variation

Asexual reproduction leads to production of clones and immediate fixation of genetic

variations in specific clones. Clonal reproduction techniques have been successfully used
in commercial production and maintenance of crop such as banana, pineapple, seedless
grape, melon, cocoa, etc.

The clones derived from a plant are genetically and phenotypically uniform in stature,
fruit and seed sizes, flowering time, leaf size and time of fruit maturity.

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Iii. Combination of Desirable Genes in a Plant Genotype

More than two or three genes located in separate plants can be combined to produce a
desirable plant genotype using grafting or budding techniques. E.g Cultivation of citrus
and mango are as a result of combinations of rootstock chosen for its adaptability and root
characteristics. Scion is selected for its desirable fruiting traits. Rootstocks are resistance
or tolerance of certain destructive root diseases, such as fusarium and verticullium wilt.
Also tropical rootstocks resist or tolerate some unfavourable environmental conditions
such as air-borne disease causing organisms, water logging, heavy and wet soil etc

Plants with desirable characteristics are useful as rootstocks and as scions for the
improvement of high fruit and seed yielding plant cultivars.

iv. Improved Time of Reproductive Maturity

Vegetative propagation has advantage in the improvement of tropical crop plants such as
cocoa, cashew, cola, citrus, ornamental and many forest trees. For example, cutting
production has been advantageously practised in cocoa improvement programmes and
this has led to earlier flowering, reduced plant height and better spread of the branches.
The clones are higher seed yielding and are easier for cocoa farmers to harvest. It is
important to note however that many tropical forest species benefit from long juvenile
periods of growth is not a disadvantage in many tropical tree plants.

v. Repair of Damaged Plant Parts

This is a process of repairing or saving severe damage that occur in the root, trunk or
branch of a plant through the activities of man, animal, insects and other natural harzards.
Many damages occur when farmers use farm implements during land preparation. When
such damages occur some plants species repair the injuries parts through the development
of callus tissues which are produced to cover the damaged area if the damage is serve and
natural healing does not occur, the plant dies. Repair in plants is necessary only when the
plant genotype is rare and useful.

Repair grafting can be done to invigorate economic trees with weak rootstocks systems
by repairing them with more vigorous ones.

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