ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

[Accredited With ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle and Graded as
Category-I Universityand Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)

KARAIKUDI – 630 003

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

M.S.W
III – SEMESTER

34933A

RURAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Copy Right Reserved For Private use only

 Author:
Dr. MA. Velusamy,
Assitant Professor of Social Work,
Department of Social Work,
Alagappa University,
Karaikudi.

“The Copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University”

All rights reserved. No part of this publication which is material protected by this copyright notice
may be reproduced or transmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known or
hereinafter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning, recording
or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the
Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu.

Reviewer
Dr. K. Lamella,
Professor of Banking Management,
Department of Banking,
Alagappa University,
Karaikudi.
 SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
RURAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Mapping in
Syllabi
Book
UNIT-I: Rural Community: meaning, definition, characteristics - types of 1-14
villages - scope of studying the rural community – rural community relation
to social work.
UNIT-II: Rural social structure and constraints to rural development; rural 15-45
organization and rural development - school, co-operatives, village
panchayat, youth club, women's club, self-help groups etc
UNIT-III:Rural problems: poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, problems 46-69
related to agriculture (land holding, productivity, marketing), and
community health.
UNIT-IV:Community Development: meaning, objectives, scope, principles, 70-104
process, models - methods - earlier experiments in rural developments -
Sriniketan experiment, Gurgaon experiment, marthandam experiment,
Baroda experiment, Firkha development scheme, Etawa pilot project,
Nilokheri experiment - Gandhian constructive programmes - community
development during post launching period - national extension services and
various phases of community development.
UNIT-V:Rural extension: concept, characteristics, philosophy, objectives, 105-132
principles, approaches, and methods and limitations - approaches to rural
community development: Tagore, Gandhi and C. Subramaniam, etc.
UNIT-VI: Rural Development Administration: history, structure: central, 133-154
state, district and block levels and its functions - panchayat raj institutions
(PRI): origin and evolution - philosophy, new panchayat raj system- 73rd
amendment and its salient features - structure of PRIs - powers of Gram
Sabha - features of Tamil Nadu Panchayat Act, 1994 - constitution of
village panchayats, panchayat union and district panchayat - elections to
PRIs - reservation for women, SC/STs - administration of PRIs - taxes and
levies - assigned and shared revenues, grants - government of India finance
commission, state finance commission, development grants under various
schemes - powers of PRIs in implementation of RCD programmes,
UNIT-VII: Rural development agencies: council for advancement of 155-178
people's action and rural technology (CAPART) - national institute of rural
development (NIRD) - national bank for agriculture and rural development
(NABARD) - regional rural banks (RRB) - district rural development
agency (DRDA) - statistics related to rural development - training of PRI
functionaries.
UNIT-VIII: Social Development: definition, approaches and indicators - 179-212
social development in India: historical and social context of development in
India - pre and post independence period and government measures and five
years plan in India - development sectors: agriculture, and cooperation, and
education and health.
UNIT-IX:Agriculture and rural development: share of agriculture in the 213-249
national income - agriculture as a source of livelihood, employment, raw
materials, capital for development and manpower - agrarian and land
reforms – green, white and yellow revolution - Cooperatives and rural
development: meaning, principles, objectives, functions, structure, and
performance of rural credit and non-credit cooperatives - registration
procedures of cooperative societies - Education and rural development:
universalisation of primary education: problems; adult education-meaning,
history, strategies and programmes – social education, workers education,
farmers training and functional literacy and non-formal education - national
literacy mission - health and rural development.
UNIT-X: Communication and Rural Development: meaning, scope, 250-286
channels and stages of communication - methods communication:
interpersonal communication, group communication and mass
communication - skills of communication: questioning, reinforcing,
listening, reflecting and exploring, theories and models of communication -
transactional analysis and conflict resolution - barriers in communication -
communication and its role in rural development - satellite instructional
television experiments (site): aims and objectives; use of media in
communication - mass media: exhibition, film, press, radio, TV - traditional
local folk media: puppet shows, drama, street play, folk songs and folk
dances - use of talks, meetings, conferences, camps; campaign;
communication through leaflets, pamphlets, bulletins, circulars, posters and
notice boards
UNIT-XI: Community participation: meaning, elements, base, principles 287-296
and obstacles in community participation - participatory communication –
concept, and methods - use of communication for community participation
- participatory communication for rural development.
UNIT-XII: Rural Development Programmes: Area based Programmes: 297-312
drought prone area programme (DADP) - hill area development programme
(HADP) - tribal area development programme (TADP) - command area
development programme (CADP), - wasteland development programme,
desert development programme (DDP) - watershed development
programme, intensive agriculture area programme (IAAP) - high yield
variety programme (green revolution blue white and yellow revolution) -
hariyali - MP’s area development programme - MLA's area development
programme, etc.
UNIT-XIII : Target based programmes: IRDP, TRYSEM, NREP, RLEGP, 313-325
JR, Indira Awaas Yozana, millions wells scheme, Swarna Jayanthi Grama
Swarajgar Yojana (SJGSY), employment assurance scheme, new life, etc -
employment guaranty legislation – its salient features- mahatma Gandhi
national rural employment guarantee scheme.
UNIT-XIV: Welfare programmes: minimum needs programme - noon meal 326-347
scheme - development of women and children in rural areas (DWCRA) -
integrated child development scheme (ICDS), Tamil Nadu integrated
nutrition programme (TNINP) - antyodaya programme - annapoorana
scheme - programme of rural health and total sanitation - five year plans and
strategies for rural development - role of social workers, concept of
provision of urban infrastructure in rural areas (PURA) - role of voluntary
organisation in rural community development, problems and limitations.
 CONTENTS
UNIT I – RURAL COMMUNITY 1-14
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Rural Community
1.3.1 Meaning of Rural Community
1.3.2 Definition of Rural Community
1.3.3 Characteristics of Rural Community
1.4. Types of Villages
1.5 Scope Studying Rural Community
1.6 Rural Community Relation to Social Work
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit- End- Exercises
1.9 Answer to check your Progress
1.10 Suggested Readings

UNIT II – RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND CONSTRAINTS TO 15-45

RURAL DEVELOPMENT
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Nature of Rural Social Structure
2.2.1 Social Structure
2.2.2 Rural Social Structure in India
2.3 Family and Kinship
2.3.1 Family in Rural India
2.3.2 Changes in Family
2.3.3 Lineage and Kinship
2.4 Caste Groups
2.4.1 Caste
2.4.2 Sub-caste
2.4.3 Changes in the Caste System
2.5 Agrarian Class Structure
2.6 The Village
2.6.1 The Issue of Village Autonomy
2.6.2 The Jajmani System
2.6.3 Changes in the Village Power Structure and Leadership
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Keywords
2.9 Further Reading
2.10 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress

UNIT III – RURAL PROBLEMS 46-69

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Poverty in the Global Context
3.3 Concept and Measures of Poverty
3.3.1 Relative and Absolute Poverty
3.3.2 The Dimensions of Poverty
3.3.3 Vulnerability and Poverty
3.3.4 Measures of Poverty
3.4 Illiteracy
3.5 Unemployment
3.6 Problems Related to Agriculture and Community Health
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Keywords
3.9 Further Reading
3.10 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress

UNIT-IVCOMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 70-104

4.1. Introduction
4.2. Objectives
4.3. Community Development
4.3.1 Meaning of Community development
4.3.2 Objectives of Community development
4.3.3 Principles
4.3.4 Process
4.3.5 Models
4.3.6 Methods
4.4. Early Experiments of Rural Development
4.5 Gandhi and his Constructive Programme
4.6 Community Development during – Pre and Post Launching Period
4.7 National Extension Services
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Unit- End- Exercises
4.10 Answer to check your Progress
4.11 Suggested Readings

UNIT V – RURAL EXTENSION 105-132

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Aims and Objectives
5.3. Meaning and Concept of extension
5.3.1 Definitions of Extension
5.3.2 Philosophy of Extension
5.3.3 Principles of Extension
5.3.4 Objectives of Extension
5.3.5 Approaches and Methods
5.4. Approaches of Rural Community Development
5.5 Tagore
5.6 Gandhi
5.7 C.Subramanian
5.8 Let Us Sum Up
5.9 Unit- End- Exercises
5.10 Answer to check your Progress
5.11 Suggested Readings

UNIT VI – RURAL DEVELOPMENT 133-154

6.1. Introduction
6.2. Aims and Objectives
6.3. Rural Development Administration
6.3.1 History
6.3.2 Central
6.3. 3 State
6.3.4 District
6.3.5 Block level Functions
6.4. Panchayat Raj Institutions
1.4.1 Origin and Evaluation
1.4.2 Philosophy
6.5 New Panchayat raj System
6.5.1 73rd Amendment and its Salient Features
6.5.2 Structure of PRIs
 6.5.3 Powers of Grama Sabha
6.5.4 Features of Tamil nadu Panchayat Act, 1994
6.6 Government of India - Finance Commission Center and State
6.7 Powers of PRIs in Implementation of RCD Programmes
6.8 Let Us Sum Up
6.9 Unit- End- Exercises
6.10 Answer to check your Progress
6.11 Suggested Readings

UNIT-VII RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY 155-178

7.1. Introduction
7.2. Aims and Objectives
7.3. Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology
(CAPART)
7.4. National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD)
7.5 National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD)
7.6 Regional Rural Banking (RRB)
7.7 District Rural Development Agency ( DRDA )
7.8 Statistics related to Rural Development
7.9 Training of PRIs Functionaries
7.10 Let Us Sum Up
7.11 Unit- End- Exercises
7.12 Answer to check your Progress
7.13 Suggested Readings

UNIT - VIII SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 179-212

8.1. Introduction
8.2. Aims and Objectives
8.3. Social Development
8.3.1 Definition
8.3.2 Approaches
8.3.3 Indicators
8.4. Social Development in India
8.4.1 Historical and Social Context of India
8.4.2 Pre and post Independence Period
8.4.3 Government Measures and Five Year Plans in India
8.5 Development Sectors –
8.5.1 Agriculture
8.5.2 Cooperation
8.5.3 Education
8.5.4 Health
8.6 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 Unit- End- Exercises
8.8 Answer to check your Progress
8.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT IX AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 213-249

9.1. Introduction
9.2. Objectives
9.3. Agricultural and Rural Development
9.3.1 Share of Agriculture in the National Income
 9.3.2 Agriculture as a Source of livelihood, employment, raw
materials, capital for development and man power
9.4. Agrarian and Land Reforms
9.5 Cooperatives and Rural Development
9.6 Education and Rural Development
9.7 Health and Rural Development
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 Unit- End- Exercises
9.10 Answer to check your Progress
9.11 Suggested Readings

UNIT-X COMMUNICATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 250-286

10.1. Introduction
10.2. Objectives
10.3. Communication and Rural Development
10.3.1 Meaning and Scope of Communication
10.3.2 Channels and Stages of Communication
10.3.3 Methods of Communication
10.3.4 Skills of Communication
10.3.5 Theories and Models of Communication
10.3.6 Barriers of Communication
10.4. Communication and its role in Rural Development
10.5 Satellite Instructional Television Experiments (SITE)
10.6 Use of Mass Media in Communication
10.7 Traditional Local folk media
10.8 Let Us Sum Up
10.9 Unit- End- Exercises
10.10 Answer to check your Progress
10.11Suggested Readings

UNIT-XI COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION 287-296

11.1. Introduction
11.2. Objectives
11.3. Community Participation
11.3.1 Meaning of Community Participation
11.3.2 Elements Community Participation
11.3.3 Principles and obstacles in Community Participation
11.4. Participatory Communication
11.4.1 Concept and Methods of Participatory Communication
11.4.2 Use of Communication for Community Participation
11.5 Participatory Communication for Rural Development
11.6 Let Us Sum Up
11.7 Unit- End- Exercises
11.8 Answer to check your Progress
11.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT XII RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 297-312

12.1. Introduction
12.2. Objectives
12.3. Rural Development Programme
12.3.1 Drought prone Area Programme (DADP)
12.3.2 Hill area Development Programme (HADP)
12.3.3 Tribal Area Development Programme (TADP)
12.3.4 Command Area Development Programme (CADP)
 12.3.5 Desert Development Programme (DDP)
12.3.6 Watershed Development Programme (WDP)
12.3.7 Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP)
12.4. High yield variety Programme
12.5 Hariyali
12.6 MP’s Area Development Programme
12.7 MLA’s Area Development Programme
12.8 Let Us Sum Up
12.9 Unit- End- Exercises
12.10 Answer to check your Progress
12.11 Suggested Readings

UNIT-XIII TARGET BASED PROGRAMMES 313-325

13.1. Introduction
13.2. Objectives
13.3. Target Programmes
13.3.1 IRDP
13.3.2 TRYSEM
13.3.3 NREP
13.3.4 RLEGP
13.3.5 JRY
13.3.6 Indira Awaas Yozana
13.3.7 Millions wells scheme
13.3.8 Swarna Jayanthi Grama Swarajgar Yojana (SJGSY)
13.3.9 Employment Assurance Scheme
13.4. Employment guaranty legislation
1.4.1 Salient features
13.5 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme.
13.6 Let Us Sum Up
13.7 Unit- End- Exercises
13.8 Answer to check your Progress
13.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT XIV – WELFARE PROGRAMMES 326-347

14.1. Introduction
14.2. Objectives
14.3. Welfare Programmes
14.3.1 Minimum needs programme
14.3.2 Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
14.3.3 Integrated child development scheme (ICDS)
14.3.4 Tamil Nadu integrated nutrition programme (TNINP)
14.3.5 Antyodaya Programme
14.3.6 Annapoorana Scheme
14.3.7 Programme of rural health and total sanitation
14.4. Five year plans and strategies for rural development
14.4.1 Role of social workers
14.4.2 Provision of urban infrastructure in rural areas (PURA)
14.5 Role of voluntary organization in rural community development,
problems and limitations.
14.6 Let Us Sum Up
14.7 Unit- End- Exercises
14.8 Answer to check your Progress
14.9 Suggested Readings
UNIT I – RURAL COMMUNITY Rural Community

NOTES
Structure
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Rural Community
1.3.1 Meaning of Rural Community
1.3.2 Definition of Rural Community
1.3.3 Characteristics of Rural Community
1.4. Types of Villages
1.5 Scope Studying Rural Community
1.6 Rural Community Relation to Social Work
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit- End- Exercises
1.9 Answer to check your Progress
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Rural community is a simple community of primary elations with low
population based primarily on agricultural life. In rural life, where the
family is relatively dominant and self contained, a group responsibility
prevails. The status of the individual is likely to be the status of his
family. Property is likely to be thought of as a family possession. The
dominance of the family explains, in large measure, why social control
in the rural community is exercised with minimum of formality and a
maximum command. The group mores, reflecting a commonly shared
system of values, are themselves effective as social pressure, in little need
of support from specialized agencies.
Difference between Society and Community

You have read about society and community in Block 1, Unit 1. Society is
defined in simple terms as an organization of member agents. The
outstanding feature of society is a system – a system of social relationships
between individuals. The importance of society lies in the fact that it
controls and regulates the behavior of the individual both by law and
customs. It can exert pressure on the individual to confirm to norms. A
Community is a social group determined by geographical boundaries and/or Self-Instructional Material

1
 Rural Community common values and interests. Its members know and interact with each
NOTES other. It functions within a particular social structure and exhibits and
creates certain norms and values, and social institutions.

Village Community in India

The village community consists of a group of related or unrelated persons

larger than single family, occupying a large house or a number of dwellings
placed close together, sometimes irregularly, sometimes in a street and
cultivating originally in common a number of arable lands, dividing in the
available meadowland between them and pasturing their cattle on the
surrounding wasteland over which the community claims rights as far as the
boundaries of adjacent communities.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through the unit you will be able to;

 Understand the meaning of Rural Community
 Gain the knowledge about characteristics of rural community
 understand the types of villages
 Identify the scope of studying the rural community
 gain the knowledge about the rural community relation to
social work.

1.3 RURAL COMMUNITY

Rural community is considered as one of the primordial organizations of
mankind. Hence, Rural Sociology is chiefly concerned with the origin,
nature, characteristics, social attributes and human ecology of rural
community. It also studies the homogenous trajectory of the rigid and
conservative nature of hither to existing customs, traditions, folkways,
mores, norms, values and so on in rural community.

1.3.1 RURAL COMMUNITY: MEANING

Rural Community is a field of sociology that is connected with the study of
social life in rural areas. It is an active field in much of the world, and in the
United States originated in the 1910s with close ties to the national
Department of Agriculture and land-grant university colleges of agriculture.
The sociology of food and agriculture is one focus of rural sociology and
Self-Instructional Material
2
much of the field is dedicated to the economics of farm production. Other Rural Community

areas of study include rural migration and other demographic patterns, NOTES

environmental sociology, amenity-led development, public lands policies,

so-called "boomtown" development, social disruption, the sociology of
natural resources (including forests, mining, fishing and other areas), rural
cultures and identities, rural healthcare and educational policies. Many rural
sociologists work in the areas of development studies, community studies,
community development and in environmental. Much of the research
involves the Third World.
Rural Community as indicated by its name, studies rural society,
rural social structures and institutions. The rural society is primarily
dependent on agriculture and hence rural sociology also concerns itself on
the peasant society. Rural sociology is centered on the rural community life.
There is a stark difference between the social structure, processes, social
dynamics and social control in rural society. Hence, there is a difference
between studying urban society and rural society, rural sociology studies the
latter. Thus, rural sociology has been specially designed to study the rural
phenomena and it is a systematic study of the varied aspects of the rural
society. It is the study of the rural social networks and how they operate for
the smooth functioning of the society. The rural society is generally rooted
in the villages, and rural sociology studies the facets of the villages, the way
it functions, the various problems it faces and the how it tackles to face the
imminent challenges. Rural sociology offers viable solutions and ways of
mitigating the problems that hound over the villages.
1.3.2 DEFINITION OF RURAL COMMUNITY:
1. According to Sanderson, “Rural community is the sociology of
rural life in the rural environment”.
2. Bertand says, “Rural community is that study of human
relationships in rural environment”.
3. T.L. Smith, “Such sociological facts and principles as are derived
from the study of rural social relationships may be referred to as rural
sociology”.

Self-Instructional Material

3
 Rural Community 4. F.S Chapin, “The sociology of rural life is a study of rural
NOTES population, rural social organization, and the rural social processes operative
in rural society”.
5. A.R Desai defines rural community, “the science of rural
society….It is the science of laws of the development of rural society”.

The above definitions clearly justify that rural sociology studies the
social interactions, institutions and activities and social changes that take
place in the rural society. It studies the rural social organizations, structure
and set up. In other words, it can be said that rural sociology acts as a
reflection of the rural social life and provides the norms and values that
govern the rural society. It provides a clear picture of the rural population
and the difference they possess from the urban population.
Emergence of Rural Sociology:
During the beginning of the 1950s, the sociologists and the social
anthropologists began conducting extensive and innumerable studies in the
field of rural sociology. The major concern of these studies was the scrutiny
of the interrelationships between various dimensions of the rural
organization. The field of rural sociology was enriched with the
contributions by
M.N.Srinivas (1960), McKim Marriott (1955), S.C.Dube (1955) and
D.N.Majumdar (1955). The birth of rural sociology was due to the
requirement of the study of different conditions and aspects of rural life and
the prevailing problems that plagues the rural society. Earlier, many social
sciences have strived to provide viable solutions for the challenges found in
the rural society but have not been able to provide viable solutions to them.
In order to provide a discipline for serious and focused study of the rural
society, rural sociology was born. According to Charles R.Hoffer, “Like all
sciences, Rural Sociology developed in response to a need. It is an
elementary fact in the realm of scientific thought that a new science comes
into existence whenever phenomena confronting the human mind are not, or
cannot be understood satisfactorily by the existing disciplines or sciences”.
Though rural society exists since a long long time, but rural sociology had
then not emerged due the static and unchanged nature of the rural social life.

Self-Instructional Material
In recent years, the components of dynamism and change have escalated the
4
capability to comprehend the complex problems of life. During the 18th Rural Community

century, there was a major shift in the scientific inventions and discoveries NOTES

that helped in transforming human thinking and life. The exponential growth
of industrialization and urbanization caused issues such as slums and
overcrowding in the cities. Such grave concerns diverted the attention
towards the villages and the migrating population. Rural people faced a lot
of challenges and difficulties. Eventually, the streams of thought by the
thinkers focused on issues such as poverty, unemployment, health and
hygiene, education and disorganization etc.
1.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL COMMUNITY

Reddy (1985) has stated the following as the characteristic of Indian

Rural Society.
1. The village is the unit of the rural society. Its people carry on the
business of living together within a distinctive framework of caste and social
custom. Caste is a dominant social institution permeating social and
economic relations. Traditional caste occupation mostly prevails. Co-
operative labour of different castes is required not only for agro-economic
activities but also for socio-religious life. The large villages have within its
population all the occupational castes, have a comparatively more integrated
and self sufficient economic as well as socio-religious life than smaller
villages.
2. The village as a social and cultural unit possesses a basically
uniform organization and structure of values all over India. Many problems
are common to the entire Indian country side.
3. The ethnic, linguistic, religious and caste composition of a village
largely determine its character and structure. Some villages of hamlets are
inhabited almost exclusively by certain castes as in the case of Agraharams
for Brahmins. Even in a village with mixed population the different castes
usually live in different sections of the same village. Inter caste rivalries are
present.
4. Women do not have full equality with men in several aspects of
life.
5. Indian rural society is predominantly based on agriculture.
Possession of land carries with it social and prestige value, besides being
Self-Instructional Material

5
 Rural Community considered as an economic asset. In many villages, the land is mostly
NOTES distributed between two or more castes, or among a few families, or between
one big land owner and the rest of the community. Landless labourers and
tenants constitute a considerable part of the population depending on
agriculture.
6. Every village has its own organisational set up, authority and
sanctions. It has its growing body, the panchayat, based on local tradition
since long, but now constituted on a regular basis according to provisions of
Panchayat Raj.
7. Social distance or isolation has a bearing on the nature of the
organisation of a village and of its view on the world. Availability of or
nearness to modern means of transport or communications also modifies the
setting and fabric of a village.

Check your progress -1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Define Rural Community?
2. Write any two Characteristics of Rural Community

1.4 Types of Villages

This section throws light upon the four categories in the classification of
villages.
I. On the Basis of Structure:

Structurally villages in India can be divided into following types:

Types of Village

1. The Nucleated Village

This is a common pattern of settlement mostly discernible in paddy growing

areas. In this type of village, homes of farmers and artisans are clustered
together.
Self-Instructional Material
6
Their land is located outside the village at varying distance. Their livestock Rural Community
are often housed along with them or nearby them. NOTES

These types of villages are characterized by residential proximity,

neighborhood, community feeling etc.

2. The Linear Village

In this type of village, houses are built on parallel rows. Each house is
surrounded by small gardens. The paddy fields are at a distance from the
house. This pattern of settlement unites the social advantage of residential
closeness and economic advantages of living on one’s land.

3. Dispersed Village

The village in which the dwelling places of the village lay scattered or
diffused is called a dispersed village. These villages have no definite
structure or shape. This type of village is found in hilly areas.

4. The Mixed Village

It is the mixer of nucleated and dispersed pattern of settlement. In this type

of village settlement, there is a larger compact settlement of houses which is
surrounded by a few small hamlets at a distance. This type of settlement can
be seen both in plain as well as hilly areas.

II. On the Basis of Residence

Basis of Residence

1. Migratory Village

Here, people live for few months or for as season. They collect their rood
from natural resources. But when the food supply from that place is
lessened, then they shift to another I place where they can find adequate
amount of food. For example, J we find this type of village among the tribal
society i.e. shifting cultivation.

2. Semi-permanent Agricultural Village

In semi- permanent agricultural villages, people reside for few years at a

particular” place and migrate to another place due to the exhaustion of the
Self-Instructional Material

7
 Rural Community productivity of land. The duration of residence is more as compared to
migratory type of villages.
NOTES

In this type of village, people keep animals like cow and goat but do not
cultivate the land for agriculture. They burn down the small trees and bushes
and sow seed over the earth which gives them some crop after rainfall.
When the people find that land is not yielding required amount of food
grains, they leave the place’ for another new settlement.

3. Permanent Agricultural Village

In permanent agricultural village, people live permanently for generation to

generation. They develop village organizations and social relations within
their own village. Generally, they do not change their living place and place
of cultivation. Here, in this villages, permanent households are created.

III. On the Basis of Organization

Basis of Land Ownership

1. Co-operative Villages

In this type of village, land is owned individually and people pull their
resources together for common cultivation and farming. Generally, co-
operative houses are organised to supply them their necessary commodities.
Co-operative villages are also seen in India.

2. Semi-Collective Village

In such villages, land belong to the collective body. All means of production
and resources are owned collectively. The people work together for
production of food grains and other essential goods. For their consumption,
they get their monthly or annual dues fixed according to the income of the
village.

The income of villagers is not associated with the number of hours worked
by members of a particular family. The families received their quota
according to the numerical strength of the family.

Self-Instructional Material
8
3. Collective Villages Rural Community

NOTES
In this type of village, the villagers live in a communal settlement where all
property is collectively owned and all the arrangements are done on a
collective basis. Members of the village only render their labour to the
common pool and get all the necessaries of life like food, clothing, housing,
education etc.

There is common dining hall, common store and Communal Kinder Garden
in the village. The Old and disabled persons are also maintained from the
common fund. As a whole, such type of village gives full security for the
whole life of a person, his children and dependents.

IV. On the Basis of Land Ownership:

Basis of Land Ownership

1. Land-Lord Villages:

In such villages, land is owned by individual family or a few number of

families known as land-lords. The land-lords possess all the rights over the
land but give the land to the tenants. The land-lords also impose rent on the
land which tenants usually pay.

Land lords give certain percentage of rent to the king or government and
keep a good percentage for themselves. Such type of villages existed in
India before the abolition of intermediaries in agricultural sector.

2. Ryotwari Villages:

In ryotwari villages, farmers are the owners of the land and they cultivate it.
They directly pay the rent to the government without any intermediary. Such
villages are known as ryotwari villages where land is owned by Ryots or
Cultivators.

Check your progress -2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
3. List out the Linear Villages?
4. Write notes on Permenant Agriculture Village?
Self-Instructional Material

9
 Rural Community

NOTES
1.5 SCOPE OF RURAL COMMUNITY
Rural community is comparatively a new branch of sociology. It is a science
with its own characteristics standpoint and methods. Therefore, its scope
should be clarified to distinguish it from other social sciences. In the words
of N.L.Sims, “The field of rural community is the study of association
among people living by or immediately depends upon agriculture. Open
country and village groupings and groups behavior are its concern.”
According to Lowry Nelson

“The subject matter of rural community is the description and analysis of

progress of various groups as they exist in the rural environment.”

Thus the scope of rural community includes the study of all the social
groups in the village. In the words of Burtrand and associates, “in its
broadest definition rural community is the study of human relationship in
rural environment” thus, the scope of rural community includes all the social
relationships in rural environments.

An analysis of the scope of rural community leads to the study of the

following

Rural Problems: The subject matter of rural sociology includes the

problems of rural life, such as social, economic, political and cultural
problems. These problems are studied in isolation as well as in relation to
each other. In the former sense each problem is analyst separately and effort
is made to arrive at some conclusion for its remedy. For the second
viewpoint all the rural problems are taken as different aspects of one single
problem. Sometimes this viewpoint leads to confusion since the problems
are entangled into each other, therefore, in the integral standpoint towards
rural social problems, it is necessary to remember similarities as well as
distinctions. Some problems cannot be solved unless studied separately such
as the rural problems of poverty, illiteracy, disease, low standard of life,
inadequate housing, lack or recreation, traditionalism, religious superstition
etc.

Rural Social Life: Smith has rightly called rural sociology as the sociology
of rural life. It aims at the study of rural social life. Rural social life includes
rural people, rural population, rural environment, rural standard of living,
rural vocations and rural economic conditions. Thus, rural sociology studies
both enacted and developed rural social organizations.

Rural Social Organization: The most important function of rural sociology

is to provide knowledge concerning rural family organization. Rural social
organization includes rural family, rural marriage, rural social stratification,
rural education, rural administrative system, rural religious and cultural
Self-Instructional Material
10
institutions and rural division of labor etc. thus; rural sociology studies both Rural Community
enacted and developed rural social organizations. NOTES

Rural Institutions: Rural sociology includes the study of rural institution.

Institutions are procedures of activities which are developed to fulfill a
certain aim. Such institutions may be economic, political, social, religious or
cultural. Rural sociology studies all these types of institutions in the context
of rural society.

Rural Community: In the words of Sanderson “A rural community consists

of the social interaction of the people and their institutions in the local area
in which, they live in dispersed farm-steads and in a hamlet or village which
forms the center of their common activities”. Thus rural community includes
all the general activities or rural people. Rural sociology studies the
characteristics, forms and activities or rural community.

Rural Social Structure: Social structure is the most important basis of

social life therefore; rural social structure is the most important element in
the scope of rural sociology. Thus, the rural sociologists concentrate on the
analysis and the study of rural social structure.

Rural Urban Contrast: As has been already pointed out, the village and
city present two contrasting modes of community life. Rural sociology
studies this rural urban contrast. In other words, it studies the fundamental
distinctions between rural and urban culture and also their relationship.

From the above discussion it is clear that rural sociology study with
rural society under natural circumstances and conditions. It pay special
attention to structural and functional aspects of village organization, family
organization, class and caste structure, folk, art, dance and literature, folk
culture and customs and traditions.

Check your progress -3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
4. Write the brief notes on Rural Social Life?
5. Write notes on Rural Community?
1.6 RURAL COMMUNITY IN RELATION TO SOCIAL
WORK
The main argument of this section is that, when practicing social work with
local communities in developing countries, it is often necessary to facilitate
political engagement in the process of addressing community needs and
issues, and it is important to alter the common ideological position that
social work is non-political and non-religious in practice, while focusing
instead on the fundamental principles of human rights and social justice. To
substantiate this argument, the article clarifies basic concepts relevant to the Self-Instructional Material

11
 Rural Community article; discusses some features of social work education and practice and
NOTES the neglect of local communities; drawing on secondary data and the
author’s observations, analyzes trends in community practice in developing
countries; and shows that professional social work has largely neglected
local communities. Furthermore, it presents five imperatives why social
workers should engage politically in local communities in seeking to
improve community conditions and people’s well-being.
Basic Concepts It is important to clarify a few basic concepts, such
as social work practice, local communities, community power structure, and
political engagement, for the purpose of this article. Social work practice
includes all those micro- to macro-level activities (Hugman, 2009) that
emanate from the internationally accepted social work definition that reads
as follows:
The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in
human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to
enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social
systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their
environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental
to social work. (International Association of Schools of Social Work
[IASSW] & International Federation of Social Workers [IFSW], 2004)

The word “local” in local-level communities does not carry any one specific
connotation. Uphoff (1986) saw it as signifying any or all of the following:
locality (a set of interrelated communities), community (a relatively self-
contained socioeconomic-residential unit), or group (a self-identified set of
persons with a common interest). In general terms, social work practice with
local communities is practice that takes place at the local level and is ideally
initiated by the local level. It may be referred to as community practice
encompassing the essential processes of community organizing, social
planning, community development and advocacy, and progressive social
change work (Weil, 2013). It is not essentially or ideally action that occurs
at the local level as a result or flow of central-level planning and decision
making (United Nations Centre for Regional Development, 1988). It
involves enabling local people and communities through their community
Self-Instructional Material
12
structures to assume responsibility for improving their social and economic Rural Community

conditions (Midgley, 1992; Pawar & Cox, 2010a). Community power NOTES

structure connotes the distribution and concentration of, and control over
social, economic, political, cultural (including religion and education) power
and resources in local communities, and peoples’ linkages to such power and
resources within and beyond the local community. Generally, the poor,
marginalized, and disadvantaged people and groups are excluded from,
and/or exploited/oppressed by, such structures. Political engagement is not
merely limited to voting and membership of organizations and associations,
but includes mobilization and authentic participation of local communities,
particularly the excluded and/or exploited/oppressed groups, to organize
themselves to create pressure, lobby, confront oppressive structures, make
decisions, and work with governance systems to improve communities and
their conditions, and quality of life.

1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed rural realities and develop
sensitivity and commitment for working with rural communities, and
also impart knowledge about the governmental and voluntary efforts
towards rural community development, equip students with specific
skills and techniques of working with rural communities.
1.8 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Define Rural Community?
2. Write any two Characteristics of Rural Community?
3. List out the Type of Villages?
4. Write notes on Permanent Agriculture Village?
5. Write the brief notes on Rural Social Life?
6. Write notes on Rural Community?
1.9 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Bertand says, “Rural community is that study of human relationships
in rural environment”.
2. The village as a social and cultural unit possesses a basically uniform
organization and structure of values all over India. Many problems
are common to the entire Indian country side.
3. In this type of village, houses are built on parallel rows. Each house
is surrounded by small gardens. The paddy fields are at a distance
from the house. This pattern of settlement unites the social advantage
of residential closeness and economic advantages of living on one’s
land.

Self-Instructional Material

13
 Rural Community 4. In permanent agricultural village, people live permanently for
generation to generation. They develop village organizations and
NOTES
social relations within their own village. Generally, they do not
change their living place and place of cultivation. Here, in these
villages, permanent households are created.
5. Rural Social Life: Smith has rightly called rural sociology as the
sociology of rural life. It aims at the study of rural social life. Rural
social life includes rural people, rural population, rural environment,
rural standard of living, rural vocations and rural economic
conditions. Thus, rural sociology studies both enacted and developed
rural social organizations.
6. Rural Community: In the words of Sanderson “A rural community
consists of the social interaction of the people and their institutions in
the local area in which, they live in dispersed farm-steads and in a
hamlet or village which forms the center of their common activities”.
Thus rural community includes all the general activities or rural
people. Rural sociology studies the characteristics, forms and
activities or rural community.
1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Gadgil V. K. (1974) in “Report of Minimum needs and effective remands”,
New Delhi, Govt. of India, Planning Commission.
2. Ojha P.D. (1970), “A configuration of Indian Poverty,” RBI Bulletin,
January. Burdhan P. K. (1970), On the incidence of Poverty in the rural
India in the Sixties.
3. Dandekar and Rath (1971), “Poverty in India”, Economic and Political
Weekly, Jan. 2 & 9.
4. Ojha P.D. (1970), “A configuration of Indian Poverty”, RBI Bulletin,
January.Dandekar and Rath (1971), “Poverty in India”, Economic and
Political Weekly, Jan. 2 & 9.
5. Minhas B. S. (1970), “Rural Poverty Land Distribution and Development”,
Indian Economic Review, V.5
6. Mukherjee (1971), “Rural Poverty and the Minimum level of living a
reply”. Indian Economic Review, V.6 & 7.
7. Lipton M (1988) “Poverty Concepts thresholds and Equity concepts”,
International Food Policy Research Institute, Mimeo.
8. Harriss (1980) “Income Inequality and Poverty, Methods of Estimation and
Policy Application”, Oxford University Press, New York.
9. Das (1980), “Inter sectoral Disparities and Income Distribution in India”
1960-61 to 1973-74, Indian Economic Review, V. 15 No.2.

Self-Instructional Material
14
 Rural Community

UNIT II – RURAL SOCIAL NOTES

STRUCTURE AND CONSTRAINTS TO

RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Nature of Rural Social Structure
2.2.1 Social Structure
2.2.2 Rural Social Structure in India
2.3 Family and Kinship
2.3.1 Family in Rural India
2.3.2 Changes in Family
2.3.3 Lineage and Kinship
2.4 Caste Groups
2.4.1 Caste
2.4.2 Sub-caste
2.4.3 Changes in the Caste System
2.5 Agrarian Class Structure
2.6 The Village
2.6.1 The Issue of Village Autonomy
2.6.2 The Jajmani System
2.6.3 Changes in the Village Power Structure and Leadership
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Keywords
2.9 Further Reading
2.10 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the time you finish reading this unit you should be able to
z identify various elements of rural social Structure in India, in
particular the family, caste, class and village describe the
characteristic features of these four elements of rural social structure
z state and explain the important changes in the family and the caste
system
z Describe the nature of the village community in India and explain the
changes therein.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit 1 on Unity and Diversity, you learnt about the cross-cutting
networks of uniformity and diversity of races, castes, religions and
languages etc. You will note that as the knowledge of this aspect is crucial
to study Indian society, we discuss it through all the units of ESO-12.
Self-Instructional Material

15
 Rural Community Unit 2 on Rural Social Structures deals with the major element of diversity
NOTES
of social life in India. Rural way of living is the dominant pattern of social
life in developing countries like India in contrast to the predominant urban
style in the developed countries. Social scientists, especially sociologists
and social anthropologists, have made important contributions to the
understanding of rural social structure.

In section 2.2 of this unit, our first effort is to understand the concept of
social structure and then relate it to rural social structure in India. The
specific components of rural social structure in India have been identified
as family, kinship, caste, class and village. Further, in section 2.3,
important features of family and kinship in India have been described and
the nature of emerging changes in family discussed. Section 2.4 deals with
the important characteristics of the caste system against the backdrop of the
varna model of society. The pattern of change in the caste system has been
taken note of. In section 2.5, the character of agrarian classes during the
colonial and post-colonial period has been discussed. Section 2.6 examines
the exaggerated notion of village autonomy. Moreover, ‘jajmani’ system,
which is an important social institution, has been discussed. In addition, we
have tried to discern the pattern of changes in the nature of power structure
and leadership in villages in India. Lastly, section 2.7 gives a summary of
this unit.
2.2 THE NATURE OF RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE
In order to gain an understanding of rural social structure, we first clarify
what we mean by social structure. Then we relate this understanding of the
concept to ethnographic description of society in the rural areas of India.

2.2.1 Social Structure

Human world is composed of individuals. Individuals interact with one
another for the fulfillment of their needs. In this process, they occupy
certain status and roles in social life with accompanying rights and
obligations. Their social behaviour is patterned and gets associated with
certain norms and values, which provide them guidance in social
interaction. There emerge various social units, such as groups, community,
associations and institutions in society as a product of social intercourse in
human life.

In this scenario, social structure is conceived as the pattern of inter-related

statuses and roles found in a society, constituting a relatively stable set of
social relations. It is the organised pattern of the inter-related rights and
obligations of persons and groups in a system of interaction.

2.2.2 Rural Social Structure in India

India is a country of ancient civilisation that goes back to the Indus Valley
Civilisation, which flourished during the third millennium B.C. Since then
except for a brief interlude during the Rig -Vedic period (Circa 1500-1000

Self-Instructional Material

16
B.C.) when the urban centres were overrun, rural and urban centres have Rural Community
co-existed in India. NOTES

Rural and urban centres share some common facets of life. They show
interdependence especially in the sphere of economy, urbanward
migration, and townsmen or city dwellers‘ dependence on villages for
various products (e.g., foodgrains, milk, vegetables, raw materials for
industry) and increasing dependence of villagers on towns for
manufactured goods and market. Despite this interdependence between
the two there are certain distinctive features which separate them from
each other in terms of their size, demographic composition, cultural
moorings, style of life, economy, employment and social relations.

Rural people live in settled villages. Three main types of settlement

patterns have been observed in rural areas:

i) The most common type is the nucleated village found all over the
country. Here, a tight cluster of houses is surrounded by the fields of
the villagers as shown in figure 2.1. An outlying hamlet or several
satellite hamlets are also found to be attached to some villages in
this case.

Fig. 2.1: Nucleated type of settlement pattern

ii) Secondly, there are linear settlements in some parts of the country,
e.g. in Kerala, in Konkan and in the delta lands of Bengal. In such
settlements, houses are strung out, each surrounded by its own
compound. However, there is little to physically demarcate where
one village ends and another begins.

iii) The third type of settlement is simply a scattering of homesteads or

clusters of two or three houses. In this case also physical Self-Instructional Material

17
 Rural Community demarcation of villages is not clear. Such settlements are found in
NOTES
hill areas, in the Himalayan foothills, in the highlands of Gujarat and
in the Satpura range of Maharashtra.

Further, we find that the size of village population is small and density of
population low in comparison with towns and cities. India is rightly
called a country of villages. According to 1981 Census, there were 4029
towns and 5,57,137 inhabited villages in the country. By the year 1991
this number increased to 4689 towns and 5,80,781 villages. According to
2001 census there are 5161 towns and 6,38,365 villages (including
uninhabited villages) in India (Census of India (provisional), 2001).
Moreover, as per 2001 census figures about 72 percent of the total
population live in villages. Further, rural life is characterised by direct
relationship of people to nature i.e., land, animal and plant life.
Agriculture is their main occupation. For example, in India agriculture
provides livelihood to about 58 percent of the labour force.

Long enduring rural social institutions in India continue to be family,

kinship, caste, class, and village. They have millennia old historical roots
and structures. They encompass the entire field of life: social, economic,
political and cultural-of the rural people. The complexity of social norms
and values, statuses and roles, rights and obligations is reflected in them.
Therefore, now we will discuss them separately in the subsequent sections.

Check Your Progress 1

i) Define, in four lines, the concept of social structure.

ii) According to the 2001 census, how many villages are there in
India? Use one line for your answer.

iii) How many types of settlement patterns are there in rural areas?
Describe one of them in about four lines.

2.3 FAMILYAND KINSHIP

Family is the basic unit of almost all societies. It is especially true in
India where the very identity of a person is dependent on the status and
position of his or her family and its social status.

2.3.1 Family in Rural India

Family is one of the most important social institutions which constitute

the rural society. It caters to needs and performs functions, which are
essential for the continuity, integration and change in the social system,
such as, reproduction, production and socialization.

Broadly speaking there are two types of family: (a) nuclear family
consisting of husband, wife and unmarried children, and (b) joint or
Self-Instructional Material

18
extended family comprising a few more kins than the nuclear type. Rural Community
Impotant dimensions of NOTES

‘jointness’ of family are coresidentiality, commensality, coparcenary,

generation depth (three), and fulfillment of obligation towards kin and
sentimental aspect. Coresidentiality means that members of a family live
under the same roof. Commensality implies that they eat together i.e.,
have a common kitchen. Coparcenary means that they have joint
ownership of property. Further, generation depth encompasses three
generations or more, i.e., grandfather, father and the son or more.
Members of the family also have obligations toward their kin. Moreover,
they have a sentimental attachment to the ideal of joint family.

Rural family works as the unit of economic, cultural, religious,

and political activities. Collectivity of the family is emphasized in social
life, and feelings of individualism and personal freedom are very limited.
Marriage is considered an inter-familial matter rather than an inter-
personal affair. It is governed by rules of kinship, which are discussed in
sub-section 2.3.3 of this unit.

2.3.2 CHANGES IN FAMILY

Traditional joint family occupied a predominant position in rural areas in
India. It was largely prevalent among the landed gentry and priestly
caste. But nuclear family also existed in India. Lower caste families
whose main occupation was agricultural labour were mostly nuclear.
However, they appreciated the ideal of joint family.

Various studies have been conducted to diagnose the change taking place
in family in India with increasing industrialisation and urbanisation,
changes in economy, technology, politics, education and law in modern
times. There are two approaches. The first assumes that the family
structure in India has undergone the process of unilinear change from the
joint to nuclear form as in the West.

Secondly, I.P.Desai (1964), S.C. Dube (1955), T.N.Madan (1965), and

others argue that it is necessary to observe family as a process. They
adopt developmental cycle approach to understand changes in the family
structure in India. They advocate that the presence of nuclear family
households should be viewed as units, which will be growing into joint
families when the sons grow up and marry. The ‗developmental cycle‘
approach implies that a family structure keeps expanding, with birth and
marriage, and depleting with death and partition in a cyclical order
during a period of time.

Further, empirical studies show inter-regional and intra-regional

variations in the distribution of family types. This is evident from the
study by Pauline Kolenda (1967) who has made a comparative study of Self-Instructional Material

19
 Rural Community family structures in thirteen regions of India on the basis of 32
NOTES
publications. In Uttar Pradesh, among the Thakurs of Senapur, joint
families constitute 74.4 percent and nuclear families only 25.5 percent;
but untouchables have 34 percent joint families and 66 percent nuclear
families. In the hilly region of the state of Uttar Pradesh in Sirkanda
village, where most of the population is that of Rajputs, the joint families
comprise only 39 percent and there are 61 percent nuclear families. In
Maharashtra, Badlapur village has 14 percent joint and 86 percent
nuclear families. In Andhra Pradesh, in Shamirpet village the proportion
of joint families is 18.5 percent and that of nuclear is 81.5 percent. Table
2.1 shows a summarisation of these figures.

Table 2.1: Inter-regional and Intra-regional variations in the

distributions of family types

State/Region Village Percent of Families

Joint Nuclear

U.P. (Plains) Senapur (Thakur) 74.5 25.5

― (Hills) (Lower Caste) 34 66

Sirkanda (Rajput) 39 61
Maharashtra Badalpur 14 86
Andhra Pradesh Shamirpet 18.5 81.5
(Telangana)

Here, Kolenda has made a few generalisations. She observes that between
regions, the rural areas of the Gangetic plains have higher proportion of
joint families than those in the Central India, Maharashtra, Andhra and
Tamil Nadu. In the Gangetic plains itself, joint families are more common
among the Rajputs and nuclear families predominate among the lower
castes. For further details on the joint and the nuclear family see unit 6 of
Block 2 of this course.

It has been observed that with the changes in the larger society, the
structure and function of joint family in India are undergoing a
reconciliatory pattern of change. The traditional world-view of the joint
family still prevails.

Self-Instructional Material

20
 Activity 1 Describe various stages of your own family in terms of its Rural Community
developmental cycle. Start with the stage when you were born and its
NOTES
development in terms of family it has so far had.

2.3.3 Lineage and Kinship

Within the village, a group of families tracing descent from a common
ancestor with knowledge of all the links constitute a lineage; and the
children of the same generation behave as brothers and sisters. They form a
unit for celebrating major ritual events. Sometimes the word Kul is used to
describe these units. Usually these families live in closeness and a guest of
one (e.g. a son-in-law) could be treated as such in all these families. These
bonds of families may go back to 3 to 7 generations. People do not marry
within this group. Beyond the known links, there are further connections ?
people know the common ancestor but are unable to trace every link. Such
families use a more generic term like being “bhai-bandh” of one another.
They are also exogamous. The word Gotra or clan may be used for them.

Adrian Mayer (1960) studied a village in Malwa and distinguished

between the kindred of cooperation and kindred of recognition. The
first of these is the smaller unit, where cooperation is offered and taken
without formalities. The second one is a larger unit that comes together on
specific occasions through information and invitation. These relations can
be spread over several

villages for each caste. This is why Mayer studied them within a caste
and its region, a point that we need to remember in order to understand
the spread of a caste/subcaste across villages and towns. This is also
known as horizontal spread of the caste.

With regard to rules of marriage there are some differences

between the north and south India. These have been pointed out in unit 6,
Block 2 of the first elective course in sociology and will be discussed
again in units 8 and 9 of Block 2 of this course. Irawati Karve (1965)
noted these differences. Later, an American anthropologist, David
Mandelbaum, included them in his popular work on Society in India
(1972). He reiterates the position ―broadly put, in the South a family tries
to strengthen existing kin ties through marriage, while in the North a
family tends to affiliate with a separate set of people to whom it is not
already linked‖.

