UNIT 1

EXCLUSION AND INCLUSION

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Factors, Dimensions and Types of Exclusion
1.3 Impact of Exclusion
1.4 Excluded Groups
1.5 Measures to Promote Inclusive Development
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 References and Selected Readings
1.8 Check Your Progress-Possible Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Social exclusion remains a malaise in all societies. Social exclusion is a
process by which individuals or groups are wholly or partially excluded
from full participation in the society within which they live. The term
“social exclusion” was originally coined by Rene Lenoir, in France in 1974
to refer to various categories of people such as “mentally and physically
handicapped, suicidal people, aged invalids, abused children, substance
abusers, delinquents, single parents, multi-problem householders, marginal,
a social persons, and other social misfits” .But this term encompasses many
dimensions: social, economic, legal and political. In India, unique forms
of exclusion are observed where certain group like the dalits, experience
systematic exclusion in regard to accruing the benefits of development,
and institutional inequality and discrimination have been prevailed in the
society. It hampers democracy, development, and social integration. Dalits
are excluded in every walk of life. The Indian social system, which was
based on the principle of purity and pollution, was a system of inequality.
This system denied equality before law, equal opportunity of the law and
equal protection of the law. Thus, it was a source of social exclusion, and
thereby a source of violation of human rights as well.
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
●● To understand the factors, dimensions and types of exclusion
●● To describe impact of exclusion and discrimination and discriminated
groups
●● Explain factors, dimensions of discriminated groups and measures to
promote inclusive development
1.1.1 Social Exclusion: Concept and Meaning
Exclusion as a social phenomenon is expressed in different forms all over
the world. Social exclusion and discrimination are practiced on the basis
of ethnicity, gender and religion. In Indian society, mainly, the caste and
patriarchal systems are the source of social exclusion. Social hierarchy of
traditional social system in India presents inequality between the highest

213
Social and Cultural Issues and lowest castes. But in reality, the downtrodden communities are excluded
from interaction and denied access to resources through iniquitous social
arrangements.
The concept of social exclusion has been defined differently among social
scientists, by western and Indian. According to Silver ,social exclusion is
multidimensional process of progressive social rapture, detaching groups
and individuals from social relation and institutions and preventing them
from full participation in the formal, normatively prescribed activities of
the society in which they live. Amartya Sen observes that social exclusion
emphasizes the role of relational feature in deprivation.
Bauvinic summarizes the meaning of social exclusion as the inability
of individual to participate in the basic political, economic and social
functioning of society and goes on to add that it involves “the denial of
equal access of opportunities imposed by certain groups in society upon
others.” On the whole, social exclusion may be termed as a process by
which, certain groups are wholly or partly denied from full participation
in the development activities-social, economic, cultural and political life
of societies. Thus, social exclusion refers to process in which individuals
and entire communities of people are systematically blocked from rights,
opportunities and resources (e.g. housing, employment, healthcare, civic
engagement, democratic participation and due process) that are normally
available to members of society and which are key to social integration.
Social exclusion is about the inability of our society to keep all groups
and individuals within reach of what we expect as a society. It is about the
tendency to push vulnerable and difficult individuals into the least popular
places, furthest away from our common aspirations.
The term social exclusion is of relatively recent origin; however, it
encompasses a wide range of social and economic aspects. Different
scholars decipher this notion in various contexts. Broadly, it indicates
the relative deprivation of any person or group of persons on various
predetermined criterion. Caste- based occupational groups in India, like
that of manual scavengers, constitute one such socially, economically,
psychologically and politically marginalised section of the society. In
India, social exclusion revolves around some sections of the population,
particularly, dalits, adivasis, women and minorities. They are the victims
of social exclusion by caste, sex, ethnicity and by religion. In the society,
they are isolated, discriminated and deprived of equal access to social and
economic opportunities. Therefore, in the Indian context, the core feature
of social exclusion is the denial of equal opportunities by certain groups of
the society which impose themselves upon others that leads the inability
of an individual to participate in the basic political, economic and social
functioning of society.
Amartya Sen believes the concept of social exclusion is useful because
of its emphasis on the role of relational issues in deprivation. He then
goes further, arguing that it is important to distinguish between exclusion
which is in itself a deprivation (that is, the exclusion has constitutive
relevance) and exclusion which is not in itself negative, but which can lead
to other deprivations which do not have constitutive relevance. Sen cites
landlessness and lack of access to the credit market as examples of this
214
latter type of exclusion, which have what he calls ‘instrumental importance’. Exclusion and Inclusion
That is, landlessness or not having access to the credit market may not be
impoverishing in themselves, but may lead to other deprivations (such as
income poverty) through causal consequences, such as the inability to take
advantage of income-generating activities that require collateral or an initial
investment and use of credit.

1.2 FACTORS, DIMENSIONS AND TYPES OF

EXCLUSION
1.2.1 Factors of Exclusion
i) Spatial Factors
Spatial inequalities include disparities between rural and urban areas, and
also between geographically advantaged and disadvantaged areas. Spatial
disadvantage may result from the remoteness of a location which makes it
physically difficult for its inhabitants to participate in broader socio-economic
processes. Or it may operate through the segregation of urban environments
and the ‘subcultures’ of violence, criminality, drug dependence and squalor
which can often characterize urban slums and excluded neighbourhoods. In
some cases, ghettos of marginalized religious or ethnic groups can form as
the direct result of communal violence. In many countries, these disparities
are increasing, partly as a consequence of the uneven impact of trade and
globalization. These disparities are particularly worrying where they overlap
with political or ethnic divisions.
The spatial dimension of exclusion cannot be entirely separated from
its resource and identity dimensions since it is usually culturally and
economically marginalized groups that inhabit physically deprived spaces.
Activities of economic and political importance are often concentrated
in urban centres. These centres also benefit from a constant inflow of
new material, and financial and human resources from the peripheries.
Government policies can also be biased towards these areas. As a result of
this, and the constant leakage of resources to the central regions, peripheral
areas often have difficulty in self-sustaining economic development.
ii) Migration
Migration can act both as a way of moving out of poverty, and a cause
of social exclusion. For example, foreign remittances can help receiving
households to increase their income and consumption levels, as well as
their capabilities to face socioeconomic shocks. However, rural-urban
migrants for example, often do not benefit from the same political, social
and economic rights as other urban citizens. They often find themselves in
insecure, low-paid jobs, or become concentrated in vulnerable areas such
as slums and deprived housing estates, with high levels of criminality and
violence.
Similar conditions can also sometimes affect foreign immigrants or refugee
groups, generating mutual mistrust and resentment. ‘Host’-immigrant
tensions can be increased by perceptions of religious, ethnic or cultural
‘otherness’ that can sharpen social divisions and potentially contribute to
conflict.
215
Social and Cultural Issues (However, findings from West Africa suggest that cultural similarities
between immigrants and host populations can actually worsen immigrant-
host relations.)
Where policy directly or indirectly discriminates against migrant and
immigrant populations – through, for instance, the targeting of immigrants
by law enforcement in the first case, or the failure to provide language
assistance to foreign migrants in the second – this process may become
cyclical, with structural exclusion driving low educational attainment, low
employment, vulnerability to crime and consequent community tensions.
There are thus fears that the exclusion of migrants can pose a threat to
stability.
1.2.2 Dimensions of Exclusion
●● Political exclusion can include the denial of citizenship rights such as
political participation and the right to organise, and also of personal
security, the rule of law, freedom of expression and equality of
opportunity. Bhalla and Lapeyre argue that political exclusion also
involves the notion that the state, which grants basic rights and civil
liberties, is not a neutral agency but a vehicle of a society’s dominant
classes, and may thus discriminate between social groups.
●● Economic exclusion includes lack of access to labour markets, credit
and other forms of ‘capital assets’.
●● Social exclusion may take the form of discrimination along a number
of dimensions including gender, ethnicity and age, which reduce the
opportunity for such groups to gain access to social services and limits
their participation in the labour market.
●● Cultural exclusion refers to the extent to which diverse values, norms
and ways of living are accepted and respected.
These relationships are interconnected and overlapping, and given the
complexity of influences on individuals, it is impossible to identify a single
specific cause in the context of social exclusion. People may be excluded
because of deliberate action on the part of others (e.g. discrimination
by employers); as a result of processes in society which do not involve
deliberate action; or even by choice. However, more generally, the causes
of social exclusion that lead to poverty, suffering and sometimes death, can
be attributed to the operations of unequal power relations.
1.2.3 Types of Exclusion
There are clear links between the concept of social exclusion and a rights-
based approach to development. Social exclusion analysis can help to
identify which groups are being denied access to their rights, and which
actors or organizations are blocking their access. A social exclusion analysis
is useful even when rights are not on the agenda, because it can help focus
attention on those within society who are denied access to resources,
institutions or decision-making processes. Social exclusion therefore
also links to development agendas focusing on citizenship, participation,
democratisation and accountability.
i) Social exclusion: addresses the political nature of deprivation, in that
it examines the links between people’s lack of citizenship status and
216 their levels of poverty.
ii) Political Exclusion: Political aspects of exclusion can include the Exclusion and Inclusion
lack of political rights, such as political participation and the right to
organise; alienation from or lack of confidence in political processes;
and lack of freedom of expression and equality of opportunity.
Citizenship is centred on the capability of exercising individual and
collective rights, and inequalities in this capability can generate a
social hierarchy, made up of first- and second- class citizens. This
often means that not all individuals are equal before the law, and that
they do not all have the same access to public goods supplied by the
state.
iii) Economic Exclusion: The distribution of resources and the
accumulation of wealth is an unequal process, which is based on power
relations, the capacity of various groups to lobby for their interests and
influence the government’s agenda, and the targeting of government
policies. Economic exclusion also refers to the exclusion of workers
(either totally or partially) from three basic markets: labour, credit,
and insurance. Whilst this exclusion plays an important role in the
reproduction of inequality, it is also itself the result of inequalities,
in access to resources, employment, education, and public services.
Educational status and particularly illiteracy, can be an important
cause of exclusion from the labour market.