This is witnessed in the prevalence of the rules of village

exogamy and ‘gotra’ exogamy in the North but not in the South. In the
North, nobody is permitted to marry in his/her own village. Marriage
alliances are concluded with the people from other villages belonging to
similar caste. But no such proscriptions exist in the South. Further, in the
North one cannot marry within his/her own gotra. On the contrary, cross
cousin marriage i.e., marriage between the children of brother and sister, Self-Instructional Material

21
 Rural Community is preferred in the South. Thus, there is a centrifugal tendency in North
NOTES
India, i.e., the direction of marriage is outward or away from the group.
In contrast in South India we find a centripetal tendency in making
marriage alliances and building kinship ties. In other words, marriages
take place inwardly or within the group.

Check Your Progress 2

i) List some of the important dimensions of ―jointness‖ of a family.
Use about four lines.
ii) Define, in four lines, the concept of lineage.
iii) What is meant by the ‗developmental cycle‘ approach to family in
India? Describe it in about four lines.

2.4 CASTE GROUPS

So far we have learnt about smaller units of social structure, groups within
which marriage is avoided by tradition. These groups can be called
exogamous (‗gamy‘ refers to marriage, and ‗exo‘ means outside); thus
exogamy is the practice of marrying outside a group. When members of a
group marry within a group, it is called endogamy (endo= within, inside).
Thus, family, lineage and clan are exogamous groups. Sub-castes/castes
are endogamous groups and we turn our attention to these groups.
2.4.1 Caste
People usually marry within the caste or sub-caste. Members of a caste
trace their origin from a common ancestor — historical, mythical or divine.
The properties of that ancestor are worthy of being remembered by people;
and these are well known to such an extent that a mere mention of that
name is enough to recognise the group to which a person belongs. Among
various views on caste in India, according to the context discussed here, we
mention six characteristics of caste, offered by G.S. Ghurye. In his thesis to
Cambridge University on Race and Caste in India, which has been revised
and published several times, G.S. Ghurye (1961) suggested that caste
names could indicate six different possibilities. Brij Raj Chauhan used
these categories to illustrate the situation in his study, A Rajasthan Village,
(1968) as shown in table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Different possibilities for using caste names

Basis Examples
1) Principle profession or crafts Gadaria (shepherd), Nai (barber);
Meghwal (leather worker), Suthar
(carpenter), Dholi (drum beater)
2) Tribal/ethnic Bhil
3) Religious movement Sadhu- (Ramdasi, Kabirpanthi)
Self-Instructional Material
(satnami in other parts)
22
 Rural Community
4) Specific peculiarity or nick names Bhangi, Kalal
NOTES
5) Miscegenation (mixed descent) Daroga

Here, we have identified two characteristics of caste so far: (i) it is an

endogamous group; (ii) it has a common ancestor. As a part of this
arrangement descendents of a common ancestor are divided into two
groups, the smaller exogamous group, and the wider endogamous group.
The first of these groups knows the stages of the links; the second treats it
as given.

There are four other characteristics of caste as identified by Ghurye.

Occupation is in some ways connected with caste, but not to the extent of
prescribing it. Hence Ghurye used the phrase — lack of choice regarding
occupation. It has been known for instance that agriculturists, soldiers and
confectioners have come from different castes. In some ways however,
occupational connection is a ready reference for other groups to identify a
person. Each caste has its own social rules regarding things it can take or
not take, use or not use. These

relate to dress, ornaments, and even place for living. In southern India,
the ecology of the village reflects the caste divisions, the status going
down as one moves from the north-east to the south or south-west. For
example, in his study of a village in Tanjore district of Tamil Nadu,
Beteille (1962) has shown that the Brahman live in an agraharam located
in the north, non-Brahman somewhere in the middle, and at a distance to
the south there is cheri or the colony for the lowest castes.

Some of the activities of the castes relate to the wider social setting
which is based on the principle of ascription, birth determining the
membership of a person and the status of the group. Each group in
certain ways represents a segment of the society, and regulates its affairs.
This has been called the segmental division of society. In case of the
caste-based society as a whole, each group is assigned a particular place
on the social ladder. This arrangement reflects the hierarchy of castes,
and in that sense other writers, like Kingsley Davis, say that the caste
system represents the extreme degree of ‗institutionalized inequality‘ in
the world.

2.4.2 Sub-caste
A sub-caste is considered a smaller unit within a caste. In the village
setting usually we find that there is only one sub-caste living there. A
larger number of sub-castes indicate the late arrivals to a village. Thus
for all practical purposes a sub-caste represents the caste in the village. In
the wider setting of a region, however, we find many sub-castes. One
example from Maharashtra is of kumbhar (potters). There are several
Self-Instructional Material

23
 Rural Community groups among them; those who tap the clay, those who use the large
NOTES
wheel, those who use the small wheel. All the three are endogamous
groups. Should they be called castes or sub-castes? Ghurye favours the
second use, Karve the first one.

Both agree that the groups are endogamous, the difference of

opinion is about origin. If one group broke into three parts — sub-caste
would be a proper usage, and Ghurye thought that was the way things
happened. If the three groups had independent origin then they could be
called castes — and that is how Karve thought things had occurred. She
points out that even linguistic differences exist among the groups and to
the extent physical characteristics could help, they show a variation.

In conclusion it can be said that sub-caste is the smallest endogamous

group and it has some mechanisms like panchayats to regulate the
behaviour of members in the traditional setting. In a village, the
difference between caste and sub-caste does not come to the surface but
in a region, the difference is visible. (The students are advised to study
other units on caste and supplement their readings from them.)

This picture of castes and sub- castes relates to the traditional

setting. New forces of change have begun to affect that picture at several
points. Some of these points may now be looked in the next sub-section.

2.4.3 Changes in the Caste System

Studies by historians and sociologists, namely, Romila Thapar (1979),

BurtonStein (1968), Ramkrishna Mukherjee (1957), A.R. Desai (1987) and
M.N.Srinivas (1969 and 1978) have shown that Indian society was never
static.

The main traditional avenues of social mobility were Sanskritisation,

migration and religious conversion. Lower castes or tribes could move
upward in the caste hierarchy through acquisition of wealth and political
power. They could consequently claim higher caste status along with
Sanskritising their way of life, i.e., emulating the life-style and customs of
higher castes.

Some important changes have taken place in the caste system in rural areas
in the contemporary period due to the new forces of industrialisation,
urbanisation, politicisation, modern education and legal system, land
reforms, development programmes and government policy of positive
discrimination in favour of the lower castes.

Occupational association of caste has marginally changed in rural areas.

Brahmins may still work as priests. In addition, they have taken to
agriculture. Landowning dominant castes belonging to both upper and
middle rung of caste hierarchy generally work as supervisory farmers.
Other non-landowning lower castes, including small and marginal
Self-Instructional Material

24
peasants, work as wage labourers in agriculture. Artisan castes, namely, Rural Community
carpenters and iron-smith continue with their traditional occupations. NOTES
However, migration to urban areas has enabled individuals from all castes
including untouchables to enter into non-traditional occupations in
industry, trade and commerce, and services.

Further, inter-caste marriage is almost non-existent in rural areas. Inter-

caste restrictions on food, drink and smoking continue but to a lesser
degree because of the presence of tea stalls in villages which are patronised
by nearly all castes. The hold of untouchability has lessened. Distinction in
dress has become more a matter of income than caste affiliation. In
traditional India, the upper castes were also upper classes but it is not
absolutely true today because now new occupational opportunities to gain
income have developed in villages. People migrate to cities and bring
money back to their villages. This has changed the traditional social
structure.

Caste has acquired an additional role of operating as interest groups and

associations in politics with the introduction of representative
parliamentary politics. This has been noted by M.N. Srinivas (1982),
Rudolph and Rudolph (1967) and Paul Brass (1965). Various caste
associations have been formed transcending sub-caste boundaries to
articulate caste interests. Moreover, caste has also witnessed growth of
intra-caste factions with differential support to political parties and
personal interest of the factional leaders. Thus, caste has undergone both
the processes of fusion (merging of different castes) and fission (breaking
up of a caste into parts) in the arena of politics.

There is a change in rural power structure in the period since

Independence, which has led to some changes in inter-caste relationship.
The Brahmins have lost their traditional dominance in South India. Kamma
and Reddi in Andhra, Lingayat and Okkaliga in Karnataka, and Ahir, Jat
and Kurmi in North India have emerged as the new dominant castes at
local and regional levels through acquisition of economic and political
power. Some traditional backward castes e.g. Nadar, Vanniyar of Tamil
Nadu and Mahar of Maharashtra also have improved their social status.

In his study of Sripuram village in Tanjore district, Andre Beteille (1971)

noticed the phenomenon of status incongruence. Traditionally, the upper
castes owned land and monopolised political power in the village. But
now, due to various institutional changes, they have lost control in political
affairs to intermediate castes without losing their land to any substantial
extent.

Thus, we find that caste has undergone adaptive changes. Its traditional
basic features, i.e. connubial (matrimonial), commensal (eating together)
and ritual, still prevail in rural areas. The core characteristics of the castes,
which have affected the social relations, are still operative. However the
status quo of the intermediate and low castes has changed due to their
Self-Instructional Material

25
 Rural Community acquiring political and/or economic power. High caste, high class and more
NOTES
power went together in the traditional village setting. This hegemony of the
high castes has given way to differentiation of these statuses in some
regions in India (Beteille 1971 & 1986), so that now high caste does not
necessarily occupy a higher class position or power. It can be shown in a
diagram (figure 2.3) thus:

Table 2.3: Possible changes in caste

positions

Earlier position New Position

a b

Castes High High Medium

Class High Medium High

Power High Low High

(Source: Beteille 1971)

Check Your Progress 3

i) Name the title of the thesis in which G.S. Ghurye has described
the six features of caste system in India. Use one line

......................................................................................................
.....

ii) What are the main features of caste system in India? Use five lines
for your answer.

iii) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences.

a) Exogamy means marriage ……………………… one‘s own group.

b) The members of a caste trace their origin from a common ancestor

who might be historical, (or)

c) In Tamil Nadu villages the Brahmins reside in the area known asto
various

2.5 AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE

So far we have seen how social structure can be described through
institutions based on birth, the family, lineage, sub-caste and caste. An
alternate way of describing the structure is through class and here there are
two views (i) class is a better spring board for describing structure and (ii)
both caste and class are necessary to describe the structure. K.L. Sharma
(1980) elaborates the second position, ―caste incorporates the element of
Self-Instructional Material

26
class and class has a cultural (caste) style, hence the two systems cannot be Rural Community

easily separated even analytically‖. NOTES

In the modern period, the British land revenue system gave rise to a
more or less similar agrarian class structure in villages in India. They were
the three classes of the landowners (zamindars), the tenants and the
agricultural labourers. The landowners (zamindars) were tax gatherers and
non-cultivating owners of land. They belonged to the upper caste groups.
The agricultural labourers were placed in a position of bondsmen and
hereditarily attached labourers. They belonged to the lower caste groups.

The impact of land reforms and rural development programmes

introduced after independence has been significant. Land reforms led to the
eviction of smaller tenants on a large scale. But the intermediate castes of
peasants, e.g., the Ahir, Kurmi etc. in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh benefited.
Power of the feudal landed families started declining all over the country.
The onset of the Green Revolution in the 1960s led to the emergence of
commercially oriented landlords. Rich farmers belonging generally to
upper and intermediate castes prospered. But the fortune of the poor
peasantry and the agricultural labourers did not improve. This has led to
accentuation of class conflicts and tensions. Agrarian unrest in India has
now become a common feature in various parts of the country.

P.C. Joshi (1971) has summarised in the following manner the

trends in the agrarian class structure and relationships. (i) It led to the
decline of feudal and customary types of tenancies. It was replaced by a
more exploitative and insecure lease arrangement. (ii) It gave rise to a new
commercial based rich peasant class who were part owners and part
tenants. They had resource and enterprise to carry out commercial
agriculture. (iii) It led to the decline of feudal landlord class and another
class of commercial farmers emerged for whom agriculture was a business.
They used the non-customary type of tenancy.

The process of social mobility has been seen in two directions. In

his study of six villages in Rajasthan, K.L. Sharma (1980) observed that in
some villages, not only the agricultural labourers but quite a few of the ex-
landlords have slided down in class status, almost getting proletarianised.
Self-Instructional Material

27
 Rural Community On the contrary, the neo-rich peasantry has emerged as the new rural
NOTES bourgeoisie replacing the older landlords. Ramkrishna Mukherjee (1957) in
his work Dynamics of a Rural Society dealt with the changes in the
agrarian structure suggesting that a number of classes (categories) were
reduced, and that small cultivators were becoming landless workers.

Further, Kotovsky (1964) has noted the process of increasing

proletarianisation of the peasantry in villages. According to him, ―with the
agriculture developing along capitalist lines the process of ruination and
proletarianisation of the bulk of the peasantry is growing more intensely all
the time‖. This is substantiated by the fact that in the two decades between
1961 and 1981 the share of cultivators came down from 52.3 percent to
41.5 percent while during the same period the share of agricultural
labourers increased from 17.2 percent to 25.2 percent of the total labour
force. During the two decades the proportion of peasants operating less
than two hectare increased from 40 percent to 55 percent of the total. By
the year 2001 the share of cultivators to the total work force further
declined to 31.7 percent and the share of agricultural labourers became
26.7 percent (Census Report (provisional), 2001). The increase in
proportion (and certainly numbers) of agricultural labourers has gone along
with a general increase in wage labourers in the rural economy.

The process of social mobility and transformation in rural India has been
explained by sociologists by the terms embourgeoisement and
proletarianisation. Embourgeoisement refers to the phenomenon of upward
mobility of the intermediate class peasantry i.e., their emergence as new
landlords. Proletarianisation describes the process of downward mobility,
i.e., depeasantisation of small and marginal peasants and a few landlords
and their entry into the rank of the rural landless agricultural labourers.

Activity 2
If you live in a rural area, describe the changes in the methods of
agriculture, in terms of its mechanisation, in your village. What do you
think why farmers in your village have adopted mechanical devices in
agriculture? Has this practice given them an increased income? Does this
mean that such farmers have also gained in social status in the village?
Self-Instructional Material

28
Or Rural Community

NOTES
If you live in an urban area, read last one week‘s national daily
newspapers, one in English and one in Hindi. Underline the news items
relating to poor peasantry and agricultural labourers. Describe the main
theme of these news items. Compare your notes with other students at your
study centre.

2.6 THE VILLAGE

We now come to the last of the six components of rural social structure.
Here, we discuss the essential nature of Indian villages and mention some
of the changes taking place in village power structure and leadership.

2.6.1 The Issue of Village Autonomy

In the beginning, the studies by Maine (1881), Metcalfe (1833), and
Baden-Powell (1896) gave an exaggerated notion of village autonomy.
The Indian village was portrayed as a ‗closed‘ and ‗isolated‘ system. In a
report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons, Charles
Metcalfe (1833), a British administrator in India, depicted the Indian
village as a monolithic, atomistic and unchanging entity. He observed,
―The village communities are little republics, having nearly everything
that they want within themselves and almost independent of any foreign
relations‖. Further, he stated that wars pass over it, regimes come and go,
but the village as a society always emerges ‗unchanged, unshaken, and
self-sufficient‘.

Recent historical, anthropological and sociological studies have however

shown that Indian village was hardly ever a republic. It was never self-
sufficient. It has links with the wider society (for further details on this
point see unit 3 of this block). Migration, village exogamy, movement for
work and trade, administrative connection, interregional market, inter-
village economic and caste links and religious pilgrimage were prevalent
in the past, connecting the village with the neighbouring villages and the
wider society. Moreover, new forces of modernisation in the modern
period augmented inter-village and rural-urban interaction. (See also
units 4 and 5 of this block.)

But despite increasing external linkages village is still a fundamental

social unit (Mandelbaum 1972, Orenstein 1965). People living in a
village have a feeling of common identity. They have intra-village ties at
familial, caste and class levels in social, economic, political and cultural
domains. In fact, village life is characterised by reciprocity, cooperation,
dominance and competition.
Self-Instructional Material

29
 Rural Community 2.6.2 The Jajmani System
NOTES
A very important feature of traditional village life in India is the
‗jajmani‘ system. It has been studied by various sociologists, viz.,
Willian Wiser (1936), S.C. Dube (1955), Opler and Singh (1986), K.
Ishwaran (1967), Lewis and Barnouw (1956). The term ‗jajman‘ refers to
the patron or recipient of specialised services and the term ‗jajmani‘
refers to the whole relationship. In fact, the jajmani system is a system of
economic, social and ritual ties among different caste groups in a village.
Under this system some castes are patrons and others are serving castes.
The serving castes offer their services to the landowning upper and
intermediate caste and in turn are paid both in cash and kind. The patron
castes are the landowning dominant castes, e.g., Rajput, Bhumihar, Jat in
the North, and Kamma, Lingayat and Reddi in Andhra Pradesh and Patel
in Gujarat. The service castes comprise Brahmin (priest), barber,
carpenter, blacksmith, water-carrier, leatherworker etc.

The jajmani relations essentially operate at family level (Mandelbaum

1972). A Rajput land-owning family has its jajmani ties with one family
each from Brahmin, barber, carpenter etc., and a family of service caste
offers its services to specific families of jajmans. However, jajmani rules
are enforced by caste panchayats.

The jajmani relationship is supposed to be and often is durable, exclusive

and multiple. Jajmani tie is inherited on both sides i.e. patron and client
(the Jajman and the Kamin). The relationship is between specific
families. Moreover, it is more than exchange of grain and money in lieu
of service. On various ritual occasions, such as marriage, birth and death,
the service-castes render their services to their jajman and get gifts in
addition to customary payments. In factional contests each side tries to
muster the support of its jajmani associates. Hence the jajmani system
involves interdependence, reciprocity and cooperation between jati and
families in villages.

But the jajmani system also possesses the elements of dominance,

exploitation and conflict (Beidelman 1959 and Lewis and Barnouw
1956). There is a vast

Check Your Progress 4

i) Tick mark the correct answer in the following multiple choice
questions.
a) Who popularised the concept of ‗village autonomy‘ in India?

b) Identify the important social institutions in rural India among the

following.

Self-Instructional Material c) Family ―jointness‖ in India is characterized by

30
ii) Describe the „jajmani system‘ in about seven lines. Rural Community

NOTES

2.7 RURAL ORGANIZATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

School
The literature on the role of the rural elementary school in community
change is examined in this paper, and certain socioeconomic factors which
may be important preconditions of the decision of a community to accept
or reject the school are discussed. The relationship of the community to the
community school is also considered. Generally, schools have responded to
rather than led or initiated changes in rural communities. Commonly
communities have accepted the school when they have perceived that it can
be helpful in fulfilling their existed felt needs--usually for better economic
and material well-being. Once the school has been accepted for 1 reason its
potential for effecting changes in other ways through the younger
generation is often also greater. It is questionable whether schools can
succeed if they try to promote or sustain an entirely new culture in an
indifferent or hostile environment. Throughout the developing world
governments have modified their early expectations that rural schools on
their own could be potent tools of socioeconomic change. Studies of the
role of the school in rural areas have focused upon the school itself and
tended to neglect the structure of the local community and its relationship
to the larger society. The ways in which kinship operates affects a
community's conception of itself and its attitude towards and relationship
with the school. A rural community in a poor country lacks mobility and
means of communication. Where a community shares a national or
mainstream culture in terms of language and religion, its decisions
regarding whether to send its children to school are relatively
unproblematic for its identity, for the school will mirror at least some
aspects of its own culture. Where a community sees itself as a minority,
there will be problems. Rural communities which, on rational appraisal of
the economic situation, hesitate to send their children to school pose a
dilemma for governments anxious to integrate remote and "backward"
areas into the nation's economic life. Rural communities may be
conceptualized on a continuum with respect to the degree to which they are
more or less culturally cohesive, more or less economically self-sufficient,
and more or less politically and administratively autonomous. Despite the
commitment of governments and international agencies to the concept of
community participation in school in the interests of rural improvement,
such schemes is unlikely to serve the interests of the entire community
unless a genuine mutuality of interests exists among community members.

CO-OPERATIVES

Self-Instructional Material

31
 Rural Community India is mainly an agrarian society with more than half of its population
NOTES
still residing in the villages. Rural sector is the major contributor to the
overall GDP of the nation and hence lack of development in villages means
lack of development in India. Cooperative societies are playing significant
role in this and share a major credit in the growth of rural sector which
along with government and private sectors contribute to the overall
economy of India. Cooperatives cover more than 97%of Indian villages,
some run by its members and some by the government

Needs of rural people are served by different forms of private and

government organizations including partnership firms, co-operatives,
companies and charitable trust. Government each year spends lakhs to
crores of rupees on rural development. But co-operatives working in rural
areas are playing noteworthy role in this. Gujurat‘s Dairy co-operative and
Maharashtra‘s sugar co-operative prove their contribution.

Cooperatives originated in the West during the middle of the last century
and from there these came to India. Formally co-operatives were
introduced to India in 1904 when the Indian Co-operative Societies Act
was promulgated. Moreover rural indebtedness was the major force behind
the initiation of chit funds and cooperatives in India. Initially these were
just to provide credits to the farmers in the form of credit societies and
gradually these start working in other fields such as banking, processing
and marketing. The meager funds of farmers were pooled in to run
cooperative and it was an attractive way to solve their financial problems.
After independence role of cooperative societies grew to encompass socio-
economic development and eradication of poverty in rural India. It became
an integral part of five year plan. With this co-operative societies became a
fundamental part of our economy.

Non-credit societies came in 1912. Importance of co-operative was also

highlighted in the Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1928. With the
formation of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in 1935, developing more
cooperative societies was given due importance.

Main aim of the cooperative was to get the poor and indebted farmers out
of poverty and out from the clutches of money lenders. Within short span
of time, role of cooperatives extended beyond agricultural credit. It started
covering activities such as production, farming, marketing and processing.
Cooperatives are now playing a very significant role in the socio-economic
development of our country especially the rural India.

In 1951 there were 1,81,000 cooperatives of all kinds in India and this
number increased to manifold within short span of time. During 2007-08
there were 1,50,000 primary credit cooperatives and some 2,60,000 non-
credit primary societies of all types. In India there are four major types of
Self-Instructional Material cooperatives –
32
  The Primary agricultural credit or service societies Rural Community

 Agricultural non-credit societies NOTES

 Agricultural co-operative marketing societies
 Co-operative farming societies

Though the expansion and reach of cooperatives is highly impressive but

their way of working is not Except for few co-operative societies most of
these lack motivation. These are merely run by the government without
motivation and enthusiasm of their members. Some of these even lack in
the required funds. Other factors that lead to the slow progress of these
societies are – mismanagement, manipulation, restricted coverage, lack of
awareness, and political interference. But this does not mean the downfall
of the massive projects. Despite all this, cooperatives are really helping
poor in becoming self-reliant. Scope of cooperative societies in rural India
can improve further with women participation.

Cooperatives provide credit to the farmers, the most needed thing in the
farming. Apart from this cooperatives help farmers by providing top
quality fertilizers, seeds, insecticides, pesticides etc at reasonable price.
Farmers also get marketing, warehousing facility and transportation
support from the cooperatives. Service cooperative societies help the poor
and marginal farmers with tractors, threshers etc on rent. Rural cooperative
societies are now entering into real estate, power, insurance, healthcare and
communication sector. If these keep on working with an objective of
development then days are not far when quality of rural life would be far
better than urban India.

Village Panchayat

The Panchayats are expected to play an important role in rural

development in India, particularly after independence. Plan documents of
both the central and state governments and various committees have
emphasized the importance of these bodies in the policy. Five-year plans,
specially the second five-year plan, laid special emphasis on the role of
Panchayats in rural developments. Rural Development in India is one of
the most important factors for the growth of the Indian economy. India is
primarily an agriculture-based country. Agriculture contributes nearly one-
fifth of the gross domestic product in India. In order to increase the growth
of agriculture, the Government has planned several programs pertaining to
rural development in India.

An attempt is made to study the role of gram Panchayats in rural

development in general and village‘s in Mathura district is rural area.
Panchayati Raj is a three-tier system of administration for the development
of rural areas, with the Gram Panchayat at the village level, Janpad
Panchayat at the block level and Zila Parishad at the district level. It has
been introduced to provide a bold and imaginative leadership for all round
Self-Instructional Material

33
 Rural Community development of the village community. As the economic uplift of the
NOTES
community cannot be entrusted to any other organization than the one
represented by the village people themselves, the role of the Panchayati
Raj institution in the rebuilding of rural India becomes inevitably
important.

He clarifies that the community development programmes have

raised a new young leadership, which is from the rural areas sections of the
society. This leadership group has injected new values and hopes in the
rural areas. [1] Study was Role of Panchayat Bodies in Rural Development
since 1959. Many castes in towns and villages have also their own
panchayats, which deal with business, social, and religious matters
common to the caste‖. The Royal Commission describes the village in
India as under‖ The typical Indian village has its central residential site,
with an open space for a pond and a cattle stand. In this book present that
many people still think first of economist growth‘ in relation to poverty
reduction, indeed, their correlation in one of the most discussed issues of
combating poverty. The relationship is of great importance because if there
is a clear causal dependency, reducing poverty could fundamentally be
limited to measures to promote growth. However, if there was low growth
or stagnation it would not be possible to reduce poverty decisively. Hardly
anyone now explicitly express the view that economic development trickes
downs automatically to the poor practical experience has refuted this
assumption dating from the early day of development policy in the 1960 s.
However a number of studies show development of growth and a decline
in poverty running parallel on the other hand, there are also example which
show that despite high economic growth, poverty is not reduced markedly.
Examined the functioning of Rural Employment Programmes in Anantapur
district, a drought-prone and backward one in Andhra Pradesh. According
to the guidelines the community works should be executed by the local
village agencies such as village panchayats, parental/school committees
and village development council that would ensure the full benefits of
wages to the local workers and the quality of assets.

Youth Club

Rural development in India is vital for the overall progress of the country.
In rural areas, there have been many aspects that need to be focused upon,
such as generation of jobs and employment for the people, construction of
houses, schools and educational institutions, medical and health care
facilities, agriculture, industries, nutritional requirements, focusing upon
the skill development of the people and facilities such as electricity,
energy, water, gas and cooking quipment. For the welfare of the rural
people, these areas need to be focused upon, for the effective development
of these areas the role of youth is required. In this research paper, what is
the significance of the role of youth in rural development has been
underscored. The main areas that are highlighted in this research paper are,
identifying youth, youth participation, impediments to youth participation,
Self-Instructional Material

34
the demand for the role of youth in rural areas, youth labor markets in rural Rural Community

areas, and an assessment of the role of youth in rural development. Thus, it NOTES
can be understood that the role of youth has been imperative in the case of
rural development, provided if the youth wholeheartedly contributes and
works with zest and enthusiasm.

The concept of youth has been defined by researchers as the period in an

individual life that begins from the end of childhood and entry into
adulthood. The individual has reached the age of maturity, but yet to
acquire the complete rights and duties of adult life, like marriage and
earning of livelihood both for self and for one‘s family. In the case of rural
development and particularly agricultural development, youth constitute
the compelling force; the mindset of the youth is cultivated in such a
manner that they prove to be productive, especially when they have
developed this objective to bring about rural development. The main
reason being that youth has number of characteristics which when
cultivated and nurtured prove to be invaluable towards agricultural and
rural development. Youth associations have got involved in number of
activities such as planting of crops, community farming, construction of
village squares, contribution in enhancement and application of science
and technical methods, energy conservation, construction, biotechnology
and employment generation for the rural masses .

The standard of living of the rural people depends upon factors such as
food and nutrition level, health, education, housing, recreation and
security. Agriculture is of extreme importance and is considered to be
particularly important for the rural people. The youth populations are
engaged in the utilization of recommended farm inputs and technologies,
they are involved into research activities to find new and innovation
techniques and ideas that may be beneficial for rural development. Young
people are innovative and creative in problem solving and in finding
solutions: they are the key to helping communities in meeting their
subsistence needs, improving the security of the people and even acquiring
control over their own lives. Nearly, 50% of the world‘s populations are
youth and children. There are 1.2 billion 15 to 24 year old in the world and
one billion reside in developing countries. Young people constitute a high
and a peaking portion of the world‘s population; they represent challenges
as well as opportunities for development. The youth can lead to economic
development as well as the social development of their communities and
society. The participation of the youth in development has the following
advantages: Identifying youth

1. Strengthens the people‘s abilities to satisfy their own necessities.

2. Prevents and reduces vulnerabilities to economic, social and politically

unstable environments.

3. Promotes possession and sustainability of contributions.

Self-Instructional Material

35
 Rural Community 4. Assists in entering the target communities and building up trust and
NOTES
social capital.

The term ‗participation‘ has several meanings; contribution, inputs,

involvement, sharing, membership and partaking. There have been four
main areas about participation; information-sharing, in this case,
individuals are informed in order to facilitate collective and individual
action. Consultation, individuals are consulted, they provide ideas and
suggestions, they interact with an organization and takes account of their
feedback. Decision making, youth participate and get involved in decision
making, which may be individual or joint with others, decision making
may be on specific issues of a policy or a project. Initiating action, youth
are involved in the commencement of any kind of accomplishment

In working with young people, and valuing them as assets: as advisors,

colleagues and stakeholders is crucial if development policies are to be
truly representative and effective. Youth participation: the active, informed
and voluntary involvement of people

in decision-making and the life of their communities both locally and

worldwide are vital if this is to be achieved. In ascending order of
responsibility, young people can participate in development as
beneficiaries, partners and leaders .

Young people‘s participation is about far more than gathering their views
in surveys or listening to limited numbers of representatives. Formal
consultation and dialogue is useful to the extent that it a) directs decisions;
and b) authentically represents a body of judgment and understanding.
However, it should be part of a process whereby young people progress to
greater rights and responsibilities such as citizenship; from being the
objectives of outreach, to being actively engaged in the planning and
implementation of development interventions. Ultimately, organizations
and individuals highly committed to youth participation may want to
proceed to a position of a management, where youth are working with
older adults, and are becoming development professionals or leading
political actors themselves. This is a key aspect of the empowerment
process at the core of youth-led development, which always acknowledges
the importance of local contexts and cultural values and practices.

There have been various areas that demand for the role of youth, these
have been stated as follows:

The Demand of the Role of Youth in Rural Areas

Agriculture: Agriculture is stated to be the main occupation in the rural

areas and this occupation requires extensive research, production,
utilization of science and technology, cropping, irrigation and many more
functions. Youth people who are well educated and possess efficient
knowledge of how to implement agricultural activities assist in the
Self-Instructional Material development of agricultural activities. Making use of technologies in the
36
agricultural sector, implementing extensive research is the work of the Rural Community

youth. NOTES

Small-Scale Industries: In rural areas, besides agriculture, there have been

setting up of small scale industries which require workers, there has been
role of youth in the development of skills of the workers, who are not
educated so that they can acquire jobs in industries and make a living.
Employment in industries requires skills and expertise, therefore, the skill
development amongst the rural masses is essential, especially amongst the
women so that they can acquire jobs.

Skill Development: It is stated that development of skills and expertise of

the people is essential for a sector to progress and develop. Whether an
individual is able to read or write but skill development is imperative for
progression. Skill development is in various areas such as operation of
machines, manufacturing of goods, sports, music, and usage of technology,
computers and so forth. Skills and talents amongst the rural masses lead to
the development of the country.

Education: Educational institutions are essential to develop amongst the

rural areas; education enables an individual to seek a living for himself, an
educated person can accomplish himself. There has been encouragement of
education amongst the rural masses by establishing educational
institutions, and providing education free of cost. Every individual should
be granted admission, irrespective of one‘s age and socio-economic
background so that they acquire literacy and live a meaningful life.

Employment Opportunities: Every individual in rural areas longs for

employment, have a job, and have some kind of work so that they can
sustain their living. The youth people are contributing towards generation
of employment opportunities for the rural masses; whether they work in the
agricultural sector, industrial sector, production, manufacturing, own small
tea stalls, sell beedis and other products and so forth.

Women’s Club

India is a country of contradictions. On the one hand, women are

worshipped as deities, without whose blessings, work cannot be initiated.
On the other hand, crimes against women and girls are increasing day by
day in India. It is sad that in many cases, the perpetrators are known to the
victims. The perpetrators could be among relatives, neighbors, friends etc.
This increasing mistrust can create havoc in the Indian societal pattern. The
patriarchal norms are so entrenched in the Indian society that it is very
difficult to pull oneself out of this conundrum. When girls are born in most
Indian families, they are not welcome, at times, even by their mothers.
They lament that a son could have been a real asset for the family.
Upbringing of girls is an expensive affair, where there is only loss as the
girl gets married off and will serve the grooms‘ family throughout her life.
In India, the life of a woman changes a lot after marriage. She leaves her
Self-Instructional Material

37
 Rural Community parents‘ house after marriage and starts living with the groom‘s family.
NOTES
Since childhood, she is socialized into thinking that she has to take up the
food habits, dress, rituals etc of the new family. So, happily or grudgingly,
she evolves her identity according to the demands of the groom‘s family
and the groom.

A hefty sum of money is spent on her dowry. At times, the demand from
the groom‘s family continues even after marriage. When the bride‘s family
fails to satisfy their demands, the bride is tortured. Domestic violence is
high in Indian homes. There is dowry deaths‘ occurring every now and
then. It has been pointed out that it is always the bride who is dying and not
the women in the groom‘s side when they are working in the kitchen.
Many young brides die in the kitchen due to stove-burst, where the
groom‘s sides mask it as an accident. Dowry-deaths of Indian girls had
gone up so much that Section 498A was brought in which makes the
groom and his family responsible for unnatural death of the bride within 7
years of marriage. It also has other provisions to protect Indian women
after marriage. However, like all other laws, this law has also been misused
by a miniscule of the population in order to take revenge on the groom.
Some innocent grooms had to face wrong detainment. However, the
misuse cannot be a standard to judge the efficacy of the law. If that is the
standard utilized, then none of the laws can be implemented. Violation of
the law cannot prevent the law from protecting the real victims of society.
Right to equal inheritance to women of Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist and Jain
religions, who form the majority in the country have been provided by the
Indian State. But, still today, there are very few women who demand the
property as they feel that it sour their relation with their brothers. In many
cases, brothers are forcing them to relinquish their property right. Women
lack the support system needed to contest in the courts. Rural women in
India are less literate than rural men. There is a negative attitude of the
family towards educating the girl child. Moreover, lack of separate toilets
for girls in schools, lack of security while travelling from home to school,
lack of female teachers in schools, elder sister‘s responsibility to look after
the younger siblings when both the parents have to work to meet both ends,
are some of the reasons behind the high drop-out rate of girls from schools.
Primary education is free, but parents are not interested to send them to
school. Right to Education has been passed by the Parliament, but it is still
far when the right will be a reality. Mid day meal scheme has been
formulated in order to attract the small children to school.However, this
scheme received set- backs when many school children died after
consuming food from the school kitchen.

Majority of rural Indian women do not have the right to choose their
partner. It is always decided by the family elders and the marriage is
arranged with an endogamous group, where caste plays a very important
role. If the girl wishes to marry someone from other caste or tribe, the
traditional leaders of the villages oppose. In states like Haryana, there are
Self-Instructional Material
Khap Panchayats, or traditional village elders who provide punishments to
38
both the adult girls and boys of the same village and caste, who falls in Rural Community

love and marries. According to the Khap leaders, marrying someone within NOTES
the village or caste is equal to marrying a sibling. They act as kangaroo
courts and punish them even by awarding deaths. In many cases, the
brutality of such crimes is not even opposed by the parents. Such is the
power of these Khap Panchayats that the elected Members from these
constituencies do not oppose them for fear of losing the vote bank in the
area.

Majority of rural women suffer not only from economic poverty but also
from information poverty‘. Rural women are vital and productive workers
in India‘s national economy. There is statistical bias in under estimating
the role of rural women in development. Women work for longer hours
than men and contribute substantially to family income, they are not
perceived as productive workers. (Pankajam and Lalitha, 2005) They are
silent workers who are struggling to complete her household duties from
dawn to dusk. But, still, in the family, many a times, she is criticized for
not being sincere in her job. If the family members had to pay for the
whole household work and the free labour she provides in the small
agricultural land of the rural families, then her real worth could have been
realized. She does this day-in and day-out with compromising the family
interest, but in very few families, she gets the respect which she should get.

Equal pay for equal work is one of the cornerstones of the gender equality
movement the world over. But Labour Bureau data show there has been
little progress in terms of parity of salaries for men and women for
equivalent work in India. Even more alarming is the fact that even though
wage disparities have always existed in rural parts of the country, in some
spheres of activity, the divide has widened. So while men were paid 70 per
cent higher wages than women for ploughing work at the end of 2004-05,
the difference rose to 80.4 per cent in end March 2012 and stood at 93.6
per cent at the start of 2013-14. While men were paid 75 per cent more
than women for well-digging work in March 2005, the difference stood at
80 per cent in the current financial year. The data indicate that daily wage
disparities have by and large remained constant since 1999, though they
did rise in the early 2000s. As of 2013, the discrimination in wages paid to
women tends to be higher in physically intensive activities (such as
ploughing and well-digging), but lower in the case of work such as sowing
and harvesting. Outside the agricultural sphere, it appears that gender
stereotypes won out once again, if one considers unskilled non-agricultural
work. (Jayaram, 2003)

In rural India, very few women have ownership over land or

productive assets. This proves to be a road block in institutional credit.
Majority of the agricultural labourers are women. They mainly assigned
manual labour. Men perform operations involving machinery.
(Kurukshetra, 2003) Agriculture which is the mainstay of the rural Indian
economy is sustained for the most part by the female workforce. They are
Self-Instructional Material

39
 Rural Community the invisible life line of the agrarian rural community life. Rural women
NOTES
from childhood days have to bear the burden of taking care of younger
siblings, cooking, engaging in domestic chores, looking after the fodder of
the domestic animals in their parents‘ house. They are married off at a very
early age. Indian women are condemned to a life of serfdom, anonymity,
facelessness. At the root is the ‗gender insensitive‘ society. (Singh, 2004)
According to UNICEF, child marriage is a violation of child rights. Child
brides are often forced to drop out of schools, are subject to the risks of
early pregnancy and are more likely to be exposed to violence and
isolation. Approximately, twenty-three million girls in India face this
reality. Among them, majority of them are from the rural areas. (UNICEF,
2012) National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) a Government of
India organization has stated that in 2009-10 and 2011-12, women's
employment has taken an alarming dip in rural areas in the past two years.
In jobs that are done for 'the major part of the year', a staggering 9.1
million jobs were lost by rural women. This is a reflection of the fact that
women are no longer getting longer term and better paying jobs, and so are
forced to take up short term transient work. (Varma, 2013) In this gloomy
scenario, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act is providing a
positive light to rural women. Several studies have shown that with the
introduction of this Act, many rural women are coming out of their house
for the first time to engage in paid employment. As it is a government
scheme, socio-cultural stigma of patriarchy regarding working in the public
space, that has been present earlier, is slowly ebbing. Moreover, the
financial independence with the work is bringing in sea change in the
mentality of rural women. They are for the first time, engaging in decision
making regarding spending the money. With financial empowerment,
comes in social empowerment as many of them are also joining self help
groups, to further their abilities.
Self Help Group

Self- help groups (SHGs) play today a major role in poverty alleviation in
rural India. A Growing number of poor people (mostly women) in various
parts of India are members of SHGs and actively engage in savings and
credit (S/C), as well as in other activities (income generation, natural
resources management,

literacy, child care and nutrition, etc.). The S/C focus in the SHG is the
most prominent element and offers a chance to create some control over
capital, albeit in very small amounts. The SHG system has proven to be
very relevant and effective in offering women the possibility to break
gradually away from exploitation and isolation.

Almost all major donor agencies support SHGs in India in one way or
another and many Success stories are available, describing how
membership in a SHG changed the life of a particular individual or group
for the better. Many NGOs in India are promoting the SHG mechanism and
linking it to various other development interventions. Whereas there is
Self-Instructional Material

40
ample evidence that the SHG approach is a very effective, efficient and Rural Community

relevant tool for organizing and empowering the poor, problems do arise NOTES
with design, development and introduction of programmes to promote
income generating activities (IGAs) that will generate sufficient,
sustainable and regular income. There are few documents available that
critically reflect on the role of SHGs in the wider rural economy.

This section attempts to identify the role of SHGs in providing Rural Non-
Farm Employment (RNFE) through enterprise development and marketing.

THE CONCEPT OF SHG: The concept of SHG services the principle, ‗by
the women, of the women and for the women‘. Self help groups are
voluntary associations of people with common interests formed to achieve
collective social and economic goals. Such groups are organized for mutual
help and benefit. It is formed democratically without any political
affiliations. They may comprise of 15–20 women and/or men, although
they generally consist exclusively of women members. In India, more than
90 per cent groups are formed by women. is done at micro or group level.
The initial operations of SHGs start with collecting savings from members.
These groups inculcate the habit of thrift among the members. By
collecting small saving huge amount can be raised. These groups advance
loans to the needy members. The total funds owned by the group are thus
circulated in the form of loan among the members.

The Concept of SHG Is Based On the Following Principles

• Self-help supplemented with mutual help can be a powerful

vehicle for the poor in their socioeconomic development;

• Participative financial services management is more responsive

and efficient;

• Poor need not only credit support, but also savings and other
services;

• Poor can save and are bankable and SHGs as clients, result in
wider outreach, lower transaction cost and much lower risk costs
for the banks;

• Creation of a common fund by contributing small savings on a

regular basis;

• Flexible democratic system of working;

• Loaning is done mainly on trust with a bare documentation and

without any security;

• Amounts loaned are small, frequent and for short duration;

• Defaults are rare mainly due to group pressure; and

• Periodic meetings non-traditional savings. Self-Instructional Material

41
 Rural Community 2.7 LET US SUM UP
NOTES In this unit, we have made an effort to understand rural social structure in
India. We have begun with the concept of social structure and then
identified the important institutions of rural social structure in India viz.,
family and kinship, caste, class and village. Further, important features and
types of family in India have been discussed along with change in them.
Important difference between the kinship patterns in North and South India
has been noted. More over discussion on the caste system has begun with
understanding the relations between „Varna‟ and Caste. Then salient
features of the caste system have been discussed and the changes occurring
especially in the modern period are analysed. Moreover the nature of
agrarian structure has been described. Lastly, we have discussed the issue
of village autonomy, prevalence of the jajmani system and changes in the
village power structure and leadership.
2.8 KEYWORDS
Developmental cycle In terms of the forms of family, with birth,
marriage and death of its members and division
of property, each family goes through a cycle of
development. For example, a joint family may,
after partition, be divided into several nuclear
families. After the death of persons in grand -
parental generation, it may become an extended
family. With the marriage of a child, if the
newly married persons also reside with parents,
a nuclear family may become an extended
family. Again, with the birth of a grandchild,
the same unit may become a joint family. This
constant process of change from one stage to
another is given the name of developmental
cycle.
Embourgeoisement Bourgeoisement refers to the phenomenon of
upward social mobility of lower class people,
e.g., entry of a working class individual into the
elite class through acquisition of wealth or
power.
Jointness of Family It refers to various dimensions of jointness in
family structure, e.g., coresidentiality,
commensality, coparcenary, obligation towards
kin and sentiment of jointness.
Kindred of Cooperation The kindred of cooperation are that
population, within a village, in which most
economic and ritual activities take place
without any formalities. This is a smaller unit,
referring to the actual ties of kin.
Self-Instructional Material

42
Kindred of Recognition The kindred of recognition refer to that Rural Community
population in which cooperation in economic
NOTES
and ritual activities is through information and
invitation. This is a larger unit, spread over
several villages for each caste.
Proletarianisation Proletarianisation refers to the process of
downwardsocial mobility of upper class people,
e.g., a landlord becoming landless labourer.

Social Structure It is the organised pattern of the inter-related rights

and obligations of persons and groups in a system of
interaction as seen in terms of statuses, roles,
institutions governed by social norms and values.

‘Jajmani’ System it is an age-old social institution that refers to the

inter-caste and inter- family social, economic,
political and ritual ties prevalent in villages.
Varna The Varna distributes social groups into four
categories, all over India. It is a model of social and
ritual hierarchy of caste groups. These are four-
Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The
Varna provides a cultural idiom to the caste system.

Village Exogamy and ‘Gotra’ Exogamy Exogamy means marrying

outside the group. Village exogamy refers to
the tradition of prohibiting marriage within
the village in North India. Similarly, „gotra‟
exogamy prohibits marriage within one‘s
own gotra (clan).

2.9 FURTHER READING

1. Beteille, Andre 1986. Studies in Agrarian Social Structure. Oxford

University Press: Delhi
2. Chauhan, Brij Raj 1968. A Rajasthan Village. Vir Publishing
House: Delhi 1988
3. Dube, S.C. 1955. Indian Village. Cornell University Press: New
York
4. Madan, Vandana (ed.) 2002. The Village in India. Oxford
University Press:
5. New Delhi
6. Sharma.K.L. 1997. Rural Society in India. Mittal Publications:
New Delhi
7. Srinivas, M.N. (ed.) 1978. India‟s Villages. Media Promoters:
Bombay
Self-Instructional Material

43
 Rural Community 2.10 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
NOTES Check Your Progress 1
i) Social structure is the pattern of inter-related social statuses and roles
found in a society. It is the organised pattern of the inter-related rights
and obligations of persons and groups in an institutionalised form
having social norms and values.

ii) According to 2001 census, there are 6,38,365 villages (including

uninhabited villages) in India.

iii) There are three main types of settlement patterns in rural areas. The
most common type is the nucleated village found in most areas. Here
we find a tight cluster of houses, which are surrounded by the field of
the villagers. Sometimes an outlying hamlet or satellite hamlet is also
found situated around this type.
Check Your Progress 2
i) Some of the important dimensions of ―jointness‖ of a family are:
coresidentiality, commensality, coparcenary, depth of three
generations at least, and fulfilment of obligations towards kin.

ii) Lineage is a group of families, which trace descent from a common

ancestor. They have full knowledge of the links, which they have with
that common ancestor. The members of a lineage of a generation share
a brother and sister relationship with each other.

iii) Developmental cycle approach to the family in India implies that the
family structure in India undergoes demographic change in a period of
time. A nuclear family expands due to birth and marriage to form a
joint or extended family and with death and partition again reverts
back to a nuclear family.
Check Your Progress 3
i) The title of the thesis written by G.S. Ghurye is Race and Caste in
India.

ii) Caste is an endogamous and hereditary social group. Each caste is

traditionally associated with a hereditary occupation and members of
a caste are bound by certain social rules and laws. Castes are placed
in a hierarchical order. They have rules of commensality and the
concept of purity and pollution is very important in caste
relationships.

iii) a) outside

b) mythical, divine
Self-Instructional Material

44
 c) agraharam Rural Community

NOTES
Check Your Progress 4
i) a) (ii)

b) (iv)

c) (iv)

d) (iv)

ii) The „jajmani‟ system is found in Indian villages. It is the

relationship between patrons and clients, or Jajman and Kamin of
different castes, generally within a village. It is a process of
exchange of goods and services between castes. Some castes are
patrons and some are clients. It is an inherited relationship. The
jajmani rules are enforced by caste panchayats in rural India.