1.3 IMPACT OF EXCLUSION

Impact of exclusion are given below
i) Health and Education: The greater poverty of socially excluded
groups often translates into poorer levels of health and education,
particularly when their poverty is combined with remoteness and lack
of infrastructure and social services.
ii) Income Inequality: Social exclusion can lead to and result from
disparities in income distribution, with the wealthiest segments of a
country’s population receiving the greatest proportion of its national
income, income inequality arises from inequities in the distribution of
assets such as land, credit and education.
iii) Violence and Insecurity: When individuals or groups and
particularly youth, feel excluded from power structures, and deprived
of legitimate outlets to express their grievences, violence can provide
an opportunity for them to have a voice and to gain control over their
own lives.
iv) Subjective Well being: The psychological aspects of exclusion
are also important. These include the absence of power, voice and
independence, and vulnerability to exploitation and humiliation.
When people are treated as lesser because of the colour of their skin,
their sex, what they do for a living, and where they live, they can
come to internalize a sense of lack of worth that profoundly affects
their sense of what they can do and what they are due by society.
In this section, you studied factors, dimensions, types of exclusion and
impact of exclusion. Now, answer the question given in check your progress
1.
217
Social and Cultural Issues Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Answer the following questions in about 50 words.
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. What are the types of exclusion? Explain any one.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Briefly explain the impact exclusion?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