Self-Instructional Material

45
 UNIT III – RURAL PROBLEMS
Rural Problems

NOTES
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction

3.2 Poverty in the Global Context

3.3 Concept and Measures of Poverty
3.3.1 Relative and Absolute Poverty
3.3.2 The Dimensions of Poverty
3.3.3 Vulnerability and Poverty
3.3.4 Measures of Poverty
3.4 Illiteracy

3.5 Unemployment
3.6 Problems Related to Agriculture and Community Health
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Keywords
3.9 Further Reading
3.10 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit, you should be able to:

 Define different concepts of poverty;

 Describe the millennium development goals;
 Describe and apply the measures of poverty;
 Explain the incidence and distribution of the rural poor in India;
 Outline the profile of the rural poor;
 Describe the strategies for poverty alleviation; and
 Describe implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the
poverty alleviation programmes.
3.1 INTRODUCTION

Eradication of poverty has been one of the guiding principles of the

planning process in our country. Improvements in the living standards of
people and the provision of a decent standard of living have been
prominent objectives of the successive five-year plans. Identification of
the poor and initiation of specific programmes that address differential
needs of people steeped in poverty have been the distinguishing features
of all the five-year plans. The multi-dimensional nature of poverty in India
has been increasingly recognized over time and the issue of poverty has
also become a global concern especially since the last decade of the 20 th
Self-Instructional Material century.
46
 This unit introduces you to the concept of poverty and discusses Rural Problems

the various ways of measuring poverty, the profile of the poor and the NOTES
strategy adopted for poverty eradication in our country. The unit contains
a brief description of the poverty in the global context. The definition of
poverty not only covers the income or consumption measure of poverty
but also encompasses other deprivations that the poor generally suffer
from. The Millennium Development Goals adopted by the United
Nations member countries in October 2000 incorporate some of these
concerns. The national governments have defined poverty keeping in
view the conditions obtaining in their respective countries. India was one
of the first countries in the world to estimate people living below a
clearly defined poverty line. As over 75 per cent of the poor in India
reside in rural areas, this unit is devoted exclusively to the analysis of
rural poverty in India

3.2 POVERTY IN THE GLOBAL CONTEXT

In every country there are groups of people who are
categorized as poor in comparison to other groups. The discourse on
poverty, however, relates to absolute levels of poverty. Most
countries have defined a level of income or consumption which is
necessary for a standard of living that is socially accepted as
adequate. Countries have different notions of a decent standard of
living. In such a situation, the need for a common definition of
poverty to facilitate inter-country comparisons becomes necessary.
The World Bank has estimated poverty based on purchasing power
parity (PPP). The PPP takes into account price differences across the
countries and allows international comparison of real output and
income. The World Bank defined the poor as the people living on less
than one US $ per capita consumption per day at 1993 prices. On this
basis 1.3 billion people or 29.6 per cent of the world‘s population was
poor in 1990. There has been a considerable reduction in the
incidence of poverty during 1990 to 1999. In 1999, 1.17 billion
people or 23.2 per cent of the world‘s population was categorized as
poor. South Asia, to which we belong, accounts for the majority of
the world‘s poor. In 1999, 488 million South Asians, comprising 36.6
per cent of the population in South Asia had a per capita consumption
expenditure of less than one US $ per day. In our country in 1999,
34.7 per cent people survived on per capita consumption expenditure
of less than one US $ (World Bank 2002).
The monetary measures of poverty do not capture the deprivations
and disabilities that the poor suffer. The concept of human poverty is,
therefore, considered to cover more than the word poor may convey
ordinarily. It includes health, education, sanitation and other aspects
that have an impact on the living conditions of the people/poor. The
international community in the 1990s had committed itself to
achieving specific targets on the provision of health facilities,
education and eradication of diseases. Conventions on environmental
sustainability were also signed. In October, 2000, the heads of
Governments of the United Nations Member-Countries committed
themselves to eradicate ―poverty, promote human dignity and
Self-Instructional Material

47
 Rural Problems equality and achieve peace, democracy and environmental
NOTES sustainability‖.
The world community committed itself to achieve eight goals. These
are known as the millennium development goals (MDG). Each goal
has specific targets and has to be achieved by the year 2015. The
MDGs are to:

 eradicate extreme poverty and hunger,

 achieve universal primary education,
 promote gender equality and empower women,
 reduce child mortality,
 improve maternal health,
 combat HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other diseases,
 ensure environmental sustainability; and
 ensure global partnership for development.
As a part of the global agreement, the developed countries have agreed to
reduce debt and increase aid, trade and technology transfers to the poor
countries so that the MDGs could be achieved. In March 2002 in Monterrey
in Mexico and in September 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa, the
developed countries agreed to a framework for assistance to the poor
countries in their fight against poverty. It is expected that the rich nations
would facilitate greater resource transfer to the poor countries to achieve the
MDGs.

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Write your answers in the space provided.
b) Check your answers with the possible answers provided at the
end of the unit.
1) What is the definition of poverty accepted internationally?

2) What are the Millennium Development Goals?

3.3 CONCEPT AND MEASURES OF POVERTY

Poverty has different meanings for different people. The perception of

poverty differs from person to person. Let us look at some of the more
important concepts of poverty.

3.3.1 Relative and Absolute Poverty

The discussion on poverty is generally confined to absolute poverty.
Absolute poverty is measured against a pre-determined level of living that
families should be able to afford. Consumption of food grains, vegetables,
milk products and other items that are necessary for a healthy living and
access to other non-food items are included in the absolute minimum
consumption basket. These standards are then converted into monetary units
and defined as the poverty line. People with consumption expenditure below
this threshold are considered poor. The relative position of a person or
Self-Instructional Material household does not matter. The one-dollar consumption expenditure per
48
capita in PPP dollars is an absolute poverty line accepted internationally. In Rural Problems

our country the Planning Commission works out poverty lines for urban and NOTES
rural areas respectively every year.
Relative poverty considers the over all income distribution and the position
of a household within that distribution. The relative position of one group of
people is compared with another group. The concept of relative poverty can
be extended to other countries as well. In fact, in one of the first studies of
poverty in India, Dadabhai Naoroji in his book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule
in India’ published in 1871, indicated that India was a very poor country in
comparison with Britain. United States of America had a per capita income
of US$ 35060 in 2003. United Kingdom, on the other hand, had a per capita
income of US$ 25250. United Kingdom would be considered poor in
comparison with United States. Relative poverty is more closely associated
with the issues of inequality. The income or consumption of the last quintile
of the population could be compared with the income of the richest quintile.
The last quintile population would be termed poor even though on absolute
poverty definition none of the people in the last quintile group may be poor.
Per capita income of a country could also be used to identify the poor.
Persons with per capita incomes of half the country‘s per capita income
could be termed as poor even though they may be in a position to afford the
minimum basket of goods and services that may represent the poverty line.
This again reflects concerns of equality. Relative poverty is thus different
from absolute poverty, which looks more at a household‘s consumption, or
income available for it to meet its minimum consumption needs.

5.3.2 The Dimensions of Poverty

Income or consumption is one of the main determinants of poverty,
which, however, is related to factors other than income or
consumption. People who have low incomes or consumption suffer
from other deprivations as well which affect their well-being. The
health status of the poor, their poor nutrition, illiteracy, social
exclusion, vulnerability and lack of opportunities to develop their
abilities all form parts of the broader picture/ meaning of poverty.
Without these basic amenities, peoples‘ ability to participate in the
economic process and contribute to their own well-being and the
welfare of the society is adversely affected. Studies show that the
poor are more prone to diseases, which adversely affect their earning
capacity. Lack of education compels people to take up low paid
menial jobs. The poor, therefore, get caught in a vicious cycle. As
they are poor, they cannot afford health care when they fall ill. And
when they fall ill, they cannot work. Their incomes go down and their
poverty becomes deeper. The World Development Report 2004
(World Bank 2004) identified freedom from illness and freedom from
illiteracy as the two most important ways the poor can escape
poverty. The poor are excluded from political decision making
processes and subjected to exploitation and discrimination. They do
not possess the ability to fight the entrenched groups. Any strategy
that seeks to address long-term poverty, therefore, has to take into
account these dimensions of poverty. Mere provision of income or
consumption would not make a major impact on the status of the poor
if they continue to be subjected to social and economic
Self-Instructional Material
discrimination. The Governments have recognized the multi-
49
 Rural Problems dimensional nature of poverty. The millennium development goals
NOTES discussed in Section 5.2 reflect different dimensions of poverty. In
India, the State Governments and the Central Government have
stepped up substantially the allocations for the provision of health,
education and other facilities to the poor. Role of education in
promoting the welfare of the poor has been recognized by enacting
the right to education as a fundamental right in our country. The
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan launched in the year 2001 is a pointer that
other dimensions of poverty are considered as important as the
monetary measures of poverty.
5.3.3 Vulnerability and Poverty
Vulnerability refers to the possibility that a person or a family that
may be non-poor today could fall into the trap of poverty in future.
Even within the groups of poor people, persons who may only be
marginally poor may fall into chronic poverty. The concept of
vulnerability can be analyzed at different levels. It could be studied at
the level of single households. Also, the analysis could be area
specific, or extended to the national and international levels. A
family‘s ability to tide over external shocks determines whether the
family is vulnerable or not. For example, in a household, which may
be marginally above poverty line, illness or death of the primary
breadwinner of the family could have severe implications for the
family‘s standard of living. At the regional level, people residing in
the drought prone, flood prone and the desert areas could be termed
as vulnerable. A drought could wipe out the productive assets of a
family and push it into poverty. Vulnerability could arise from both
expected and unexpected quarters. Agricultural labourers experience
vulnerability in the lean agricultural season when employment
opportunities are limited. This is an example of expected
vulnerability situation. Sudden floods, droughts or earthquakes
represent unexpected shocks. At the international level, vulnerability
is associated more with the political and economic developments than
any other factors. Many countries that depend exclusively on single
crops have experienced large fluctuations in their income. Such
fluctuations have led to impoverishment of people whatever the
country. The poor are much more vulnerable to such external shocks
than the non-poor. Vulnerability analysis enables communities and
Governments to devise approaches to reduce the risk of vulnerability.
Social security schemes and public works programmes are some of
the major strategies adopted by the Governments to provide
protection to the people.
3.4 ILLITERACY
Illiteracy in individuals stems from different, generally inter-related causes
which, together, create a series of often insurmountable barriers for those
concerned.
For instance, for someone born into an underprivileged milieu to parents
with little formal schooling, the likelihood of being illiterate or experiencing
serious learning difficulties will be higher. This is known as
intergenerational transmission of illiteracy.
The following are the most frequent causes of illiteracy in adults:
Self-Instructional Material

50
  Parents with little schooling; Rural Problems

 Lack of books at home and lack of stimulation as to the NOTES

importance of reading;
 Doing badly at or dropping out of school—many have not
completed high school;
 Difficult living conditions, including poverty;
 Learning disabilities, such as dyslexia, dysorthographia, etc.

Adults aged 45 and over with low literacy skills have the distinction of
belonging to generations for whom there were attractive job opportunities
despite a lower level of schooling. A very large number of them have always
worked in the same field, founding their families, and thus have never felt
the need to go back to school.
Owing to the closing of many companies over the past few years, especially
in the manufacturing and primary sectors, these people have found
themselves out of work, and are often unable to find a new job, because they
have difficulty reading and writing. Also, they lack the necessary skills to
meet current market requirements or to register in training that would allow
them to requalify.

Consequences of Illiteracy
For individuals
Limited ability to obtain and understand essential information;
Unemployment: The unemployment rate is 2–4 times higher among those
with little schooling than among those with Bachelor‘s degrees;
Lower income;
Lower-quality jobs;
Reduced access to lifelong learning and professional development;

Precarious financial position;

Little value is given to education and reading within the family, and this
often leads to intergenerational transmission of illiteracy;
Low self-esteem, which can lead to isolation;
Impact on health: Illiterate individuals have more workplace accidents, take
longer to recover and more often misuse medication through ignorance of
health care resources and because they have trouble reading and
understanding the relevant information (warnings, dosage, contraindications,
etc.).

For society
Since literacy is an essential tool for individuals and states to be competitive
in the new global knowledge economy, many positions remain vacant for
lack of personnel adequately trained to hold them;
Self-Instructional Material

51
 Rural Problems The higher the proportion of adults with low literacy proficiency is, the
NOTES slower the overall long-term GDP growth rate is;
The difficulty understanding societal issues lowers the level of community
involvement and civic participation.
Without the basic tools necessary for achieving their goals, individuals
without an adequate level of literacy cannot be involved fully and on a
completely equal basis in social and political discourse.

3.5 UNEMPLOYMENT
In simple words a person, who is not gainfully employed in any productive
activity, is called unemployed. Unemployment could be voluntary or
involuntary. However, there is no scientific treatment with the help of which
we can distinguish between voluntary and involuntary unemployment.
Generally speaking people in the age group of 15-59 years are considered to
be in the working population of a country and the concept of unemployment
is restricted to this group of people only. That is, children and old persons
are not included in the definition of unemployment. However, some
economists suggest a broader definition. It should include (i) all persons
(men, women and children) who are working and (ii) those not working, but
are searching for work. There may be a section of society, which is not
interested, in any gainful employment. There may be some people who may
be interested in jobs at wage rates higher than those prevailing in the labour
market. Persons falling in above two categories are called voluntarily
unemployed.
Involuntary unemployment is characterized by a situation in which people
are prepared to work at prevailing wage rate but they are not able to get
employment.
In economics the term ―unemployment‖ refers to only involuntary
unemployment and not voluntary employment.
The problem of unemployment in underdeveloped economies is different
from that in developed economies. In developed economies generally
unemployment takes the form of cyclical unemployment or frictional
unemployment. Cyclical unemployment arises due to cyclical movements in
economic activities. Frictional unemployment takes place because of shift to
a new technology. Thus, cyclical and frictional unemployment are temporary
in nature.
On the other hand, the nature of unemployment in underdeveloped
economies is basically structural in nature. In an under-developed economy
the demand for labour is less mainly due to agricultural backwardness,
undeveloped industries and small size of the service sector. Although the
type of unemployment found in underdeveloped economies fits into the
definition of involuntary unemployment, is much different from the nature
of unemployment found in developed economies.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is the causes of unemployment?
Self-Instructional Material 2) What is the meaning of Rural unemployment?
52
3) How is the nature of unemployment in underdeveloped economies Rural Problems

different from that in developed economies? NOTES

NATURE OF UNEMPLOYMENT IN INDIA

In India the problem of unemployment is much more serious than what we
find in developed economies. India is an under-developed though a
developing economy. It is important to emphasize that unemployment in
underdeveloped economy like India is not the result of deficiency in
effective demand but in fact a result of shortage of capital equipment and
complimentary resources. In India there are various types of unemployment.
Generally speaking it takes the forms of rural unemployment and urban
unemployment.
Rural Unemployment
Bulk of unemployment in India is found in the rural areas. There are two
main aspects of rural unemployment: seasonal and chronic disguised
unemployment.
Agriculture is the principal occupation in rural India. By nature agriculture is
a seasonal occupation. Therefore bulk of rural population remains seasonally
unemployed in the absence of alternative employment opportunities. It has
been estimated that a sizeable portion of population engaged in agriculture
remains idle for at least 5-7 months in a year.
Second aspect of rural unemployment is chronic disguised unemployment.
As per the 1991 census report about two third of the population is engaged
in the primary sector (agriculture and allied activities). Working population
in agriculture is increasing consistently is absolute terms. While in 1951
over 100 million persons were engaged in agricultural sector, in 1997 their
number rose to 237.31 million. Such a big increase in the working
population engaged in this sector without there being a corresponding
increase in the area of cultivation, has resulted in overcrowding in
agriculture. This is a situation where even if surplus population is withdrawn
from agriculture, production will not be affected (provided the remaining
labour force works to the best of its abilities). Such a type of situation is
described as disguised unemployment or underemployment. In the words of
Nurkse, marginal productivity of surplus labour so defined is zero. The main
problem in this type of unemployment is that apparently all persons seem to
be employed but enough work is not available to all. An example will make
this concept of disguised unemployment more clear. Suppose there are 10
persons working on the farm, while less work is available. This work is
shared by all persons working on the farms, as there exists no employment
opportunity. If some workers are withdrawn from the farm, those remaining
at farm are able to accomplish the work and farm output does not get
affected, such a situation is called disguised unemployment.
Another aspect of unemployment in rural areas, which needs special
attention, is the educated unemployment. With the spread of education in
rural areas, there has emerged a class in rural areas also which is literate and
in some cases even highly educated. They find themselves misfit in usual
agricultural operations. They remain idle in rural areas due to lack of
employment opportunities outside rural areas.
Concept of rural unemployment is important to understand the phenomenon
Self-Instructional Material
of rural poor. Unemployed or underemployed in rural areas constitute
53
 Rural Problems mainly the class of rural poor. This class mainly consists of landless
NOTES labourers and marginal farmers. Therefore, solution for eradication of rural
poverty lies in eradication of unemployment.
1) ―National Sample Surveys shows that over the period 1983 to
1993-94, the proportion of those educated to a level of secondary school
or higher among the unemployed persons increased from 47 per cent to 64
per cent. While a high proportion of the literates among unemployed
shows un-utilisation of scarce resources put in for education of the people,
it also indicates a mismatch between the kind of job opportunities that are
needed and those available in the job market. Clearly the increase of
literates among the unemployed and further among the literate
unemployed, of those with higher level of educational attainment points to
the need for skilled jobs rather than the simple low productive manual
labour that an illiterate has to resort to for a living‖.
Thirdly, there are emerging trends of underemployment of those who
are seeking job on part-time basis, while they pursue their studies. Such job
seekers, if they do not get jobs of their satisfaction, could be called
underemployed. There could be many others, who have completed their
education, but are not able to get job to the best of their abilities and
capacities.

Check Your Progress 3

1)What are the two main types of unemployment found in rural India?

2) Explain the nature of disguised unemployment in India.

3) What are the different kinds of unemployment found in urban areas?

CAUSES OF UNEMPLOYMENT
Foregoing analysis about trends and structure of unemployment in India,
reveals the gravity of the problem. Now let us discuss the main causes of
unemployment. These are :
i) slow economic growth process,
ii) rapid increase in labour force,
iii) inappropriate technology, and
iv) inappropriate education system and lack of manpower planning .

Slow Economic Growth Process

It is no doubt that the problem of unemployment is found in both
developed as well as underdeveloped economies. Despite high incomes
of these developed economies, problem of unemployment is prevalent
there too. But the kind of unemployment found in underdeveloped
countries is basically due to its low levels of development and slow
growth process.
It is expected that as an economy grows, production expands and thus the
employment opportunities. We find that in the past, after Independence there
has been growth in production. As a result, absolute level of employment
Self-Instructional Material has also risen. But rate of growth in production has been less than the target.
54
As a result, adequate number of employment opportunities could not be Rural Problems

created. NOTES

But we should also keep in mind that growth alone is not expected to solve
the problem of unemployment. Some economists have hinted at a possible
conflict between employment and economic growth, in the early phase of
development. In India also this conflict has been very apparent. In the early
plans till sixth five-year plan this conflict was not recognized. As a result,
although absolute level of employment increased, it was hardly sufficient to
solve the problem of unemployment.

Increase in Labour Force

There has been significant growth in the labour force in the last fifty years,
due to fast growing population. Since Independence, death rate has been
declining very fast, without a corresponding fall in birth rate. As a result,
population is growing at a very high rate; at present rate of growth of
population is around 2%. This is naturally followed by fast expansion in
labour force.

There is another factor, which has led to increase in labour force, due to
urbanization and changed attitude towards employment. After Independence,
education among women has led to change in attitude of women towards
employment. They now compete with men for employment. This
phenomenon is more prevalent in urban areas.
Thus rapid growth in labour force can be ascribed to (i) fast growing
population, (ii) changed attitude of women towards employment, (iii) failure
of growth process to create sufficient additional jobs. All these factors have
increased the problem of unemployment.

Inappropriate Technology
We understand that, in India labour is abundant while capital is a scarce
factor of production. Therefore, to solve the problem of unemployment, we
need to adopt such a technology, which makes use of more labour and less
of capital to produce a given level of output. But, it is unfortunate that not
only in industries, even in agricultural production capital is substituting
labour very fast. Thus, capital-labour ratio has increased in production
process. Technological change has been labour-saving.
While making a choice about technology, normally western model is
adopted. We understand that in the west, labour is scarce and capital is
abundant. Therefore, for them appropriate technology is capital intensive.
But in India we cannot justify the use of more sophisticated and round about
methods of production, which substitute capital for labour. But adoption of
such a technology has led to larger unemployment.
A pertinent question at this point is that why, despite abundance of labour,
capital-intensive technology is adopted in India. This happens because rate
of return on capital and labour are not market determined. While on the one
hand, labour is assured of minimum wages, rate of interest is kept low
arbitrarily. As a result, people are inclined to make more use of capital-
intensive technology, as it is economically more viable. According to W.A.
Lions, investment in such a situation in capital equipment may be more Self-Instructional Material

55
 Rural Problems profitable to individual capitalist but certainly not beneficial to society
NOTES because it increases unemployment.
Rigid labour laws in India have also contributed towards adoption of capital-
intensive production process. On the part of industries, it is quite difficult to
reduce number of employees. Once a person is recruited, most likely he/she
will be retained for life. In addition, labour-unrest and lack of work-culture
has increased inefficiency of labour. These factors, again, have provided
incentives for addition of labour-saving technology.

Inappropriate Educational System and Lack of Manpower Planning

We inherited educational system from our colonial rulers. Macaulay, who
designed educational policy during the colonial period, had in mind the
interests of British government. Macaulay designed a system, which could
merely produce clerks and lower cadre executives for the British
Government. Even after Independence, there has been a fast expansion in the
number of institutions, which impart education in arts and commerce. There
has been a very little expansion in educational and training institutions
providing technical, engineering and medical education. As a result, there
has been a fast growth of unemployment among educated men and women,
while shortage of technical and specialized personnel remained. Therefore,
there is a need to change our educational system to an appropriate one,
which takes into account needs of the society and develops human resources
accordingly.

Moreover, there has been a total lack of manpower planning in India. For
steady growth of any economy human resources play an important role.
There should be long term planning for the provision of appropriate skills
for meeting the requirements of development. No doubt there has been an
increase in facilities for higher education, technical education, training in
different fields, but they were not in accordance with development needs.
The obvious result is surplus of manpower in some fields and deficit in
others. We find widespread unemployment among graduates, postgraduates
and even researchers in humanities while there is scarcity of physicians,
engineers and technical personnel.

Check Your Progress 4

1)What are the main causes of the problem of unemployment in India?
Explain.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................

3.6 PROBLEMS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE

While agriculture‘s share in India‘s economy has progressively declined to
less than 15% due to the high growth rates of the industrial and services
sectors, the sector‘s importance in India‘s economic and social fabric goes
well beyond this indicator. First, nearly three-quarters of India‘s families
Self-Instructional Material depend on rural incomes. Second, the majority of India‘s poor (some 770
56
million people or about 70 percent) are found in rural areas. And third, Rural Problems

India‘s food security depends on producing cereal crops, as well as NOTES

increasing its production of fruits, vegetables and milk to meet the demands
of a growing population with rising incomes. To do so, a productive,
competitive, diversified and sustainable agricultural sector will need to
emerge at an accelerated pace.
India is a global agricultural powerhouse. It is the world‘s largest producer
of milk, pulses, and spices, and has the world‘s largest cattle herd
(buffaloes), as well as the largest area under wheat, rice and cotton. It is the
second largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, farmed fish, sheep
& goat meat, fruit, vegetables and tea. The country has some 195 m ha under
cultivation of which some 63 percent are rainfed (roughly 125m ha) while
37 percent are irrigated (70m ha). In addition, forests cover some 65m ha of
India‘s land.

Challenges
Three agriculture sector challenges will be important to India‘s overall
development and the improved welfare of its rural poor:
1. Raising agricultural productivity per unit of land: Raising productivity per
unit of land will need to be the main engine of agricultural growth as
virtually all cultivable land is farmed. Water resources are also limited and
water for irrigation must contend with increasing industrial and urban needs.
All measures to increase productivity will need exploiting, amongst them:
increasing yields, diversification to higher value crops, and developing value
chains to reduce marketing costs.

2. Reducing rural poverty through a socially inclusive strategy that

comprises both agriculture as well as non-farm employment: Rural
development must also benefit the poor, landless, women, scheduled castes
and tribes. Moreover, there are strong regional disparities: the majority of
India‘s poor are in rain-fed areas or in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic plains.
Reaching such groups has not been easy. While progress has been made -
the rural population classified as poor fell from nearly 40% in the early
1990s to below 30% by the mid-2000s (about a 1% fall per year) – there is a
clear need for a faster reduction. Hence, poverty alleviation is a central pillar
of the rural development efforts of the Government and the World Bank.
3. Ensuring that agricultural growth responds to food security needs: The
sharp rise in food-grain production during India‘s Green Revolution of the
1970s enabled the country to achieve self-sufficiency in food-grains and
stave off the threat of famine. Agricultural intensification in the 1970s to
1980s saw an increased demand for rural labor that raised rural wages and,
together with declining food prices, reduced rural poverty. However
agricultural growth in the 1990s and 2000s slowed down, averaging about
3.5% per annum, and cereal yields have increased by only 1.4% per annum
in the 2000s. The slow-down in agricultural growth has become a major
cause for concern. India‘s rice yields are one-third of China‘s and about half
of those in Vietnam and Indonesia. The same is true for most other
agricultural commodities.

Self-Instructional Material

57
 Rural Problems Policy makers will thus need to initiate and/or conclude policy actions and
NOTES public programs to shift the sector away from the existing policy and
institutional regime that appears to be no longer viable and build a solid
foundation for a much more productive, internationally competitive, and
diversified agricultural sector.

Priority Areas for Support

1. Enhancing agricultural productivity, competitiveness, and rural
growth
Promoting new technologies and reforming agricultural research and
extension: Major reform and strengthening of India‘s agricultural research
and extension systems is one of the most important needs for agricultural
growth. These services have declined over time due to chronic underfunding
of infrastructure and operations, no replacement of aging researchers or
broad access to state-of-the-art technologies. Research now has little to
provide beyond the time-worn packages of the past. Public extension
services are struggling and offer little new knowledge to farmers. There is
too little connection between research and extension, or between these
services and the private sector.

Improving Water Resources and Irrigation/Drainage Management:

Agriculture is India‘s largest user of water. However, increasing competition
for water between industry, domestic use and agriculture has highlighted the
need to plan and manage water on a river basin and multi-sectoral basis. As
urban and other demands multiply, less water is likely to be available for
irrigation. Ways to radically enhance the productivity of irrigation (―more
crop per drop‖) need to be found. Piped conveyance, better on-farm
management of water, and use of more efficient delivery mechanisms such
as drip irrigation are among the actions that could be taken. There is also a
need to manage as opposed to exploit the use of groundwater. Incentives to
pump less water such as levying electricity charges or community
monitoring of use have not yet succeeded beyond sporadic initiatives. Other
key priorities include: (i) modernizing Irrigation and Drainage Departments
to integrate the participation of farmers and other agencies in managing
irrigation water; (ii) improving cost recovery; (iii) rationalizing public
expenditures, with priority to completing schemes with the highest returns;
and (iv) allocating sufficient resources for operations and maintenance for
the sustainability of investments.
Facilitating agricultural diversification to higher-value commodities:
Encouraging farmers todiversify to higher value commodities will be a
significant factor for higher agricultural growth, particularly in rain-fed areas
where poverty is high. Moreover, considerable potential exists for expanding
agro-processing and building competitive value chains from producers to
urban centers and export markets. While diversification initiatives should be
left to farmers and entrepreneurs, the Government can, first and foremost,
liberalize constraints to marketing, transport, export and processing. It can
also play a small regulatory role, taking due care that this does not become
an impediment.

Self-Instructional Material

58
Promoting high growth commodities: Some agricultural sub-sectors have Rural Problems

particularly high potential for expansion, notably dairy. The livestock sector, NOTES
primarily due to dairy, contributes over a quarter of agricultural GDP and is
a source of income for 70% of India‘s rural families, mostly those who are
poor and headed by women. Growth in milk production, at about 4% per
annum, has been brisk, but future domestic demand is expected to grow by
at least 5% per annum. Milk production is constrained, however, by the poor
genetic quality of cows, inadequate nutrients, inaccessible veterinary care,
and other factors. A targeted program to tackle these constraints could boost
production and have good impact on poverty.

Developing markets, agricultural credit and public expenditures: India‘s

legacy of extensive government involvement in agricultural marketing has
created restrictions in internal and external trade, resulting in cumbersome
and high-cost marketing and transport options for agricultural commodities.
Even so, private sector investment in marketing, value chains and agro-
processing is growing, but much slower than potential. While some
restrictions are being lifted, considerably more needs to be done to enable
diversification and minimize consumer prices. Improving access to rural
finance for farmers is another need as it remains difficult for farmers to get
credit. Moreover, subsidies on power, fertilizers and irrigation have
progressively come to dominate Government expenditures on the sector, and
are now four times larger than investment expenditures, crowding out top
priorities such as agricultural research and extension.

2. Poverty alleviation and community actions

While agricultural growth will, in itself, provide the base for increasing
incomes, for the 170 million or so rural persons that are below the poverty
line, additional measures are required to make this growth inclusive. For
instance, a rural livelihoods program that empowers communities to become
self-reliant has been found to be particularly effective and well-suited for
scaling-up. This program promotes the formation of self-help groups,
increases community savings, and promotes local initiatives to increase
incomes and employment. By federating to become larger entities, these
institutions of the poor gain the strength to negotiate better prices and market
access for their products, and also gain the political power over local
governments to provide them with better technical and social services. These
self-help groups are particularly effective at reaching women and
impoverished families.

3. Sustaining the environment and future agricultural productivity

In parts of India, the over-pumping of water for agricultural use is leading to
falling groundwater levels. Conversely, water-logging is leading to the
build-up of salts in the soils of some irrigated areas. In rain-fed areas on the
other hand, where the majority of the rural population live, agricultural
practices need adapting to reduce soil erosion and increase the absorption of
rainfall. Overexploited and degrading forest land need mitigation measures.
There are proven solutions to nearly all of these problems. The most
comprehensive is through watershed management programs, where
communities engage in land planning and adopt agricultural practices that
protect soils, increase water absorption and raise productivity through higher Self-Instructional Material

59
 Rural Problems yields and crop diversification. At issue, however, is how to scale up such
NOTES initiatives to cover larger areas of the country. Climate change must also be
considered. More extreme events – droughts, floods, erratic rains – are
expected and would have greatest impact in rain-fed areas. The watershed
program, allied with initiatives from agricultural research and extension,
may be the most suited agricultural program for promoting new varieties of
crops and improved farm practices. But other thrusts, such as the livelihoods
program and development of off-farm employment may also be key.

World Bank Support

With some $5.5 billion in net commitments from both IDA and IBRD, and
24 ongoing projects, the World Bank‘s agriculture and rural development
program in India is by far the Bank‘s largest such program worldwide in
absolute dollar terms. This figure is even higher when investments in rural
development such as rural roads, rural finance and human development are
included. Nonetheless, this amount is relatively small when compared with
the Government‘s - both central and state - funding of public programs in
support of agriculture. Most of the Bank‘s agriculture and rural development
assistance is geared towards state-level support, but some also takes place at
the national level.
The Bank‘s Agricultural and Rural Development portfolio is
clustered across three broad themes with each project, generally, showing a
significant integration of these themes.

 Agriculture, watershed and natural resources management

 Water & irrigated agriculture
 Rural livelihood development

Over the past five to ten years, the Bank has been supporting:
R&D in Agricultural Technology through two national level projects with
pan-India implementation (the National Agriculture Technology Project and
the National Agriculture Innovation Project) coordinated by the Government
of India‘s Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Dissemination of Agricultural Technology: New approaches towards the
dissemination of agricultural technology such as the Agriculture Technology
Management Agency (ATMA) model have contributed to diversification of
agricultural production in Assam and Uttar Pradesh. This extension
approach is now being scaled-up across India.
Better delivery of irrigation water: World Bank support for the better
delivery of irrigation water ranges from projects covering large irrigation
infrastructure to local tanks and ponds. Projects also support the
strengthening of water institutions in several states (Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh) improved
groundwater management practices (for instance, in the upcoming Rajasthan
Agriculture Competitiveness Project).

Sustainable agricultural practices through watershed and rainfed agriculture

development (Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand), soil reclamation
Self-Instructional Material efforts (Uttar Pradesh) and, more recently, improved groundwater
60
management practices (for instance, in the upcoming Rajasthan Agriculture Rural Problems

Competitiveness Project). NOTES

Improved access to rural credit and greater gender involvement in rural

economic activities through rural livelihood initiatives undertaken by a
number of states (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu) and soon to be scaled up by GOI with Bank support
through a National Rural Livelihood Mission.
Agricultural insurance by advising GOI on how to improve the actuarial
design and implementation of the insurance program (e.g. rating
methodology and product design, index insurance, use of mobile and remote
sensing technology to measure yields, etc.).
Improved farmer access to agriculture markets through policy reforms and
investments under the Maharashtra Agricultural Competitiveness Project
which aims to reform regulated wholesale markets and provide farmers with
alternative market opportunities.
The land policy agenda through analytical work as well as non-lending
technical assistance in support of GOI‘s National Land Records
Modernization Program.
Better rural connectivity through IDA support to the Prime Minister‘s
National Rural Roads Program (PMGSY), and by connecting rural poor and
smallholder farmers through collective action to public services through
Self-Help Groups (and SHG federations), Water User Associations and
Farmer Producer Organizations. Recently the Bank‘s Board of Executive
Directors approved the National Rural Livelihood Mission, which supports
SHG approaches through a pan-India approach.

The following points will highlight the seven major problems of Indian
agriculture.
Instability:
Agriculture in India is largely depends on monsoon. As a result, production
of food-grains fluctuates year after year. A year of abun-dant output of
cereals is often followed by a year of acute shortage.
This, in its turn, leads to price income and employment fluctuations.
However, for the thirteen year, in successive (1987-88 to 1999-00) a normal
monsoon has been observed.

Cropping Pattern:
The crops that are grown in India are divided into two broad catego-ries:
food crops and non-food crops. While the former comprise food-grains,
sugarcane and other beverages, the latter includes different kinds of fibres
and oilseeds.
In recent years there has occurred a fall in agricultural production mainly
due to fall in the output of non-food articles. Moreover rabi pro-duction has
become as important as kharif pro-duction in the late 1990s. In 1999-2000,
for exam-ple, of the total grain production of 209 mn. tones, rabi accounted Self-Instructional Material

61
 Rural Problems for 104 mn. tones. This indicates a structural change in agricultural
NOTES production.

Land Ownership:
Although the owner-ship of agricultural land in India is fairly widely
distributed, there is some degree of concentration of land holding. Inequality
in land distribution is also due to the fact that there are frequent changes in
land ownership in India. It is believed that large parcels of land in India are
owned by a- relatively small section of the rich farmers, landlords and
money-lenders, while the vast majority of farmers own very little amount of
land, or no land at all.
Moreover, most holdings are small and uneco-nomic. So the advantages of
large-scale farming cannot be derived and cost per unit with ‗uneco­nomic‘
holdings is high, output per hectare is hec-tare is low. As a result peasants
cannot generate sufficient marketable surplus. So they are not only poor but
are often in debt.

Sub-Division and Fragmentation of Hold-ing:

Due to the growth of population and break-down of the joint family system,
there has occurred continuous sub-division of agricultural land into smaller
and smaller plots. At times small farmers are forced to sell a portion of their
land to repay their debt. This creates further sub-division of land.
Sub-division, in its turn, leads to fragmenta-tion of holdings. When the size
of holdings be-come smaller and smaller, cultivation becomes un-economic.
As a result a major portion of land is not brought under the plough.
Such sub-division and fragmentation make the efficient use of land virtually
impossible and add to the difficulties of increasing capital equip-ment on the
farm. All these factors account for the low productivity of Indian agriculture.

Land Tenure:
The land tenure system of India is also far from perfect. In the pre-
independence period, most tenants suffered from insecurity of tenancy. They
could be evicted any time. How-ever, various steps have been taken after
Independ-ence to provide security of tenancy.

Conditions of Agricultural Labourers:

The conditions of most agricultural labourers in India are far from
satisfactory. There is also the problem of surplus labour or disguised
unemploy-ment. This pushes the wage rates below the sub-sistence levels.

Other Problems:
There are various other problems of Indian agriculture.
These are related to:

(i) The systems and techniques of farming,

(ii) The marketing of agricultural products and
Self-Instructional Material
(iii) The indebtedness of the farmers.
62
These prob-lems may now be discussed separately: Rural Problems

NOTES
(i) The Systems and Techniques of Farming:
(a) Neglect of crop rotation:

Successful con-duct of agricultural operations depends upon a proper

rotation of crops.-If cereals are grown on a plot of land its fertility is reduced
to some extent. This can be restored if other crops such as pulses are grown
on the same plot on a rotational basis. Most farmers in India are illiterate and
do not un-derstand this important point. Since they are not aware of the need
for crop rotation they use the same type of crop and, consequently, the land
loses its fertility considerably.

(b) Inadequate use of manures and fertilisers:

Inadequate use of manures like cow-dung or vegetable refuge and chemical
fertilisers makes Indian agriculture much less productive than Japa-nese or
Chinese agriculture.
(c) The use of poor quality seeds:
In India, not much use has been made of improved varieties of seeds. The
main cereals (rice, millets and pulses) are still grown chiefly with
unimpro-ved seeds.
(d) Inadequate water supply:
Farmers also suffer due to lack of irrigation facilities. More-over, ordinary
varieties of seed can be replaced by better varieties if there is an assured
supply of wa-ter. The need for the construction of minor irriga-tion works of
a local nature is both urgent and pressing. In fact, the total water potential in
the country is more than adequate to irrigate the whole areas under
cultivation. However, the present prob-lem is one of discovering cheap and
easy methods of utilising these vast supplies of water.
(e) Inadequate use of efficient farm equip-ment:
The method of cultivation in most areas of India are still primitive. Most
farmers continue to use native plough and other accessories. However, the
problem is not one of shortage of modern ma-chinery. The real problem is
that the units of cul-tivation are too small to permit the use of such
machinery.

(ii) Agricultural Marketing:

One of the major causes of low income of the Indian farmers is the difficulty
in marketing their crops. Due to the small size and scattered nature of
agricultural holdings, the productivity per acre is low. Consequently, the
collection of these sur-pluses for the purpose of marketing presents a
seri-ous problem.
Agricultural marketing problems arose due to the lack of communications,
i.e., con-necting the producing centres with the urban ar-eas which are the
main centres of consumption. The difficulty of communication prevents the Self-Instructional Material

63
 Rural Problems farmer from marketing his own produce. So he has to rely on a number of
NOTES middlemen (intermediaries) for the disposal of ―his crops at cheap prices.

(iii) Agricultural Credit:

The typical Indian farmer is almost always in debt. The farmer is a perennial
debtor.

Once the farmer falls, into debt due to crop failure or low prices of crops or
malpractices of moneylenders he can never come out of it. In fact, a large
part of the liabilities of farmers is ‗ancestral debt‘. Thus, along with his
landed property, he passes on his debt to his successors.
There are four main causes of rural indebted-ness:
(a) Low earning power of the borrower
(b) Use of loan for unproductive purposes

(c) The excessively high rate of interest charged by the moneylenders

(d) The manipulation of accounts by the lenders

(iv) Agricultural Prices:

In order to increase food production, it is necessary to ensure that prices of
Food-grains set by the Government from time to time give suffi-cient
incentive to farmers so that they can earn reasonable incomes. In India,
bumper crop leads to fall in revenue of farmers.

Need for price stabilization:

In view of the rising and fluctuating trends in agricultural prices, there is
need for stabilization of prices of agricul-tural commodities. Price
fluctuation in any direc-tion may spell disaster since both rising and fall-ing
prices have had harmful consequences.

The Agricultural Prices Commission (now it is called Agricultural Cost and

Price Commission) takes up a number of aspects of price policy, such as
minimum support prices (MSP), procurement prices (PP), issue prices of
food-grains (IPF).
In recent years while the well-to-do farmers have benefitted from the hikes
in support prices, small and marginal farmers, faced with difficulties in the
matter of credit and obtaining the right type of inputs, have been in trouble.
Paradoxically two years of an upswing in agriculture (1999-2000) have led
to a sharp fall in prices and added to the distress of farmers in most parts of
the country. At the same time, an unprecedented pile-up of pro-cured food-
grains held by State agencies totaling over 50 million tones has added to the
burdens on the budget.
Given the low off-take in the public distribu-tion system (PDS),
accumulation of food-stocks is resulting in a large burden of food subsidy.
The low off-take in PDS is due to the fact that market prices are lower and
supplies are plentiful. The Government has also not been able to utilise any
Self-Instructional Material

64
large volume of surplus stocks in food-for-Work programmes in drought Rural Problems

areas. NOTES

Truly speaking, if agriculture is to be a vi-able long-term economic base for

the farming com-munity, it is important to recognize that the farm­ers‘
interests are better served by a more efficient system of production, rather
than high prices. Plan-ners should take note of this point.
The community you live in is part of who you are. Even if you don‘t see
your neighbors every day, you recognize that the decisions you make impact
those around you. You‘re all in it together, and you wouldn‘t have it any
other way!
Improving your community and helping others is often at the top of your
mind. So when the phrase ―community health‖ crossed your radar, you had
to know more. What is community health? And how does it affect the lives
of those in your area?

COMMUNITY HEALTH
Community health is the intersection of healthcare, economics and social
interaction. Unfortunately, many people are unaware of the role this type of
healthcare plays in their everyday lives. Join us as we explore the impact of
community health on your neighborhood—and what you can do to improve
it.
Community health – Meaning
Community health is a medical specialty that focuses on the physical and
mental well-being of the people in a specific geographic region. This
important subsection of public health includes initiatives to help community
members maintain and improve their health, prevent the spread of infectious
diseases and prepare for natural disasters.
―Working at the community level promotes healthy living, helps prevent
chronic diseases and brings the greatest health benefits to the greatest
number of people in need,‖ reports the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC).1
Strong community health requires residents to look beyond themselves and
take ―collective responsibility,‖ says Caleb Backe, health and wellness
expert at Maple Holistics. ―It‘s not just about the healthcare system, but
focuses on the importance of leading a generally healthy lifestyle in order to
protect the community as a whole.‖
Community health is inextricably tied to individual wellness. ―Good
community health equates to healthy people, as a community is the
ecosystem or environment in which people live,‖ says Thomas G.
Bognanno, president and CEO of Community Health Charities. ―It‘s difficult
to be healthy personally if your community is unhealthy.‖

The far-reaching impact of community health

Community health flips the script on the old adage, ―You take care of you;
I‘ll take care of me.‖ Instead, public health experts agree that the health of a
community can have far-reaching—and sometimes surprising—impacts on
individual health and beyond.
Self-Instructional Material

65
 Rural Problems ―Community health impacts everything—educational achievement, safety
NOTES and crime, people‘s ability to work and be financially healthy, life
expectancy, happiness and more,‖ Bognanno says. ―Health impacts every
other facet of life, from a child‘s ability to learn to an adult‘s ability to work,
so health is critical for education and financial well-being.‖
The effect of health on quality of life can also impact the desire to
participate in civic duties like voting, social functions and leisure activities,
according to Healthy People 2020, an initiative of the Office of Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion.2
Communities that are attentive to public health can even reduce inequality
among their residents. ―[Community health] also helps to reduce health gaps
caused by differences in race and ethnicity, location, social status, income
and other factors that can affect health,‖ reports the CDC.1

The consequences of neglecting community health

A lack of focus on community health can lead to a range of complex
problems that aren‘t easy to correct. For example, crime and safety issues
that result from neglected community health can quickly becoming a self-
perpetuating cycle. ―Repeated exposure to crime and violence may be linked
to an increase in negative health outcomes. Children exposed to violence
may show increased signs of aggression starting in upper-elementary
school,‖ reports Healthy People 2020.2
Chronic diseases, such as diabetes and heart disease, can also increase if a
community‘s overall well-being is suffering. ―An unhealthy community
tends to be obese and struggle more from chronic diseases and other health
challenges,‖ Bognanno says.
Chronic diseases like these not only reduce life expectancy, they have a
dramatic effect on the economy. The CDC reports that 90 percent of the
nation‘s annual healthcare expenses are for people with chronic health
conditions.3
Curbing the spread of infectious disease is also a priority of community
health programs. Without them, communities may find themselves battling
outbreaks of illnesses that put vulnerable populations like the elderly at
higher risk.
―If a community has to recover from an emergency event, such as a natural
disaster, reducing the spread of disease becomes a crucial part of the
recovery process,‖ Backe says.

Factors that improve community health

Improving community health is a huge undertaking that involves
cooperation between public health workers, local government, volunteers
and average citizens alike—and the end products of their work can take a lot
of forms. ―Communities benefit from walking trails and bike paths, from
access to healthy food and playgrounds, from accessible healthcare services,
schools and places of employment, as well as affordable housing,‖
Bognanno says.
Education also plays a large role in maintaining community health. Health
Self-Instructional Material
fairs and advertising campaigns that expose the dangers of risk factors like

66
tobacco exposure, poor nutrition and physical inactivity can raise awareness Rural Problems

about the importance of choosing a healthy lifestyle. The CDC has also NOTES
focused on promoting nutrition guidelines in schools and increasing the
amount of physical education children receive.4
Individuals can step up to the plate for their community‘s health by
volunteering at health fairs or blood drives, petitioning local officials to
develop more green space and walking trails and maintaining their own
health. ―The collective responsibilities that individuals have for their
communal health can lead to positive interactions within the community as a
whole,‖ Backe says.

Health care in rural India

Health is not everything but everything else is nothing without health. ―In
the beginning, there was desire which was the first seed of mind,‖ says Rig-
Veda, which probably is the earliest piece of literature known to mankind.
Since antiquity India being the first state to give its citizens national health
care as a uniform right. However in the present scenario Indian rural health
care faces a crisis unmatched to any other social sector. Nearly 86% of all
the medical visit in India are made by ruralites with majority still travelling
more than 100 km to avail health care facility of which 70-80% is born out
of pocket landing them in poverty.