1.4 EXCLUDED GROUPS

i. Scheduled caste (SC) groups
While the practice of ‘untouchability’ is banned in India, many of the
associated actions and norms persist. People belonging to SC groups,
who constitute 16.2% of the population (Census 2001), experience
discrimination in one or more ways. They are often forced to live apart
from the rest of society. They face discrimination while accessing
services, and receive poorer quality of services. They get lower wages
and face discrimination in the marketplace.
ii. Scheduled tribe (ST) groups
ST groups make up 8.2% of India’s population (Census 2001). They
generally live in remote forest areas and often speak a different
language. Areas inhabited by ST groups tend to be rich in natural
and mineral resources. In many cases, this has led to exploitation and
forced displacement of forest- dwellers.
Further, negative stereotyping is used to justify their exclusion from
services and economic opportunities. Apart from notified ST groups,
PACS covers nomadic tribes (NTs), denotified tribes (DNTs) and
‘primitive’ tribes that may not be listed as STs.
iii. Muslims
Muslims constitute 13.4% of India’s population (Census 2001). A
2006 report of the Prime Minister’s high-level committee on ‘Social,
Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India’
(Sachar Committee) recognises the social exclusion of Muslims,
which results in low scores against a broad range of socio-economic
indicators.
iv. Women
Girls and women in India face gender discrimination at every stage
of their life, starting even before they are born. Women belonging
to socially excluded groups face greater challenges. Apart from
the discrimination all women face as a result of patriarchy, women
from socially excluded groups suffer oppression and exploitation on
218
 multiple levels. Sen argues that what is important normatively for Exclusion and Inclusion
a person’s well-being is what she is “able to do or to be,” not just
what possessions or income she holds. In contrast, standard economic
analysis has tended to focus on money- related spheres of income
and wealth. Those things that persons actually accomplish - such as
being well nourished, having decent shelter, being disease-free, and
appearing in public without shame - are called functionings. Having
adequate income is itself one important functioning, because it gives
people access to basic goods and services and it conveys important
social- symbolic information about one’s social location . The bundle,
or choice, of the functionings that a person can select entails his or
her capability set. A person who has adequate access to food but who
fasts for religious reasons has the capability to be well nourished,
while a poor, starving person does not have such a capability. Neither
the fasting person nor the starving one has the functioning of being
well nourished, but the former enjoys a kind of freedom that the latter
does not. Sen asserts that the emphasis on capability and functionings,
rather than on money, is a more careful way of focusing on those
aspects of human development and well-being that we have reason to
value. He argues that a society’s commitment to treating its citizens as
moral equals is best expressed in terms of establishing an equality of
“basic capability”. Because many kinds of functioning are important
for a well- lived life, the capability approach takes a wide view,
emphasizing functionings related to various spheres of life: education,
nutrition, healthcare, political participation, and so on. Sen has noted
that the most basic functioning, or condition of well-being, is literally
life itself. Stated differently, dying prematurely robs persons of the
chance to function in any sphere of life. Sen asserts that differential
treatment in common experiences of education, nutrition, and health
is the principal cause of missing women.
v. People with Disabilities
People with disabilities social and physical barriers to accessing
services and livelihood opportunities. Service providers, government,
markets and places of employment are, by and large, not equipped
to enable the full participation of people with disabilities. Thus,
disability causes poverty, and poverty intensifies disability.
Acording to the United Nations, one person in 20 has a disability. More
than three out of four of these live in a developing country. Recent
World Bank estimates suggest they may account for as many as one
in five of the world’s poorest . Disability limits access to education
and employment, and leads to economic and social exclusion (DFID,
2000). Poor people with disabilities are caught in a vicious cycle of
poverty and disability, each being both a cause and consequences
of the other. Therefore, it is argued that poverty alleviation is a key
solution in preventing directly and indirectly.
Breaking the chain of economic dependency of the poor requires
the eradicator of poverty to help overcome the problems of social
and economic deprivation. In this sense, poverty eradication can be
219
Social and Cultural Issues regarded as a prerequisite to development. Individuals with disabilities
are often excluded from the labour market. Even when included,
people with disabilities often work fewer hours and in lower-paying
or lower- skilled positions. In some instances, individuals with
disabilities are unable to work in the competitive marketplace. For
those who are so disabled that competitive work is impossible.
vi. Manual Scavengers
Manual scavenging is the removal of excreta (night soil) manually from
“dry toilets”, ie, the toilets without modern flush system. The system
of building public toilets and employing people to remove excreta
was introduced during British rule in India, when municipalities were
constituted. That time, often containers were used in such toilets, that
needed to be emptied daily. After the invention of flush type toilets, all
other types of toilets disap- peared from the western world. However,
this inhumane practice continues in many developing couptries
including India. The sociocultural and economic reali- ties of modern
India reveal a series of paradoxes. While legally manual scaveng- ing
is banned, caste apartheid and poverty perpetuate this practice. In
India, manual scavenging is a caste-based occupation carried out by
dalits. The manual scavengers have different caste names in different
parts of the country: Bhangis in Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, Phakis in
Andhra Pradesh and Sikkaliars in Tamil Nadu. These communities
are invariably placed at the bottom of the caste hierarchy as well as
dalit sub-caste hierarchy. Refusal to perform such manual task leads to
physical abuse and a social boycott. Man- ual scavengers are exposed
to the most virulent forms of viral and bacterial infec- tions that affect
their skin, eyes, limbs, respiratory and gastro- intestinal systems.
vii. Elderly People
“Old Age” is usually associated with declining faculties, both mental
and physical, and a reduction in social commitments (including
sport participation) of any person. The precise onset of old age
varies culturally and historically. It is a social construct, rather than
a biological stage. The persons in India, who have attained the age
of sixty years and above, are defined as elderly for the purpose of
availing old age benefits.
As per 2001 Census, total population of Senior Citizens (60+) was 7.7
crore, of which population of males and females was 3.8 crore and 3.9
crore respectively.
●● The institution and functioning of the family as a support structure
for older people is under severe pressure because of poverty.
Unemployment and changing attitudes and as such external support is
needed to strengthen the family and provide supplementary income;
●● Since the older people are disadvantaged by stereotypes which largely
discredit the poor older workers in the unorganized sector, necessary
measures are required to create opportunities, increase the competence
of older workers and counterbalance this negative image;
●● Incidence of widowhood among women even before reaching old age
results in a serious disadvantaged experience of old age;
220
●● Lack of food is a major cause of poor health; priority for elderly Exclusion and Inclusion
in these circumstances receiving nutritional supplements is highly
desirable.
●● The configuration, design and general physical environment in
which older people live including housing, transport, work place
and recreation could be made more user friendly to achieve greater
independent personal mobility, safety and convenience;
●● Systematic and analytical studies on the needs of the elderly in India,
both urban and rural, are required to add substance to the many
preliminary and exploratory studies already made;
●● On account of the shortage of trained personnel in many specialist
fields, the training of professionals to organize and promote services
and programmes for the elderly needs to be given high priority,
especially in such areas as family support, financial provisions, health.