Government succeeded in generating infrastructures in urban area but fail to

do so in rural, sustaining 70% of Indian population. Though existing
infrastructural setup for providing health care in rural India is on a right
track, yet the qualitative and quantitative availability of primary health care
facilities is far less than the defined norms by the World Health
Organization. Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare figure of 2005
suggests a shortfall of 12% for sub centers (existing 146,026), 16% of
Primary Health Centers (PHCs) (existing 23,236) and 50% Community
Health Centers (CHCs) (existing 3346) then prescribed norms with 49.7%,
78% and 91.5% of sub centers, PHCs and CHCs located in government
buildings and rest in non-government buildings respectively requiring a
figure of 60,762, 2948 and 205 additional buildings for sub centers, PHCs
and CHCs respectively. Location of PHCs and CHCs a far of distance from
rural areas procures a heavy daily loss of wages. This leads the rural people
accessing facilities of private health care practitioners, usually unregistered
at affordable charges in their villages.
Government reluctance toward the health care appears in that the roughly
0.9% of the total gross domestic product is allocated for health care.
Spending average 14% of the household income on health care by the poor
house hold varying from 1.3% in Tamil Nadu to about 37% in Jalore
(Rajasthan) suggests people's reluctance toward health care putting it in a
side corner then other priorities. Only 0.5% of the rural enjoy basic
sanitation facilities with a major population affected by the various health
ailments owing to lack of sanitation coupled with polluted waters. Felling
seriously ill they either head toward the urban setup or the backward
communities look for the witchcraft and hermits, placing them in the grip of
lechers (money lenders), creating a physical.
Self-Instructional Material

67
 Rural Problems Ineffectiveness of the primary health care created a breach in referral system
NOTES which should serve as an entry point for the individual and continuous
comprehensive coordination at all level of health care. Utilization of
services has shown to be residence and educational level dependent with
70% of illiterate availing no ANC care when compared with 15% of literate
with rural women (43%) less likely to receive the ANC services when
compared with urban women (74%).
Dearth of men power, reluctant community participation and intersectoral
coordination make the condition nastiest. There is a threat to collapse of the
higher health care machinery owing to overcrowding by health care seekers
which are bypassing the first level of contact and this is the major problem
Indian health care system is facing. Low faith in public health services could
be a reason for this by pass evident from the existing data.
The only way which could lead to the goal of health inclusion is by
incorporating impoverish needy rural population through community
participation. It is a common complaint of people that government health
functionaries are struck with non-availability of medical staff. In one of the
study, it was indicated that 143 public facilities found absenteeism of 45%
doctors from PHCs with 56% of time found to be closed with an
unpredictable pattern of closure and absenteeism during regular hour visit. A
survey report from Madhya Pradesh in 2007 states that out of 24,807
qualified doctors and 94,026 qualified paramedical staff mapped in the
survey in the state, 18,757 (75.6%) and 67,793 (72.1%) were working in the
private sector respectively highlighting the government failure to provide
basic infrastructure to doctors and other health care workers in rural areas.
This could be tackle by focusing on skill up gradation, capacity development
and capability reinvigoration and limiting the scope for practice of illicit and
unqualified practitioners. Thus, primary health care in India needs to be re-
evaluate and immediately warrants reforms and concrete steps to be taken,
otherwise this tug of war between growth and human resource development
remains will continue forever.

3.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have attempt to understand that rural problems mainly
focused on Poverty, illiteracy and Unemployment. Further this Unit also
delas with the problems related to agriculture ( land holding, productivity,
marketing ) and health.
3.8 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. What is the definition of poverty accepted internationally?
2. What are the Millennium Development Goals?
3. What is the Cause of Unemployment?
4. What is the meaning of Rural Unemployment?
5. How is the nature of unemployment in underdeveloped economies
different from that in developed economies?
6. What are the main causes of the problem of unemployment in India?
Explain.
3.9 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The discussion on poverty is generally confined to absolute poverty.
Absolute poverty is measured against a pre-determined level of
Self-Instructional Material
living that families should be able to afford. Consumption of food
68
 grains, vegetables, milk products and other items that are necessary Rural Problems

for a healthy living and access to other non-food items are included NOTES
in the absolute minimum consumption basket.
2. The world community committed itself to achieve eight goals. These
are known as the millennium development goals (MDG). Each goal
has specific targets and has to be achieved by the year 2015. The
MDGs are to:
 eradicate extreme poverty and hunger,
 achieve universal primary education,
 promote gender equality and empower women,
 reduce child mortality,
 improve maternal health,
 combat HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other diseases,
 ensure environmental sustainability; and ensure global
partnership for development.
3. Foregoing analysis about trends and structure of unemployment in
India reveals the gravity of the problem. Now let us discuss the main
causes of unemployment. These are :
i) slow economic growth process,
ii) rapid increase in labour force,
iii) inappropriate technology, and
iv) inappropriate education system and lack of manpower
planning .
4. Bulk of unemployment in India is found in the rural areas. There are
two main aspects of rural unemployment: seasonal and chronic
disguised unemployment.
3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Marickan S.J. (Ed) 1988. Poverty in India, Xaier Board :
Trivandrum.
2. Swamy D.S. and A. Gulati 1986. From Prosperity to Retrogression :
Indian Cultivators during the 1970‘s. EPW, June 21-22, p.A-63.
3. Kundu Amitabh and Darshini Mahadevia (Eds.). 2002. Poverty and
vulnerability in a globalising metropolis Ahmedabad: New Delhi:
Manak
4. Publication Pvt. Ltd.
5. Razavi, Sahara (Eds.).2002. Gendered poverty and well-being:
Institute of social studies: Oxford, UK: Blackwell publishers Ltd.
6. Harris, Barbara, S. Guhan and R.H. Casssen (Eds.). 1992. Poverty in
India, Research and Policy. Bombay: Oxford university press.
7. Atal Yogesh, 2002. The poverty question, search for solutions, New
Delhi, Rawat publication.
8. Dube Sidddhart. 1998. In the land poverty: Memoirs of and Indian
Family: 1947-97. London and New York, Zed books.
9. Williams, Karel. 1981. From Pauperism to poverty: London and
Boston, Routledge and Kegan Paul.
10. Waxman, Chaim. I. 1983. The stigma of property: A critic of poverty
theories and policies, Rutgers university.
11. Sen Amartya. 1992. ‗Poverty and Affluence‘ in Amartya Sen‘s

Self-Instructional Material

69
Community Development

NOTES
UNIT-IVCOMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Structure
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Objectives
4.3. Community Development
4.3.1 Meaning of Community development
4.3.2 Objectives of Community development
4.3.3 Principles
4.3.4 Process
4.3.5 Models
4.3.6 Methods
4.4. Early Experiments of Rural Development
4.5 Gandhi and his Constructive Programme
4.6 Community Development during – Pre and Post Launching Period
4.7 National Extension Services
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Unit- End- Exercises
4.10 Answer to check your Progress
4.11 Suggested Readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The United Nations defines community development as "a process

where community members come together to take collective action and
generate solutions to common problems." It is a broad concept, applied
to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens, and
professionals to improve various aspects of communities, typically
aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities.

Community development is also understood as a professional

discipline, and is defined by the International Association for
Community Development (www.iacdglobal.org), the global network of
community development practitioners and scholars, as "a practice-based
profession and an academic discipline that promotes participative
democracy, sustainable development, rights, economic opportunity,
Self-Instructional Material

70
 Community Development
equality and social justice, through the organization, education and
NOTES
empowerment of people within their communities, whether these be of
locality, identity or interest, in urban and rural settings".

Community development seeks to empower individuals and

groups of people with the skills they need to effect change within their
communities. These skills are often created through the formation of
social groups working for a common agenda. Community developers
must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect
communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.

Community development as a term has taken off widely in

anglophone countries, i.e. the United States, United Kingdom, Australia,
Canada, New Zealand, as well as other countries in the Commonwealth
of Nations. It is also used in some countries in Eastern Europe with
active community development associations in Hungary and Romania.
The Community Development Journal, published by Oxford University
Press, since 1966 has aimed to be the major forum for research and
dissemination of international community development theory and
practice.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit, you should be able to:

 Define different concepts of Rural Community Development ;

 Describe meaning and Scope of Community Development
 Explain the Early experiments of Gandhi and His Constructive
Development
 Outline the profile of Community Development in Pre and Post
Independence Period ;

4.3. Community Development

Community development has two terms community and development
both of which need some understanding. The concept of community has
already been discussed in chapter I. We reiterate some of its definitions
as “A relatively self-sufficient population, residing in a limited
Self-Instructional Material

71
Community Development geographic area, bound together by feelings of unity and
NOTES
interdependency”.
“a social, religious, occupational, or other group sharing common
characteristics or interests and perceiving itself as distinct in some
respect from the larger society within which it exists, for example the
business community; the community of scholars”.

4.3.1 MEANING OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Communities refer to people bounded in specific geographic areas and
communities of interest. The past three centuries have seen major
changes in the notion of community. We have moved from a
predominantly agricultural and rural society, to an urban industrialized
society, and now to a post-industrial society. In this latter period of de-
industrialization, there has been erosion of community life and a decline
in civil society organizations. These have meant a slow degeneration of
traditional family networks, heightened inequality between groups of
people as well as growth of institutions to meet the needs of the people,
which were hitherto met by the community itself.
Development as a concept would imply that there is progress or change
for the better in such a way to enhance the security, freedom, dignity,
self-reliance and self-development of groups of people. This would
involve twin concepts of social as well as economic development.

Concept of Community Development

Community development may be defined as a process by which the

efforts of the people themselves are combined with those of
governmental authorities, to improve the economic, social and cultural
conditions of communities to integrate these communities into the life of
the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national progress.

Community development is a collaborative, facilitative process

undertaken by people (community, institutions, or academic

Self-Instructional Material

72
 Community Development
stakeholders) who share a common purpose of building capacity to have
NOTES
a positive impact on quality of life.

Community Development is the process of developing active and

sustainable communities based on social justice and mutual respect. It is
about influencing power structures to remove the barriers that prevent
people from participating in the issues that affect their lives. Community
workers facilitate the participation of people in this process. They enable
connections to be made between communities and with the development
of wider policies and programmes. Community Development expresses
values of fairness, equality, accountability, opportunity, choice,
participation, mutuality, reciprocity and continuous learning. Educating,
enabling and empowering are at the core of Community Development.

Community Development is about building active and sustainable

communities based on social justice and mutual respect. It is about
changing power structures to remove the barriers that prevent people
from participating in the issues that affect their lives. Community
Development Workers support individuals, groups and organizations in
this process on the basis of certain values and commitments.

Community development works for strengthening of face to face

communities to meet the psychological needs of belonging, practical
needs of mutual care, and the political need for participation and
campaigning for rights and resources.

Check your progress -1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Write the Meaning of Community Development?
2. What are the Approaches used in Community Development?

Approaches Used in Community Development

Self-Instructional Material

73
Community Development The various approaches used in community development are:
NOTES
 using an asset-based approach that builds on strengths and
existing resources;
 encouraging inclusive processes that embrace community
diversity; and
 Community ownership through collaboratively planned and led
initiatives.

Aims of Community Development are:

 creating equitable conditions and outcomes for health and

wellbeing;
 improving the health and prosperity of the community as a
whole;
 fostering sustainable community initiatives;
 Fostering sustainable self-sufficiency for the people involved;
 increasing personal worth, dignity, and value; and
 building awareness of and resolving issues in the community.

Community Development Values

Community development has certain inherent values.

These can be termed as:

Social Justice - enabling people to claim their human rights, meet their
needs and have greater control over the decision-making processes,
which affect their lives.

Participation - facilitating democratic involvement by people in the

issues, which affect their lives, based on full citizenship, autonomy, and
shared power, skills, knowledge and experience.

Self-Instructional Material

74
 Community Development
Equality - challenging the attitudes of individuals, and the practices of
NOTES
institutions and society, which discriminate against and marginalize
people.

Learning - recognizing the skills, knowledge and expertise that people

contribute and develop by taking action to tackle social, economic,
political and environmental problems.

Co-operation - working together to identify and implement action,

based on mutual respect of diverse cultures and contributions.

Assumptions in Community Development

There are certain implicit assumptions in community development.

These are:

Individuals, groups and local institutions within community areas share

common interests that bind them together.

● This commonness also propels them to work together

The interests of the various groups are not conflicting.

 The state is a supra body that is impartial in the allocation of

resources and that through its policies it does not further
inequalities.

People‟s initiatives are possible in the communities because of their

common interests.

Community development workers are committed to:

 Challenge the discrimination and oppressive practices within

organizations, institutions and communities.
 Develop practice and policy that protects the environment.
 Encourage networking and connections between communities
and organizations.
Self-Instructional Material

75
Community Development  Ensure access and choice for all groups and individuals within
NOTES
society.
 Influence policy and programmes from the perspective of
communities.
 Prioritize the issues of concern to people experiencing poverty
and social exclusion.
 Promote social change that is long-term and sustainable.
 Reverse inequality and the imbalance of power relationships in
society.
 Support community led collective action.
 Distinction Between Community Development and Community
Work

Community development is best used to refer to a process, or a way of

doing something, which entails the mobilization, participation and
involvement of local people on common issues important to them.

4.3.2 Community Development: Objectives

The objectives of the Community Development Programmes may be

summed up under the following heads:

1. Help in Planning:

The Community Development Projects are aimed at helping the villages

in planning and developmental activities. Through these projects,
schemes for improving the agricultural production are undertaken.

2. Involving Villages in National Reconstruction:

An important objective of Community Development Project is to make

village people self-dependent and encourage them to take part in the
activities of national reconstruction.

This is done through the following methods:

Self-Instructional Material

76
 Community Development
i. Changing the traditional and conservative outlook of the village
NOTES
people.

ii. Organizing youth and women bodies to take part in the

developmental and welfare activities.

iii. Making arrangements for recreation of the village youth and women.

1. Providing Educational Facilities in Villages:

Through these projects, an attempt is being made to provide educational

facilities for the village people.

This is done by the following methods:

i. Arranging centres of social education.

ii. Arranging recreational programmes.

iii. Training village people in the activities of planning and

development.

2. Improving the Standard of Living of Villagers:

The main objective of Community Development Programmes is to

improve the standard of liv-ing of the village people. They have been
provided with various employment facilities and opportunities to set up
industries and the training to improve their agricultural production.
Cooperative societies and other such bod-ies have been set up for them
to undertake various activities of development planning.

3. Political Training:

Through the Community Development Projects, village people are also

given training in administrative activities. Through the work-ing of
Community Development Projects, people are trained in the practi-cal
working of democracy. The village people are trained in the area of
civic affairs.
Self-Instructional Material

77
Community Development 4. Other Objectives of Community Development:
NOTES
The above mentioned objec-tives are the general objectives of the
community development. There are also specific objectives intended
basically at „all-round Development of the Rural Society‟.

The specific objectives of the plan may be categorized under the

fol-lowing heads:

i. Agriculture and improvement of agricultural production

ii. Setting up of cooperative societies in each village
iii. Animal husbandry
iv. Public health
v. Rural education
vi. Improving the means of communication and transport in rural
areas
vii. Setting up village level small-scale cottage industries
viii. Organizing and strengthening the village panchayats

4.3.3 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community Development Project is a new experiment in the

development and planning activities of the world. Such projects have
been specially launched only in Asian Countries. It is an experiment
intended at fulfilling the various need of the village society and also
making it self-dependent. It is a part of the Indian Constitution aimed at
estab-lishing a socialist society in this country.

The Community Development Programmes are based on the

following principles:

1. Drawing programmes for fulfilling various needs of the

community.
2. Involving the people in planning and developmental activities.
3. Bringing about material as well as psychological betterment.
Self-Instructional Material 4. Teaching rural people the political set up in democracy.
78
 Community Development
5. Creating the local leadership.
NOTES
6. Drawing up of national policy for the development of the
country.
7. Setting up of cooperative societies for carrying developmental
works.
8. Development based on socialism.

These Community Development Projects are based on the

decentralization of econ-omy, administration and political power. They
are the means of training the people in the art of „self-administration‟.
These programmes employ all the resources for the devel-opment of
nation. They focus their attention at training people to become self-
dependent and self-reliant. These programmes are basically aimed at
changing the face of rural society.

Scope
Community development has a wider scope covering a vast field of
activities. Almost all aspects of social life come under its preview. Such
wider connotation of the term along with differing emphasis on one
aspect or other at various point of time prohibits any scientific
definition.

It has been a movement all over the world. All the countries irrespective
of their level of development have launched the programme. The
programme has utility for developed, under developed as well as for
developing counties. Of course its applicability is more emphasised in
underdeveloped and developing nations.

There is no clear-cut demarcation between a developed and developing

country. Whatever distinctions are given, they overlap each other. This
is because of the fact that development is a continuous process. If
follows a sequential chain. There is no end to this process. The state of
development of a country depends upon the methods, techniques and its
ability, to exploit the resources and to put them for the development of
humanity as a whole.

All these things go on changing. With the passage of time man‟s mind
gets better off, which brings modification in these fields. But if due to
some reason or other such process is retarded for a longer period of Self-Instructional Material

79
Community Development time, then that country lags behind. Comparatively other nations March
NOTES ahead on there way and the country lagging behind become traditional,
undeveloped or undeveloped.

Thus development is a comparative phenomenon, a relative term.

Between these two, some nations are found which are growing slowly
but steadily towards over all development. Such nations are termed as
developing nations. Community development programme is undertaken
in such country. The rate of development varies with the state of
development.

Sometimes it is high in developed countries and some other time

development occurs is high proportion in developing countries. Owing
to its wider applicability and wider fields of operation it is not possible
to put its scope within the boundary of any theoretical framework.
However for the sake of convenience we can broadly divide the field of
community development to the following categories.

1) Agricultural and allied fields:

Under this category activities regarding following items are included.

i) Re-utilisation of virgin and waste lands, ii) Creation of irrigation

facilities, iii) Steps to popularise qualitative high yielding seeds, modern
scientific agricultural method and equipment, creation of credit facilities
for animal husbandry, soil conservation etc. v) Development of fishery
v) Growth of vegetable and plans etc.

2) Co operatives:

Organisation of „co-operative service societies‟, „multipurpose co

operative societies‟, „marketing co organisations etc, comes under this
category which aims at securing people‟s participation.

3) Education:

Providing facilities for free education to all at the primary middle and
high school level, adult education and other literary services with the
aim of creating awareness and consciousness among the people.

4) Employment:

To solve the problem of unemployment mostly in rural areas through

development of trade, commerce, cottage industries etc. Which aim at
full utilisation of man power?
Self-Instructional Material

80
 Community Development
5) Health services:
NOTES
Arrangements for public health sanitation maternal care, medical aid
during pregnancy and child care, midwife services, etc. Which aim at
creating an atmosphere of healthy living?

6) Communication:

Construction of roads, arrangement for transportation and

communication facilities etc. Which aim at connecting rural interior
village with main national life?

7) Vocational training:

Giving training to rural artisans in their own traditional profession and

introducing new scientific and technological inventions, organizing the
training institute‟s in the field of tailoring, embroidery, carpentry etc.
With a view to increase efficiency and productivity of the people.

8) Other welfare activities:

The social welfare activities like rehabilitation of old disable and

destitute, provision for better housing, entertainment, promotion of
cultural activities, organisation of sports and a number of related
activities which aim at an all round development, comes under the scope
of community development programme.

Principles of Community Development

Community Development has immense potential to improve the lives of

those living in our community (especially the most marginalized and
vulnerable) by building on strengths/assets, increasing community to
address challenges, and advocating for system level change. However,
CD practice is not well understood by many

Stakeholder Engagement/Public Participation

Stakeholders are people, groups, or organisations that have a vested

interest in Shelter SA‟s activities and outcomes, including consumers
who are integral to the decision-making, evaluation, provision,
participation and direction setting at all levels of the organisation.

Ownership

Stakeholders and members are actively involved in decision-making and

have ownership of the organisation‟s activities. The organisation works
co-operatively and collaboratively with the Board, branches, staff, Self-Instructional Material

81
Community Development volunteers, members and the wider public, to generate a range of
NOTES benefits.

Empowerment

A process that respects, values and enhances people‟s ability to have

control over their lives is put into practice. This process encourages
people to meet their needs and aspirations in a self-aware and informed
way which takes advantage of their skills, experience and potential.
Change and growth occurs through informing and empowering
individuals and groups.

Lifelong Learning

Learning is integrated into all aspects of activities, to build and support

the personal skills, knowledge, abilities and resilience of people. They
develop health, wellbeing and connections to other people through
formal and informal pathways in education, employment and self-
development.

Check your progress -2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
3. Write any four Principles of Community Development?
4. What are basic objectives of Community Development?
Inclusion

The diverse contributions that people make are valued, no matter what
their background or varying abilities. Individual and local needs are
acknowledged and addressed, often through informal interaction.
Identifying these needs and issues through a range of methods is
instrumental to informing the planning and development of activities
and programs.

Access and Equity

Promote a fairer distribution of social and economic resources and

power between people by aiming to improve the social, environmental,
economic and cultural infrastructures where they live.

Social Action

Self-Instructional Material

82
 Community Development
Internal and external factors that impact South Australians are analysed
and relationships between individuals, groups and organisations are NOTES

transformed through collective action.

Advocacy

In meeting individual and group needs, the organisation acts with, or on

behalf of, stakeholders.

Networking

Linking, forming alliances, collaborating and working with individuals,

groups, other agencies, Government and business is crucial, using
formal and informal methods to achieve connections within local areas.
Individuals are supported in coming together in a group environment to
share information, knowledge, skills and life experience.
4.3.4 PROCESS: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Taylor and others (1965) have identified a sequence of steps which

constitutes the process by which persons living in local communities
move from apathy about their obvious common needs to an awareness
about such needs and also an awareness of their capacities to meet at
least some of these needs, and ultimately to solve, all of their local
problems, through:

i) Systematic discussion of community-felt needs by members

of the community:
ii) Systematic planning by local people to carry out the first self-
help undertaking which has been selected by the method of
sustained and systematic discussion:
iii) iii) Mobilization and harnessing of the physical, economic and
social potentialities of local community group to accomplish
the first task which local people have assigned to themselves;
and
iv) Development of group aspirations.

The role of the Government is, to help initiate the process in the
community and guide the community through the above four steps and
to provide national aid where these identified activities are beyond the
resources of the community.

The steps in community development process have been stated

explicitly by Dwar,ak~ilath (1967) as:

a) Identification of the needs. Self-Instructional Material

83
Community Development b) Setting objectives
NOTES
C) Assessing resources.

d) Considering alternatives

e) Making decisions.

t) Providing leadership

g) Taking action, and

h) Becoming capable of solving problems of the community.

4.3.5 MODELS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

In this section, we describe the two models that have resulted from our
research. They are presented separately, but are interrelated. Elements
of the proposed model are: Implicit practice-based theory. In the course
of doing their work, practitioners tended to develop personalized and
practice-based theories based on their field experiences. They
formulated strategies and theories about community development work
to inform their practice. We have labelled them implicit because they
tended to become something that wasn‟t articulated but influenced their
actions.

Beliefs about community. Practitioners must assess how capable a

community is to chart its own course and how to assist them.
Community development practitioners struggle with the appropriate
blend of local knowledge, involvement of outside experts, accepting
directions from local leaders, and when to call upon their own
knowledge in community development activities. They are challenged
about when and how to bring in outside knowledge such as new
government regulations or activities in neighboring communities.

Talking/working together/observing. Practitioners learn by working with

each other and community residents, working together on projects,
visiting other communities, and soliciting ideas and suggestions from
their peers.
Self-Instructional Material

84
 Community Development
Literature-Based Theories. Our participants turned out to read widely in
NOTES
business, environmental, policy studies, law, psychology, agriculture,
and adult education. A synthesis of multiple theories is their guide rather
than a single theory derived from ccommunity development literature.

Field Experience and Practice. This is the central component in

reflective practice. It is through experience and ongoing practice, in
which a practitioner attempts to assist communities, that a practitioner
reflects on his/her work and formulates his/her implicit practice-based
theories.

While each element of the model is described separately, they do not

exist in isolation. Practitioners described to us that they are guided by a
synthesis of these elements to address needs in the community. What
links the different elements is constant reflection.

The people we interviewed seemed to be continually assessing the

effectiveness of their work in solving community problems and were
aware of their capacity to do harm and good. Each of the elements is
represented by a circle and curved arrows illustrate dynamic interactions
between the elements of the model. We used the term reflection,
illustrated by the larger circle in which the model exists, to capture the
many activities, ideas, and thoughts practitioners had about community
development. In earlier discussions, we vacillated between whether
practitioners‟ theories or field experiences ought to be placed in the
central of the model. Since our research focus is on theories developed
and used in daily work in community development and our research
indicated it was the element of central importance to practitioners, we
decided to make it the focus of our model. Closely related to beliefs
about community in represents the idea that practitioners have the ability
to work back and forth along a continuum of practice ranging from
practitioners collaborating with local knowledge to imposing outside
expertise, depending on the situation. We have specified points along
Self-Instructional Material

85
Community Development the continuum: 1) imposing expert knowledge, 2) importing useful
NOTES
information, 3) eliciting knowledge, and 4) collaborating with local
knowledge. These points are not designated to suggest that these are the
only choices a practitioner may make. A practitioner may alter his/her
position as circumstances and needs change. In North America,
community development practitioners tend to favor a bottoms-up
approach, collaborating with local knowledge. However many factors
intervene in other countries including lack of technology and resources,
needs of indigenous people, lack of education, and widespread poverty.
We found that many practitioners in countries such as Malaysia and
Botswana lean toward supporting local knowledge but sometimes find it
nec-

Essay to impose outside expertise. They are making the best choices
given the resources available, the people, and the context and appear to
be deliberate in their choices in approaching the introduction of outside
expertise to a community.

Imposing outside importing useful Eliciting information Collaborating

with expertise information local knowledge The situational continuum
describes a major decision community development practitioners make
when faced with a particular set of circumstances and participants.

These decisions are heavily influenced by the elements described in

Figure 1: implicit practice-based theories, field experience, beliefs about
community, current literature, and their communications with other
practitioners.

Choosing whether to approach a project by imposing outside expertise,

by working exclusively with local knowledge, or any position in
between the endpoints of the continuum is a crucial decision that sets the
tone for a practitioner‟s involvement with their community.

4.3.6 METHODS OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Self-Instructional Material

86
 Community Development
As an agent for inducing change, community development has to give
NOTES
close attention to the strategy and tactics it considers using and the time
needed to realize its goals. A strategy for village reform, for example,
has to consider whether it would be more effective to bring community
development workers from the outside or to use indigenous workers; in
allocating resources, community development planners have to decide
whether to deal with a wide range of community problems
simultaneously (the comprehensive approach) or to adapt a selective
approach by tackling one or a few problems at a time. In gaining access
to decision-making authorities, community development practitioners
have to consider working with local interest groups, public and private
agencies and, to the extent they exist, the communication media. In
developing programmes for local development, community
development practitioners would do well to organize a systematic body
of data on which to base informed judgements.

In this regard, consideration should be given to promoting surveys and

other information-gathering techniques.

A. PRELIMINARY SURVEY AND PROGRAMMING

The methods to be used depend on the characteristics of the community

concerned. Given the relative newness of rural development in many
developing countries there is frequently only a rudimentary
understanding of local traditions and customs and of village structure,
and a limited knowledge of the requirements for local development. Not
uncommonly, community development activities have been initiated
without the benefit of a preliminary fact-finding investigation and as a
result, there are mistakes in the planning and implementation of
programmes. This is not to say that implementation of action
Self-Instructional Material
programmes should be contingent upon local surveys; this is obviously
87
Community Development not feasible, and in any case there is usually, but not always, enough
NOTES
general information available in the documents of the planning
authority, national surveys, etc. from which the most important data
could be assembled to support some action programmes. But a gathering
of facts is only the first requirement of local action and this should be
done with the full participation of the local people; properly handled,
this task may be left to them, within the framework established by
community development workers. The information collected should be
used for a diagnosis covering as many aspects of community life as
possible. On the basis of this, together with the projection of existing
trends, it is possible to formulate alternative action proposals.

B. VILLAGE LEVEL WORKERS AND VILLAGE LEADERS

Considerable reliance has been placed on village-level workers as

vehicles for change in rural communities. There is a continuing need to
question, challenge and where necessary to alter the status quo. A paid
government worker appointed to work with the villagers over a period
of time working with them in face-to-face situations may provide a far
stronger stimulus for change than occasional visits by outside technical
personnel. A multipurpose worker, by remaining in touch with villagers,
helping them to accept new values and attitudes, can help create
conditions for the acceptance and diffusion of technical assistance to be
provided by the competent specialized government department. Local
leaders, on the other hand, may be ineffective in inducing change; their
ability to act decisively may be limited by ignorance of modern methods
of farming or by an unwillingness to alter existing social institutions and
power relationships.

Criticism of Village-worker Approach

Recently, there has been increasing criticism of the village-worker

approach. It is argued that a village-worker bom and educated in a city
or town, as is frequently the case, is usually interested in the urban way
Self-Instructional Material

88
 Community Development
of hide and looks on his stay in the village as temporary. Moreover, his
NOTES
interest in village development may be largely "bureaucratic", in that he
cannot have as much stake in village improvement as a trained and
enlightened local leader and/or prestige. He has no place in the local
power structure and therefore is not in a strategic position to mobilize
the villagers. If he is insufficiently trained he is neither far enough ahead
of the villagers to earn their respect nor well enough equipped for the
multifarious tasks he has to undertake; and unless he can combine
advice with service, the advice is rarely followed up. If he has received a
long and thorough training there may be too wide a cultural (and social)
gap between him and the villagers. Since many of its workers are likely
to be young and unmarried, they would find it difficult to make an
impact in rural areas where the cultural pattern is such as to render their
acceptance doubtful. A village level worker coming from the area would
be less vulnerable to criticism on these counts. This, in turn, raises
problems regarding status and acceptance by the village of the authority
or advice given by one of their younger members who has been under
external influence. Presumably, problems relating to status and
acceptance would be more severe for women village-workers, for in
addition to their youth, they would have to cope with the prejudices of
traditional society toward women. In countries where there is a
community development department or some other government service
specifically charged with community development, the local worker is,
as a rule, required to spend a considerable amount of his time doing
paper work, filling in forms, making reports etc. In some instances he is
expected to co-ordinate the work of technical services, a task which
often exceeds his abilities or the scope of his training, and one that
might better be entrusted to a more qualified official. While there is
fairly wide agreement that general-purpose workers are needed at the
early stages of development, before technical personnel are available in
the necessary numbers, there remains the question whether they should
be retained or better trained personnel be recruited. It would appear that Self-Instructional Material

89
Community Development as the community develops a stage is reached when this type of multi-
NOTES
purpose, front-line worker might be replaced by one with better training
background and specialization in selected aspects of community
development and who could serve a number of villages.

4.4 EARLIER EXPERIMENTS IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

This Section aims to explaining various development/extension efforts

made in India both during pre-independence and post post-
independence periods. The programmes of pre-independence period
originated from indi\idual initiatives or agencies with little or no help
froin the Gov-ernment. These prograinilles were sporadic in coverage
with limited objectives. The post-independence efforts in
developnlent started mainly with the introduction of Community
Developnlent programme (CDP) which was a multi-disciplinary and
multi-sectoral in nature.
Sriniketan
The initial attempts at rural development were initiated by Shri.
Rabindranath Tagore in 1908 by establishing youth organization in the
KaligramProgana of his Zamindari, He tried to generate a class of functionary
workers who could be trained to identify themselves with the people. In 1921
he established a Rural Reconstruction Institute at Shantiniketan in West
Bengal. A group of eight villages was the centre of the programme.
The programme aimed at:
o To create a real interest in people for rural welfare work.
o To study rural problems and to translate conclusions into
action.
o To help villagers develop their resources and to improve village
sanitation.
These objectives were preferred to be achieved by generating a spirit
of self-help, developing village leadership, organizing village scouts called
Brati Balika, establishing training centers for handicrafts and establishing a
demonstration centre at Shantiniketan. These demonstration centers organized
demonstration or farmer‟s holding for improved practices.
Self-Instructional Material

90
Gurgaon Project Community Development

NOTES
Rural uplift movement on a mass scale was first started by Mr. F. L.
Brayne, Deputy 'Commissioner in the Gurgaon district of the Punjab and a
Village guide was posted in each village to hsseminate the information to
the villagers. The programme of introducing improfled seeds, implements,
improved nlethods of cultivation. control on burning of cow-dung-cakes as
fuel, construction of manure pits, curtailing expenditure on social and
religions hnctions; etc.. was started throughout the district.

The work again gathered momentum after 1933, when Mr. Brayne
was appointed Commissioner of Rural Reconstruction in tlie Punjab. In
1935-36, the Government of Punjab granted Rs. 1.00 Crore for distribution
in various provinces for mral reconstruction work which acted as a stimulus.
After that the work in Punjab was transferred to the Cooperative
Department and better living societies were organized to take up this work
in the villages.

Marthandum Project

Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) set up this project in

Trwanacore. It intended to symbolize the three-fold development of spirit,
mind and body and evolved a five sided programme, representing
development, which included not only spiritual, mental and physical, but
also economic and social development. This pioneering work of Dr.
Spencer Hatch, an American Agricultural expert, was based on the essential
technique of "Self-help with expert counsel". About hundred villages were
covered through YMCA centers in villages under the supervision of an
extension secretary.

Marthandum was in a strategic position to serve the villagers. It kept prize

bulls and goats, model bee-luves, demonstration plots for improving grain
and vegetable seeds, poultry farms with prize laying hens, a weaving shed
etc. Inside the centre, there were equipments like honey extractors, health
charts etc.

The project emphasized self-help and cooperation. The most successful

project was the Egg Selling Club. By 1939, the egg selling cooperative
society become a self-governing body. Another cooperative society was
Self-Instructional Material

91
Community Development the Honey Club, where the villagers were taught the use of a modem bee-
NOTES hives and how to extract honey scientifically. The centre I M extensive~
social activities which could meet the mental, physical and spiritual needs
of the villages. It arranged exhibitions, lectures and had a wide range of
Health programs.

Rural Reconstruction Movement in Baroda State (1932)

This movement was started by V.T. Krishnachari in 1932 in the Baroda

state where he was Dewan at that time. In the first instant its objective was
to bring about a rapid increase in standards of living, industrialization and
rapid expansion of the educational system. The second objective was to
increase agricultural production through the provision of basic necessities
for the development of the same. At first, some extension workers were
taken on deputation from Dr. Spencer Hatch of Marthandam.

The first rural reconstruction centre commenced work in April, 1932

in a group of villages around Kosambain, Navsari district. After the centre
had been at work for a year, the number of villages under it was increased
and Baroda state issued an order explaining the aims of the movement as
follows:

The centre should aim at effecting an improvement in all aspects of

rural life changing in fact the outlook of the agriculturist, the target being
creating desire for a higher standard of living. Work intended to realize
this aim should be intensive. It should be confined to a group of villages in
which it will be possible for the superintendent and his trained co-workers
to establish personal contact with all the agriculturalists. Village leadership
of the best type should be developed.

The centre should apply itself to the following programmes:

Economic programme:

Subsidiary occupations, kitchen gardening, weaving, poultry farming, silk

worm rearing, bee keeping or any other trade may be found suitable.

In each village, Panchayat should be a live-body discharging its function

of providing drinking water, improving sanitation, building village roads
in other words adding to the opportunities of village life.

Self-Instructional Material Educational and moral programme: This included adult education,
92
development of community sense and of a feeling of solidarity in the Community Development

village, propaganda against evils like early marriage and unreasonable NOTES

customs connected with social observances, the proper use of village

libraries, the scout movement and other educative work through magic
lantern. Village school should be the centre of such activities.

Method of work:

 Self help

 Dignity of labour, e.g., Shramdan etc.

 Self respect

 Truth and non violence

Firka Development Scheme of Madras:

It was government sponsored and aimed at the attainment of the Gandhian

ideal of Gram Swaraj. The scheme was launched in 1946 in 34 Firkas
throughout the state and on April 1, 1950, it was extended to another 50
additional Firkas, at the rate of two Firkas for each district. The scheme,
which aimed at attacking of the rural problems as a whole, as well as in
parts, consisted of short term plans for the development of rural
communications, water supply, formation of panchayats, organization of
cooperatives and programmes for sanitation, as also long term plans to
make the area self-sufficient through agricultural, irrigational and livestock
improvements and the development of khadi and other cottage industries.

The collector, was primarily responsible for the successful working

of athe scheme in the district. Each Firka was divided into 5 to 10 groups
of villages which were put in the charges of Gram Sewaks. Each Firka or
Group of Firkas was provided with special staff like agricultural field man,
administrative officers, P.W.D., Supervisors and minor irrigation oversees.
It the state level, there was a state Rural welfare Board comprising the
heads of the departments and influential and constructive social workers.
This board drew up the comprehensive plan of Firka Development
October, 1947.

In order to effectively stimulate healthy competition between official

and non-official agencies, the Government of madras decided to entrust
Self-Instructional Material
the development schemes to non-officials agencies engaged in doing
93
Community Development constructive work. Five non-official agencies were actually selected and
NOTES paid grants for doing Firka Development of:

 Rural Reconstruction

 Drinking water facilities

 Sanitateon

 Agriculture

 Khadi and village industries

Etawah Project,

This project was launched by the government of Uttar Pradesh in October

1918 under the guidanue and help of Alber Mayer. It was a new
experiment in rural planiling and developmeilt. Albert Mayer fornled a
team of focir specialists-a town and village planner, an agricultural
extensibn specialist, an agricultural engineer, and a rural industries
specialist in order to give an integrated approach to this project.

The objectives were:

1. To find out how quickly the methods developed could be

reproduced elsewhere:

2. To develop self-reliance at local, district and state level;

3. To increase agricultural production and to improve public health

and adult literacy, and

4. To upgrade the technologies of the tools which the people have to

work with and to develop village leadership.

Unlike the early experiments, this project had an organized administrative

structure at state, district and village levels. The project was visualized as
an extension programme, which emphasized local level planning, team
work, communication and constant follow-up to respond to the local
needs.

Initially, the project covered 64 villages; by the end of 1956 nearly

400 villages were covered. The results achieved by this project were
impressive. However, the objective of developing village leadership could
not be archived.
Self-Instructional Material

94
 Community Development

NOTES
Check your progress -3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
5. Write the Meaning of Social Action?
6. What are the steps involved in practicing CD ?

Nilokheri Project

This project, also known as the Refugee Rehabilitation Project, though

started in 1943 became My operational in 1948 when it developed a new
township for displaced persons from West)Pakistan.

The main objectives of this project were:

1. to rehabilitate displaced persons;

2. to attain self-sufficiency by utilizing the labour and talents of the

refugees, and to meet the basic needs of the population.

Under the project, vocational training-cum-production centres were started

to give training and employment opportunities to the refugees. 'Mazdoor
Manzil', a new township, was created for p population of 5,000. The
township had facilities like hospital, schools, vocational and teahnical
institutions for training, veterinary and agricultural extension services, and
recreational facilities.

Based on the success of this project, adoption of an agro-industrial

economy for the development of the nearby rural areas was visualised. The
main limitation of the project was its inability to develop cooperative spirit
among the members of cooperatives and between technical and managerial
staff.
4.5 GANDHIAN CONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAMME / SEWAGRAM
Mahatma Gandhi always dreamt of self-contained and self-sufficient village
life in India. He was conscious about the grassroots‟ problems of India, rural
set up and he sought to resolve these tribulations without interference of any
exterior group. He wanted to solve these problems by local people and through
local resources. People know Gandhiji not only as a Mahatma or political
agitator, but also as a social and economic reformer. He made people to
Self-Instructional Material

95
Community Development comprehend that India lives in villages and that the common man‟s upliftment
NOTES is the upliftment of the country. Concerning development work in the country,
he emphasized that the “salvation of India lies in cottage industries.” The key-
words of his economy are:
1. Decentralized production
2. Equal distribution of wealth
3. Self-sufficiency of Indian villages.
For equal distribution of wealth, cruel process of extermination was
not followed but throughout the heart of the owners by persuasion and appeal
to the better sense of man. According to him self-sufficiency of Indian villages
can be achieved by eliminating middlemen, so that the farmer could get the
full price for his produce. He wanted that the tiller should be able to consume
his own products like fruits, milk, vegetables etc.
Truly speaking, the Gandhian constrictive Programme became big
institutions and simple ideas became philosophies. His emphasis on Khadi
became the Charka movement and then, the All India Khadi a Village
Industries Board. His thought, against untouchability and caste system,
resulted in the organization of HarijanSewakSangh and many like this. He
created leaders like VinobaBhave, Nehru, Jayaprakash Narayan, Mira Ben etc.
who came from common stock, but got inspiration from Gandhi. All the
people engaged in reconstructive programme felt that their work was needed
in a great programme for their country reconstruction.
4.6 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME DURING
POST LAUNCHING PERIOD
After the Independence in 1947, community development assumed high priority. In
1948, a pilot Community Development Project was launched through the Etawah
Project. Later in 1952, the Government of India launched 55 Community
Development Projects, each covering about 300 villages or a population of 30,000.

This programme was multi-dimensional but the major emphasis was placed
on agricultural production, as the areas selected for launching the project were located
in irrigated areas or where the rainfall was assured. In 1953, the National Extension
Service Project was launched with similar objectives to cover larger areas, including
the dry regions. This project of three-year duration, demarcated the blocks of 150-300
villages as manageable units for initiating Community Development Programmes.

Self-Instructional Material

96
 The objectives and activities of the project were modified from time to time Community Development

and continued as a permanent multi-function extension agency in each block. These NOTES

community development blocks were treated as normal administrative units for

planning and development with regular budgetary allocations.

By the end of first Five-Year Plan (1952-57), 1,114 blocks covering 1,

63,000 villages were in operation and by the 1960s, the Community Development
Programme covered the entire country. The programme was comprehensive in
content; economic progress as the core objective; and had flexible programmes and
posting of a multipurpose worker at the village level. The plan defined the central
objective of planning as creation of con-ditions in which the living standards are
reasonably high and the citizens have full and equal opportunity for growth and
justice (Sachidananda, 1988).

The programme aimed at upliftment of the rural poor, covered agriculture,

animal husbandry, roads, health, education, housing, employment and social and
cultural activi-ties. While aiming at economic development through agriculture and
cottage industries, efforts were made to improve literacy, health, sanitation, housing,
transport and com-munication. To implement the multi-faceted programme, an
extension organization, headed by a Block Development Officer (BDO), was
established at each block or the revenue tehsil level, with a team of subject specialists
and Village Level Workers (VLW).

Each VLW covered a population of 5,000-6,000, spread over 5-10 villages to

implement various development programmes launched by different departments. The
VLWs were expected to meet the farmers and persuade them to take part in various
development schemes.

The BDO was assisted by eight Extension Officers, one each for agriculture,
animal husbandry, panchayat, cooperation rural industries, rural engineering, social
education and women and child welfare. In addition, a medical officer with support
staff was posted in each block to provide medical assistance.

The extension officers reported primarily to the BDOs and to their seniors as well, in
the respective department, based at the district headquarters. The BDOs reported to
the District Collector, who is the administrator of the district.

The Development Commis-sioner, at the state level was responsible for

coordinating community development through District Collectors. At the National

Self-Instructional Material

97
Community Development level, the administration of the Community Development Programme was entrusted
NOTES to the Planning Commission.

During the initial phase of community development, the government officials

pre-pared the plan under the guidance of Planning Commission. There was no
opportunity for the community to demand any facilities to solve their problems. As
the intention was to ensure peoples participation, advisory committees were
subsequently established at various levels. A state level consultative committee
consisting of state legislators was con-stituted for advising the community
development.

District development or planning committee consisting of officials and non-

officials, was formed under the Chairmanship of the Collector. A block level advisory
committee was constituted with block level officers and non-officials, member of the
Parliament and state legislators, heads of educational institution, progressive
agriculturists and representatives of voluntary organizations.

As the non-officials were generally interested in matters of personal concern,

they did not look at their roles in the proper perspective. Furthermore, as the
development programmes approved at the central and state level were rigid, the
consultation process remained merely an academic exercise.

From 1950s till mid-1970s, there was no significant achievement and poverty
was on the verge of increasing. The Indian economy had become slower compared to
those in the East and South East Asia over the post-Independence period. The levels
of living were unacceptably low for a large section of the population.

The Land Reforms Act of 1956 did remove vestiges of the feudal-colonial
rule from the scene, but the enactment of the laws did not help the poor and landless
to gain control over the land, particularly in North India.

There were fluctuations in the poverty status but the most prominent increase in
poverty was observed in the late sixties and early seventies (55-69 percent), when
rainfall levels were less than normal and monsoon failures prolonged beyond a year.
Even the core programme of agricultural development failed to enhance food
pro-duction. In the early seventies, India was compelled to import food grains.

The growing population wiped out trickling benefits of development.

Improvement in agricultural productivity in the absence of education and
infrastructural development was not sus-tainable. The resources allotted to
Self-Instructional Material

98
community development during 1952-67 were also so low that it worked out to Community Development

hardly Rs.10 per head. NOTES

Taylor and others (1965) made a critical analysis of India's Community

Development Programme, with the following observations:

a) Government personnel in India did not only assumed major

responsibility for determining what the needs of the villagers were, but
assumed the responsibility for prescribing how these needs could be
met.

b) Village leaders had difficulty in mobilizing their people to

participate in projects which they themselves had not selected.

c) Little, effort was made to analyze their most commonly felt needs and
to organize for self-help improvement undertakings, without understanding
the basic purpose of generating local group dynamics.

d) The Village Level Workers felt they were best prepared to render
assistance in the field of agriculture and least prepared to stimulate group
action. They wc-. not very. successful in mobilizing or catalyzing local
village groups because they had not received much training in this field.

e) The Social Education Organizers whose role was originally descriid

as being specialists in community organization very often appeared to have
no clear cut concept of their roles, and considered organizing and staging
social or cultural programmes as their accomplishments.

f) The Block Specialists in the field of cooperation were enthusiastic

and claimed to have promoted a great deal of propaganda, but were able
to report only a few concrete results of their efforts.
4.7 NATIONAL EXTENSION SERVICES
Community projects and the National Extension Service have a place of
central importance in those sectors of development which bear most closely
upon the welfare of the rural population. From the beginning three aspects
of this programme have been emphasised. In the first place, national
extension and community projects are intended to be areas of intensive
effort in which development agencies of the government work together as a
team in programmes which are planned and coordinated in advance. The
activities comprised within the community development and national
Self-Instructional Material

99
Community Development extension programme should be regarded as an integral part of a programme
NOTES for improving all aspects of rural life. In the second place, the essence of the
approach is that villagers come together for bringing about social change
are assisted in building up a new life for themselves and participate with
increasing awareness and responsibility in the planning and implementation
of projects which are material to their well being. If the programme
provides them with new opportunities, in turn, through their active
participation in its execution, they give it a distinctive quality and enlarge
its scope and influence. Selfhelp and cooperation are the principles on
which the movement rests. Thirdly, the movement shold bring within its
scope all rural families, especially those who are "under-privileged", and
enable them to take their place in the cooperative movement and other
spheres in their own right. It is on account of these features that, national
extension and community projects are regarded as the normal pattern of the
welfare state in action.

In the First Five Year Plan community development was described

as the method and rural extension as the agency through which the process
of transformation of the social and economic life of villages was to be
initiated. Once the impulse has been given and the first stages of the journey
covered, a programme such as that of community development and national
extension grows out of its own experience and momentum. As it expands, it
meets old needs and creates new ones. New methods are discovered,
deficiencies long ignored come to be recognised, and in content and in the
manner of its functioning the programme may succeed in solving the vital
problems oftlie community. Gradually, the problems of the village are seen
in a larger context, and activities in different fields are undertaken so as to
supplement one another. National extension and community projects
provide the setting in which the national plan approaches the needs and
aspirations of the countryside. It is natural therefore that during the second
plan they should reflect increasingly the changes in emphasis, priorities and
general outlook which guide overall planning. Thus, expansion in its
coverage from one fourth to almost the entire rural population is but one
aspect of the deepening and broadening of the programme which has now to
be achieved. National extension and community projects should play a large
Self-Instructional Material

100
part in promoting the diversification of the agricultural economy and in Community Development

increasing agricultural production. They should also increase greatly the NOTES

reserves of skill and the habit of improvision of new techniques to serve

local needs which are a condition of large-scale industrialisation. In under-
developed countries there can be no substantial economic developmenf
without social change. Increasingly, through the operation of land reform,
attention to the needs of the landless and the disadvantaged sections of the
population, strengthening of the village organisation and the building up of
local leadership, and ihe growth of the cooperative movement, the
programme should become a positive force for bringing about both an
integrated rural society and an expanding rural economy.

In a programme of such far-reaching significance spread over the

entire country, it is essential that at each stage its working should be
observed closely and objectively. Extension and community projects are
primarily an agency for fulfilling the aims, policies * and programmes
envisaged in national and State plans in terms of the needs, problems and
resources of each local area. On the one hand, the programmes of each
project area form part of the district plan which has been described in
Chapter VII. On the other, it is through intensive work in national extension
and community projects areas that increasingly programmes in different
fields of development are to be carried out, notably in agriculture and allied
activities, cooperation and land reform, village and small industries, rural
electrification and social services such as health, education, housing and
welfare programmes for backward classes. Thus, the working of the
national extension and community development programme reflects the
measure in which the specific tasks set out in the development block
budgets are carried out and, what is even more important, influences
enormously the manner In which national and State plans in different fields
will function at the village level and the results which may be obtained from
them. It is against this background that the findings and observations of the
third Evaluation Report of Planning Commission's Programme Evaluation
Organisation on the working of community projects and national extension
service blocks which have recently become available, should receive serious
consideration from everyone associated with the working of the programme.
Self-Instructional Material

101
Community Development In the national extension and community development programme
NOTES the unit of operation is the development block which represents on an
average 100 villages with a population of 60,000 to 70,000 persons spread
over an area of 150 to 170 square miles. Since the programme commenced
in October, 1952, in all 1,200 development blocks have been taken up, 300
under the community projects scheme and 900 under the national extension
service scheme. Of the latter, after a period, 400 development blocks have
passed into the relatively more intensive phase of development represented
by the community development programme. Under the pattern which is
now followed, every new development block is first taken up under the
national extension service scheme, which had, during the first five year
plan, a programme budget ofRs. 450,000. This amount was in addition to
the special provision which was made in the national extension service
scheme for short-term credit This assured credit, along with the efforts of
extension staff to promote its planned utilisation, was intended to stimulate
agricultural production in national extension areas. After a period, which
may extend from one to two years, for a proportion of national extension
projects, there is further period of development of three years during which
the rest of the programme envisaged in the budget of the community
development block budget of Rs. 1.5 million is undertaken. In this manner
the national extension and community development aspects of the
programme have become related phases of a single programme, the normal
pattern of development administration being represented by the national
extension service. National extension and community development blocks
taken up during each year are reckoned as a separate series and their
progress is observed accordingly.

4.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed meaning and objectives of community
development, also principles, process and models of Community
Development. Also documents about the earlier experiments of rural
development. This chapter also aimed to focus on Gandhian Constructive
Programmes and Community Development during Post Launching Period.
Finally this unit also bring the important contribution of National Extension
Services and Various Phases of Community Development.
4.9 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write the Meaning of Community Development?
2. What are the approaches used for Community Development?
Self-Instructional Material

102
 3. Write any four Principles of Community Development? Community Development

4. What are basic objectives of Community Development? 5. NOTES

Write the Meaning of Social Action? 6.
What are the steps involved in practicing CD ?
4.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The United Nations defines community development as "a process
where community members come together to take collective
action and generate solutions to common problems." It is a broad
concept, applied to the practices of civic leaders, activists,
involved citizens, and professionals to improve various aspects of
communities, typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient
local communities, Natural Factors, Technological Factors, Social
Factors, Economic Factors, Cultural Factors, Political Factors
2. The various approaches used in community development
are:using an asset-based approach that builds on strengths and
existing resources; encouraging inclusive processes that embrace
community diversity; and Community ownership through
collaboratively planned and led initiatives.
3. Drawing programmes for fulfilling various needs of the
community. Involving the people in planning and developmental
activities. Bringing about material as well as psychological
betterment. Teaching rural people the political set up in
democracy.
4. The specific objectives of the plan may be categorized under the
fol-lowing heads: i.Agriculture and improvement of agricultural
production, ii.Setting up of cooperative societies in each village
;iii.Animal husbandry; iv.Public health; v.Rural education ;vi.improving
the means of communication and transport in rural areas ;vii.Setting up
village level small-scale cottage industries ;viii.Organizing and
strengthening the village panchayats
5. Social Action : Internal and external factors that impact South
Australians are analysed and relationships between individuals,
groups and organisations are transformed through collective
action.
6. The steps in community development process have been stated
explicitly by Dwar,ak~ilath (1967) as: a) Identification of the
needs. b) Setting objectives ;C) Assessing resources; d)
Considering alternatives
4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Bloch, M., & Parry, J. (1982) Death and regeneration oflife.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2. Goody, J. (1962). Death, property, and the ancestors. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.
3. Newell, W. H. (1976), Ancestors. The Hague, the Netherlands:
Mouton.
Self-Instructional Material

103
Community Development 4. Hsu, l. k. (1948). Under the ancestors' shadow. newyork: columbia
NOTES
university press.
5. Desai, AR (1978) Rural Sociology in India. Popular Prakashan,
Bombay.
6. Chitamber, JB (1990) Introduction to Rural Sociology. Wiley Eastern
Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
7. AGGARWAL, PARTAP C. 1971 “Impact of Green Revolution on
Landless Labor: A Note.” Economic and Political Weekly 6
(November 20):
8. DASGUPTA, BIPLAB 1977 “India‟s Green Revolution.” Economic
and Political Weekly 12 (February)
9. Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003). Rural development : principles and
practice (1. publ. ed.). London [u.a.]: SAGE.
10. Van Assche, Kristof. &Hornidge, Anna-Katharina. (2015) Rural
development. Knowledge & expertise in governance. Wageningen
Academic Publishers, Wageningen

Self-Instructional Material

104
 Rural Extension
UNIT V – RURAL EXTENSION NOTES
Structure
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Aims and Objectives
5.3. Meaning and Concept of extension
5.3.1 Definitions of Extension

5.3.2 Philosophy of Extension

5.3.3 Principles of Extension

5.3.4 Objectives of Extension

5.3.5 Approaches and Methods

5.4. Approaches of Rural Community Development

5.5 Tagore
5.6 Gandhi
5.7 C.Subramanian
5.8 Let Us Sum Up
5.9 Unit- End- Exercises
5.10 Answer to check your Progress
5.11 Suggested Readings
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Extension has been considered as the most acceptable strategy for rural
development in a country like India. Extension aims at bringing a b u t a change in
human behavior where communication acts as an essential means of providing and
exchanging ideas and facts. The first target of extension has been the rural people
whose behavior is changed in respect of knowledge, skills and attitudes and hence
extension is a form of education for them. The concept of extension which started
as out of school system of education for rural people has undergone changes in its
aims, objectives and target population. It has been considered as a process, a
method, a system and an art it is a social science for bringing out change in human
behavior. The major objective of extension is to change the knowledge, attitude,
skills and practices of the rural peopl~for increased production and income thereby,
improving their standard of living. The principles of extension are governed by its
philosophy on the one hand and the socio economic and political situation on the
other. In this unit we shall discuss the meaning, definition, and concept of
extension. We shall also discuss objectives, philosophy and principles of extension.

5.2 AIMS OF OBJECTIVES

The unit aims at introducing you to concepts, philosophy and
principles of extension. We shall make you familiar with the
definitions of extension given by various authors, academicians and
experts along with their views on extension. This unit will also aim at
clarifying the general and specific objectives of extension.
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
Write various definitions of extension given by different authors,
academicians and experts along with their views on its concept.
Self-Instructional Material

105
 Rural Extension  State the concepts of extension under different context.
NOTES  Differentiate and clarify the term extension as a discipline,
work, profession and service.
 State the philosophy of extension.
 Describe the principles of extension for effective execution of
extension programme.
 List out the general and'specific objectives of extension

5.3 MEANING AND CONCEPT OF EXTENSION

The word 'Extension' is derived from the Latin roots "ex" meaning
"out" "tensio" meaning "stretching". Extension is that type of
education which is stretched out to the people in the rural meas far and
near, beyond the limits of the educations to which the formal type of
education is usually confined.
The concept of Extension Education which originated in British
Universities was intended to take the benefits of University education
to the places where ordinary people live and work. This was described
by adding the word 'Extnesion' as a qualifying adjective to the noun
'education'. Cambridge University introduced the term Extension
Education for the first time in 1873. The dictionary (Websters
Collegiate Dictionary) meaning of the word 'extension' is the act of
extending or the state of being "extended. Extension education is the
extension of the results of research to the persons who are in need of it.
In the context of diffision of agricultural information to the farmers,
Vorhees (1894) was the first to use the word 'Extension'. In fact in the
United States of America, extension work started when Dr. Seaman A.
Knapp organiz$d educational campaigns to control bolt-weevil during
the period fiom late 1880s to the first decade of 1900. Formally, the t e
q Agricultural Extension was adopted in the United States of America
when the Smith Lever Act of 1914 was passed. With this Act a nation-
wide Cooperqtive Federal State Country programme was formed and
its national responsibility was given ta the Land-grant Colleges and
Universities.
Extension means to extend or to spread or to disseminate usehl
information and ideas to rural people do bring out desirable changes in
human behavior. It brings out three types of changes in human
behavior.

 Changes 'in knowledge or things known

 Changes in skills or things done.
 Changes in attitudes or things felt.
In the fitst type of change an increased amount of usehi information or
understanding is to the people. It may be regarding the package of
practices of wbeat, methods of applyingfertilizers or details about the
marketing of agricultural products. In the second type of changp, new
Self-Instructional Material

106
 Rural Extension
or improved skills, abilities and habits of the people are improved,
such as how to. avoid loss of vitamins'while cooking the vegetables, NOTES
how to harvest and transport vegetables for the market or spraying the
correct type of insecticide for killing a particular crop pest, Thq third
change is developing desirable attitudes and ideas in rural people, such
as to make pedple believe that balanced diet is usehl for human body,
changing attitudes towards girl chld, widow remarriage, family
planning etc.
Education is an integral part of extension. Extension is pursued in
agriculture and many other disciplines to educate, motivate and change
the behaviour of the people. This particular branch of science is also
known as extension education.'
Extension Education is the strategy and method for achieving
sustainable development. It is a system of service and education
designed to meet the needs of the people. It is the democratic
approach for development, which has been adopted in all democratic
countires V n c l u d i n g India, where participation of the people in
the development process is voluntary. The behaviour of the people, the
knowledge, attitudes and skills have to be changed not by ordering or
coercing, but by educating and motivating them for effective
participation in development.
5.3.1 DEFINITIONS OF EXTENSION
Extension is an out-of-school system of education in which adults and
young people learn by doing. According to Esminger (1957),
extension is education and that its purpose is to change attitudes and
practices of people with „whom the work is done.
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) refers to
extension as an informal; out of school education and services for the
members of the farm family and others directly or intently engaged in
farm production, to enable them to adopt improved practices in
production, management, conservation and marketing. It further states
that agricultural exter~sionis not
only imparting knowledge and securing adoption of a particular
improved practice but also aims at changing the outlook of the fanner
to the point where he .will be receptive to,his own initiative, and
continuously seek means of improving his farm occupation, home and
family life in totality.
Extension or agricultural extension is a method, or a series of methods,
by which the technical know-how of science is carried to and included
in the pfactices of the cultivators pahama, O.P.1967)
Bhatnagar and Desai (1987) gave a simple definition of extension.
According to them extension is to bring the desirable changes in the
Self-Instructional Material

107
 Rural Extension behaviour -knowledge, skills,attitude, understanding, goals and
NOTES confidence - of tlre people through mutual learning.
Like other Qsciplines, extension is formally taught in colleges and
universities leading to the award of degrees. Research is also camed
out in extension. What is unique for extension, is the application of the
knowledge of this discipline in socio-economic transformation of the
rural communities. Thus extension c8n also be defined as the science
of making People innovative.
The foregoing paragraphs on the definitions and concept of
"extension" provide a solid base for conceiving it as a well developed
and organised behavioural science and the application of it as a kind of
education for bringing out desirable changes in the human behaviour
of the people for whom the work is done. The concept, however,
varies largely under different contexts. Several extension professionals
and development administrators have observed that tlie concept of
extension which was borrowed from United States and other Western
Countries, is not applicable to India and other developing and under
developed countries.
In the context of rural development 'extension' is considered as a
continuous process designed to make rural people aware of their
problems and indicating to them the ways and means by wliich they
can solve them. It involves not only educating rural people in
determining their problems and methods of solving them but also
inspiring them to bring about ~assistive chin& in their quality of life.
5.3.2 PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION
Philosophy is a view of life and it's various components; tlie what, the
how, the wherefore of existence and the what ought to be. Man's view
of 'what ought to be' 'indicates what kind of person he is and what his
philosophy is'. According to Kelsey and Hearne (1 967) the basic
philosophy of extension is to teach people how to think, not what to
think. In stating philosophy of extension, Bhatnagar and Desai (1987)
said that extension is an educational, cooperative, collaborative,
democratic, persuasive and never ending process that generates
harmony, leadership, effective communication, participation and
involvement of the people in organizing self-help activities and
projects.
Philosophy is a body of generdl principles or laws of a field of
knowledge. An individual, after considering pros and cons, decides on
certain principles to guide his life. These principles play a vital role in
deciding what is good or bad in the life of an individual.
Extension education philosophy is based on the hypothesis that m a 1
people are intelligent, are interested in obtaining new information and
at the same time have a keen desire to utilise this information for their
Self-Instructional Material
individual and social welfare. Extension work 'is developed on the
108
 Rural Extension
principle of helping the rural people to help themseives to stand on
their own feet. The basic philosopl~yof e~%ensionis directed towards NOTES
clnnging t l ~ eoutlook of man by educating ium.
Education is not a mere transfer of infomution. It is to transform the
people by bringing about . desired ~hangesin their knowledge,
attitudes and skills through educational efforts for long lasting results.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Write the meaning of Rural Extension?
2. Write the Definition of Extension?
5.3.3 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
Principle are generalized guidelines which form the basis for decision
and action in a consistent way. The principle can be defined as "a
statement of policy to guide decisions and actions in a proper manner".
A principle is a su&ciently proven or trusted observation.
Principles of extension have accordingly been derived in experiences
gained in various parts of the world in the fields of extension service
and rural development. These have been denved from past rural
development programme of India both Government and non-
Government and also from the United States, Cooperative Extension
Service. Experiences from England, Japan, Israel, etc. have also
contributed to these principles. These principles of extension are
discussed below:
Principle of Cultural Differences
Extension ctducation takes into consideration the culture. tradition,
habits and customs of the local people. The educational methods
should be in l i e with the culture of the people to make extension
education effective. A blue-print of work designed for one part of the
globe cannot be applied affectively to another part, mainly because of
the cultural differences. These differences can be perceived in the way
of life of the people, their attitudes, values. habits and customs. Each
programme must take into consideration all these factors. Desirable
changes in behaviout are accomplished when the process employed for
organized syste~naticlearning are affective in transmitting the
ilecessary knowledge in a manner appropriate to the organizational
and cultural patterns of the participants.

Principle of Cultural Change

The cultwe of people undergoes change while doing extension work.
Tlus principle can be summed up in the words of Earl Moncur:
Self-Instructional Material

109
 Rural Extension "As each culture is unique and each particular situation within which a
NOTES change is occuring, or is to be made, is unique, it is npt possible to lay
down prescription for what to i d e n m and to describe the process
wlliclr occurs so that each particular individual or team charged wit11
responsiliility for planning, execution or adjusting to some type of
change, may be able to act in terms of the process".
To sump up, the extension worker should demonstrate the beneficial
results 'afthe useful ideas on the fields of some farmers. This will serve
as a faith building measure.
Principle of Leadership
You must be aware that it a very difficult for most countries to provide
sufficient number of extension workers to meet their full demands.
The extension workers are, therefore, short in number. It may not be
possible for an extension worker to visit all the farmers individually.
Much can be done through the local leaders. It is said that there is one
leader in every ten persons. Afier identifying these leaders they should
be trained and encouraged to do extension work.
Local lealders are the custodians of local thought and action. The
involvement of local leaders and legitimization by them are essential
for the success of a program.
PRINCIPLE OF WBOLE FAMILY APPROACH
You know that family is the primary unit of a society. The target for
extension work should, therefore, be the family. That is, developing
the family as a whole economically and socially., Not only the fanners,
the farm women and fann youth are also to be ~nvolvedin extension
programmes. Women and youth not only perform much of the labour
involved, but have a great influence in decision makink. The active
participation of all members of the family can be promoted through the
sinall agricultural units and local groups of adult farmers, home
makels and farm youth organized at the village level. They should be
involved in problem solvirhg gwup dscussions, local fairs, field days
and agricultural shows, etc. All memebrs of' the family have to be
approached equally by the extension programmes affect all members
of the family. The family members have great influence in decision
making.
 It creates mutual understanding.
 It aids in money management.
 It balances farm and family needs.
 It educates the younger memebrs.
 It provides an activity outlet for all.
 It unifiesaspkcts, such as social, .economic and culture of the
family.
 It assures family Service to the community and society.

Self-Instructional Material

110
 Rural Extension
PRINCIPLE OF TRAINED SPECIALISTS
Like other sciences, agriculture, animal husbandry and the home NOTES
science are moving forward rapidly. Therefore, maintaining
competency in any one of these fields is a continuous job. It is very
difficult for an extension worker to know the latest findings of
research in all the branches of science to deal with his day-to-day
activity. As stated by'Mosher (1958), It is impossible for any field
agent to be really an expert in all the probiems for which he is called
upon to help. To supplement his abilities, and to keep field agents
informed, both about new developments and market trends, it has been
found necessary to have field agents supported by subject matter
specialists. A subject matter extension specialist is responsible for
keeping his knowledge up-to-date on research development, for
training field extension staff in the latest techniques and. recommend
practices in his field of specialization.
PRINCIPLE OF DEMOCRATIC APPROACH
Extension work is democratic both in philosophy and procedure It
aims to operate through discussion and suggestion. Facts about a
situation are shared with the people. A11 possible alternative solutions
are placed before the participants and heir merits are highlighted
through mutual discussion. Ultimately, the people are left free to
decide their line of action, the methods to be adopted in the local
situation with their own resources and available Government
assistance.
PRINCIPLE OF USE OF LOCAL RESOURCES
We generally observe that a number of local resources, both human
and material are not put to their fill use. The ddult and the youth are
usually without work during the slack season. Under these conditions,
it is the duty of the extension staff to mobilize and organize the local
resources of men and material and the social groups for joint and
cooperative action. As far as possible, efforts should be made to plan
and execute all programmes locally. It is not very difficult to identify
the local resources for executing various programmes. It, then helps to
make self-development as the habit of the people which is a pre-
requisite for any nation to progress.
PRINCIPLE OF AIDED SELF-HELP
The main job of extension worker is to motivate the people and to
make efforts for self improvement. Learning is more effective when
the learner accepts major responsibility for his own learning. But they
may lack the resources to achieve their objectives. Extension agencies
should provide them the necessary ?id to help in their efforts towards
change. Boyle (1965) has suggested that local people provided with
effective leadership, pertinent facts systematically analyzed and well
understood, are able to contribute to the identification of major
problems, concerns and opportunities for further social and economic
development. Self-Instructional Material

111
 Rural Extension PRINCIPLE OF ADAPTABILITY
NOTES You know that village consists of different people and groups.
Extension work and extension teaching methods must be flexible and
adapted to suit h s e local variations. This is necessary because the
people, their situation, their resources and constraints vary from place
to place and from time to time.
Principles of Use of Teaching Methods
Villagepeople differ in their level of understanding and knowledge and
therefore. only one extension method will not be useful in providing
information all. It has been proved by obsenlations. experience and
systelnatic studies that a conlbinatiori of a number of suitable esttnsion
metliods leads to higlicr success in tlie adoption and diffusion of
technology among the people as co~ilparedwit11 only one or two
extension niethods used by the extension staff. Written material will
not be of use for those who cannot read it. Radio program will bc of
use only for those who listell to radio and demonstrations will be of
use to tllose who see them. Research sho\vs that the use of more than
one estelisio~~method carries the message effectively to people.
1.5.15 Principle of Evaluation
To knocv. where we are, we lnrlst start from where we took off.
Evaluation is tlie tilap or cl~art to provide direction. For this, i t is
necessary to review tlie developlnent made so far and see wliellier tlie
extension work is procceding in the r~glitdirection If it is not. tlien it is
necessary to take corrective nieasures. The purpose of evaluation is to
miligate our error in n~ak~ilg decisions by providing a factt~albasis
for drawing conclus~onsand lilaking sound judgenients.
You have been Lold that extensloll work is cducatio~ialin nature arld
therefore. its effect11eness sliould be measured by measuring tlic
cliangc in people resilltiiig froill tlie teaching process. Tlie results of
st~clievaluations would lielp the extension workers ln ~liiprov~ngthe
qiial~t? of progranlnies in future.
5.3. 5 APPROACHES OF EXTENSION
Extension comes in many sizes and shapes. Although the following
classification, made primarily for agriculture, is not complete and the
distinctions between the types are not absolute, it gives an idea of the
possibilities and opportunities that exist for the extension planner and
for the policy- and decision-maker at the national level.
The general extension approach. In contrast to several other
approaches, this approach assumes that technology and knowledge that
are appropriate for local people exist but are not being used by them.
The approach is usually fairly centralized and government-controlled.
Success is measured in the adoption rate of recommendations and
increases in national production.
The commodity specialized approach. The key characteristic of this
approach groups all the functions for increased production - extension,
Self-Instructional Material
research, input supply, marketing and prices - under one
112
 Rural Extension
administration. Extension is fairly centralized and is oriented towards
one commodity or crop and the agent has many functions. NOTES

The training and visit approach. This fairly centralized approach is

based on a rigorously planned schedule of visits to farmers and
training of agents and subject matter specialists. Close links are
maintained between research and extension. Agents are only involved
in technology transfer. Success is related to increases in the production
of particular crops or commodities.
The agricultural extension participatory approach. This approach
often focuses on the expressed needs of farmers' groups and its goal is
increased production and an improved quality of rural life.
Implementation is often decentralized and flexible. Success is
measured by the numbers of farmers actively participating and the
sustainability of local extension organizations.
The project approach. This approach concentrates efforts on a
particular location, for a specific time period, often with outside
resources. Part of its purpose is often to demonstrate techniques and
methods that could be extended and sustained after the project period.
Change in the short term is often a measure of success.
The farming systems development approach. A key characteristic of
this type of extension is its systems or holistic approach at the local
level. Close ties with research are required and technology for local
needs is developed locally through an iterative process involving local
people. Success is measured by the extent to which local people adopt
and continue to use technologies developed by the programme.
The cost-sharing approach. This approach assumes that cost-sharing
with local people (who do not have the means to pay the full cost) will
promote a programme that is more likely to meet local situations and
where extension agents are more accountable to local interests. Its
purpose is to provide advice and information to facilitate farmers' self-
improvement. Success is often measured by the willingness to pay.
The educational institution approach. This approach uses
educational institutions which have technical knowledge and some
research ability to provide extension services for rural people.
Implementation and planning are often controlled by those who
determine school curricula. The emphasis is often on the transfer of
technical knowledge.
EXTENSION METHODS
There are several methods for extension work:

 The individual/household approach

Self-Instructional Material

113
 Rural Extension  The group approach: meetings, field days, demonstrations,
NOTES support to groups
 The school approach
 Mass extension methods.
None of these methods can be singled out as being the best one; all of
them have their advantages and disadvantages. The choice of method
depends on various factors such as:
A combination of extension methods is more effective than just one
method. In an area where tenure is communal, or land management is
based on communal efforts, a group approach is likely to be more
effective than an individual approach. Meetings, field days and
approaches to schools may also be good options. Usually decisions
have to be made communally, and the best entry point may be through
established decision-making systems, e.g. community meetings.
Knowledge of traditional systems for making decisions is essential,
particularly in pastoral areas where such systems are often still of great
importance.
Even if the tenure is individual, communal management practices
often exist. An obvious example is post-harvest grazing. Changes in
behavior in this respect may be very desirable since uncontrolled post-
harvest grazing is a constraint to tree growing and soil conservation,
and a change in this practice can best be achieved if the whole
community is addressed. It may be difficult for an individual to
introduce restrictions in this situation since the neighbours expect
grazing to be free for all.
In communities where group work is common, and groups have
already been organized for various tasks, a group approach may also
be more feasible than an individual approach.
If an organization carrying out extension is rich in resources, a more
costly approach can be chosen than if the organization is resource
poor. It is, however, just as important for a resource-rich organization
to carefully consider which method is best for the area, and how the
extension work should be organized in order to prevent waste of
resources. Cost-effectiveness should always be borne in mind, and past
experience indicates, for example, that issuing free seedlings is rarely
a sustainable approach since it creates dependency and discourages
private commercial initiatives in tree-seedling production. An
excessive level of material support generally creates dependence, and
often proves to be counter productive in the long run.
The individual/household approach
This approach is most effective for activities to be undertaken by or
within the full control of the individual farmer or household. Matters
Self-Instructional Material related to the individual farm should, as much as possible, be
114
 Rural Extension
discussed with the whole family. If the whole family is involved, more
problems are highlighted and more experience is brought to the NOTES
discussion.
Advantages of the individual methods are:

 Unclear messages that have not been fully understood can

easily be clarified
 The extension officer is able to secure co-operation and inspire
the confidence of the family through personal contact
 It facilitates immediate feedback on the effectiveness of the
measures discussed
 It may be the best way to ensure that everyone in the family
participates in decision making.
 Disadvantages of the individual method:
 It is expensive in terms of time and transport
 Only a few farmers may be visited, and sometimes they may be
mainly the extension worker's friends
 The area covered is small since all the effort is concentrated on
a few farmers.

Check your progress -2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
3. Write the Principles of Extension?
4. List out the Extension Methods?
The group approach
The group approach involves working with groups or the community
at large. It is suitable when discussing matters related to the whole
community (e.g. post-harvest grazing, protection and management of
indigenous forests), and when there are activities to be undertaken by a
group, e.g. group nurseries. It is also suitable when there is a need to
address individual matters but more cheaply than can be done with the
individual approach. The direct target group may be a women's group,
a church organization, a co-operative society or the community in
general.
Extension work can also be carried out at meetings, either organized
specifically to discuss agro forestry issues, or by making use of
meetings that were already organized for some other purpose but
where some discussion on agro forestry can be accommodated.
Meetings are effective venues for receiving information from the
community, for discussing issues of communal or individual interest
and for spreading new ideas.
Field days and demonstrations are best organized on individual farms.
There are two kinds of demonstration: result demonstrations and
Self-Instructional Material
method demonstrations. Result demonstrations show farmers the
115
 Rural Extension results of a practice that has been in use for some time and are
NOTES intended to arouse the farmer's interest in the practice. They can also
be used to compare older practices or techniques with new ones.
Method demonstrations show farmers how a particular activity or task
is carried out, e.g. how to plant a tree. This type of demonstration is
among the oldest methods of teaching. It is an effective method since
the farmers can practise, see, hear and discuss during the
demonstration.
The catchment approach is a special type of group approach that has
been used since 1987 in the National Soil and Water Conservation
Programme of the Ministry of Agriculture. All farmers within a certain
area, normally some 200-400 hectares, are mobilized and trained for
conservation efforts. A catchment committee consisting of, and elected
by, the local farmers assists the extension staff in awareness creation,
layout of contours, implementation and follow up. The group approach
is combined with the individual approach since each farm is subject to
specific advice and layout.
Training and visit (T&V) is not an extension method but rather a
management system for extension work built on a combination of the
individual and group approaches. In this system, the extension staff are
trained every fortnight on the relevant extension issues for that time of
the year and the staff then extend these messages to contact farmers
who receive special attention. Field days and other visits are arranged
on the farm of the contact farmer so that his neighbours can also
benefit from the knowledge he has gained.

 It is generally cheaper than the individual approach

 More people are reached within a given period of time
 There is an exchange of ideas and experiences among the group
 It is easy to monitor.
Disadvantages of the group approach:

 It may take a long time to arrive at a decision

 Influential people in the community may dominate the
discussions
 It is sometimes difficult to get people to agree on issues and to
work together
 Individual problems are not well addressed in a group
 People who are not members of the group will not be reached.
Mass extension methods
mass extension methods involve the use of the mass media, e.g. radio,
posters, drama, television, newspapers, films, slide shows, to inform
the public. Mass media are mainly used to create awareness.
Self-Instructional Material Advantages of mass extension methods:
116
  These methods can increase the impact of extension staff Rural Extension

through rapid spread of information NOTES

 Many people can be reached within a short time, even in remote

areas.
Disadvantages of mass extension methods:
 The amount of information that can be transmitted is limited
 Radio and television reception is poor in some areas and the
target group may not own sets, particularly TVs
 It is difficult to evaluate the impact since there is no immediate
feedback
 Production of both programmes and printed materials is costly
and requires special skills.
5.4 APPROACHES TO RURAL COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
There are no universally accepted approaches to rural development. It
is a choice influenced by time, space and culture. The term rural
development connotes overall development of rural areas to improve
the quality of life of rural people. In this sense, it is a comprehensive
and multidimensional concept, and encompasses the development of
agriculture and allied activities, village and cottage industries and
crafts, socio- economic infrastructure, community services and
facilities and, above all, human resources in rural areas. So, the types
of approaches to rural development are as follows:
i) Broad front Approach:
ii) Sectoral Approach:
iii) Participatory Approach:
iv) Area Development Approach:
v) Target Approach:
vi) Basic Needs Approach:
vii) Employment-oriented Integrated Approach to
Rural Development:
viii) Integrated Development Approach:
ix) Growth Center Approach:
x) Community-driven development (CDD) or Approach:
xi) Gandhian Approach and its current relevance:
Broad Front Approach:

Self-Instructional Material

117
 Rural Extension Community Development and Panchayat Raj were often described as
NOTES Broad-front‟ or ‟Multipronged* development strategies as they aimed
at development of villages covering all the major spheres like
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Rural Industries, Communication,
Health, Education, Women Welfare and Social Welfare(Desai, 1983).
In the early 1960*s India revised its rural development strategy and
adopted sectoral approach of development, due to financial limitations
and pressing needs and priorities (Sharma, 1977)* In the process, it
launched specific sectoral development programmes such as Intensive
Agricultural District Programme, Intensive Agricultural Area
Programme, Intensive Cattle Development Programme, etc.
While the sectoral approach to development was fruitful to a major
extent in eleminating scarcity of food, it has also contributed to the
growing regional imbalances and inequality among the people within
the community, the later has affected significantly the rural poor, viz.,
the landless labour, artisans, marginal and small fanners. As a result,
the development policy of India was revised once again in late 1970*s
in which development of the rural poor became the primary concerned
of rural development. Antyodaya, Integrated Rural Development
Programme, National Rural Employment Programme are some of the
programmes that were introduced in India for the development of rural
poor. The present study is an attempt to review the functioning of
Integrated Rural Development Programme with specific reference to
the progress made by the beneficiaries and the problems confronted by
them in the development process. A theoretical introduction to the
Integrated Rural 3 Development Programme (IRDP) covering the
aspects of its history, meaning and scope is given hereunder.
In early fifties, rural development efforts began with multi-purpose
approach which included activities related to agriculture, animal
husbandry, co-operation, irrigation, village and small scale industries,
health, sanitation, housing, transport and communication, welfare of
women and rural employment. The Community Development
Programmes (CDP) and National Extension Service (NES) initiated in
1952 fell under this approach. Though CDP, as a holistic approach, did
not succeed as expected. The impact of programme was ephemeral. It
was said that the community development programme has been like
film of butter spread over a large loaf, thus provide ineffective in a
complex society. Hence, it could not make a dent into social fabric as
was expected. The critics also point out that; i) It brought about a great
disparity between the rich and the poor, ii) It hardly touched the
problem of meeting the felt needs of the people, iii) It failed to bring
about the process of modernization through social education, and iv)
Lack of people‟s participation. In spite of the criticisms leveled against
CDP and NES, the fact cannot be denied that the programme added a
new dimension to the process of change and generated community
Self-Instructional Material
consciousness to solve community problems. 46 The multi-purpose
118
 Rural Extension
approach was a significant approach, which laid the foundation stone
for the upliftment of rural India. NOTES

Sectoral Approach:
Sectoral development planning in individual sectors like education,
health, housing and social security are included in sectoral approach of
development. This approach advocates compartmentalization of
development in different sectors as if these are watertight
compartments and have nothing to do with each other. Its inadequacies
stem from this compartmentalized approach. Little attempts are to be
made to integrate them.
By 1960‟s the situation was rather critical on the food front. The need
for great concentration on food production led to strategy for locating
potential sectors and well- endowed districts and areas capable of
yielding higher agricultural production. More attention was paid in
improving productivity per acre than on extending the acreage. Thus,
the Intensive Agriculture Development Programme (1960) (IADP) and
later in 1963 intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were
launched. Both IADP and IAAP constituted landmarks in the
development of agriculture, indeed of the rural sector in India. The
programmes placed agriculture on a qualitatively different footing
with wide ranging repercussions on rural scenario. The programmes
resulted in a spectacular breakthrough in total agricultural production
and productivity per hectare but at the expense of social equality and
social justice.
Participatory Approach:
This concept has been developed from participatory development.
“Participatory development is a process through which stakeholders
can influence and share control over development initiatives, and over
the decisions and resources that affect themselves”(ADB, 1996).
• A process to engage local populations in development projects.
• PD uses local decision making and capacities to steer and
define the nature of an intervention.
• PD aims at achieving a localized capital accumulation process
based on the skills development and local resources generation.
• The essential feature of PD is social mobilization
• PD gives a new self-confidence through which the community
can engage in more ambitious projects involving collective action and
management.
Scope and Applications of Participation
Self-Instructional Material

119
 Rural Extension • Participation at the micro level of projects such as project
NOTES planning and design decisions, project implementation, monitoring and
evaluation.
• Participation at the macro level, for instance, participatory
poverty assessments (PPAs) are designed to influence policy
particularly in relation to development and poverty reduction strategies
(Norton et al., 2001).
• Between the micro and the macro level, a number of exercises
in participation at an intermediate or meso level such as participatory
budgeting in local governments and various forms of territory-based
rural development.
Types of Participation: Passive Participation
People are told what is going to happen or has already happened. Top
down, information shared belongs only to external professionals.
Information giving People answer questions posed by extractive
researchers, using surveys etc. People not able to influence the
research. Consultation People are consulted and external agents listen
to their views. Usually externally defined problems and solutions.
People not really involved in decision making. Participation by
material incentives Provision of resources, e.g. labor. Little incentive
to participate, for example farm research, some community forestry.
Functional Participation
Groups are formed to meet predetermined objectives. Usually done
after major project decisions are made, therefore initially dependent on
outsiders but may become self dependent and enabling. Interactive
Participation Joint analysis to joint actions. Possible use of new local
institutions or strengthening existing ones. Enabling and empowering
so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices. Self-
Mobilization Already empowered, take decisions independently of
external institutions. May or may not challenge existing inequitable
distributions of wealth and power.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Rapid Rural Appraisal
(RRA) To enable people so that they can express and analyze the
realities of their lives and conditions, to plan themselves what actions
to take, and to monitor and evaluate the results. The difference is that
PRA emphasizes processes that empower local people, whereas RRA
is mainly seen as a means for outsiders to gather information
(Chambers and Blackburn, 1996)
Key Elements of Participatory Development Process:
Growth of consciousness and group identity. The realization of the
creative potential of the poor. Empowerment: The process of
Self-Instructional Material

120
 Rural Extension
reconstructing a group identity, raising consciousness, acquiring new
skills and upgrading their knowledge base. Participation: Power to NOTES
break the vicious circle of poverty
Variations of Participatory Development Manifestations
• Enabling "mutual learning “ to enhance “communication,
listening and learning between development workers and those they
serve.
Implementation
1. Information-sharing tools: News and updates via media
2. Consultation tools: Discussion forums, debates, focus groups
etc.
3. Collaborative planning tools: Establishment of local-level
planning committees
4. Benefits High start-up cost but less expensive and more
sustainable in the long run
5. More relevant to local populations than traditional development
projects
6. Addressing local needs Criticisms
7. Costly and slow
8. Smaller target population than traditional development
9. Treating everyone same in the communities.
10. Participatory Approaches to Rural Poverty Alleviation
Diagnosis/ project identification, community planning, and
formulation • Diagnosing the situations that give rise to problems,
setting priorities for their resolution, identifying and formulating
project interventions that may help solve some of those problems.
Research and extension, innovation, knowledge • The research and
development realm consists of co- creative processes to identify needs
and opportunities, generate new information and innovations,
consolidate them with existing practices, and then translate them into
learning objectives and activities for enhanced performance.
11. Natural resource management - Natural resource management
development is a main area of application of participatory approaches
to help poor in managing the natural resources available to them.
Governance and Decentralization • Good governance makes it possible
for citizens, individually or in groups, to articulate their interests,
exercise their legal rights and negotiate their differences. • Within the
broad area of governance, decentralization, which brings decision- Self-Instructional Material

121
 Rural Extension making closer to the local level, is potentially important to
NOTES participation, if it is done well, lead to more responsive government
and new opportunities for citizens to participate.
Area Development Approach:
This approach contemplates that development of an area depends not
only on the development of an adequate infrastructure network but
also the way factors of the local economy are activated around the
production infrastructure. In other words, for development of an area,
spatial and functional integration is necessary. Thus, while rural
growth centers provide ideal locations for the provision of
infrastructural facilities, their hinterlands are regarded as basic
planning units for integrated multi-sectoral planning to achieve
integrated development of an area. The approach, while taking area
poverty into consideration, provides a balance between various
sectoral activities as well as spatial pattern of growth; however, it does
not ensure that economic growth is being shared by all classes and
communities of the rural areas.
Target Approach:
In order to accommodate the lagging sectors/regions rural
development was re- conceptualized to highlight the improvement of
the social and economic life of a specialized group of people. The
target group comprised of marginal and small farmers, landless
agricultural labourers for whom special programmes such as Small
Farmer Development Agency 47 (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers
Development Agency (MFALDA) were started. It was noticed that the
target group approach showed a better results where information
facilities were satisfactory and administrative and organizational
arrangements were reasonably strong. This approach was for the
correction of regional imbalance. In this connection, mention may be
made of Tribal
Area Development Programme (TADP, 1972), Hill Area
Development Programme (HADP, 1974-75), Drought Prone Area
Programme (DPAP, 1970), Desert Development Programme (DDP,
1977-78), and Command Area Development Programme (CADP,
1975). These programmes were fairly successful in terms of
implementation.
Basic Needs Approach:
The basic needs approach gives primacy to the need for a minimum
standard of living of the poor as a central concern of development
planning. It therefore contributes to the formulation of a development
strategy, which aims at reducing poverty and inequality, promoting
growth of employment and distributive justice. The basic needs
Self-Instructional Material concept is a wider scope covering personal and social consumption
122
 Rural Extension
and also human rights, peoples participation, employment and growth
with justice. 48 The Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) in India was NOTES
introduced in 1974 during the first year of fifth plan period. The fifth
plan proposed MNP with the objectives of establishing network of
basic services and facilities of social consumption in all areas of upto
nationally accepted norms within in a specified time frame. It is
essentially a programme of investment in human resources
development and seeks to improve the consumption of those living
below poverty line and thereby improving productive efficiency of
people and their quality of life. The main components of MNP are: (1)
Rural health, (2) Rural education, (3) Rural roads, (4) Rural drinking
water, (5) Rural electrification, (6) House sites for landless, (7)
Environmental improvement in slums, and (8) Nutrition.
Employment-oriented Integrated Approach to Rural
Development:
With a view to overcome the limitations of earlier approaches and to
improve the quality of life of the poor living in the rural areas, a
multilevel, multi-sector, with multi- section concept of integrated rural
49 development was launched in 1978-79. The different programmes
were brought under single umbrella of Integrated Rural Development
Programme (IRDP). It aimed at ensuring accelerated welfare and
development of the poorest of the poor based on Gandhian concept of
Antyodaya. Several programmes for providing employment to rural
poor, namely, rural works programme, rural employment guarantee
programme, IRDP, Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment
(TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
(DWCRA) and Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) were introduced.
Integrated Development Approach:
In the context of problems in the area development approach to tackle
the problems of rural poverty, a new strategy of development, i.e. the
integrated development approach has been developed because the area
development approach by and large failed to address the question of
inequalities in the distribution of employment, incomes and assets. A
mere geographical emphasis, as is the case with the area development
approach, has been found to be inadequate in solving the problems.
The Indian economy and social structure are characterized by
widespread poverty, poor health conditions, illiteracy, exploitation,
inequitable distribution of land and other assets and lack of
infrastructure and public utilities (roads, communications etc). Clearly,
this means that the problem requires an approach that will take into
account all these factors in devising a comprehensive strategy to
further rural development. The concept of “integrated rural
development” came into vogue with the need for a multipurpose thrust
to rural planning. It stresses that various facets of rural development,
which have an impact on rural life, are interrelated and cannot be Self-Instructional Material

123
 Rural Extension looked at in isolation. Thus, an integrated approach towards rural
NOTES development is essential. The various dimensions of rural life---growth
of agriculture and allied activities, rural industrialization, education,
health, public works, poverty alleviation and rural employment
programmes -- all form a part of an integrated approach to the
problems of rural development.
Growth Center Approach:
It is most appropriate for planning integrated rural development.
Based on the principle of “equal accessibility”, this approach can bring
all these facilities, services and local administration [panchayats]
within easy reach of the population. The growth center should be
equipped with all the required facilities such as:
[a] Training center to impart practical training and build capacity to
enhance productivity of agriculture and rural/cottage/agro-based
industries
[b] Mobile training-cum-demonstration unit to provide on the spot
training, repair and maintenance, services for agricultural and
industrial machineries
[c] Marketing-cum-warehousing facilities that can provide safe
storage and marketing of farm produce and cottage industries products
[d] Forest and grass nursery to provide fruits, fuel, fodder and
forest cover
[e] Developmental school based on the “ earning while learning
principle” and oriented to develop a cadre of self-employed workers in
the area of human, animal, plant and soil-health care and
[f] Residential housing complex for workers in the project area.
Community-driven development (CDD) or Approach:
It is derived from community-based development (CBD),which is a
developmental initiative that provides control of the development
process, resources and decision making authority directly to
community groups. The underlying assumption of CDD projects are
that communities are the best judges of how their lives and livelihoods
can be improved and, if provided with adequate resources and
information, they can organize themselves to provide for their
immediate needs. Moreover, CDD programmes are motivated by their
trust in people (Naidoo and Finn, 2001) and hence it advocates people
changing their own environment as a powerful force for development.
By treating poor people as assets and partners in the development
process, previous studies have shown that CDD is responsive to local
demands, inclusive, and more cost- effective compared to centrally-led
Self-Instructional Material NGO-based programmes. CDD can also be supported by strengthening
124
 Rural Extension
and financing community groups, facilitating community access to
information, and promoting an enabling environment through NOTES
policy and institutional reform.

Check your progress -3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
5. Write any for approaches to Rural Development?
6. What are the main components of MNP?
5.5 TAGORE: SRINIKETAN EXPERIMENT
In 1920, Rabindra Nath Tagore laid the foundation of the Sriniketan
Institute for Rural Reconstruction and formulated a programme for the
all-round improvement in the Village of his Zamindari with the
objective of studying rural problems and of helping the Villagers to
develop agriculture, improving the livestock, formation of co-
operatives. Tagore believed in selfhelp and mutual help and wanted
the village workers to be involved in the life of rural people and work
for their welfare.
He started this programme in the cluster of 8 Villages but were
not very successful and can only be described as rural welfare works.
The absence of market facilities, professional guidance, lack of co-
ordination between the implementing authority and improper
incentives for workers made the task more difficult and desired results
could not be achieved. The Sriniketan experiment meant for bringing
back life in its completeness into the Villages, making rural folks self-
reliant and en-grading self-respectful, acquainted with the cultural
traditions of their own country and competent to make an efficient use
of modem resources for the improvement of their physical, intellectual
and economic conditions. Though this experiment was not success, it
attained certain physical and notable results.
5.6 THE GANDHIAN APPROACH TO RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
In the Indian context rural development may be defined as maximising
production in agriculture and allied activities in the rural areas
including development of rural industries with emphasis on village and
cottage industries.
It attaches importance to the generation of maximum possible
employment opportunities in rural areas, especially for the weaker
sections of the community so as to enable them to improve their
standard of living.
Provision of certain basic amenities like drinking water, electricity,
especially for the productive purpose, link roads connecting villages to
market centres and facilities for health and education etc. figure
prominently in the scheme of rural development.

Self-Instructional Material

125
 Rural Extension Theoretically, Gandhian approach to rural development may be
NOTES labelled as „idealist‟. It attaches supreme importance to moral values
and gives primacy to moral values over material conditions. The
Gandhians believe that the source of moral values in general lies in
religion and Hindu scriptures like the Upanishads and the Gita, in
particular.
The concept of „Rama Rajya‟ is the basis of Gandhiji‟s idea of an ideal
social order. Gandhi defined Rama Rajya as “sovereignty of the people
based on moral authority”. He did not view Rama as a king, and
people as his subjects. In the Gandhian scheme, „Rama‟ stood for God
or one‟s own „inner voice‟ Gandhi believed in a democratic social
order in which people are supreme. Their supremacy is, however, not
absolute. It is subject to moral values.
Ideal Village:
The village is the basic unit of the Gandhian ideal social order. Gandhi
succinctly pointed out, “If the village perishes India will perish too….
We have to make a choice between India of the villages that is as
ancient as herself and India of the cities which are a creation of foreign
domination”. Gandhi‟s ideal village belongs to the Pre-British period,
when Indian villages were supposed to constitute the federation of
self-governing autonomous republics.
According to Gandhiji, this federation will be brought about not by
coercion or compulsion but by the voluntary offer of every village
republic to join such a federation. The work of the central authority
will only be to coordinate the work of different village republics and to
supervise and manage things of common interest, as education, basic
industries, health, currency, banking etc.
The central authority will have no power to enforce its decisions on
village republics except the moral pressure or power of persuasion.
The economic system and transport system introduced by the British
have destroyed the “republican‟ character of the villages.
Gandhi, however, admitted that in olden times tyranny and oppression
were in fact practised by feudal chiefs. But, “odds were even”. Today
the odds are heavy. It is most demoralising.” In this way in the
Gandhian scheme of things the ancient „republic‟, an Indian village
without tyranny and exploitation serves as a model unit.
Decentralisation:
Gandhi firmly believes that village republics can be built only through
decentralisation of social and political power. In such a system
decision-making power will be vested in the Village Panchayat rather
than in the State and the national capital. The representatives would be
Self-Instructional Material

126
 Rural Extension
elected by all adults for a fixed period of five years. The elected
representatives would constitute a council, called the Panchayat. NOTES

The Panchayat exercises legislative, executive and judicial functions.