1.5 MEASURES TO PROMOTE INCLUSIVE

DEVELOPMENT
Inclusive Development consists of ensuring that all marginalized and
excluded groups are stakeholders in development processes.
UNDP maintains that many groups are excluded from development because
of their gender, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, disability or poverty. The
effects of such exclusion are rising levels of inequality around the world.
Development cannot effectively reduce poverty unless all groups contribute
to the creation of opportunities, share the benefits of development and
participate in decision- making. The goal of inclusive development is to
achieve an inclusive society, able to accommodate differences and to value
diversity.
The Constitution, resolves to secure to all citizens ‘equality of status and
of opportunity,’ and directs the government to be proactive to ensure equal
opportunity. Equality, equal access and equal opportunity concepts are
elaborated in Articles 14 (right to equality), 15 (access to education) and 16
(public employment). The ‘... state shall not discriminate. on grounds only
of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth’.
Clause (4) of Article 15, states, “Nothing shall prevent the State from
making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and
the Scheduled Tribes.” Interestingly, ‘socially and economically backward
classes (SEBC)’ precedes mention of the SCs and the STs. Clause (5)
directs the state to make a special provision by law for the advancement
of the ‘socially and educationally backward classes’ through admission to
educational institutions including private, aided or unaided.
Article 16 provides for equal opportunity in government employment,
and cautions the state not to discriminate on the grounds of religion, race,
etc..; and clause (4) provides for making provisions for reservation of
appointments in favour of ‘any backward class’ which in the opinion of the
state, is not adequately represented in the services under the state. Thus, the
onus of identifying a ‘backward group/ class’ rests with the state.
221
Social and Cultural Issues All explanations of Articles 14, 15 and 16 emphasise that the group
classifications should not be arbitrary, must be compatible with the ‘objective
of classification’ and pre-existing inequality should not be ignored. Therefore,
any group of citizens (not arbitrarily formulated), including those named in
the Constitution, namely religion, race, caste, sex, descent, and place of
birth/residence should form the basis for backwardness. Backwardness can
also be assessed based on occupation, workplace, age, language, etc., which
are not arbitrary in nature.
The state is directed by the Constitution “to promote the welfare of the people
by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which
justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of the
national life” [Article 38(1)]. An amendment in 1976 states “The state shall,
in particular, strive to minimise the inequalities in income, and endeavour
to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities, not only
amongst individuals but also amongst strive to minimise the inequalities
in income, and endeavour to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and
opportunities, not only amongst individuals but also amongst
In this section, you studied excluded groups and measures to promote
inclusive development. Now, answer the questions given in check your
progress 2.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Answer the following questions in about 50 words.
b) C
 heck your answer with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Who are the Scheduled caste? How are they excluded.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Who are the religious minorities? How are they discriminated? Briefly
explain any one?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

1.6 LET US SUM UP

Social exclusion is a process by which individuals or groups are wholly or
partially excluded from full participation in the society within which they
live. In India, unique forms of exclusion are observed where certain group
like the dalits, experience systematic exclusion in regard to accruing the
benefits of development, and institutional inequality and discrimination
have been prevailed in the society.