It would look after education, health and sanitation of the village. It
would be the Panchayats responsibility to protect and uplift
„untouchables‟ and other poor people. Resources for Gandhian
Approach to managing village affairs would be raised from the
villages.
All the conflicts and disputes would be resolved within the village.
And as far as possible not a single case is to be referred to courts
outside the village. The Panchayat would play its role in propagating
the importance of moral and spiritual values among the ruralites for
bringing about rural reconstruction.
Apart from managing its own affairs the village would also be capable
of defending itself against any invasion. A non-violent peace brigade
of volunteers would be organised to defend the village. This corps
would be different from the usual military formation. They would
repose the utmost faith in non-violence and God.
Self-sufficiency:
Such a decentralised polity implies a decentralised economy. It can be
attained only through self-sufficiency at the village level. The village
should be self-sufficient as far as its basic needs – food, clothing, and
other necessities – are concerned. The village has to import certain
things which it cannot produce in the village. “We shall have to
produce more of what we can, in order thereby to obtain in exchange,
what we are unable to produce”.
The village should produce food-crops and cotton in order to meet its
requirements. Some lands should also be earmarked for cattle and for a
playground for adults and children. If some land is still available, it
should be used for growing useful cash crops like tobacco, opium, etc.
to enable the village to get in exchange things which it does not
produce.
Village economy should be planned with a view to providing full
employment to all the adults of the village. Each man should be
guaranteed employment to enable him to meet his basic needs in the
village itself so that he is not forced to migrate to towns. In the
ultimate analysis full employment should be linked with equality.
Physical labour occupies a central place in the Gandhian concept of
the self-sufficient village. In this respect he was highly influenced by
Rus-kin and Tolstoy. According to Gandhi, each man must do physical
labour to earn his bread. Physical labour is necessary for moral
discipline and for the sound development of the mind. Intellectual Self-Instructional Material

127
 Rural Extension labour is only for one‟s own satisfaction and one should not demand
NOTES payment for it.
The needs of the body must be supplied by the body. Gandhi said, “If
all laboured for their bread then there would be enough food and
enough leisure for all.” Shriman Narayan rightly observes, “Gandhiji
recognised toil to be not a curse but the joyful business of life as it has
the power to make man healthier, merrier, fitter and kindlier”.
Industrialization:
Gandhiji maintained that industrialization would help only a few and
will lead to concentration of economic power. Industrialization leads
to passive or active exploitation of the villages. It encourages
competition. Large scale production requires marketing. Marketing
means profit-seeking through an exploitative mechanism.
Moreover, industrialization replaces manpower and hence it adds to
unemployment. In a country like India, where millions of labourers in
the villages do not get work for even six months in a year,
industrialization will not only increase unemployment but force
labourers to migrate to urban areas. This will ruin villages.
In order to avoid such a catastrophe, village and cottage industries
should be revived. They provide employment to meet the needs of the
villagers and facilitate village self-sufficiency. Gandhians are not
against machine per se if it meets two aims: self-sufficiency and full
employment. According to Gandhi, there would be no objection to
villagers using even the modern machines and tools that they could
make and could afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means
of exploitation of others.
Trusteeship:
Gandhiji was not against the institution of private property. But he
wanted to restrict the right of private property to what was necessary
to yield an honourable livelihood. For the excess he prescribed the
principle of trusteeship.
Gandhiji emphasized the principle of trusteeship in social and
economic affairs. He firmly believed that all social property should be
held in trust. The capitalists would take care not only of themselves
but also of others. Some of their surplus wealth would be used for the
rest of the society.
The poor workers, under trusteeship, would consider the capitalists as
their benefactors; and would repose faith in their noble intentions.
Gandhiji felt that if such a trusteeship were established, the welfare of
the workers would increase and the clash between the workers and
Self-Instructional Material

128
employers would be avoided. Trusteeship would help considerably “in Rural Extension

realising a state of equality on earth.” NOTES

Gandhiji firmly believed that land should not be owned by any

individual. Land belongs to God. Hence, individual ownership of land
should be shunned. For that a landowner should be persuaded to
become a trustee of his land. He should be convinced that the land he
owns does not belong to him. Land belongs to the community and
must be used for the welfare of the community. They are merely
trustees. By persuasion the heart of landowners should be changed and
they should be induced to donate their land voluntarily.
If the land owners do not oblige and continue to exploit the poor
workers, the latter should organise non-violent, non- cooperation, civil
disobedience struggles against them. Gandhiji rightly held the view
that “no person can amass wealth without the cooperation, willing or
forced, of the people concerned”.
If this knowledge were to penetrate and spread amongst the poor, they
would become strong and learn how to free themselves from the
crushing inequalities which have pushed them to the verge of
starvation. But the oppressed should not take recourse to violent
methods. In the Gandhian scheme of things, the principle of
cooperation, love and service is most important and violence has no
place in it. Violence is against “moral values‟ and civilized society is
inconceivable in the absence of moral values.
Gandhiji‟s concept of development is oriented to the uplift of the
common man. He preferred village habitats to megalopolises and
Swadeshi craft to imported technology for the economic well being of
the common man. He stressed the need for cottage industries in place
of gigantic industries and advocated for a decentralised economy
instead of a centralised one.
He realised the need for integrated rural development and believed that
education, health and vocation should be properly integrated. He
emphasised the need for education and training which he called
„Naitalim‟ (New training) for rural reconstruction.
In fine, Gandhian approach to rural development strives to reconstruct
village republics which would be non-violent, self- governed and self-
sufficient so far as the basic necessities of ruralites are concerned.
Apart from creating a new socio-economic order, it Endeavour‟s to
transform man; otherwise the changes in the socio-economic order will
be short-lived.

5.7 C.SUBRAMANIAN
Integrated Rural Development according to C. Subramanian the then
Finance Minister of India, means 'Something more comprehensive and
Self-Instructional Material

129
 Rural Extension fundamental, a systematic, scientific and integrated use of our natural
NOTES resources, and as part of this process, enabling every person to engage
himself in a productive and socially useful occupation and earn an
income that would meet atleast the basic needs'. IRDP is a strategy
which focuses attention on the rural poor and attempts to improve the
quality of life of the weaker sections of the society in the overall
spectrum of development and growth. The strategy is just not an
attempt of increasing agricultural productivity but ensuring that the
poor and the weaker sections share the benefits of economic and social
progress. "Integrated Rural Development may be defined as a
systematic approach aiming at total development of the area and the
people by bringing about the necessary institutional and attitudinal
changes and by delivering a package of services through extension
method to encompass not only the economic field, i.e., development of
agricultural and rural industries, etc., but also the establishment of the
required social infrastructure and services in the area of health and
nutrition, family planning, etc., with the ultimate objective of
improving the quality of life in the rural area". Thus, the concept of
Integrated Rural Development came into vogue with the need for a
multi-purpose thrust to rural planning. It is a 'multi-level, a multi-
sector, and multi section concept'. As a multi-level concept, it
encompasses rural development at various levels in the spatial
hierarchy such as the viable cluster of village communities, blocks and
districts. As a multi-sector concept, it encompasses agriculture,
industry, education, health and transportation. As a multi-section
concept, it encompasses socio-economic development of the target
group of the weaker sections or sub-sections of the rural population,
such as, landless labourers, artisans, small farmers, marginal farmers,
Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes.
5.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed the concepts and definitions of extension
given by various authors, academicians and experts. Extension has been
conceived differently by different persons, viz., a process, an effort, an
education, a system of education, a method or way, an applied science;a
social science, an integrated behavioural science and a management science.
The concept of extension differs from context to context. Persuation and
attitude change might be the sole conceptual objective in developed societies
but in under developed and resource poor situations, extension cannot be
isolated from land reforms, credit, arranging inputs and infi-astructure and
other development programmes. Therefore, extension is more of a
management science.

The basic philosophy of extension is directed towards changing the outlook

of human beings by educating them. Extension work is developed on the
principle of helping the rural people to stand on their own feet. The
philosophy is bas& on the hypothesis that rural people are intelligent, are
interested in obtaining new information and at the same time have a keen
desire to utilize this fcy their welfare. Prin~iplesof extension are derived
Self-Instructional Material from this philosophy on the basis of experiences gained in various parts of
130
the world. The principles of extension given by various authors are: Rural Extension

principle of cultural differences, principle of criltural change, principle of NOTES

grass-root organization, principle of cooperation and participation, principle
of interests and needs, principle of learning by doing, principle of leadership,
principle of whole family approach, principle of trained specialist,principle
of use of local resources. principle of democratice approach, principle of
aided self-help, principle of adaptability, principle of use of teaching
methods, principle of evaluation and principle of satisfaction.
The general objective of extension is to raise the standard of living of the
rural people. It ain at the overall development of the target group. i.e.,
the,economic, social, moral and spiritui development of the human
population. The general objectives may also be listed in terms o knowledge,
attitude and skill development. The specific objectives of extension would
varj for difPerent target groups. For the farmers, the specific objective would
be to educate and help them in increasing agricultural production by
adoption of the scientific technology. For the rural women the objective
would be to educate them to increase their efficiency in house-

hold and other activities in which they are involved. Inspite of these
viriations in specific objectives, the final objective of extension remains to
bring about improvement in quality of life of the rural people.
5.9 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write the meaning of Rural Extension?
2. Write the Definition of Extension?
3. Write the Principles of Extension?
4. List out the Extension Methods?
5. Write any for approaches to Rural Development?
6. What are the main components of MNP?
5.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The word 'Extension' is derived from the Latin roots "ex"
meaning "out" "tensio" meaning "stretching". Extension is that
type of education which is stretched out to the people in the
rural means far and near, beyond the limits of the educations to
which the formal type of education is usually confined.

2. Extension is an out-of-school system of education in which

adults and young people learn by doing. According to Esminger
(1957), extension is education and that its purpose is to change
attitudes and practices of people with „whom the work is done.
3. Principles of extension have accordingly been derived in
experiences gained in various parts of the world in the fields of
extension service and rural development. These have been
delved from past rural development programme of India both
Government and non-Government and also from the United
States, Cooperative Extension Service. Experiences from
England, Japan, Israel, etc. have also contributed to these
principles.
4. There are several methods for extension work: (1) The
individual/household approach; (2) The group approach: Self-Instructional Material

131
 Rural Extension meetings, field days, demonstrations, support to groups ; (3)
NOTES The school approach ; (4) Mass extension methods.
5. approaches to rural development are as follows: (i) Broad front
Approach: ii)Sectoral Approach: iii) Participatory;
approach: iv) Area Development Approach:
6. The main components of MNP are: (1) Rural health, (2) Rural
education, (3) Rural roads, (4) Rural drinking water, (5) Rural
electrification, (6) House sites for landless, (7) Environmental
improvement in slums, and (8) Nutrition.

5.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Desai, AR (1978) Rural Sociology in India. Popular Prakashan,
Bombay.
2. Chitamber, JB (1990) Introduction to Rural Sociology. Wiley
Eastern Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
3. AGGARWAL, PARTAP C. 1971 “Impact of Green Revolution on
Landless Labor: A Note.” Economic and Political Weekly 6
(November 20):
4. DASGUPTA, BIPLAB 1977 “India‟s Green Revolution.” Economic
and Political Weekly 12 (February)
5. Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003). Rural development : principles and
practice (1. publ. ed.). London [u.a.]: SAGE.
6. Van Assche, Kristof. &Hornidge, Anna-Katharina. (2015) Rural
development. Knowledge & expertise in governance. Wageningen
Academic Publishers, Wageningen.
7. Dahama, O.P. and Bhatnagar, O.P. (1982). Education and
Communicationfir Development. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.,
New Delhi
8. Kelsey, L.D. and Hearne, C.C.(1963). Cooperative Extension work.
Cornell University Press, New York.
9. kelsey G.L. (1 99 1 ). Extension Communication and Management.
Nays Prokash, Calcutt

Self-Instructional Material

132
 Rural Development
UNIT VI – RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Structure
NOTES
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Aims and Objectives
6.3. Rural Development Administration
6.3.1 History
6.3.2 Central
6.3. 3 State
6.3.4 District
6.3.5 Block level Functions
6.4. Panchayat Raj Institutions
1.4.1 Origin and Evaluation
1.4.2 Philosophy
6.5 New Panchayat raj System
6.5.1 73rd Amendment and its Salient Features
6.5.2 Structure of PRIs
6.5.3 Powers of Grama Sabha
6.5.4 Features of Tamil nadu Panchayat Act, 1994
6.6 Government of India - Finance Commission Center and State
6.7 Powers of PRIs in Implementation of RCD Programmes
6.8 Let Us Sum Up
6.9 Unit- End- Exercises
6.10 Answer to check your Progress
6.11 Suggested Readings
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier blocks you have read about the rural socio-economic
structure and the various rural development approaches and strategies.
It is evident that rural development in our country has to be oriented
necessarily towards the integrated development of rural areas, the
transformation and modernization of rural economy and society, and
the alleviation of poverty. For this purpose, you would agree, we
need mobilization of resources and their allocation specifically to
implement programmes for the benefit of the rural population,
particularly the rural poor. The administrative structure for the
implementation of rural development programmes therefore assumes
special significance. In India, today, a major agency for development
is the administrative machinery itself. A pertinent question is whether
the present administrative structure is capable of playing its role as an
agent of change. In order to accomplish this task, i.e. bring about
changes in a country like India, three conditions are essential. First,
the ideas, attitudes, values, orientations and predispositions of the
bureaucracy should change if it is to succeed as a major instrument of
social transformation. Functionaries in the development
administration are not expected to rule or function as masters of the
people, instead they are required to facilitate, stimulate and promote
change and development. They have to be responsive to the needs and
aspirations of the people. Secondly, the bureaucratic organization and
structure should be reasonably decentralized, rendered free from Self-Instructional Material

133
 Rural Development procedural rigidities and should involve the people in the process
of decision-making. Thirdly, since political leadership lays down
policy and gives direction to development, administrative performance
NOTES
is to a large extent influenced by the support and cooperation of
political leaders. It is therefore essential that bureaucrats and political
leaders develop a new understanding of their complementary roles and
forge functional relationships accordingly.
This unit aims at familiarizing you with the existing organizational and
administrative structure of the rural development programmes, and
the features that characterize the system.

6.2 AIMS OF OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:
 Describe the existing organizational structure for rural
development programmes;
 Identify the changes brought about and sought to be brought
about in the structure since the inception of the Community
Development Programme;
 list the problems encountered by the different functionaries;
 assess the strengths and weaknesses of the administrative
structure; and
 Outline the future prospects.Describe the principles of
extension for effective execution of extension programme.
 List out the general and'specific objectives of extension

6.3. RURAL DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

To understand the present administrative setup of the rural
development bureaucracy better, it is essential to find out its roots
right from the Planning Era. We should know, how we reached the
present day scenario and how the development approach of the policy
planners influenced the administrative infrastructure at various stages?
6.3.1 HISTORY
Historical Overview: The present administrative system of India
was inherited from the colonial rulers, and it is this structure, which
has primarily been entrusted with the functions and responsibilities
of rural development. Some modifications, however, have been grafted
onto it from time to time. The revenue and general administrative
organization and structure have been mobilized for rural development
functions. Changes have been made since the inception of the
Community Development Programme in 1952, which for the first time
attempted in a big way to set up development administration right at
the field level, and it included induction of technical expertise and
training of manpower to undertake various schemes under its purview.
It was the Grow More Food Enquiry Committee, which in its
report submitted in 1952 stressed, for the first time, the need for an
Self-Instructional Material integrated organizational structure for rural development. It also laid
134
 Rural Development
down the blueprint for the setup at various levels—the National, the
State, the District, the Block and the Village. It recommended the
establishment of the taluq as a development block covering 100-120
NOTES
villages under the charge of a Development Officer for the Block who
would be the Revenue Divisional Officer assisted by four Technical
Officers (one each for agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation
and engineering) and Village Level Workers, one each for 5 to 10
villages. The report also recommended that development activities at
the district should be unified under the Collector assisted by specialist
officers and at the state level there should be a Cabinet Committee
presided over by the Chief Minister and a non-official Board for
coordinating policies and facilitating joint action.
This blueprint was given shape with the launching of the
Community Development Programme (CDP) in 1952 followed by
the National Extension Services (1953) which covered the whole
country. Under the CDP programme, the development block was
created as the basic unit of planning and integrated rural development
comprising agriculture, animal husbandry, village industry, education,
health, social welfare, etc., with special emphasis on self-help and
public participation. The most striking administrative innovations
made by the Community Development Programme were identification
of blocks as the units of administration, appointment of extension
officers who were subject specialists, appointment of the Village Level
Worker (VLW) for a group of villages as a multi-purpose
development functionary through whom programmes of different
departments were administered, role of the Development
Commissioner as the coordinating functionary at the state level,
coordination and integration of development programmes of different
departments at the block level and the mobilization of people‘s
participation in development.
The administrative setup conceived at the time of the
implementation of the Community Development Programme has
broadly continued with some changes introduced at the district level
during the fourth and the fifth plan periods in the wake of the
shift in the strategy of the rural development programmes and the
launching of special programmes. The strategy for rural development
has gradually begun focusing on area based and clientele specific
development.
6.3.2 ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP AT THE CENTRAL LEVEL
The Ministry of Rural Reconstruction was constituted in 1979 and
continued as such till 1982, when it was renamed the Ministry of
Rural Development. In January1985, it became the Department of
Rural Development under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development. In September 1985, the Ministry was renamed the
Ministry of Agriculture with a separate Department of Rural Self-Instructional Material

135
 Rural Development Development as one of its constituents. Then, it was renamed the
Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment in March 1995. Since April
1999, however, it is being called the Ministry of Rural Development.
NOTES

In what follows, we describe the organizational structure as it

operated in 2002-03. The Ministry of Rural Development is a
separate Ministry and has two departments viz. Department of Rural
Development and the Department of Drinking Water Supply. Both the
departments are headed by a Secretary to the Government of India
assisted by a hierarchy of officers. The Ministry is divided into
Divisions on functional basis as follows:
a) Department of Rural Development
i) Administrative and Panchayati Raj Division
ii) Poverty Alleviation Division
iii) Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana Division
iv) Rural Connectivity Division
v) Land Resources Division
vi) Monitoring Division
vii) Finance Division
b) Department of Drinking Water Supply
i) Drinking Water Supply Division
ii) Rural Sanitation Division
Each of the above Divisions is headed by a Joint Secretary level
officer assisted by other supporting staff, administrative as well as
technical.
The Ministry of Rural Development is responsible for policy,
planning, direction, coordination, release of central share of funds and
monitoring of the programmes. The programmes of the Ministry
may be divided into four broad categories viz. a)
Self-Employment Programmes, b) Wage Employment Programmes, c)
Area Development Programmes, and d) Basic Needs Programmes.
The Ministry of Rural Development has the following institutions
under its administrative control:
The National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD) which is an
autonomous body and the Council for Advancement of People‘s
Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) which is a registered
Self-Instructional Material society.
136
 Rural Development
A National Fund for Rural Development (NFRD) was set up in 1984
for the purpose of attracting donations for rural development
projects. It provides incentives to the donors by offering them a tax
NOTES
concession. As far as possible, the receipts into NFRD are channelled
for projects identified by the donor in accordance with the guidelines
of the Ministry.
It is important for you to remember that the Ministry of Rural
Development is not the only agency to implement programmes in
rural areas. Rural Development is as much a concern of several other
Ministries/Departments that have programmes in rural areas. To
mention some, the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation
has a large number of programmes and also the Ministry of
Environment and Forests; the Department of Women and Child
Development has programmes for welfare of children and women;
the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has programmes for
the welfare of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and the physically
and socially handicapped in rural areas; the Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare for health and family planning programmes; the
Ministry of Industry for village industry and employment of the youth;
the Department of Education for educational development and the
Ministry of Water Resources for the development of water resources.
6.3.3 ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP AT THE STATE LEVEL
The State Government has direct responsibility for the administration
of rural development programmes. Almost all the states have now a
separate Department of Rural Development headed by a Secretary.
Above him is the Development Commissioner for Agriculture and
Rural Development. In several states the Chief Secretary
himself/herself is the Development Commissioner-cum-Secretary.
During the late 1960s, State Level Coordination and Review
Committees were set up in all the states to bring about coordination
among different departments. These Committees consisted of the
Secretaries of all the departments concerned and a representative
each from the Central Government. A study conducted during 1979-
1981 by the Programme Evaluation Organization (PEO) of the
Planning Commission in connection with the Antodaya Programme
for Small Farmers, Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers
(1983), pointed out that the Coordination and Review Committees at
the state level were not active in most of the states and that they had
failed to provide guidance or support to the agencies. The state level
cells, which were expected to exercise general supervision and ensure
coordination of the activities of various departments, had generally not
been able to achieve their objectives either.
The erstwhile Union Ministry of Rural Development had
prescribed that programmes like the Integrated Rural Development
Programme, the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), the Self-Instructional Material

137
 Rural Development Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP), the
Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP), the Desert Development
Programme (DDP), etc. should be looked after by a single department
NOTES
having an overall control over the development administration right
up to the block and the field levels so that inter-sectoral coordination
with other departments were adequately taken care of at the state
level. The Ministry had further recommended the creation of a
separate post (to deal with all the special programmes) at the level of a
Commissioner to be assisted by middle level officers of the rank of
Joint/Deputy Secretary for monitoring, formulation and
implementation of these programmes in the districts.
Consequently, at the state level, initially there was the office of the
Development Commissioner who was in charge of all the development
work under the supervision of the Development Committee
usually chaired by the Chief Minister. Now, in most of the cases,
either the Department of Planning or the Department of Rural
Development is responsible for policy, planning and implementation.
The Coordination Committee chaired by the Chief
Secretary/Agricultural Production Commissioner/ Principal Secretary
reviews, sanctions, coordinates, monitors and evaluates the schemes.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Write briefly Introduction about the administrative set up in

Central Level?

2. Write short note on administrative set up in state level ?

6.3.4 ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP AT THE DISTRICT LEVEL

The district in India has been the basic unit of administration and the
head of the district administration is the District Collector. At the
district level, the revenue and development functions have been
combined in one office. When the CDP was launched, the District
Collector was made the head of the community development
administration in the district. The Collector coordinated district plans
and presided over the District Planning Committee. This committee
consisted of official and non- official members assisted by a District
Planning Officer.
Significant changes were introduced at the district level during the
fourth five-year plan (1969-74), when the Small Farmers
Development Agencies (SFDAs) and Marginal Farmers and
Agricultural Laburers Development Agencies (MFALs) were set up on
Self-Instructional Material the recommendation of the All India Rural Credit Review
138
 Rural Development
Committee appointed by the Reserve Bank of India in 1969 to
provide credit support and technical guidance to the small farmers.
To coordinate the activities of all departments, a coordination
NOTES
committee was created in each district under the chairmanship of the
District Collector.
An autonomous agency registered under the Registration of Societies
Act 1860 was established at the district level to implement the
SFDA/MFAL programmes. Each agency consisted of a Governing
Body with a small executive staff and was to receive support from
a State Level Coordination and Review Committee. The governing
body consisted of a Chairman who was normally the Collector of the
district, representatives of the State Departments of Agriculture,
Animal Husbandry, Cooperation or any other department intimately
concerned with the programme, a representative of the Lead Bank,
Chairman of the Central Cooperative Bank concerned, a representative
of the Zilla Parishad concerned and a few non-officials. Each agency
was allowed only a nucleus staff comprising a Project Officer and
three Assistant Project Officers drawn from the Departments of
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Cooperation. The SFDA had no
field staff of its own and the agency was supposed to work using the
services of the staff of other development departments concerned and
financial institutions such as cooperatives and commercial banks.
Besides SFDA, other special programmes were also introduced in the
country during the fourth and the fifth five-year plans. Among these,
the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and Desert
Development Programme (DDP) were taken up in the 1970s. Also
special project agencies have been set up by the State and/or the
Central Government at the district level. Collectors are normally
associated with them.
6.3.5 ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP AT THE BLOCK AND THE
VILLAGE LEVELS
Under CDP, the Development Block was created as the basic unit of
planning and integrated rural development comprising agriculture and
allied activities, such as education, health, social welfare, etc. with
special emphasis on self-help and public participation. The block
administration consisted of a block level officer, namely Block
Development Officer (BDO) who was assisted by about eight
extension personnel representing agriculture, animal husbandry,
cooperation, social welfare,
irrigation, etc., Village Level Workers (VLWs) also called Gram
Sevaks/Sevikas and some auxiliary staff. Provision was made for the
constitution of block advisory committees to enlist popular support
for the programme. After sometime, however, it was realized that
the block advisory committees were not functioning properly Self-Instructional Material

139
 Rural Development because they were mere advisory bodies without any direct
responsibility in the development work.
NOTES The Balvantrai Mehta Study Team appointed by the Government of
India to review Community Development Projects and the National
Extension Services in 1957 suggested decentralization of power to the
basic unit viz. block, in a three-tier organically linked structure
including the district level above and the village level below.
Even with the introduction of new programmes in the mid-sixties, like
SFDA and MFAL, the structural mechanisms at the block level have
not altered much. All the programmes and schemes of the DRDA are
being implemented through the Development Blocks headed by the
Block Development Officers (BDOs). Besides the BDO, the other
block staff involved directly in the implementation of the IRDP are
the Extension Officers for Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Social
Welfare, Irrigation, and Industries and the Khadi Supervisor from
Khadi and Village Industries Corporation (KVIC). In the states, which
have adopted the Training and Visit (T & V) system of agricultural
extension, agricultural extension is being directly handled by the
staff of the Department of Agriculture. As a result, the Agriculture
Extension Officer and 70 to 80 per cent of the VLWs have been taken
away from the Block Establishment, which has now only a small
nuclear staff. Consequently, the Block Administration got
considerably weakened.
The review of development programmes is conducted at the block
level on a fortnightly basis in a meeting of VLWs and other block staff
under the chairmanship of the BDO. The review of all the activities
of a block is also made in the quarterly general body meeting of
Panchayat Samiti under the chairmanship of its Pradhan with the
BDO as the member-secretary. This meeting is attended by all the
members of the Panchayat Samiti, Sub-divisional Magistrate of the
area, district level officers of the development departments concerned,
representatives of DRDA, Sub-divisional Agricultural Officer,
Tehsildar of the area, block level officers of other development
departments and the block staff. For the review of credit supply and
coordination there is a Block Level Coordination Committee (BLCC),
which meets once a month on a fixed date. The Pradhan of the
Panchayat Samiti is its chairperson. All the branch managers of
banks in the block and the Tehsildar of the area also attend the
meetings of this committee. With the devolution of power and all the
development activities with their administration gradually coming to
their fold, the Panchayat Samitis have gained considerable significance
in the development process. But, for them to work efficiently,
concrete steps need to be taken to improve the managerial competence
of the elected members in relation to administrative and financial
matters.
Self-Instructional Material

140
 Rural Development
CREATION OF THE DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT
AGENCY (DRDA)
The erstwhile Ministry of Rural Development had recommended that
NOTES
at the district level, the planning and implementation agency should
be the District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) headed by a
chairperson, who could be the Collector, the Deputy Commissioner or
the District Magistrate, and run by a functional executive as the
Project Director/Project Officer. Accordingly, DRDAs were set up as
autonomous agencies at the beginning of the sixth plan when the IRDP
and NREP were launched in all the blocks in the country.
The DRDA is the overall in-charge of planning, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of the programmes in a district. The
functions of DRDAs are:

 To provide information regarding the parameters, dimensions

and requirements of the programmes to the district and the
block level agencies and to apprise them of their tasks in this
regard;
 To coordinate and oversee the survey and preparation of the
perspective plan and annual plans of the block and finally
prepare a District Plan;
 To ensure the effectiveness of the programme by regular
evaluation and monitoring;
 To secure inter-sectoral and inter-departmental coordination
and cooperation;
 To publicize the achievements made under the programmes,
disseminate knowledge and build up awareness about the
programmes; and
 To send periodic returns to the State Governments in prescribed
formats.
The Governing Body of the DRDA includes, apart from the
Chairperson (usually the District Collector), the following:
i) All MPs and MLAs of the District,
ii) Head of the Central Cooperative Bank,
iii) Chairman of the Regional Rural Bank,
iv) Chairman of the Zilla Parishad or his/her representative,
v) An officer of the Lead Bank,
vi) District Employment Officer, and
vii) One representative of rural women, preferably a beneficiary.
The President of the DRDA is empowered to form an Executive
Committee to assist the DRDA. The Committee has district level
Self-Instructional Material

141
 Rural Development officers as its members. The Governing Body of the DRDA is required
to meet every quarter and the Executive Committee every month.
NOTES The Project Officer of the DRDA is assisted by 2 to 3 Assistant Project
Officers (APOs) who are subject specialists. An APO for women looks
after the women‘s component of IRDP and the Development of
Women and Children in Rural Areas Programme (DWCRA). There is
also an APO (Monitoring).
The erstwhile Ministry of Rural Development had also suggested
the setting up of a District Development Committee under the
chairmanship of the District Collector. The district level heads of the
development departments, BDOs, representatives of the banks and
non-officials‘ bodies, attends its meetings. Its main function is to
coordinate the work of all the district level departments and other
agencies like Khadi and Village Industries Board, District Industries
Centre, banks, etc. It also reviews the working of various
programmes in operation in the district and attends to the day- to-day
problems of implementation and administration of the programme.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

3. Write the functions of DRDA ?

4. Write short note on governing body of DRDA ?

6.4 PANCHAYAT RAJ INSTITUTION (PRI)

This section aims to familiarizing you with the institution of
Panchayati Raj as an important mechanism for decentralization of
power and people‘s involvement in development activities.
History tells us that Local Self-government, as a system, has
existed in India since long. Its form may vary, but its spirit has always
been a part of our socio-cultural ethos. In the medieval times, it was
seen in the ‗Gram Sabha‘ functioning through its executive committee
viz. Panchayat, a village body able to govern and sustain a small
community of people. During the British Raj, it became the instrument
of the ruling elite, intended to project the interests of the British
Government.
After independence, it was in 1959 that the Panchayati Raj
system took its present shape. The enthusiasm generated by this new
mantle of local self-governance, however, did not last long.
Conflicting interests at various levels eclipsed the concept as well as
its practice. After decades of debate, the Constitutional (73rd
Amendment) Act, 1992 took up the task of rejuvenating this system.

Self-Instructional Material

142
 Rural Development
The institution of Panchayati Raj is now recognized as an
important mechanism for decentralization of power and
materializing people‘s participation in development activities. It has
NOTES
been given special emphasis after the Constitution (73rd Amendment)
of the most basic document of this nation—The Constitution of India.
You have learned about the changes in the administrative setup at the
district level after the 73rd Constitution Amendment Act and also read
briefly about panchayats in the previous unit of this block. In this
unit, we shall confine our discussion to the historical overview,
post-independence developments in general, the Constitution (73r
d Amendment) Act, 1992 and its salient features in particular.
6.4.1 ORIGIN AND EVALUATION
In India, the concept of local self-government is not new. Throughout
the ages until the British rule, the village communities have kept this
system alive. In our villages, different sections of the community
helped and depended on each other. Age-old customs and traditions
helped to maintain the community spirit. Kingdoms were built and
destroyed but these village communities maintained their shape and
spirit. These very village bodies were the lines of contact with higher
authorities on matters affecting the villages. Each village had a Sabha
consisting of the adult residents of the village. Each Sabha had a sort
of executive body of around five people known as panchayat. The
panchayat was collectively responsible for looking after the needs of
village people. Thus each village was a compact administrative unit
served by public functionaries who were a part of the village
community. These panchayats managed the affairs of the village
community. No village affair was considered beyond its control.
Despite many of the political changes in cities and towns during the
medieval period, the system of the local government or the panchayats
in villages continued undisturbed.
6.4.2 PHILOSOPHY
We have just outlined the ancient system of local government in our
country. We have also told you that it has lived through the centuries
in spite of several political changes. We will now discuss the history of
the Panchayati Raj in India from the British period onwards When the
British came to India, we had our own village government system.
Some among them (Charles Metcalf, for example) admired it and
called panchayats ―Little Republics‖. But, of course, the British used it
to extend their own rule and power.
Do you know how? The British had their own representatives in every
region. As a result of the British interference, the attitude of the people
towards panchayats changed. Progressively, the people began loosing
faith in the institution of panchayat. Other conditions too had changed.
For example, direct taxation gave way to indirect taxation. In many Self-Instructional Material

143
 Rural Development regions of the country, for example, in the North Western provinces, a
leading or prominent person was put in charge of various jobs like
construction, development work, etc. This system took the place
NOTES
of the local institutions like panchayats. In 1882, the Government of
India Resolution on local self-government was announced. Lord
Ripon‘s Government had sent circulars to the governments in the
provinces on the subject of local self-government, as they wanted to
find out what the public opinion was. The issues in the circular became
the basis for the Government of India Resolution (1882) and later the
Local Bodies Act of 1885 came into being.
This was the basis for setting up local self-governing institutions with
a majority of nominated members down to the village level. It seems
that Lord Ripon viewed the problem of local self-government
liberally. He thought that the local self-governing institutions would
act as instruments of political and popular education. Another major
step in this direction was the Report of the Royal Commission on
Decentralization. This commission was set up in 1907 and it submitted
its report in 1909. It recommended that it would be desirable for
effective decentralization to associate people with local tasks and
village affairs through village panchayats. But like the Ripon
Resolution, the recommendations made by the Royal Commission on
Decentralization also remained on paper only.
In the same year (i.e. 1909), the 24th Session of the Congress at
Lahore adopted a resolution urging the Government to take early steps
to have elected local bodies from village panchayat upwards with non-
official chairmen for the local bodies and to provide them necessary
financial support.
The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, under the proposed
scheme of diarchy, made local self-government a ―transferred
subject‖. This meant that local self-government was brought under the
control of Indian ministers in the provinces. The idea was to make the
local bodies truly representative bodies by bringing them under the
popular control. This, however, did not make the panchayat
institutions truly democratic, as there were various other constraints to
overcome. Yet many acts were passed by various states for
establishing panchayats. These included ‗Bengal Village Self-
Government Act of 1919‘, ‗Madras, Bombay and United Provinces
Village Panchayat Act of 1920‘, ‗Bihar and Orissa Village
Administration Act‘, ‗Assam Rural Self-Government Act of 1926‘,
‗Punjab Village Panchayat Act of 1935‘, etc. These acts aimed at
looking after the development of villages and their affairs. The local
self-government had powers even to try minor cases. But these bodies
were not democratic in the real sense, because most of their members
were not elected but nominated by the government. They had few
Self-Instructional Material

144
 Rural Development
powers given to them and their financial resources were also limited.
The situation remained more or less the same till 1947.
NOTES
6.5 NEW PANCHAYAT RAJ ACT
The amendment phase began with the 64th Amendment Bill (1989),
which was introduced in Parliament for constituting panchayats in
every state at the village, the intermediate and the district levels. It
proposed that the Legislature of a State could by law endow the
panchayats with such powers and authority as may be necessary to
enable them to function as institutions of self-government. This bill
was the brainchild of Rajiv Gandhi, who strongly believed in
strengthening panchayats by giving them constitutional status.
Unfortunately, though the Bill got two-thirds majority in the Lok
Sabha, it was struck down in the Rajya Sabha on October 15, 1989 by
just two votes. The next Government headed by V.P. Singh also made
an abortive effort to provide constitutional status to panchayats
through the introduction of the 74th Amendment Bill.
Notwithstanding the above disappointments, the government declared
its commitment to the philosophy of ‗Power to the People‘, and so to
providing the much needed constitutional status to panchayats.
Accordingly, in September 1991, the 72n d Amendment of the
Constitution was introduced. This was referred to a Joint Select
Committee of the Parliament in December 1991 for detailed
examination. Finally, after including necessary changes, the
Amendment was passed with near unanimity in the Lok Sabha on
December 22, 1992 and in the Rajya Sabha on December 23, 1992.
Finally, on April 20, 1993 the President of India gave it his assent.
This Amendment of the Constitution is known as the Constitution
(Seventy-Third Amendment) Act, 1992. This Act was brought in to
force by a notification with effect from April 24, 1993.
6.5.1 THE CONSTITUTION (73RD AMENDMENT) ACT,1992
This Act makes the details of the transfer of power to the Panchayat a
part of the most basic document of this nation: the Constitution of
India. By virtue of this Act, no one will be able to take away the
powers, responsibilities and finances given to the Panchayats. They are
expected to play a much bigger role in the development of their
respective areas and people. It is also expected that everyone will be
able to take part in this process including the poorest of the poor.
All of us know that the objective of national development can be
achieved only through the development of the vast rural areas. People
who are poor and unemployed cannot have adequate buying power.
You must have seen that even nature does not favour us every time.
From time to time, we have to face failures of the monsoon, droughts,
floods, cyclones, etc. It is now hoped that through people‘s
involvement, panchayats will be able to play a more responsible role
Self-Instructional Material
in overcoming these difficulties.
145
 Rural Development 6.5.2 STRUCTURE OF PRIS

Special Features of the Amendment

NOTES
The special features of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act,
1992 are:
a) Gram Sabha
The Act has restored the important role of the Gram Sabha. It is clear
that the primary source of democratic power is in the village. The
Gram Sabha is expected to be an active institution for starting all
development activities based on local needs.
b) Three-tier Model
The country will have a uniform three-tier system of panchayats (at
village, intermediate and district levels). Only the states with a
population less than twenty lakhs would not need to establish a
panchayat at the intermediate level.
c) Reservation of Seats
The Act provides for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes in every panchayat in proportion to their population.
One-third of the seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes will also be reserved for women. Not less than one-third of the
total number of seats to be filled by direct election shall be reserved
for women.
The offices of the chairpersons in the panchayats at the village or any
other level shall be reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in proportion to their population. Also, one-third of the total
number of chairpersons‘ offices in the panchayats at each level shall
be reserved for women.
d) Composition of Panchayats
Direct election to the panchayat is one of the distinguishing features of
this Amendment. Persons chosen by direct election from territorial
constituencies shall fill all the seats in a panchayat. The chairperson at
the village level shall be elected in such a manner as the legislature of
the state may provide. The chairperson at the intermediate and district
levels shall be elected by and from amongst the elected members.
e) Duration of Panchayats Rural Credit and Banking
Every panchayat shall remain in office for five years normally. If it is
dissolved for any reason before this period is over, elections will be
held within six months. The reconstituted panchayat shall function for
the remaining period of the total of five years.
Self-Instructional Material

146
 Rural Development
f) Conduct of Elections
The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of
electoral roll for, and the conduct of, all elections to the panchayats NOTES

shall be vested in the State Election Commission. The State Election

Commission will be responsible for conducting elections, i.e. they will
make the lists of all the people who are eligible to vote and ensure that
the elections are held in a free and just manner.
g) Finance Commission
In order that enough funds are made available to the panchayats for
initiating various development activities, the Constitution (73rd
Amendment) Act, 1992 provides for the constitution of a Finance
Commission in every state. This commission is to be constituted by
the Governor of each state within one year from the commencement of
the Constitution Act, 1992 and at the end of every five years
thereafter. These commissions will be responsible for reviewing the
financial condition of the panchayats and make recommendations to
the respective Governors.
6.5.3 POWERS OF GRAMA SABHA
The Act gives powers and responsibilities to the panchayats to
plan and execute economic development programmes. Such
responsibilities include the making of plans for economic development
and social justice and the implementation of schemes listed in the
Eleventh Schedule. These activities as listed for the panchayat
institutions may be grouped under five categories for academic
purposes.
i) Economic Development: There are 11 items, which talk about
economic development. One of them relates to anti-poverty
programmes, such as JRY, IRDP, etc. The other areas are agriculture,
land improvement, minor irrigation, animal husbandry, fishery, social
forestry, minor forest produce, small scale and cottage industry, fuel
and fodder.
ii) Education: There are five items under this category. Primary
and secondary schools, non-formal education, libraries, technical
training and cultural activities.
iii) Health: There are two items related to health. These are health
and sanitation and family welfare.
iv) Welfare, including Women and Child development: There are
four items which include social welfare, welfare of weaker sections,
public distribution system and women and child development.
v) Infrastructure Development: Under this category, there are
seven items, such as roads, housing, drinking water, markets,
electrification, maintenance of community assets, etc. Among these, Self-Instructional Material

147
 Rural Development there are certain items (apart from the items on anti-poverty
programmes) which are meant for the poor or the under privileged.
Schemes for the weaker sections and the programmes for women and
NOTES
child development also fall under this category. The benefits of the
public distribution system also should go to the poor. Land reforms,
particularly the distribution of wastelands, and enforcement of the
tenancy laws constitute a frontal attack on poverty. They are
understood to be central to any strategy used for rural development.

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

5. Write briefly about Grama Sabha?

6. Write short note on composition of Panchayats?

6.5.4 Features of Tamil nadu Panchayat Act, 1994

The institution of Panchayati Raj, in its rejuvenated form sought to
realize the goal of democratic decentralization to accelerate socio-
economic development and bring about equity and social justice. The
Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 and the subsequent State
Legislations were expected to endow panchayats with such powers and
authority, as may be necessary to enable them to function as effective
institutions of self-government. Initially there was a positive response
from the states, as almost all the states passed their respective State
Legislations in conformity with the provisions of the 73rd Amendment
and held panchayat elections. As a result, 2,27,698 panchayats at the
village level, 5,906 panchayats at the intermediate level and 474
panchayats at the district level were constituted in the country. About
3.4 million people were elected at the three different levels throughout
the country. One could for the first time witness a high degree of
uniformity conferred on panchayats, particularly in terms of structure,
composition, powers and functions. It seems, however, that the
devolution of functions and authority has not been carried out to the
letter and the spirit of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992.
Let us analyze the situation.

6.6 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA - FINANCE

COMMISSION CENTER AND STATE
The analysis of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 reveals
that the Panchayati Raj institutions had to be vested with such
authority and power as would enable them to function as effective
institutions of self-government. It implies that they have to be
democratic in nature (through regular and mandatory elections) with
allocated values, priorities and policies necessary to make them
Self-Instructional Material effective institutions of self-government. The analysis also reveals that
148
 Rural Development
Panchayati Raj institutions are to act as welfare governments do,
which implies that they have to initiate, plan and executive
development activities and bring about social justice. It appears that
NOTES
the Rural Credit and Banking necessary level of thinking could not
be given to the issue between the enactment of the 73rd Amendment
Act and the subsequent State Legislations. The whole initial process
turned out to be a race for catching the deadlines rather than building
the system on a realistic basis. In most cases, some amendments were
incorporated in the already existing Acts to make them appear in
conformity with the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992. It
seems that the legislatures failed to take cognizance of the profound
implications of the constitutional status given to the panchayats as
institutions of self-government. Consequently, the panchayats under
the State Acts are institutions that lack the necessary autonomy. The
most glaring omission in the
State Acts relates to the devolution of functions to panchayats. Even
though most State Acts have reproduced the 11th Schedule (which
lists 29 development activities transferable to panchayats) as it is,
few have earmarked any of the functions activities of the schedule
as the exclusive jurisdiction of panchayats. Consequently, there has
been no substantial devolution of administrative and financial powers.
In most of the cases, as various studies reveal, the role of panchayats
has been reduced to that of the agencies of State Governments meant
to implement various development programmes and schemes.
The post-73rd Constitution Amendment scenario, therefore, presents a
mixed picture where on the one hand, the necessary devolution of
powers and authority has not taken place in the letter and the spirit of
the amendment, but on the other hand 34 lakh elected representatives
have occupied their positions in the multi-tier setup of panchayats
throughout the country. We do witness the functioning of some
successful panchayats alongside some that are not allowed to function
at all. The process of change, however, has begun. We still have to go
a long way to realize Gandhiji‘s dream of ―Gram Swaraj‖ through the
Panchayati Raj system in India.
THE PROVISIONS OF THE PANCHAYATS (EXTENSION TO THE
SCHEDULED AREAS)ACT, 1996

The Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas)

Act, 1996 came into force on December 24, 1996. This Act extends
panchayats to the tribal areas of the states such as Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Rajasthan. It intends to enable tribal
societies to assume control over their destiny and to preserve and
conserve their traditional rights over natural resources. The State
Governments were required to enact their legislations in accordance
with the provisions of the Act within one year, i.e. by December 23,
Self-Instructional Material
1997. Most of the states have enacted the required state legislation to
149
 Rural Development give effect to the provisions contained in Act 14, 1996. The salient
features of the Act are:
NOTES 1) Every village shall have an elected Gram Sabha and it shall be
competent to safeguard and preserve the traditions and customs of the
people.
2) Gram Sabha shall approve the plans, programmes and projects
for social and economic development before their implementation.
3) It would be responsible for the identification or selection of
persons as beneficiaries under the poverty alleviation and other
programmes.
4) Every Gram Panchayat shall obtain from the related Gram
Sabha a certificate of utilization of funds for the plans, programmes
and projects.
5) The reservation of seats in the Scheduled Areas in every
panchayat shall be in the proportion of the populations of the
communities in the panchayat.
6) Planning and management of minor water bodies in the
Scheduled Areas shall be entrusted to panchayats at the appropriate
level.
7) Recommendations of the Gram Sabha or the panchayats shall
be mandatory for granting i) licenses for mining minerals, and ii)
concessions for the exploitation of minor minerals by auction in the
Scheduled Areas.
8) The state legislature shall endow panchayats and the Gram
Sabha specifically with:
i) the power to enforce prohibition or regulate or restrict the sale
and consumption of any intoxicant;
ii) the ownership of minor forest produce;
iii) the power to prevent land alienation in the Scheduled Areas;
iv) the power to manage village markets;
v) the power to control money lending to Scheduled Tribes and
social sectors;
vi) The power to control local plans and resources for such plans,
including tribal sub-plans; and
vii) The state legislations that may endow panchayats with powers
and authority, as may be necessary to enable them to function as
institutions of self-government, and contain safeguards to ensure that
Self-Instructional Material

150
 Rural Development

panchayats at the higher level do not assume the powers and authority
of any panchayats at the lower level or of the Gram Sabha. NOTES

6.7 POWERS OF PRIS IN IMPLEMENTATION OF RCD

PROGRAMMES
Under the Rural Garbage Disposal scheme the State Government
provides funds to the Village Panchayats for acquisition of land for
garbage sites and for development of the garbage collection site and
other facilities required for disposal of Garbage. Under the scheme the
village Panchayats are required to segregate the garbage at source into
bio – degradable and non-biodegradable waste. The bio-degradable
waste is to be vermin – composted through the process of vermiculture
for which the Panchayats are required to construct composting pits.
The cost of collection, transportation, segregation, storage processing
and disposal of Garbage is also borne by the Government to the extent
of 98% and the balance 2% is to be borne by the Village Panchayat,
for the first 3 years. On the expiry of this period, the entire cost is to be
borne by the Village Panchayats. Detailed guidelines have been
annexed to the scheme so as to assist the Panchayats in disposal of the
garbage in a hygienic and scientific manner.
ASSISTANCE TO THE PANCHAYATS FOR DISPOSAL OF
PLASTIC GARBAGE:
Under the Goa Panchayat (Grant of Financial Assistance to the Village
Panchayats to deal with Plastic Garbage Menace) Scheme, 2007,
financial assistance is given to the Village Panchayat which are
affected by plastic garbage menace. The village Panchayats can hire
labourers @ a maximum of Rs.150/- per labourer, for collection of the
plastic garbage from the household on door – to – door basis or
organize regular plastic collection drives in their areas. Every such
Village Panchayat which is affected by plastic garbage menace is
entitled for Rs.25,000/- per annum for collection and disposal of the
plastic waste. In case a Compactor is provided to the Village
Panchayat than such Panchayat is entitled to Rs. 50,000/- per annum
which is also to be utilized for the purpose of fuel for the Compactor.
HOUSING SCHEME: RAJIV AWAAS YOJANA 2008:
Under Rajiv Awaas Yojana Scheme any person who is born and
residing in the State of Goa sice last 15 years and whose father and
mother is born in Goa and where the total income including that of his
family from all sources does not exceed Rs. 1 lakh and who does not
own any house or owns a house either in his/her own name or in the
name of any of the family meembers, which requires repairs, shall be
eligible to avail the benifits of this scheme. The Director of Panchayats
is the sanctioning authorithy for the rural areas and The Director of Self-Instructional Material

151
 Rural Development Social Welfare is the sanctioning authorithy for urban areas. Under
this scheme an amount of Rs.25,000/- shall be sanctioned for the
purpose construction of new house and 12,500/- for the purpose of
NOTES
repairing an existing house. The eligible applicants who require
assistance under this scheme are required to submit the application in
the prescribed form to the respective Block Developmen Officer with
all the required documents.
FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE TO MINING AFFECTED
VILLAGE PANCHAYAT:
The Govt. of Goa has decided to provide financial assistance to mining
affected Village Panchayats by granting them one time Grants-in-aid
so as to empower the local bodies to tide over the financial crisis due
to halting of mining. The grants sanctioned as one time financial
assistance under this scheme to any one mining affected village
Panchayat shall be a fixed amount of Rs. 5 lakhs. The Village
Panchayat to whom grants are sanctioned shall utilize the same within
1 year from the date of drawal of grants. The scheme is in the
formulation stage and has been send to the Govt, for necessary action.
The scheme shall remain in force till 31/3/2015. Overall 93 Village
Panchayats of Sanguem, Dharbandora, Quepem, Bicholim and Ponda
Taluka will be covered under this Scheme.
DEENDAYAL PANCHAYATI RAJ INFRASTRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT SCHEME 2013:
Under this scheme the Govt. takes up the infrastructure project in
every Panchayat amounting to 1 Crore. The Panchayat has to decide
the project to be undertaken and will be executed through GSIDC,
GTDC or such other agency. Funds will be allotted to the agency in 3
installments within 30 days after receiving the detail proposal.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT SCHEME AT PANCHAYAT
LEVEL:
The Govt. has decided to make a token provision of Rs.10.00 lakhs to
attend calamities during the monsoon period from June to Sept.2014.
The scheme is in the formulation stage and will be forwarded to the
Govt. for necessary action.

6.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the Administrative set up of Rural

Development, which covers the history and various level set up like
National, State and district level also introduces about the Panchayat Raj
System and 73 rd Amendments and its salient features.

.
Self-Instructional Material

152
 Rural Development
6.9 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write briefly about the administrative set up in Central Level?
2. Write short note on administrative set up in state level ? NOTES
3. Write the functions of DRDA ?
4. Write short note on governing body of DRDA ?
5. Write briefly about Grama Sabha?
6. Write short note on composition of Panchayats?
6.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The Ministry of Rural Reconstruction was constituted in 1979
and continued as such till 1982, when it was renamed the
Ministry of Rural Development. In January1985, it became
the Department of Rural Development under the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development. In September 1985, the
Ministry was renamed the Ministry of Agriculture with a
separate Department of Rural Development as one of its
constituents.
2. The State Government has direct responsibility for the
administration of rural development programmes. Almost all
the states have now a separate Department of Rural
Development headed by a Secretary. Above him is the
Development Commissioner for Agriculture and Rural
Development.
3. The DRDA is the overall in-charge of planning,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the programmes
in a district. The functions of DRDAs are: To provide
information regarding the parameters, dimensions and
requirements of the programmes to the district and the block
level agencies and to apprise them of their tasks in this
regard; To coordinate and oversee the survey and preparation
of the perspective plan and annual plans of the block and finally
prepare a District Plan;
4. The Governing Body of the DRDA includes, apart from the
Chairperson (usually the District Collector), the following:
i) All MPs and MLAs of the District,
ii) Head of the Central Cooperative Bank,
iii) Chairman of the Regional Rural Bank,
iv) Chairman of the Zilla Parishad or his/her representative
5. a) Gram Sabha : The Act has restored the important role
of the Gram Sabha. It is clear that the primary source of
democratic power is in the village. The Gram Sabha is expected
to be an active institution for starting all development activities
based on local needs.
6. d) Composition of Panchayats : Direct election to the
panchayat is one of the distinguishing features of this
Amendment. Persons chosen by direct election from territorial
constituencies shall fill all the seats in a panchayat. The
chairperson at the village level shall be elected in such a Self-Instructional Material

153
 Rural Development manner as the legislature of the state may provide. The
chairperson at the intermediate and district levels shall be
elected by and from amongst the elected members.
NOTES

6.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Bendix, Reinhard, 1968. ―Bureaucracy‖ in International
Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vols. 1 & 2, Macmillan,
London.
2. Battacharya, Mohit, 1979. Bureaucracy and Development
Administration, Uppal Publishing House, New Delhi.
3. Jain, L. C., Krishnamurthy, B.V. and Tripathi, P.M., Grass Without
Roots, Sage Publications India, New Delhi. 1985, pp 61. Ibid. pp. 63.
4. Jain, L.C., 1985. Grass without Roots: Rural Development Under
Government Auspices, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
5. Kuhn, Berthold, 1998. Participatory Development in Rural India,
Radiant Publishers, New Delhi.
6. Mukarji, Nirmal, Self Government and its Instrumentalities,
Government of India, Department of Rural Development, New
Delhi1994(2), Pp. 53-164, Pp. 58-159.
7. Puranik, S.N., 1981. ―Administration and Politics in the Context of
Panchayati Raj‖ in T.N. Chaturvedi (ed), Panchayati Raj – Selected
Articles, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi.
8. Pai Panadiker, V.A. and Kshirasagar, S.S., 1978. Bureaucracy and
Development Administration, Centre for Policy Research, New
Delhi.
9. Rajneesh, Shalini, 2002. ―Rural Development through Democratic
Decentralisation‖, Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
10. Seshadri, K., 1976. Political Linkages and Rural Development,
National Publishing House, New Delhi.

Self-Instructional Material

154
 Rural Development Agency

NOTES
UNIT-VII RURAL DEVELOPMENT
AGENCY
Structure
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Aims and Objectives
7.3. Council for Advancement of People‟s Action and Rural
Technology (CAPART)
7.4. National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD)
7.5 National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD)
7.6 Regional Rural Banking (RRB)
7.7 District Rural Development Agency ( DRDA )
7.8 Statistics related to Rural Development
7.9 Training of PRIs Functionaries
7.10 Let Us Sum Up
7.11 Unit- End- Exercises
7.12 Answer to check your Progress
7.13 Suggested Readings
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The voluntary sector in India has played a major role in rural
development, through mobilizing communities and catalyzing people‟s
initiatives for change, as well as through direct implementation of
interventions around specific issues. Formal recognition of the role of
voluntary organisations in the Seventh Plan documented to the
formation of the Council for Advancement of People‟s Action and
Rural Technology (CAPART) in 1986, as a nodal agency for
catalysing and coordinating the emerging partnership between
voluntary organisations and the Government for sustainable
development of rural areas.

7.2 AIMS OF OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:
 Describe the existing organizational structure for rural
development programmes;
 Identify the changes brought about and sought to be brought
about in the structure since the inception of the Community
Development Programme;
 list the problems encountered by the different functionaries;
 assess the strengths and weaknesses of the administrative
structure; and
 Outline the future prospects.Describe the principles of
extension for effective execution of extension programme.
 List out the general and'specific objectives of extension Self-Instructional Material

155
Rural Development Agency 7.3 CAPART
NOTES CAPART was formed by amalgamating two agencies the „Council for
Advancement of Rural Technology‟ (CART) and People‟s Action for
Development India (PADI). CAPART is an autonomous body
registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860,and is functioning
under the aegis of the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of
India. Today, this agency is a major promoter of rural development in
India, assisting over 12,000 voluntary organizations across the country
in implementing a wide range of development initiatives.
CAPART works with the objective of improving the quality of life in
the rural areas, particularly the poor and socially disadvantaged
sections of society. Thus, people below the poverty line, people
belonging to the scheduled castes and tribes, bonded labour, women
and people with disabilities are priority focus groups for CAPART.
The major goals of CAPART are:

 To support voluntary organisations in implementing projects for

sustainable development in rural areas.
 To act as a national nodal point for development and promotion
of appropriate rural technologies.
 To promote and support voluntary action and people‟s
participation for rural development, through capacity-building
for voluntary organisations and rural communities.
 To act as a data bank and clearing house for information on the
voluntary sector, rural technologies and rural development.
 Facilitating community action for development.
 Building awareness on critical development issues.
 Building and strengthening village-level people and
organisations.
 Promoting the development and dissemination of appropriate
rural technologies.
 Strengthening the capacities of voluntary organisations in rural
areas.
 Creating employment opportunities and economic self-reliance.
 Creation of community assets and fulfilment of basic needs.
 Conservation and regeneration of the environment and natural
resources.
 Enabling women, persons with disabilities and other
disadvantaged groups to participate in development

7.4 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The National Institute of Rural Development and Panchayati Raj
(NIRD&PR), an autonomous organisation under the Union Ministry of
Rural Development, is a premier national centre of excellence in rural
development and Panchayati Raj. Recognized internationally as one of
the UN-ESCAP Centres of Excellence, it builds capacities of rural
Self-Instructional Material
156
development functionaries, elected representatives of PRIs, bankers, Rural Development Agency

NGOs and other stakeholders through inter-related activities of NOTES

training, research and consultancy. The Institute is located in the
historic city of Hyderabad in Telangana state. The NIRD&PR
celebrated its Golden Jubilee Year of establishment in 2008. In
addition to the main campus at Hyderabad, this Institute has North-
Eastern Regional Centre at Guwahati, Assam to meet the NE-regional
needs.
Vision
The vision of NIRD&PR is to focus on the policies and programmes
that benefit the rural poor, strive to energise the democratic
decentralization processes, improve the operation and efficiency of
rural development personnel, promote transfer of technology through
its social laboratories, Technology Park and create environmental
awareness. As a “think-tank” for the Ministry of Rural Development,
NIRD while acting as a repository of knowledge on rural development
would assist the Ministry in policy formulation and choice of options
in rural development to usher in the changes.
Mission
To examine and analyse the factors contributing to the improvement of
economic and social well-being of people in rural areas on a
sustainable basis with focus on the rural poor and the other
disadvantaged groups through research, action research, consultancy
and documentation efforts.
To facilitate the rural development efforts with particular emphasis
and focus on the rural poor by improving the knowledge, skills and
attitudes of rural development officials and non-officials through
organising training, workshops and Seminars.
The NIRD&PR is mandated to:

 Organise training programmes, conferences, seminars and

workshops for senior level development managers, elected
representatives, bankers, NGOs and other stakeholders;
 Undertake, aid, promote and coordinate research on its own and
/ or collaborate with State, national and international
development agencies;
 Analyse and offer solutions to problems encountered in
planning and implementation of the programmes for rural
development, decentralised governance, panchayati raj and
related programmes;
 Study the functioning of the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)
and rural development programmes across the States;
 Analyse and propose solutions to problems in planning and
implementation of the programmes for rural development; and Self-Instructional Material

157
Rural Development Agency  Develop content and disseminate information and transfer
NOTES
technology through periodicals, reports, e-modules and other
public

The Activities
The NIRD provides training to the rural development functionaries in
the policies and programmes of Ministry of Rural Development, in the
democratic decentralization process and promotes technology transfers
through its Rural Technology Park. The NIRD also engages itself in
Research and Consultancy assignments for various National and
International organizations with a view to gaining the most recent
knowledge from the field. The Institute‟s services are available to
different Ministries / Departments of the Central and State
Governments, banking institutions, public and private sector
undertakings, voluntary bodies, nongovernmental organizations and
international agencies concerned with rural development.
The profile of the Participants trained by the NIRD is as under:
• Government Officials:
The number of key Rural Development functionaries is estimated at
5.57 lakh. Following is the break-up of the type of functionaries:
Self-Instructional Material
158
  Project Directors of DRDAs; Rural Development Agency

 District Development Officers/Chief Development Officers / NOTES

 Deputy Development Commissioners;
 CEOs of Zilla Parishads;
 Project Directors of ITDAs; and
 Heads / Coordinators of Rural Development related line
department
 such as Agriculture, Soil Conservation, Animal Husbandry,
Horticulture,
 Cooperation, Rural Industries, Water Supply and Sanitation…
Elected Representatives of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI):
The number of PRI representatives is estimated at about 31 lakhs. Of
these about 12 lakhs are considered as key functionaries. They include

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Write the major goals of CAPART?
2. What are the mission of NIRD?

Chairpersons, Vice-chairpersons, and Heads of Standing Committees

at Zilla, Block and Gram Panchayat level.
While NIRD is involved in the training of key district-level rural
development functionaries as outlined, the SIRDs are also to train the
sub-district and block level functionaries. The gram panchayat level
functionaries are trained by the ETCs.
A brief about the category, type and nature of the Training
Programmes conducted by the institute is given below:
The studies identify the critical areas affecting the process of
implementation, deficiencies and also clearly suggest action points
based on the causative analysis.
Some of the themes on which research studies have been done for the
past few years are mentioned below:
• Tribal and dalit issues
• Governance for the poor
• Technology transfer to the poor
• Access to quality credit to the poor
• Public-private partnerships
• Contract farming
• Tenancy relations and livelihoods of the poor
• NREGA, SGSY, IAY
• Water and Sanitation Self-Instructional Material

159
Rural Development Agency • Community mobilization
• Natural Resources Management
NOTES

Consultancy assignments are regularly taken up by NIRD on behalf of

the Central and State Governments, Public sector undertakings and
premier international organizations namely United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), United Nations International Children's
Emergency Fund (UNICEF), Department for International
Development (DFID), United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), World Health Organisation
(WHO), International Labour Organisation (ILO), World Bank, United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(ESCAP), Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the
Pacific (CIRDAP) and Afro Asian Rural Development Organisation
(AARDO).
The details of the research projects of NIRD which were completed
during last few years and those presently are under progress are given
below.
7.5 NATIONAL BANK FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL
DEVELOPMENT (NABARD) GENESIS & VISION
The importance of institutional credit in boosting rural economy has
been clear to the Government of India right from its early stages of
planning. Therefore, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) at the insistence
of the Government of India, constituted a Committee to Review the
Arrangements For Institutional Credit for Agriculture and Rural
Development (CRAFICARD) to look into these very critical aspects.
The Committee was formed on 30 March 1979, under the
Chairmanship of Shri B. Sivaraman, former member of Planning
Commission, Government of India.
The Committee‟s interim report, submitted on 28 November 1979,
outlined the need for a new organisational device for providing
undivided attention, forceful direction and pointed focus to credit
related issues linked with rural development. Its recommendation was
formation of a unique development financial institution which would
address these aspirations and formation of National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was approved by the
Parliament through Act 61 of 1981.
NABARD came into existence on 12 July 1982 by transferring the
agricultural credit functions of RBI and refinance functions of the then
Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation (ARDC). It was
dedicated to the service of the nation by the late Prime Minister Smt.
Indira Gandhi on 05 November 1982. Set up with an initial capital of
Rs.100 crore, its‟ paid up capital stood at Rs.10,580 crore as on 31
March 2018. Consequent to the revision in the composition of share
Self-Instructional Material
160
capital between Government of India and RBI, NABARD today is Rural Development Agency

fully owned by Government of India. NOTES

VISION
Development Bank of the Nation for Fostering Rural Prosperity.
MISSION
Promote sustainable and equitable agriculture and rural development
through participative financial and non-financial interventions,
innovations, technology and institutional development for securing
prosperity.
NABARD, the apex Bank in rural credit was set up in 1981 for
providing credit for the promotion of agriculture, SSIs, cottage and
village industries, handicrafts and other rural crafts and other allied
economic activities in rural areas. The National Bank is empowered to
provide by way of refinance assistance, long term loans extending upto
a maximum period of 25 years including the period of rescheduling of
such loans to the State Land Development Banks, RRBs, scheduled
commercial banks, state cooperative banks or any other financial
institutions approved by RBI for the purpose of making investment
loans as well as for giving loans to artisans, SSIs, cottage and village
industries.
NABARD aims at developing working skills and managerial traits in
prospective entrepreneurs through the network of NGOs. Such
promotional schemes include:
 Setting up of training cum production centres to impart training
to prospective entrepreneurs in technical and managerial skills,
market information quality control and technical skills;
 Grants to NGOs and banks involved in rural entrepreneurship
developments to promote project guidance and to disseminate
information about legal framework and accounting practices;
 Market oriented training for rural artisans aiming at helping
rural artisans understand the composition of market, its
references, product development and product diversification;
 Promotion of mother Unit Scheme under which mother units
located in urban areas is expected to orient the promotion of
decentralized units towards common market options through
material, technology and brand (MTB) approach;
 Venture capital finance scheme to support risky but potentially
viable rural innovative ventures through creation of
Agricultural and Rural Enterprise Incubation Fund (AREIF)
with a corpus of 5 crores for refinance, direct incubation
assistance and issue of guarantees.
Self-Instructional Material

161
Rural Development Agency  Support schemes are extended to export oriented rural
NOTES
industries through allocation of separate budget for assisting hi-
tech innovative export oriented and agro processing projects in
liaison with export houses. Refinance is provided at the
enhanced rate of 40 per cent for hi-tech export industries In
association with National level Organizations like Export
Promotion Councils, Export Associations and formulation of
new model projects having export potential like horticulture,
animal husbandry, fishery and storage houses are encouraged;
 Promotion of Rural Artisan Guild to facilitate collaboration
among a cluster of working artisans so as to enhance the
bargaining power in the market. Exclusive women oriented
schemes implemented by NABARD. These are the following:
 Assistance to rural women in Non Farm Development
(ARWIND).
 Linking women SHGs with banks under SHG Bank Linkage
programmes.
 Assistance to Rural Women for marketing of non farm products
of rural women (MAHIMA) provides support to rural women
entrepreneurs in marketing their products.
 District Rural Industries Project (DRIP): NABARD launched
DRIP, an integrated area based credit intensification
programme in collaboration with government, banks and other
development agencies with focus on district. It is being
implemented I 106 districts to promote industries and
employment opportunities.
 Rural Entrepreneurship Development Programme (REDP):It is
a promotional programme supported by NABARD to motivate
and train educated unemployed youth to set up their own
enterprises.
MICRO ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (MEDP)
MEDP was launched by NABARD in 2006. The programme intends
to nurture theentrepreneurial talents of members of mature SHGs to set
up and run micro enterprises as a livelihood option in farm or non farm
sector, either on individual basis or on group basis. Support is
extended under this programme to members of such SHGs to enrich
their knowledge on enterprise management, business dynamics and
rural markets. Nearly 5000 skill upgradation training programmes
have been conducted upto 2012 under these initiatives covering nearly
2 lakh members of mature SHGs. Most of the trained SHG members
have become promising entrepreneurs by availing loans from their
SHGs. West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Chhattisgarh are the major states
where maximum number of SHG members were given skill training.

Self-Instructional Material
162
7.6 REGIONAL RURAL BANKS Rural Development Agency

In Mid-1970's it was realised that more syste~natic and concerted NOTES

efforts were needed to strengthen the tlow of institutional rural credit,
with a view to developing the rural economy by providing for the
purpose of Agriculture trade commerce industry and other productive
activities in ma1 areas particularly to the sinall and marginal farmers,
agricultural labourers, artisans and sinall enlrepreneurs.
The Working Group under Shri M.Narsiml~an~ in its report of July
30,1975 recormnended Ule establishment of a new type of institution
to supplement Ule efforts of coinlnercial and cooperative institutions
in the rural sector. To begin with such Rural banks were to be
established in regions were the existing credit structure was weak.
'This marked the beginning of Regioilal Rural Banks, which made
rapid strides in Ule decade to follow. By the end of June 1987 there
were 194 RRBs covering 15 1 districts of the country through 12838
branches. lleir lending increased from inere Rs. la crores to Rs. 1975
crores and deposits from Rs.0.24 crores to Rs.1715 crores. Admittedly,
the RRBs have achieved considerable degree of success in taking
banking services to Ule remote areas which had hitherto remained
unbaked and making available institutional credit to Ule weaker
sections in lhese areas.
Every RRB functions as a commercial bank and apart from granting
short terms and long tern1 loans directly, it is empowered to mobilise
savings. They sanction loans for agriculture, allied activities, retail
trade and tiny industries in the rural sector. They also specifically
cover the target group of small and marginal fariners, landless
labourers, rural artisans etc. under the Integrated Rural Development
Programme by extending credit to the poorest of Ule poor in the rural
areas. These banks .are also extending financial assistance to
cooperative institutions of the region to strengthen their financial base
and making it possible and feasible to take up Inore positive role as
viable financial institutions engaged in rural development.
At the end of December, 1986, the deposits and advances of Regional
Rml Banks were Rs.1715 crores and Rs.1785 crores respectively, and
of the latter, 98 per cent of Ule amount was directly for agriculture and
allied activities, retail trade and self-employment generation schemes.
However, the most disturbing aspect of the functioning of RRBs is that
they are, by and large, incurring losses. 11e major factor which has
contributed to the erosion of their profitability is that they .are
exclusively lending to the weaker sections at low rate of interest while
their operational cost in handling small loans is quitc high. Besides the
recovery of loans is not satisfactory and the dues *are increasingly
piling up.
The Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) were set up consequent to the
recommendations of the Working Group on Rural Banks (1975). The Self-Instructional Material

163
Rural Development Agency main objectives of the Regional Rural Banks were to: (i) take banking
to the doorsteps of the rural masses, particularly in areas without
NOTES
banking facilities; (ii) make available cheaper institutional credit to the
weaker sections of society, who were to be the only clients of these
banks; (iii) mobilise rural savings and channelise them for supporting
productive activities in rural areas; (iv) generate employment
opportunities in the rural areas and (v) bring down the cost of
providing rural credit.
Although RRBs are essentially commercial banks, there are some
important differences between the commercial banks and the RRBs.
First, the area of the regional rural bank is limited to a specified region
comprising one or two districts of a state. Secondly, unlike the
commercial banks, the regional rural banks can only give direct loans
for productive purposes to small and marginal farmers, rural artisans,
and agricultural labourers and others of small means. Thirdly, the
lending rates of RRBs should not be higher than the prevailing lending
rates of cooperative societies in any particular state. The RRBs pay a
lower rate of interest on borrowings from the RBI. Again, these banks
are allowed to maintain a cash reserve ratio of only 3 percent and a
statutory liquidity ratio of 25 percent and are provided refinance
facilities through NABARD. The equity of RRBs is held by the central
government, concerned state governments and the sponsor bank in the
proportion of 50:15:35.
Progress of RRBs
The number of RRBs rose from just 5 in 1975 to 196 by 2004. The
RRB branches now number over 14,000 covering 516 districts and
serve a client base of close to 6.27 crore. During 1990-91 to 2003-04,
RRBs registered a substantial increase in their deposits, but their credit
did not rise proportionately. Consequently their C-D ratio has come
down from 83.7 percent in 1991 to 52.9 percent in 2005. RRBs
account for 30 percent of all rural branches of scheduled commercial
banks. But, their share in total agricultural credit at the national level
has remained at between six to nine percent right since their inception.
(GOI, 2007)
For some time the RRBs performed well. But their performance
deteriorated during the 1990s. Beginning with 2002, however, their
performance has improved. Several Committees were set up to look
into the problems of RRBs and suggest improvements. The Dantwala
Committee (RBI, Report of the Review Committee on Regional Rural
Banks, 1978) recommended that RRBs should also finance non-target
group borrowers. It did not favour the merger of RRBs with the
sponsoring bank as this would not solve the problem of losses but only
conceal them. Most other committees were concerned with improving
the financial health of RRBs through capitalisation or through
Self-Instructional Material reorganisation for which they recommended restructuring to improve
164
their functioning as viable financial institutions while simultaneously Rural Development Agency

retaining their regional character and rural focus. The reforms initiated NOTES
in stages would ultimately result in 20 state-level RRBs. RBI is also
looking into the restructuring of RRBs.
Recent Improvements
In view of their understanding of local people and geography,
proximity to rural people and better scope for understanding local
conditions, RRBs are better placed to undertake lending to small
borrowers on a large scale than are commercial and cooperative banks.
Since 2002, RRBs have registered a remarkable improvement in their
functioning primarily as a result of their linkage with self-help groups.
This linkage has not only helped them to improve their balance sheet
but also enabled them to revert to their original mandate of serving the
poorer sections of the rural population. The number of profit making
RRBs has gradually increased from 147 in 1999 to 166 by 2005 and
those reporting losses declined from 49 to 30. Moreover, the share of
non-performing assets has declined considerably from 27.8 percent in
1999 to 8.5 percent by 2005. But there are regional differences. In
particular, NPAs of the north-eastern region (16.3 per cent) continue to
be very high (GOI, 2007). It has been decided to expand the rural
branch network through the RRBs. In order to improve further the
functioning of the RRBs, it is important to strengthen their links with
SHGs as a part of the bank-linked credit institutions.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
3. Write the mission of NABARD?
4. Write short note on RRB?
7.7 DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
(DRDA)
We have mentioned in the preceding sub-section that SFDA and
MFALA programmes have been merged into the integrated rural
development programme and a new agencycalled District Rud
Development Agency (DRDA) was set up replacing both the earlier
agencies. Here, we provide more details of DRDA.
DRDAs have been established for effective implementation of anti-
poverty programmes in rural areas at the district level. It is an
institution that acts as a delivery agency to support and facilitate the
development process. The role of the DRDAs is to plan for effective
implementation of anti-poverty programmes and to coordinate with all
the agencies - Governmental, non-Governmental, technical and
financial - for successful programme implementation. They enable the
poor rural community to participate in the decision-marking process.

Self-Instructional Material

165
Rural Development Agency DRDA was created origmally to implement the Integrated kuraI
Development Progmmme (IRDP). Thus, since its incepbon the DRDA
NOTES
has been the principal organ at the District level to oversee the
implementation of different anti-poverty programmes of the Central
Government. Subsequently, the DRDAs have been entrusted with a
number of programmes of State government as well.
Centrally Sponsored Scheme for strengthening the DRDAs has been
introduced. This scheme, which is funded on a25:25 basis between
Centre and States, aims at strengthening and professionalizing the
DRDAs for effective functioning of the organization.
The main objectives of DRDA are to:
Effectively manage the anti-poverty programmes; and Effectively co-
ordinate with other agencies and line departments like Panchayati Raj
Institutions, Banks and other financial institutions, the NGO's and the
technical and other institutions to gather support and resources
required for poverty elimination at the District level.
DECENTRALISED RURAL DEVELOPMENT
ADMINISTRATION
There has been a constant debate on the methods and sequence of
enabling people to participate in the development process.
Decentralisation has been advocated by development agencies and
policy planners as an important factor broadening citizen participation
and improving local governance, thereby promoting poverty reduction
from the bottom-up (Jiitting, et al, 2004).
Local self-governments can make a contribution to the health of a
nation's democracy by offering opportunities for greater participation
in the business of governance and by creating a democratic climate of
opinion. Through a local electoral process, the political parties
aggregate the demands of the dispersed population, represent political
interests, ensure electoral competition and form governments, thereby
facilitating the participation of people in governance.
Good governance is increasingly cited as a key component in any
successful strategy to reduce poverty. Decentralization of authority
and responsibility is a key factor in good governance. Good
governance is concerned with institutionalizing democracy in such a
way that the structure produces the expected functions, and thus the
desired results.
The persistence of poverty in most countries has its origins in
problems of governance rather than in inadequacy of resources. The
basic argument about the role of governance in development holds that
weak governance is the result of failure of the State to do the Project a
developmental vision.
Self-Instructional Material
166
a Demonstrate a commitment, through putting in place policies and Rural Development Agency

programmes as well as calibrating priorities, to realize the vision. NOTES

Develop the administrative, technical and political capacity to
mobilize the necessary support within the civil society to translate the
vision into a reality.
Rural Development Decentralization of policy is generally regarded as
critical for eficiency, equity and p~~cipation. With regard to
efficiency, decentralization contributes to identifying local priorities,
potentialifies and resources for the appropriate preparation,
implementation and sustainable management of projects. With regard
to equity, local governments are often in a good position to administer
services that have important redistributive implications, such as
primary health care, education, childcare, housing and public
transportation. With regard to participation, the identification and
mobilization of all available resources and their deployment in
accordance with popular needs requires direct participation.
Decentralisation has traditionally been motivated by the following two
arguments: Decentralisation can lead to an increase in effiiency:
Central and state authorities usually lack the "time and place
knowledge" (Hayek, cited in Ostrom et al., 1993) to implement
policies and programmes that reflect people's 'real' needs and
preferences. If properly managed, decentralisation is seen as a way to
improve allocative efficiency (Musgrave, 1983; and Oates, 1972).
Decentralisation can lead to improved governance: Decentralisation
enhances accountability and monitoring of government officials and
decision-makers. Unchecked authority and inadequate incentive5
encourage "rent-seeking behaviour" by government officials.
Decenttalisation hderinines these opportunities by creating
institutional arrangements that formalise the relationship between
citizens and public. servants. Political decenttalisation, especially the
election dlocal officials by citizens, when accompanied by a strong
legal framework, can create local accountability and thereby foster
officials' legitimacy, bolstering citizen involvement and interest in
politics, and deepening the democratic nature of institutions (Blair,
2000; Crook and Manor, 1998; and Manor, 1999).
Both arguments are highly relevant for poverty reduction. Increased
possibilities for participation, improved access to services and a more
efficient way of providing public goods at the local level are major
components of most anti-poverty programmes. Decentralisation aims
at associating people with the government to the maximum extent
possible. In India, the Panchayati Raj system enables people to
participate in democracy in a more effective way and provides an
opportunity for rural people to plan and administer their own affairs.
The introduction of the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in 1959 is
considered to be an instrument of social revolution in India, the idea Self-Instructional Material

167
Rural Development Agency which is based on the philosophy of decentralisation. The 73rd and
74th Constitutional Amendments (for rural local bodies - the
NOTES
panchayats) and urban local bodies (the municipalities) in 1992
widened the democratic base of the Indian polity. Within a year, most
of the states passed their own Acts in conformity with the amended
constitutional provisions. As aresult, India has moved towards what
has been described as 'multilevel federalism'. Under the decentralised
planning process, rural development programmes have assumed
greater significance, as their implementation has been transfenred to
Panchayat Raj institutions.

7.8 STATISTICS RELATED TO RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Rural development programmes in India are of vast dimensions
requiring massive data for planning and implementation. Also, in the
wake of their implementation and for the purpose of progress
reporting, monitoring and concurrent evaluation, large vdumes otdata
and information are being generated. In the following -*'we shall
briefly discuss statistics-that are being collected for monitoring and
concurrent evaluation of the major anti-poverty programmes.
Monitoring of Anti-Poverty Programmes
Over the years, a fairly comprehensiveloystem of monitoring of anti-
poverty programmes has been developed. This is based on a regular
system d progress reports and feedback. For this purpose statistical
pioformae have been prescribed. The monthly progress reports are
brief and contain key information relating to physical and financial
progress. Quarterly reports are more detailed which provide ' data and
information relating to progress achieved, both quantitative &d
qualitative. Annual reports provide even more detailed statistics on
progress achieved, problems faced and remedial corrective measures
taken, and quantitative/qualitative infdioa on the effects and impact of
the programme. The primary reporting agency is the block office
which maintains the basic details regarding the schemes and projects
beiig implemented within the jurisdiction,of the block. The reports
from different block offices are sent to the District Rural Development
Agency (DRDA) where they are consolidated. The reports received
from different DRDAs are consolidated at the state headquarters.
National level progress reports are prepared by the Department of
Rural Development of the Government of India on the basis of reports
received from each state. The Department of Rural Development at the
Centre has prescribed that the monthly progress reports from the states
should reach the Centre by the 10th of the following month, the
quarterly reports by the 25th of the month following the quarter and
the annual report before the end of the first quarter following the year.
Though monthly reports are, by and large, regularly.received in time
from most of the states, the same is not true in the case of quarterly
and annual reports. This is mainly due to the time consuming process
Self-Instructional Material
168
of manual tabulation and record maintenance. A major constraint in Rural Development Agency

this connection is the shortage of trained manpower for compilation of NOTES

data which might affect the quality of reporting also. Whereas the
Central and State Governments monitor the implementation of these
programmes on the basis of certain key indikators on a monthly,
quarterly and annual basis, closer day-to-day monitoring is the shared
responsibility of the DRDAs and block offices. As such, the
requirements at the lower levels of management are much higher. In
practice, however, the collection and compilation of data are more
often dictated by the requirements of the higher.authorities.
In the case of IRDP, the basic data collected on a monthly basis
for monitoring purpose include the number of families assisted, the
sectoral distributi~ of the beneficiaries, the social class and gender
distribution of the beneficiarivtc. On the financial side, the total
investment, the per capita investment - by sector'qnd social class, the
share of subsidy and ba~& credit, the institutional distribution of bank
ham etc. are collected. These are cornpardwith the targets and norms
provided. Re Si@cant deviations from the targets and norms are
matters of concern needing o corrective supportive action. The
quarterly reports, apart from the above details, provide information on
qualitative aspects of the implementation of the programme - problems
faced and how they have been overcome. The annual reports provide,
in addition, details of income generation from the assets, and changes
in the overall income of the assisted families as well as details of loan
repayments.
The progress reports of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana contain details
regarding the number of mandays of employment generation, the
social occupational class and gender of those who get work, the types
of work taken under the programme, details of foodgrain distribution
and so on. On the financial side, details of outlays, the share of wage
and material component, average wage rate and average cost of
generation of mandays of employment etc. are reported. Again,
achievements are compared with the targets and norms and wherever
major departures occur, these are indicated for follow up action and
corrective (or supportive) measures.
SOURCES OF RURAL STATISTICS
Depending upon the nature, extent of sophistication and level of
disaggregation of planning, the statistical requirements vary
considerably. For example, to prepare a proper IRDP plan at the block
level, one requires all the statistics listed above plus a lot more detailed
information about the poverty profile, ownership of income generating
assets, income level and main sources of income, resource potential in
the region which may include as diverse information as the ground
water potential of the area, the skills and educational levels of the
population, the health status and morbidity pattern of the population Self-Instructional Material

169
Rural Development Agency and so on. Some of the data may not be readily available and may have
to be collected through special surveys which may be costly and time
NOTES
consuming. We shall devote the following paragraphs to briefly
discuss the sources and methods of collection of basic rural statistics,
periodicity and timeliness, reliability and validity of the data and
estimates, and uses to which statistics are put.
Administrative Statistics
Broadly, the sources of basic rural statistics can Be divided into three
types:
(i) Administrative records,
(ii) Census Records
(iii) Sample surveys
By and large, a significant amount or Basic rural statistics are
available in the Administrative records of various government offices
at the district, block and Taluk and village/panchayat levels. Some of
these are generated byproducts of
Administration often as a-result of a deliberate action, and others as
products of certain
Government regulations. For example, as a byproduct of revenue
administration, land. Ownership statistics and land utilization statistics
are maintained by the village , patwad (revenue official). Similarly, the
gram panchayat adhikari (official) maintains essential details of the
inhabitants within the panchayat area for various official purposes.
The primary school records contain details regarding school enrolment
and dropout, while vital events like births and deaths are recorded in
the registration office for the purpose. A major merit of such statistics
is that they are connected/generated regularly without any additional
explicit expenditure for data collection. Because of the legal authority
of the administrative machinery, there is little &culty in getting
cooperation from respondents to collect the requisite statistics. Often,
the respondents have to furnish the requisite information to the -
authority as a matter of routine to comply with certain administrative
and regulatory Stipulations.

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
5. Write the main objectives of DRDA?
6. Write short note on Statistics related to Rural Development ?
Statistics on Rural Development
A major problem with the administrative staustics, however, is that
they a major problem with the administrative staustics, however, is
that they often lie scattered in various administrative records of the
Self-Instructional Material
170
offices of various functional departments. From the &r's point of view, Rural Development Agency

the first task will be to systemaacally compile these statistics from the NOTES
records, 6les and progress reports maintained in the field offices as
well as higher level offices. Quite often this may be a difficult task as
the records may not be properly maintained or uptodate. Further,
explanatory notes/definitions in regard to the data may be missing. For
example; the records of ownership of land holding maintained by the
patwari may not indicate the current ownership status as mutations due
to partitions, sales etc., are not normally carried out promptly.
Census Statistics
Censuses are the next major source of basic statistics including rural
statistics. Census enumeration is conducted periodically to collect
specific informaion relatingto the entire population. The population
census is the most important of them. It is conducted once in ten years
in India. The last census was in 1991. The first .population census in
our country was conducted in 1871 and since then we have been
having regular censuses. A variety of information relating to the entire
population is collected during the census. These include statistics on
demographic characteristics, housing and other infrastructure facilities,
economic status, occupational details, employment status, literacy
level, and other social statistics. Almost all census data provide a rural
urban break-up. The Census Commissioner of India is responsible for
the conduct of population census throughout the country. At the state
level, there are state census commissioners. The field work or actual
data collection is normally got done through school teachers and other
government functionaries who are given special training and
remuneration for this purpose.
Though the actual field work for census is only a onemonth operation
(usually in Feburary of the census year), the preparations for census
take a few y& and the compilation and analysis of census data and
preparation of various census reports at the national, state and district
levels take several years. Normally, the total population figrres and the
important characteristics of the population at the national 'and state
level are made available soon after the census. More detailed and
disaggregated figures are normally available only with considerable
time lag. The delays in the processing of census data are a matter of
concern, and the expectation is that with the aid of computerisation
this can be considerably reduced. Apart from national and state level
aggregate estimates, the population census provides detailed
disaggregated data at the district, block and village levels which are
extremely useful for decendalised planning.
In addition to the population census, the other important censuses
conducted in our country on a regularbasis are Agricultural Census,
Economic Census and Livestock Census. Agricultural census has been
conducted every five years since 1970-71. It throws up detailed Self-Instructional Material

171
Rural Development Agency statistics on land holdings, distribution of operational holdings by size,
area of operational holdings in different size, classes etc. - Economic
NOTES
Census collects data on household and unregistered economic
enterprises. Besides, data on various village amenities - social and
economic infrastructure facilities - are also collected under Economic
Census which are extremely useful for planning of basic amenities in
rural areas. Sa far, three economic censuses have been conducted, the
first one in. 1977. Livestock census collects detailed statistics on the
livestock population in the country which is quite useful in planning
for rural development.
Sample Survey Statistics
pe third major source of basic rural statistics is sample surveys. Unlike
the census where information is collected from all the individuals
(units) in the population, in sample survey; information is collected
only from a representative sample of individuals from the population.
On the basis of statistics collected through sample surveys, reliable
estimates about the characteristics-= be made for.the population.
As compared to census, a sample survey is less time consuming, less
costly and often more revable as non-sampling errors can be
minimised by having better trained professional enumerators. A major
limitation of sample survey is that it will not provide reliable estimates
of population characteristics at disaggregated levels (beyond what was
decided at the time the sample design was prepared) due to limitations
of sample size. Of course, sample surveys will not provide individual
data relating to all the units of the population either.
The most important and best known sample surveys are those
conducted by the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO).
NSSO has been conducting socio-economic surveys on a regular basis
since 1951. These surveys are of national coverage and are conducted
in rounds of one year duration, after the initial few years I when the
duration of a round was less than one year. Each round covers selected
facets of the economy and society. Over a period of ten yew the
subjects are covered in rotation. For instance, the 43rd round of NSSO
survey was conducted during 1987-88 and covered employment and
unemployment. It may be noted in this connection that the estimates of
poverty line and the population below the poverty line are based on the
consumer expenditure surveys conducted by the NSSO periodically.
For the collection of vital statistics, the Sample Registration System
makes available every year for the country as a whole data on birth
rates, death rates, hfant mortality rates, age spbific death rates etc.
Sometimes special surveys are carried out by the Sample Registration
System along with the regular surveys. The SRS was initiated in 1964-
65 on a pilot basis in a few selected states but now covers the entire
country.
Self-Instructional Material
172
Statistics from Research Studies Rural Development Agency

NOTES
Empirical research - exploratory, diagnostic, and evaluative - on
different facets.of rural society and economy are sponsored by
organisations like the Indian Council of Social Science ~ksearch,
Planning Commission and different Departments of the Government
of India. These micro studies conducted by research
institutes/university departments with the help of grants given by the
sponsoring organisation provide useful feedback on the development
scenario. Sometimes these studies are conducted throughout the
country with the participation of different university
department/research institutes following a common research design
and a common core tabulation plan. The state and other state agencies
occasionally conduct sample surveys to collect specific basic rural
statistics for planning, ~onitoring and evaluation of various rural
development programmes. Another egency which has nationwide field
officers and survey teams for conducting sqcio-economic sample
surveys is the Programme Evaluation Organisation (PEO) of the
Planning Commission. The PEO conducts evaluation studies of
important national programmes. In recent years, it has conducted
evaluation studies of IRDP and NREP. The states, too, have their own
evaluation wing, usually within the Directorate of Economics and
Statistics.

7.9 TRAINING OF PRI FUNCTIONARIES

Importance of local governance in a democratic polity can hardly be
underestimated. In developing countries local governance institutions
not only make democracy more meaningful, but provide much needed
participation of the masses in the socio-economic transformation of the
nations.
The concept of self-governance is one of the cherished values of
Indian society. Selfgoverning institutions at the grassroots played an
important role in ancient India. Selfgoverning village communities had
existed in India even in the times of Rig-Veda. In course of time these
village bodies took the form of „Panchayats,‟ which means an
E-Governance
assembly of five persons. The panchayats looked after the affairs of
the village. It is believed that these bodies were the pivot of
administration and centre of social life. Sir Charles Metcalfe, the
provisional Governor General of India (1835-36) called the Indian
village communities as „the little republics.‟ Now days these little
republics are known as Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in rural
areas.
After independence PRIs have come into existence in most of the
states since 1959 consequent to the recommendations of Balwant Rai
Self-Instructional Material

173
Rural Development Agency Mehta Committee. The inception of PRIs opened a new chapter in the
annals of Indian democracy. In the process of development of the
NOTES
country, PRIs have been playing a vital role as agents of rural
transformation. These institutions help in purposeful understanding of
the masses and articulation of their responses. Democracy is
introduced to grassroots of the country through these institutions. Even
the common people of the country are associated with administration
through these institutions. Through PRIs, local people not only
determine policies but they also guide and control the administration
for the execution of these policies. The importance of Panchayati Raj
system lies in the fact that it assures expansion of democracy at the
grassroots and ensures public participation in development
programmes.
Therefore, PRIs have become backbone of our democratic set up. PRIs
have undergone many changes especially in its role from the days of
the British Empire to the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act in 1992.
In the era of globalisation,
PRIs right from the village panchayats to the Zilla Parishad have to
redefine their roles as that of catalysts and facilitators. Effective and
meaningful functioning of these institutions would depend on active
involvement, contribution and participation of citizens. The World
Bank Report 2000 stated that „development must address human needs
directly, that institutions of direct democracy, such as, panchayats
should be rooted in processes that are socially inclusive and responsive
to changing circumstances‟. Therefore, strengthening of PRIs as self-
governance institutions at the grassroots level to run the administration
of local affairs is much needed for more meaningful democracy. In
this context, sincere efforts need to be taken to substantially enhance
the knowledge, skills and capabilities of PRIs with the use of ICT. In
this Unit an attempt is made to discuss ICT enabled initiatives
undertaken in the country to reorient PRIs as self-governing
institutions and make them vehicles of socio-economic transformation
in rural India.
CHANGING ROLE OF PRIs
Democracy does not become meaningful without strengthening the
grassroots institutions. Local self-government institutions are those
institutions constituted at the grassroots level to administer local
affairs. These institutions comprise those representatives who are
directly elected by the people at regular interval of time. They are
constituted by the Acts of state governments. These institutions fulfill
the local needs, relieve the administrative burden, secure economy in
administration, promote political consciousness, decentralize power
and authority and make democracy a success.

Self-Instructional Material
174
Popular participation and strengthening of local governments are Rural Development Agency

essential to achieve development at the local level. Institutions of NOTES

governance at the local level have a clinching role in promoting a new
equilibrium in rural India. The development machinery at the
grassroots level work under the control of PRIs. Prior to 1992, state
governments adopted different patterns of PRIs and there was no
uniformity in the structures, powers
Panchayati Raj Institutions: Improving Self-Governance Through ICT
and functions, election methods, allocation of financial resources etc.
of these institutions. Government of India has brought certain reforms
in these institutions through 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act,
1992. This amendment aimed at creating uniform pattern of PRIs in all
the states. It devolved a package of powers and functions to the PRIs.
These institutions now perform a wide range of functions. This
includes maintenance of public streets, proper drainage, electricity
supply, lighting, medical relief, construction and maintenance of
public toilets, registration of births and deaths, provision of primary
education, water supply, maintenance of burial ground, etc. In
addition, they are also expected to take up functions, such as,
promotion of cottage industries, animal husbandry programmes,
pollution control, famine relief, construction of culverts, maintenance
of village roads, reading rooms, etc.
The XI Schedule added to the Constitution by the Act lists out 29
subjects to be transferred to Panchayati Raj bodies. They include
agriculture, land reforms, minor irrigation, animal husbandry,
fisheries, social forestry, small scale industries, rural housing, rural
roads, rural electrification, poverty alleviation programmes, primary,
secondary and vocational education; adult and non-formal education,
libraries, rural markets, rural health centres, family welfare, women
and child development, social welfare and welfare of weaker sections,
public distribution system and maintenance of community assets. The
Constitution through 73rd Amendment visualises panchayats as
institutions of local self-government. It also devolves the powers,
functions and responsibilities to panchayats in respect of 29 subjects to
prepare their schemes and development plans and implementation of
these programmes of economic and social development. The
Constitution enjoins the state government to take steps for devolution
of powers and functions to the panchayats to enable them to become
„institutions of self-government‟. However, the available information
reveals that the process of devolution has not yet been firmed up in
most of the states. The extent of devolution of powers and functions is
subject to the will of the state legislature. It is found that the steps have
been taken in most states on piece-meal basis.
Experience of one decade of implementation of the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act shows that PRIs in most of the states have not
Self-Instructional Material

175
Rural Development Agency delivered the services to rural people in accordance with the provisions
made in the Act. Although the Act empowers them to prepare plans for
NOTES
economic development and social justice and implement the schemes
of rural development as may be entrusted to them including those
related to matters listed in the XI Schedule, they failed to become the
real institutions of self-governance due to lack of community
participation and insufficient capacity in running their activities.
Therefore, capacity building measures need to be taken at local
governance level to strengthen PRIs. Capacity building may be
defined as support or intervention that empowers people, communities
or organisation to achieve their objectives. Effective capacity building
includes learning by doing, access to resources, facilitation, mediation
and training. These measures comprise developing community audit
skills, facilitating a strategic plan and phased operational measures and
encouraging the monitoring and evaluation of progress. The challenges
before the PRIs in the new millennium are formidable. Infact, these
institutions are to transform themselves from being representative
political institutions to being community institutions of direct
democracy with support from the local community. These institutions
have to work within the broad framework of good governance. The
E-Governance
Positive challenges of these institutions are preserving democracy at
the grassroots, initiating necessary steps for good governance,
maintaining accountability and ransparency with the purpose of social
audit, exploring possibilities for new initiatives or new power
equations, civil society activities through partnership with NGOs,
achieving women empowerment and developing efficient service
delivery mechanisms.
Poverty reduction should be the highest priority mission of PRIs in the
new millennium. These institutions have to draw long-term plans for
rural development and catalyse publicprivate partnership to realise
them in the areas of health, education, roads, water supply and other
infrastructure services. They have to ensure that their administration
and functions are accountable to the people to facilitate empowerment.
To meet these challenges a considerable number of ICT initiatives
have been undertaken by the Central and state governments since
1990s. These initiatives have vast potential to ensure a more
accountable, responsive and citizen friendly PRI. Positive harnessing
of ICT can open new vistas for PRIs‟ efficiency and effectiveness.