1.7 REFERENCES AND SELECTED READINGS

Anne Power ‘ Social exclusion’ RSA Journal, Vol. 148, No. 5493 (2000),
pp. 46-51
Louis, Prakash, ‘Marginalisation of Tribals’ , Economic and Political
222 Weekly,Vol.35, No 47 (Nov.18-24, 2000), pp.4087-4091
Sandip Kumar Ghatak, Social Exclusion and Dalits in India-A note on Exclusion and Inclusion
violation of Human Rights, Voice of Dalit, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2011, pages 175-
184
Kumar Singh , Rajeev, Manual Scavenging as Social Exclusion: A Case
Study, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 44, No. 26/27 (Jun. 27 - Jul. 10,
2009), pp. 521-523
Hicks, Douglas A, Gender, Discrimination, and Capability: Insights from
Amartya Sen, The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 30, No. 1 (Spring,
2002), pp. 137- 154
Bandyopadhyay ,Madhumita ,Education of Marginalised groups in India:
From the Perspective of Social Justice, Social Change, 2006 ,36: 98
Nageswara Rao, Ambati Poverty and disability in India, Social Change,
2009 39: 29
National Human Rights Commission, (2011), New Delhi http://dera.ioe.
ac.uk/6853/1/multidimensional.pdf
http://www.gsdrc.org/go/topic-guides/social-exclusion/causes-and-forms-
of- social-exclusion-spatial-factors-and-migration
http://www.hiproweb.org/fileadmin/cdroms/Handicap_Developpement/
www/ en_page61.html
http://www.gsdrc.org/go/topic-guides/social-exclusion/the-impact-of-
exclusion http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2915460/
http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/constitution-for-inclusive-policies/
article2494313.ece

1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1. What are the types of exclusion ? Explain any one.
Ans. The types of exclusion are: social, economic, political.: Political
aspects of exclusion can include the lack of political rights, such as
political participation and the right to organise; alienation from or lack
of confidence in political processes; and lack of freedom of expression
and equality of opportunity. Citizenship is centred on the capability
of exercising individual and collective rights, and inequalities in
this capability can generate a social hierarchy, made up of first- and
second-class citizens. This often means that not all individuals are
equal before the law, and that they do not all have the same access to
public goods supplied by the state.
2. Briefly explain the impact of exclusion?
Ans.
i. Health and Education
The greater poverty of excluded groups often translates into poorer
levels of health and education, particularly when their poverty is
combined with remoteness and lack of infrastructure and social
services.
223
Social and Cultural Issues ii. Income Inequality
Social exclusion can lead to and result from disparities in income
distribution, with the wealthiest segments of a country’s population
receiving the greatest proportion of its national income, income
inequality arises from inequities in the distribution of assets as land,
credit and education,

Check Your Progress 2

1. Who are the Scheduled caste? How are they excluded.
Answer: While the practice of ‘untouchability’ is banned in India,
many of the associated actions and norms persist. People belonging
to SC groups, who constitute 16.2% of the population (Census 2001),
experience discrimination in one or more ways. They are often forced
to live apart from the rest of society. They face discrimination while
accessing services, and receive poorer quality of services. They get
lower wages and face discrimination in the marketplace.
2. Who are the religious minorities? How are they discriminated?
Briefly explain any one?
Answer: Religious minorities are Christians, Muslims, Sikhs.
Muslims are economically backward, compared to other sections of
the community, because
c) the number of Muslim industrialists is negligible, and there are
none in the front ranks-a typically petty- bourgeois complaint,
but a significant index in a capitalist-landlord regime all the
same;
d) Muslims are discriminated against in matters like the grant of
licenses and permits and muslims are educationally backward.

224