7.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the various Rural Development Agencies, and
document the list of programmes like CAPART and National Institute of
Rural Development, NABARD and Regional rural bankings also focuses on
District Rural Development Agencies – Statistics related to Rural
Self-Instructional Material
Development and also training of Panchayat Raj Institutions.
176
 Rural Development Agency

7.11 UNIT- END- EXERCISES NOTES

1. Write the major goals of CAPART?
2. What are the missions of NIRD?
3. Write the mission of NABARD?
4. Write short note on RRB?
5. Write the main objectives of DRDA?
6. Write short note on Statistics related to Rural Development ?
7.12 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The major goals of CAPART are: To support voluntary
organizations in implementing projects for sustainable
development in rural areas. 2 0 To act as a national nodal point
for development and promotion of appropriate rural
technologies. 3 ) To promote and support voluntary action and
people‟s participation for rural development, through capacity-
building for voluntary organizations and rural communities. 4)
To act as a data bank and clearing house for information on the
voluntary sector, rural technologies and rural development.

2. Mission : To examine and analyse the factors contributing to

the improvement of economic and social well-being of people
in rural areas on a sustainable basis with focus on the rural poor
and the other disadvantaged groups through research, action
research, consultancy and documentation efforts.
3. MISSION : Promote sustainable and equitable agriculture and
rural development through participative financial and non-
financial interventions, innovations, technology and
institutional development for securing prosperity.
4. Natural Factors, Technological Factors, Social Factors, Economic
Factors, Cultural Factors, Political Factors
5. The Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) were set up consequent to
the recommendations of the Working Group on Rural Banks
(1975). The main objectives of the Regional Rural Banks were
to: (i) take banking to the doorsteps of the rural masses,
particularly in areas without banking facilities; (ii) make
available cheaper institutional credit to the weaker sections of
society, who were to be the only clients of these banks; (iii)
mobilise rural savings and channelise them for supporting
productive activities in rural areas; (iv) generate employment
opportunities in the rural areas and (v) bring down the cost of
providing rural credit.
6. A major problem with the administrative staustics, however, is
that they a major problem with the administrative staustics,
however, is that they often lie scattered in various
administrative records of the offices of various functional
departments. From the &r's point of view, the first task will be
to systemaacally compile these statistics from the records, 6les
and progress reports maintained in the field offices as well as Self-Instructional Material

177
Rural Development Agency higher level offices. Quite often this may be a difficult task as
the records may not be properly maintained or uptodate.
NOTES
Further, explanatory notes/definitions in regard to the data may
be missing. For example; the records of ownership of land
holding maintained by the patwari may not indicate the current
ownership status as mutations due to partitions, sales etc., are
not normally carried out promptly.

7.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Adams, Dale W., and Douglas, H. G. 1985. "A Critique of

Traditional Agricultural Credit Policies" in Eicher and Staatz. (Eds).
Agricultural Development in Third World. Baltimore: John Hopkins
University Press.
2. Adanis, Dale W., Graham D. H., and Von Pischke, J. D. 1984.
Undermining Rural Development with Cheap Credit. Boulder:
Westview.
3. Blair, H. 2000. Participation and Accountability at the Periphery:
Democratic Local Governance in Six Countries, World
Development, Vo1.28, No. 1, pp.21-39.
4. Brayne, F. L. 1938. Better villages. New York: H. Milford, Oxford
University Press.
5. Crotean, J. T. 1956. The Federal Credit Union. New York: Harper
Row.
6. Crook, R., and Manor, J. 1998. Democracy and Decentralisation in
South Asia and West Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
7. Dubhashi, P. R. 1970. Rural DevelopmentAdministration in India.
Bombay: Popular Mashan.
8. Dubhashi, P. K. 1996. Essays on Rural Development. New Delhi:
Kaveri Books.
9. Fuglesang, Andreasas, and Chandler, Dale. 1993. Participation as a
Process – Process aJ Grgwth - what we can learn from Grameen
Bank, Bangladesh. Dacca: Grameen Trust. 1
10. Government of India. 1991. Report of the Committee on the
Financial System (Chairman: Shri M. Narasimham). New Delhi:
Ministry of Finance.
11. Government of India. 2002. Report of the Working Group to Skggest
Amendments in the Regional Rural Banks Act, 1976 (Chairman: Shri
M. V. S. Chalapathi Rao). New Delhi: Ministry of Finance.
12. Jiitting, Johannes, CCline Kauffmann, Ida Mc Donnell, Holger
Osterrieder, Nicolas Pinaud and Lucia Wegner. 2004.
Decentralisation and Poverty in Developing Countries: E-xploring
The Impact. OECD Development Centre Working Paper, No.236. I
13. Lewis, W. A. 1955. The Theory of Economic Growth. London:
George Allen &Unwin.
14. Mahajan, Vijay. 1996. BASIX: A New Generation Livelihood
Promotion Institution.Anand: IRMA.

Self-Instructional Material
178
UNIT - VIII SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Social Development

NOTES
Structure
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Aims and Objectives
8.3. Social Development
8.3.1 Definition
8.3.2 Approaches
8.3.3 Indicators
8.4. Social Development in India
8.4.1 Historical and Social Context of India
8.4.2 Pre and post Independence Period
8.4.3 Government Measures and Five Year Plans in India
8.5 Development Sectors –
8.5.1 Agriculture
8.5.2 Cooperation
8.5.3 Education
8.5.4 Health
8.6 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 Unit- End- Exercises
8.8 Answer to check your Progress
8.9 Suggested Readings
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 8, we examined the complex nature of social change. The
dynamics of social change has stimulated the formulation of a host of
concepts, of which the term ‗development‘ has gained much currency.
Today, we use this term to describe
the complex modes of social change, especially those which have been
desired, planned, directed and stimulated in a society. We now
have‗sociology of development‘. In order to understand the concept of
social development, which has been defined and redefined over the
year? This unit deals first with the broad nature and meaning of the
concept of development. We describe the current views on social
development, including a discussion on the ‗three worlds of
development‘ and some recent approaches to social development.
Finally, we look at the ‗mixed‘ path of development.
Social Development encompasses a commitment to individual well-
being and volunteerism, and the opportunity for citizens to determine
their own needs and to influence decisions that affect them. Social
development incorporates public concerns in developing social policy
and economic initiatives.
Until relatively recently, social development was conceived in terms
of a set of desirable results - higher incomes, longer life expectancy,
lower infant mortality, more education.

Self-Instructional Material
179
 Social Development Recently emphasis has shifted from the results to the enabling
NOTES conditions, strategies and public policies for achieving those results -
peace, democracy, good governance, social freedoms, equal access,
laws, institutions, markets, infrastructure, education and technology.
But still little attention has been placed on the underlying social
process of development that determines how society formulates,
adopts, initiates, and organises, and few attempts have been made to
formulate such a framework. However, there are some recognised
theories and principles, which will be examined briefly.
8.2 AIMS OF OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define the concept of social development, and describe its
nature;
 describe the prevailing ideas about social development; and
 give an account of the Indian experience of development

8.3. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Development is a broad concept and, though interrelated, it differs
from social change. Change is a value-neutral concept whereas
development is a value-laden concept. The notion of development is,
in other words, the process of desired change. All cases of change do
not indicate development. Only planned and desired changes can be
described as development. Thus, it is important to keep in mind the
distinct character of the concept of development. Secondly, we also
need to distinguish between economic and sociological notions of
development. This point becomes clearer as you read this unit. While
speaking of social development, we emphasise the sociological
understanding of the process of development. As a broad concept,
social development refers to the overall transformation of individuals
and society, which may enable every person to achieve moral, social
physical and material well-being. Egalitarian development is a desired
goal, but it remains only an ‗ideal‘. In spite of development efforts,
disparities in various dimensions of development continue to widen
between societies, regions and groups. Variations are observed when
we compare various regions or countries. Out of such comparisons
have emerged the concepts of underdevelopment mainly in economic
terms, such as per capita income, gross national product, level of the
standard of living and degree of technological advancement. There are
many criteria of ‗over‘ and ‗under‘ development. The simplest one of
them is the ratio of industrial capacity to social utility. It means that
the countries which are unable to produce, sufficient goods to meet the
requirements of their population, may be considered as
underdevelopment, and those which produce more than what is
required, as overdeveloped. In the overdeveloped category may be
placed the countries such as America, and in the underdeveloped
category, many Asian and African countries. It is, however, a
Self-Instructional Material
controversial point whether underdevelopment and over development
180
can be identified with any particular country. Further the term Social Development
underdevelopment is not acceptable, to some of the economically less NOTES
developed countries, such as India. These countries consider
themselves quite developed from social and cultural points of view.
They prefer to be designated as ‗developing‘ rather than as
‗underdeveloped‘ countries. An important idea implicit in the
classification of countries, into developed and developing, is that the
former became a ‗model‘ for the latter. The developing countries may
like to imitate or adopt the economic and technological systems of
developed countries. What is more important about this classification,
with regard to the conceptual meaning of development, is the fact that
the developing countries depended upon the developed ones for
technology, skills and monetary aid. The latter tried to exploit the
former. This is known as the dependency theory of development.
Having realised the exploitative tendencies of the developed countries,
the developing countries tried to be self-reliant in economic terms.
Thus, substitution of economic dependence by self-reliance, emerged
as an important indicator of development. The greater the self-reliance,
the higher the levels of development. Endeavors towards self-reliance
resulted in import substitution by stopping the purchase of goods from
developed countries and producing them in their own country.
8.3.1 DEFINING SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Social development is about putting people at the centre of
development. This means a commitment that development processes
need to benefit people, particularly but not only the poor, but also a
recognition that people, and the way they interact in groups and
society, and the norms that facilitates such interaction, shape
development processes.
While the role of formal institutions and policies has become central to
the development debate, the role of informal social institutions has
received less attention. Debates on growth and poverty reduction have
paid relatively little attention to the impact of, for example, norms of
cooperation in villages and neighbourhoods, community oversight in
the management of projects, or non-discrimination against women and
minorities in education and health. Of course, micro-studies invariably
highlight their importance, but can we measure such informal social
institutions?
What exactly are these social institutions? We understand these as the
behaviours, norms and conventions that pattern human interaction.
Participation in local organisations, demonstrations, petitions, and
elections are examples of such behaviours. Norms and conventions,
often unwritten, govern human interaction, and are the lived relations
between people. Norms of non-discrimination against groups based on
ethnicity, language, or gender are examples of social institutions, as
are norms of criminal behaviour and about civic activism. Self-Instructional Material
181
 Social Development Social development thus implies the change in social institutions.
NOTES Progress toward an inclusive society, for example, implies that
individuals treat each other (more) fairly in their daily lives, whether
in the family, workplace, or in public office. Social cohesion is
enhanced when peaceful and safe environment within neighbourhoods
and communities are created. Social accountability exists to the extent
that citizens‘ voices are expressed, and heard by the authorities.
Formal institutional reform – for example, the provision of legally
enshrined rights, better law enforcement, or more participatory
governance – are part of the process by which institutional change is
achieved, changing the way people relate to people is an equally
important part of this.
The Indices of Social Development focus on measuring the informal
social institutions, how they compare across countries, and how these
changes over time. It does this by using existing databases, around the
world, and combining these to find the best possible match with our
definition of social development. Through an on-going process of
expert discussion, and review of existing databases, we have organised
the Indices of Social Development into five groupings:
Civic activism refers to the social norms, organisations, and practices
which facilitate greater citizen involvement in public policies and
decisions. These include use of media, access to civic associations, and
involvement in activities such as nonviolent demonstration or petition.
Clubs and associations uses data on levels of engagement in local
community groups, time spent socialising in voluntary associations,
and membership of developmental organisations, to identify the extent
to which people are part of social networks and potentially supported
by community ties.
Inter-group cohesion refers to relations of cooperation and respect
between groups in a society; where this cooperation breaks down,
there is the potential for conflict and acts of terror and riots.
Interpersonal safety and trust measures the level of trust and
confidence between individuals that do not know each other
personally, specifically with regard to the likelihood of criminal
violence and other forms of trust violation, and combines this with
measures of rates of violence.
Gender equality estimates the extent of discrimination against women,
whether in the labour market, education, healthcare, or in the home.
THE PREVAILING NOTIONS OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
For a discussion of the contemporary sociological concerns about
development, we can begin by outlining some of the views based on
Self-Instructional Material
historical events, on the sociocultural dimensions of development. But
182
before we examine these dominant concerns regarding development, it Social Development
would be useful to undertake a brief description of the ―three worlds of NOTES
development‖ as it had existed prior to the break-up of the Soviet
Union. This had become an important part of the social scientists
parlance since the middle of the 20th century. Earlier the world was
divided into two i.e. it was a bipolar world with the capitalist block of
United States of America (USA), on the one side and the socialist
block of the Soviet Union, on the other. After the break-up of Soviet
Union, the ‗Cold War ‗ has ended and the world has become Unipolar,
with USA as the most powerful nation of the world.
The Three Worlds of Development
The First World consist of North America, Western and Southern
Europe. The countries were seen to be following mainly a capitalist
model of development. The Second World had consisted of Soviet
Union and the East European group such as, Poland, East Germany,
Hungary etc. Many socio-political changes have occurred in these
countries now and they do not remain a communist bloc any more.
They were associated with the socialist model of development. The
Third World was and to certain extent still is generally used to refer to
the less developed or developing societies of Asia, Africa and Latin
America. Most of these countries emerged out of colonial rule to attain
political independence only in the middle of the 20th century. The
majority of the third world countries are characterised by low per
capita income, high rates of illiteracy and infant mortality. These were
generally agriculture-based economies where people had short life
expectancies, low degree of social mobility and strong attachment to
tradition (Estes, R.J., p. 92). The countries, though subject to influence
by the erstwhile First and the Second World countries, have devised
and Development their own national strategy and path of development.
The First and the Second World‘s models of development had laid
primary emphasis on economic growth. i) The Capitalist Model of
Development of the First World The main characteristics of the
capitalist model of development are:
a) provision for private ownership of property and means of
production,
b) promotion of economic activities through private enterprises, and
c) minimum possible state regulation and control on private
enterprises. Thus
the capitalist model is characterised by a free economy regulated by
competition.
ii) The Socialist Model of Development of the Second World The
socialist path of development adopted by the Second World, was seen
to be opposite or dichotomous to the capitalist path of development. Self-Instructional Material
183
 Social Development The former, contrary to the latter, is characterised by state ownership
NOTES of property and means of production, public enterprises and complete
state regulation of economic activities. Thus, the socialist model refers
to a regulated economy. The main allegation against the capitalist
model is that, since it permits minimum state regulation, its economic
system becomes exploitative in the sense that the
working class people (proletariat) do not get their due share. The
capitalists enjoy a major share of the nation‘s resources. Hence it
contributes to inequalities so that a few are very rich and the majority
is very poor. The capitalist model is, therefore, alleged to be
exploitative and non-egalitarian. On the contrary, the socialist model
was ideally considered as non-exploitative and egalitarian. Private
ownership and the lack of state regulation, were considered to be
important measures of exploitation of the weaker sections and hence
the causes of income inequalities. Since, the socialist state did not
allow private ownership of property, there was a strong belief that
there was no room for exploitation and inequality in it. However,
historical events proved this belief to be incorrect as the Soviet Union
could not survive for long. The period of ―Glasnost‖ and ―perestroika‖
led by Gorbachev, the erstwhile Russian Prime Minister during the
1980‘s, dismantled the communist political and economic structure.
The Soviet Union broke-up into several small countries and the
socialist ideology gave way to capitalist tendencies. However, China
still follows a socialistic socio-political order. The two models had
also differed in their conception of development. Whereas the
capitalist model lays greater stress on economic growth, than on equal
distribution of the fruits of economic growth. The socialist model
layed equal stress on both resource generation and equal distribution
of income, and tried to change the social system in such a way that
greater social justice could be ensured. In reality, socialist model did
not give much space to individual initiative and consumeristic desires.
The foregoing discussion implies another difference between these
models. The capitalist model does not see any major conflict in the
interests of the two classesworkers and capitalists. In its eyes both the
classes are complementary to each other, they; are functionally
interdependent. The rules of society, particularly about ownership of
property and distribution of income, are supposed to be based on
consensus. Hence according to this model, there is no need to change
the economic structure.
On the contrary, the socialist model saw inherent conflict in the
interests of the workers Social Development and the capitalists.
According to it, rules are not based on consensus but are imposed on
the weaker section by the stronger one. This leads to the exploitation
of the weak by the strong, which is likely to result in conflicts, and in
revolution by the exploited people who want radical change in the
Self-Instructional Material

184
system itself. Thus, the capitalist model is sometimes designated as Social Development
functionalist or consensual, and the socialist as a conflict, radical or NOTES
revolutionary model. In practice, as observed by some researchers,
these two models have entered a process of convergence. For instance
now, there is an increased state regulation on private economic
enterprises in the USA. There has been a relaxation in grants to private
enterprises in Russia. One could see income inequalities, and a
tendency to resist alterations in political and economic systems in both
the Worlds.
However, the credit for ―the worlds of development‖ belongs to
sociologist Louis Irwing Horowitz. In his book, Three Worlds of
Development: The Theory and Practice of International Stratification
(1972), Horowitz used a variety of criteria to distinguish between
groups of countries that share more or less similar patterns of socio-
economic development. In recent times there has developed a new
concept of ―fourth world‖ of development as identified first by Manuel
and Posluns (1974) and Hamalian and Karl (1974 : 13). They used this
concept to describe ―a community of the powerless, the oppressed and
the dispossed‖. According to them all the other ―worlds of
development‖ i.e. the First, the Second and the Third, share the people
who belong to the Fourth world of development. In current usage, the
countries which belong to the First world are referred to as ―developed
Market Economies‖ (DMEs); those belonging to the Second World are
referred to as the ―Eastern Trading Area (ETAs); and those belonging
to the Third World are referred to as the ―Developing Countries‖. The
countries of the Fourth World are referred to as ―least Developing
Countries‖ (LDCs). (Quoted in Estes, Richard J.‘s‖ World‘s of
Development, www. google.com website).
iii) Development of the Third World
It is difficult to specify the model of development, adopted by the
majority of the.Third World countries as there are variations among
them, dictated mainly by their historical and socio-cultural
circumstances. What they seem to share in common is that: a) They
are economically and technologically underdeveloped in comparison
to the countries of the so called developed world. b) Social planning is
a key element in their development process. Their plans of
development incorporate not only economic concerns, especially
removal of poverty, but also concerns regarding nation building,
national culture and social transformation.
Social Control, Change and Development c) They have been seeking
technological and economic aid from the developed countries. The
developed countries have given them economic assistance, but they
have also been increasingly attempting to extend their political
influence in the developing countries. It has been noted that the global
military defence strategy is, the major consideration of the developed Self-Instructional Material
185
 Social Development countries, in extending their economic and political influence to the
NOTES developing countries. In fact, the idea of the Third World is associated
with the emergence of consciousness among developing countries, of
being exploited by the developed countries in the garb of monetary
help and expert advice. Some nations had become conscious of
exploitation much earlier, but others, understood this fact only after
seeing the disastrous role of big powers in the developing countries,
e.g., the role of the USA in Vietnam or the USSR in Afghanistan. The
social analysts have played a very significant role both in appreciating
the help, as well as analysing the ―games‖ of the big powers in the
developing countries. Against this background of information about
the First, the Second and the Third Worlds we will now proceed to
look at some of the prevailing conceptions about development across
the world.
Activity 1
Interview at least five people of your Grandfather‘s generation and ask
them about their memories of the First & the Second World Wars.
What were the impacts of these wars on Indian people. Write a one
page note on the ‗‗Impact of First and Second World War on Indian
Society‘‘. Compare your note with the note of other students at your
Study Centre.
SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
The concept of development has encompassed many dimensions over
the years. One of the popular notions that economic growth, was a
sufficient and a necessary condition to stimulate development of all
the sections of a society has been proved incorrect. conomic
advancement of a class of people has not, and does not trickle down to
the entire population. Similarly, the attainment of high levels of
economic growth by some of the developed countries has not helped to
solve some of their serious problems. In fact affluence has given rise
to new and more social problems. It is, therefore, now realised that if
the ultimate aim of development is the improvement of the quality of
life of every human being in society, it cannot be achieved as a
consequence of economic growth or capital accumulation. Sociologists
now believe that it is necessary to lay stress on socio-cultural
dimensions of development. To elaborate, social development
includes:

 Proper satisfaction of basic needs, such as, food, shelter and

clothing.
 Availability of essential amenities such as electricity,
transportation, communication and water.
 Good physical and mental health, measurable in terms of
increased life chances, abolition of environmental pollution,
Self-Instructional Material nutritious diet, medical care etc.
186
  Economic welfare i.e. opportunities for employment in Social Development
economic activities and high level of living. NOTES
 Development of human beings i.e. enhancement of literacy,
vocational education, moral education, creative personality etc.
 Social integration i.e. involvement and participation of people
in social, political
 and economic processes and establishment and maintenance of
effective social institutions.
 Minimisation of disparities in access to various resources and
opportunities - economic, social and political
Some sociologists have laid a special emphasis on the psychological,
social and moral dimensions while talking about the ―holistic‖
approach to development. They look at development as an
improvement in the overall quality of life including physical,
psychological, social and cultural. They emphasise that these
dimensions are very closely interlinked. For instance, an improvement
in the psychological quality of life, entails the idea of life satisfaction
including positive mental health. This requires a proper and effective
balance between material and non-material life-goals of people and
between instrumental and intrinsic values of society.

Check your progress -1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Write the concept of Social Development ?
2. What are the development of Third World?
8.3.2 APPROACHES TO SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Approaches to development may be discerned on the basis of two
criteria, (i) centralisation versus decentralisation of development
schemes and resources, and (ii) unit of development, i.e., the focus of
development – individual, group, village etc. The first criterion given
rise to two approaches, namely, development from the top and
evelopment from the bottom. The second criterion gives rise to the
three approaches -–sectoral development, areas development and
target group development. Let us now review briefly the five
approaches.
i) Development from the top
The approach of development from the top envisages the planning and
execution, of development schemes by the central or apex bodies of
administration. In other words, the central organisations decide the
nature and direction of plan, formulate projects and impose them on
the people. For instance, the ministers and high officials sitting in the
capital, make the development plans for rural people without fully
realizing their problems.
Self-Instructional Material
187
 Social Development Implicit in this approach is the assumption that the people who need
NOTES development are incapable of understanding their needs, of devising
development schemes and of executing them on their own. Hence the
need for experts and outside agencies. in fact, this assumption is
baseless. The elite at the top have a vested interest in making such
assumptions. Their major interest is to hold control on resources and
mobilise them for their own benefits. The people accept the
development schemes, because they have neither sufficient resources
of their own, nor any control on the resources of the community. As a
result, most of the schemes imposed from the top fail to yield the
desired results.
This happens in most of the cases. A large part of the funds of
development schemes is eaten up in one way or the other, by the
experts and executive personnel deputed or employed by the sponsors
of the scheme, be it own government or any foreign agency. The major
drawback of this approach is that it fails to involve the beneficiaries, in
the development process. Instead, it generates a feeling of alienation
among them. For these reasons this approach has been characterised
by a higher degree of centralisation and bureaucratisation.
ii) Development from bottom
The exponents of second approach of development from the bottom,
on the contrary, believe the fairness of intentions and abilities of the
people who need development. They are given an opportunity to
articulate their problems as well as the ways to solve them. They are
trained and made capable, and are prepared for self-help. Utilisations
of resources for development schemes is decided, by the concerned
people themselves or by their representatives at the local level. Thus,
there is a greater decentralisation of plans and higher participation of
people. While the planners realise the importance of development
from the bottom, and claim that they adopt this approach, in practice,
they often adopt the approach of development from the top. The result
is ineffectiveness of the development schemes.
iii) Sectoral development
on the basis of ‗unit‘ of development, as mentioned earlier, three
approaches are envisaged, viz., sectoral development, area
development and target group development. Sectoral development
approach refers to formulation and execution of schemes for
development, of a particular sector of economy like agriculture or
industry. For instance, the Indian planners thought of developing
industries just after the Independence. Therefore they made plans to
develop technology or borrow it from other countries. Stress was laid
on technological education. Many institutes and colleges were
established, independently or in collaboration with other countries,
Self-Instructional Material
such as the United States of America, Russia and England. On the
188
other side, funds were made available for heavy industries such as Social Development
textile, steel and cement. Later on, when the country faced a food NOTES
problem in the early sixties, the planners thought of developing the
agricultural sector. As a result, many agricultural universities were set
up, which helped in evolving high yielding varieties of crops,
insecticides and pesticides, and farm implements, like threshers.
Extension services were made available to educate and persuade
farmers, to adopt new agricultural technology, and loans were
advanced to farmers quite liberally. You have seen the results of these
efforts in the form of the green revolution. The country is now almost
self-reliant in food.
iv) Area development
All regions are not equally developed. Some are more affluent than
others. The underdevelopment of regions is due to the lack of
infrastructural development-roads, railways, electrification etc. or due
to the problems of floods and drought. When schemes are devised for
the infrastructural development of an area or region, we call it area
development approach. The Command Area Development Scheme,
introduced in India in 1974 for the development of irrigation resources
in certain regions, illustrates this approach.
v) Target group development
Target group approach has its focus on a particular category of people,
such as small farmers, women and farm labourers. Schemes, such as
Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and reservation of seats
in schools and colleges, and in employment for scheduled castes,
exemplify the target group approach. There is another approach to
development, which has its focus on the overall development of the
people residing in a locality – village or town. This is known as a
community development approach. This approach lays stress on the
development of education, health facilities, economic and social
activities, and other infrastructural facilities.
Activity 2
Visit the local Block Development Officers (BDO‘s) office in your
area and interview one or two officers working there regarding the
development activities going on in this area. The nature and types of
programmes going on and its impact on the different communities in
your area. Write a report of one page on ―Social Development and the
role of Government‖. Compare your note with other students at your
Study Centre and discuss your findings with your Academic
Counselor.

Self-Instructional Material
189
 Social Development 8.3.3 INDICATORS
NOTES
To begin with, it would be useful to get familiar with the problems
associated with using per capita GNP as a measure of development.
The inability of this indicator to capture the problems arising from
inequality in distribution of income is not the only dra\vback. One of
the major criticisms arises from the fact that the figures for GNP do
not include non-marketed and or non-priced activities. This includes,
among other things, a significant part of the homemakers' work. This
has two implications: first and more obvious implication is that this
would result in the underestimation of the level of GNP. Over time,
however, the activities, which were formerly not markctcd. enter the
market. To give an example. consider nursing. Attending to an activity
of the household itself. But today. this service is a part. Not only does
one pay for the service in hospitals and nursing hon~cs. orlc can eve11
obtain the service for an invalid at home. Such changes imply that
comparison of the levels of per capita GNP over time could yield
misleading information on the underlying standards of living. This
problem also implies that using per capita GNP for inter-country
comparisons too could be misleading if the countries have differences
in the extent of marketed services and goods. As a result, there have
been numerous efforts both to remedy these defects in the use of per
capita GNP as a measure of the level of development, and to create
other composite indicators that could serve as compliments or
alternatives to this traditional measure. Basically, such indicators fall
into two groups: those that seek to measure development in terms of a
"normal" or "optimal" pattern of interaction among social, economic,
and politics Factors and those that measure development in terms of
quality of life. In all of these studies, the approach has been to assess
the performance of the country in some key sectors: sectors, which are
considered an integral part of any analysis of standards of living. Two
of the key sectors used are education and health.
One of the early studies on the first group of composite indicators was
carried out by the United Nations Research Institute on Social
Development (UNRISD) in 1970. The study was concerned with the
selection of the most appropriate indicators of development and an
analysis of the relationship between the'se indicators at different levels
of evelopment. The result was the construction of a composite social
develbpment index. Originally 73 indicators were examined. However,
only 16 -indicators (9 social indicators and 7 economic indicators)
were ultimately chosen
Table 1: List of Core Indicators of Socioeconomic Development
United Nations Research Institute on Social Development (UNRISD)
1. Expectations of Life at Birth
2. Percentage of Population in localities of 20,000 and over
Self-Instructional Material 3. Consumption of animal protein, per capita, per day
190
 4. Combined primary and secondary enrolment Social Development
5. Vocational enrolment ratio NOTES
6. Average number of persons per room
7. Newspaper circtdation per 1,000 population
8. Percentage of economically active population with electricity,
gas, water etc.
9. Agricultural production per male agricultural worker
10. Percentage of adult male labour in agriculture
11. Electricity consumption, kilowatt per capita
12. Steel consumption, kg per capita
13. Energy consumption, kg of coal equivalent per capita
14. Percentage GDP derived from manufacturing
15. . Foreign trade per capita, in 1960 U.S. dollars
16. Percentage of salaried and wage earners to total economically
active population
These indicators were selected on the basis of their high inter-
correlation to form a development index using weights derived from
the various degrees of correlation. The development index was found
to correlate more highly with individual social and economic
indicators than per capita GNP correlated with the same indicators.
Rankings of some countries under the development index differed
from per capita GNP rankings. It was also found that the development
index was more highly correlated I with per capita GNP for developed
countries than for the developing countries. The study concluded that
social development occurred at a more rapid pace than economic
development up to a level of $500 per capita income (1960 prices). I
another study that sought to measure development in terms of a pattern
of interaction 1 among social, economic, and political factor was
conducted by Irma Adelman and Cynthia Morris, who classified 74
countries according to 40 different variables relating to these aspects.
Factor analysis was used to examine the interdependence between
social and political variables and the level of economic development to
arrive at a1l measuring yardstick. The researchers found numerous
correlations between key variables and economic development.
This approach of factor analysis is based on an underlying normative
assumption that there is a unique path of development. The
performance of the developing countries is, therefore, sought to be
judged in terms of the path traced by the developed countries. There
seems to be no logical or historical justification for this assumption.
Furthermore, there is usually an emphasis on measuring inputs, such
as the number of doctors or hospital beds per 1000 population or
enrolment rates in primary schools to measure health and education,
when outputs, such as life expectancy and literacy, are the actual
objectives of development. This would not be a fallacy if the
underlying production function" transforms all 'inputs' into 'outputs'.
Self-Instructional Material
191
 Social Development But this is rarely the case. The figures of number, of doctors per 100
NOTES population, for instance, would normally be concealing the differences
in the levels between rural and urban areas, or between backward and
advanced pockets of the same country. In response to these criticisms,
several studies have sought to develop composite indicators that
measure development in terms of meeting the basic needs of the
majority of the population or in terms of quality of life.

Check your progress -2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
3. Write the meaning of Development from top?
4. What are the indicators prescribed UNRISD?

For each indicator, the performance for individual countries is rated on

a scale of 1 and 100, where 1 represents the worst performance by any
country and 100 the best performance. For life expectancy, the upper
limit of 100 was assigned to 77 years (achieved by Sweden in 1973)
and the lower limit of 1 was assigned to 28 years (the life expectancy
of Guinea-Bissau in 1950). Within these limits, each country's life
expectancy figure is ranked from 1 to 100. For example, a life
expectancy of 52, midway between the upper and lower limits of 77
and 28, would be assigned a rating of 50. Similarly for infant
mortality, the upper limit was set at 9 per 1,000 (achieved by Sweden
in 1973) and the lower limit at 229 per 1,000 (Gabon, 1950). Literacy
rates, measured as percentages from 1 to 100, provide their own direct
scale. Once a country's performance in life expectancy, infant
mortality, and literacy has been rated on the scale of 1 to 100, the
composite index for the country is calculated by averaging the three
ratings, giving equal weights to each. Although the study found that
countries with low per capitaGNP tended to have low *PQLIs apd
countries with high per capita GNP tended to have high PQLIs, the
correlation between GNP and PQLI were not substantially close. Some
countries n, with high per capita GNP had very low PQLIs - even
below the average of the poorest countries. Other countries with very
low per capita GNP had PQLIs that were higher than the average for
the upper-middle-income countries.

8.4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

The latest and most ambitious attempt to analyze the comparative
status of Socio-economic development in both developing and
developed nations systematically and comprehensively undertaken by
the Nations Development Program (IJNDP)in its annual series of
Human Development reports. The centre-piece of these reports, which
were initiated in 1990, is the construction and refinement of a Human
Development Index (HDI). Like the PQLI, the HDI attempts to rank
Self-Instructional Material all countries on a scale of 0 (the lowest human development) to 1
192
(highest human development) based on three goals or end products of Social Development
development.
NOTES

I) longevity is measured by life expectancy at birth;

2) Knowledge as measured by a weighted average of adult literacy
(two-thirds) and mean years of schooling (one-third weights); and
3) Income as measured by adjusted real per capita income (i.e.
adjusted for the differing purchasing power of each country's currency
and for the assumption 4 of rapidly diminishing marginal utility of
income). - Using these three measures of development and applying a
complex formula to 1990 data for 160 countries, the HDI ranks all
countries into three groups: low human development (0.00 to 0.49),
medium development (0.50 to 0.79) and high human development
(0.80 to 1.00). It should be noted that HDI measures relative, and not
absolute, levels of human development and that its focus is on the ends
of development (longevity, knowledge, material choice) rather than
the means (as with per capita GNP alone). Further, while PQLI
focuses only on the physical indicators of health and education, HDI
assigns a role to income as well, by including adjusted real per capita
income as one of the indicators. In this sense, HDI could be considered
a refinement of PQLI as well as of per capita GNP as indicators of
development.
Although the HDI gives us a broader perspective on progress towards
development, it should be pointed out that
1) its creation was in part motivated by a political strategy
designed to focus attention on health and education aspects of
development;
2) the three indicators used are good but not ideal (e.g. the U.N.
team wanted to nutrition status of children under age 5 as their
ideal health indicators, but the data were not available;
3) the national HDI may have the unfortunate effect of shifting
focus away from the substantial inequality within countries;
4) the alternative approach of looking at- GNP per capita rankings
and then supplementing this with other social indicators is still
a respectable one; and
5) one must always remember th'at the index is one of relative
rather than absolute development, so that if all countries
improve at the weighted rate, the poorest countries will not get
credit for their progress.
8.4.1 HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT OF INDIA
Turning to the capability side of the story, with the help from Amartya
Sen, "Human Development Report (1996)" has invented a multi-
dimensional measurement, calling . it an index of Capability Poverty
Index. The objective behind construction of this index is to focus on
Self-Instructional Material
193
 Social Development deprivation rather than on availability. Participation of the people in
NOTES the development process would be conditional on their capability.
Captured in terms of the health and educational status: basic here
being survival, and access to education and various public and private
resources. The index, it is believed, represents a truer picture of those
who are so deprived that they no longer have the chance or choice to
improve their lives. The report measures human poverty in terms of
deprivations:
a) deprivations of life (nearly one-third of the people in the least-
developed countries are not expected to survive to 40);
b) deprivatior7 (particularly of girls); and
c) deprivation qf'access to pz~blic and privcrte resotlrces,
including safe water.
Social Indicators of Development
The corresponding indicators are percentage of children under five
who are underweight, percentage of women over the age of 15 years
who are illiterate and percentage of births unattended by trained health
personnel. The CPM therefore focuses on people :s lack of capabilities
in the country rather than on the average capabilities in the country.
While this constitutes the basis for the construction of this new
indicator, it also alters the focus of recommendations for governmental
intervention in these sectors. The goals of governmental intervention
get suitable!, modified. In terms of per capita GNP (U.S. dollars) India
is still one of the poorest countries of the world. even many of the
poorer African countries have done better in their perfonllance. Table
2 clearly shows that countries like Sri Lanka. Pakistan. Iraq, Gambia,
Angola, Tanzania, Zimbabwe. even Sudan have a higher per capita
GNP than India. But in terms of PQLI, Pakistan. Gambia. Angola,
Sudan have a much lower ranking than India. So, it is vividly clear
tho/ Indian experience has been mixed in achieving growth as well as
improvements in the standards of living of‘ its population.
The figures for CPM for the less developed countries too are presented
in Table 3. It should be noted that the performance of the countries as
per the CPM does not correspond directly the ranking according to
HDI. Looking more closely at Table 3, it can be noticed that South
Korea and Kuwait have Ignore or less sale HDI (0.886 and 0.836
respectively) but the per capita GNP of South Korea is only about 40
percent of that of Kuwait. This indicates that higher level after capita
income is necessary hut not efficient condition. for better human
development. The case is similar for the pair of China and Iraq. Both
have more or less equal HD1 but China's per capita income is about 35
percent lower than 1raq.s. Further. whatever be the measure that is
being considered, the Table 3 also indicates that India has a long way
Self-Instructional Material

194
to go to achieve rapid growth and betterment of quality of life of its Social Development
population in comparison to other countries of tie globe.
NOTES

8.4.2 INDIAN EXPERIENCE OF DEVELOPMENT: BEFORE

AND AFTER INDEPENDENCE
There have been schemes and plans of development in almost all
dimensions of socio economic life, such as health, education,
population control, industry, transport, irrigation communication and
agriculture. It is neither possible to present here a list of all the
development schemes, nor are you expected to know about all of them.
Therefore our main objective is to present a synoptic view of the
development schemes in India, introduced after Independence with a
view to illustrate some of the approaches to development, discussed in
the preceding section.
After Independence, India did not follow either the First or the Second
World, it Social Development adopted neither the capitalist (North
American) nor the socialist model of development. It adopted a path of
development in-between the two models, which is known as ‗mixed
economy‘. On the one hand, India encouraged private business and
industry and gave opportunity to big business houses, such as the
Birla‘s and Tata‘s, and other medium and small size entrepreneurs. On
the other hand it has almost full control, at least in principle, over all
the entrepreneurial and business activities.
Socialist Path and Mixed Economy
The state also acts as an entrepreneur in setting up heavy industries,
such as the manufacture of steel and generation of electricity. The
banks have been nationalised. The state has full control over railways
and postal departments. These measures are llustrative of a socialist
path of development. On the other hand, certain industries are reserved
for private entrepreneurs – both small and large. In some industries,
such as textile and cement, both private and state enterprises have been
allowed to operate. In many other activities, too, such as education,
health and transport both private and state agencies work, either
independently or in collaboration. It is true that India adopted a
‗mixed‘ path of development, but scholars differ in their opinion about
the real functioning of the economy. One view is that India‘s path of
development is a capitalist one. Entry of state in heavy industries was,
in fact, meant to support private enterprise, in the sense that these
industries did not yield high profits and required a long gestation
period and high capital investment. Hence they did not attract private
entrepreneurs, and at the same time industrial development was not
possible without basic industries. Similarly, it has been argued that big
enterprises still dominate over the small ones, and the industrial sector
over the agricultural one. Also there is a concentration of economic
power in a few big business houses. The other view is that our bias has
Self-Instructional Material
195
 Social Development been increasing towards a socialist model, as is evident from the facts
NOTES such as nationalisation of banks. These are controversial arguments
which cannot be sorted out here. The fact remains that India pursues a
‗mixed‘ path of development.
Sectoral Development
The sectoral approach got further accentuated in the ‗green‘ and
‗white‘ revolutions, i.e., development of cash crops, and dairy
products, respectively. Such revolutions have not been widespread.
They are confined to a few states, such as Punjab, Haryana, Tamil
Nadu, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The important thing is that the
farmers, even in these states, do not get remunerative returns from
farm produce, because of an absence of check on the rise of prices of
farm inputs – machines, fertilisers, insecticides, pesticides etc., which
come from industrial sector, and also because of a strict control on the
prices of farm outputs, with the rationale that high rise in the prices of
food grains will adversely affect the masses. This indicates
discrimination against the farm sector. The majority of people depend
upon agriculture even today. Therefore non-remunerative farm return
keep the agricultural sections in poverty

Check your progress -3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
5. Write the Poverty measures in terms of Deprivations ?
6. Write the meaning of Sectoral Development ?

Community Development and Cooperative Movement

Besides this sectoral approach, a community development scheme was
initiated in 1952 for overall development of villages. The philosophy
of this programme was to educate, encourage and enable the people to
develop themselves, with their own efforts and resources. But the
programme was not very successful. It was realized that a greater
participation of the rural people in the preparation and execution of
development schemes was essential. In other words, it required a
greater administrative decentralisation. Hence Panchayati Raj System
was introduced in 1957. It envisaged a three-tier system, viz., Village
Panchayat (viilage level), Panchayat Samities (block level) and Zila
Parishad (district level). This system involved the people at local level,
in both planning and execution of development schemes. It was an
effort towards development from the bottom. But unfortunately the
unholy alliance between the rural elite (rich farmers), on the one hand,
and the administrative and political elites, on the other, at the block
and district levels made the system weak.

Self-Instructional Material

196
The same fate met the cooperative movement. India wanted Social Development
cooperative cultivation on the Chinese pattern, in which the land is NOTES
owned by the community (village) and the farmers have their shares.
But this did not work in India due to the country‘s political system
which did not permit abolition of private ownership of land, and
because the farmers did not surrender land to the community
voluntarily, in spite of the appeal of ―Bhoo Dan‖ (land donation)
movement of Vinoba Bhave. However, credit societies which granted
short term agricultural credit did become popular. But today many of
the credit societies have become defunct, or are not functioning
effectively. The member borrowers usually become defaulters. The
important point is that there is no spirit of cooperating among the local
people, because most of the affairs of these cooperatives are managed
by the government or semi-government officials, such as the Registrar,
Managing Director, Administrator etc. In many cases the nationalised
banks provide funds to cooperatives for advancing loans to their
members.
The rural credit cooperative are relatively effective in Maharashtra,
particularly among the sugarcane producers, who also have
cooperative sugar mills. In other fields, too, there are exceptionally
successful cases of cooperative, viz., Milk Producers Cooperative at
Anand in Gujarat. Anand Milk Producers‘ Union Limited (AMUL)
emerged out of the farmers‘ cooperative efforts at the village of Anand
which now has an important place among the rural cooperatives in
Asia.
Target Group Planning
There are many other rural development programmes for certain target
groups, under the 20-point economic programmes. Integrated Rural
Development Programme (IRDP) is one of them which combines both
the area development and target group approaches, since it includes
the Command Area Development Programme. Drought Prone Area
Programme and Small Farmers‘ Development Agency. As a target
group programme, its focus is on the poorest of the poor, and the unit
of assistance is the ‗family‘, and not a person. It proposes to cover
about 3,000 families in each block over a period of five years. Under
IRDP there are special programmes for employment, like Training
Rural Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM). Besides there are other
programmes such as the National Rural Employment Programme
(NREP). Evaluation reports of these programme, however,
Indicate the failure of the programme in reaching the real beneficiaries
and in raising their economic status. The blame is laid on the executive
personnel, and the rural elite who consume a large share of the
resources, meant for these programmes. In other fields also India has
made a good deal of progress. We have big hospital and primary
healthcare centres. Life expectancy has increased and many diseases Self-Instructional Material
197
 Social Development such as malaria, Polio and small pox have been controlled, and infant
NOTES mortality reduced. Now we have a large network of transport and
communication. . But the results of development have reached largely
the urban population. Rural people still do not have good schools,
proper electrification, clean water and hospitals. There are no good
teachers, or proper infrastructure in schools, such as furniture,
including blackboards in many schools, and no doctors, nurse or
medicines in many primary healthcare centres. Besides this we find
increased unemployment, a state of lawlessness, an increase in social
and communal tension, and a lack of social and national concern. This
shows that the country has achieved more of a quantitative than
qualitative development.
However, in terms of social political and economic awareness India
and its villages are doing fairly well. Being one of the largest
Democratic nations of the world, with an extremely vibrant political
and economic structure, some amount of social unrest is inevitable.
The policies of the Government are geared towards removing extreme
inequalities and bringing about social justice.
8.4.3 GOVERNMENT MEASURES AND FIVE YEAR PLANS
IN INDIA
The Development Schemes through Five-Year Plans The community
development programme was envisaged basically as a movement of
the people supported, wherever necessary, by the State. The village
community was expected to attain a state of self-sustained growth,
dispensing with the need of outside support. The growth potential of
the natural resources was expected to be fully developed by taking
advantage of modern science and technology through a network of
extension services which were established for the first time. A
beginning was made in this regard with the establishment of Gram
Panchayat as a part of the community development administration. It
was envisaged that as we proceeded further and gained experience,
these institutions would become stronger and assume increasingly
higher responsibilities and finally graduate to the status of autonomous
institutions, having under their purview all matters concerning the day-
to-day political, social and economic life of the people. Thus, the
Panchayat, the cooperative and the school, which represented three
facets of life, would become three great pillars of community life in
the village. The biggest achievement of the community development
programme was the enthusiasm for development engendered
throughout the country. People, for the first time, had the feel of an
administration which was committed to serve them through its
extension agency and a network of economic institutions, which was
in striking contrast to the tradition of the administration established to
rule them. The issues of poverty and rural development were too
complex to be resolved within the frame of community development.
Self-Instructional Material

198
The community development movement itself with its original Social Development
approach could not continue for long. Achievement of physical targets NOTES
assumed priority and became an obsession leading to the neglect of
sustained effort for engendering the spirit of self-reliance and
developing capabilities for self-sustained growth. During the second
Five-Year Plan and after there was emphasis on physical development
in all sectors of the economy. The new strategy of the Second Five-
Year Plan did help in building up a strong industrial sector, but the
rural economy failed to pick up. The stagnating food production and
growing deficits not only affected the rural people, but also created an
imbalance in the whole national economy. It was clear that with a
weak rural economy and growth even in the industrial sector could not
be sustained beyond a point, let alone the finer issues of equity and
justice. Consequently, there was again a shift in emphasis in favour of
rural economy. But the main concern during the phase was agricultural
production rather than the overall development of rural areas. The
severe droughts that occurred in the late 60‘s which affected the
national economy so adversely that the country was constrained to
take a ‗plan holiday‘ for three long years.
The Fourth Five-Year Plan marks the beginning of a new phase in our
development strategy. There were two facets of the poverty issue, viz.,
(i) regional area-specific problems and (ii) socio-economic growth
related problems. That some regions suffered from certain inherent
handicaps was clear from the recurring droughts and scarcity
conditions. In such regions the overall production capability is not
adequate to support the entire population at a reasonable level.
Therefore, special programmes were necessary for augmenting the
production potential itself. It was expected that once the overall
potential improved, the weaker sections would also get a reasonable
share in the fruits of that development. The first in the series of area-
specific programs initiated during the Fourth Plan related to the
drought prone areas. In Fifth Plan hill areas and tribal areas were also
taken as separate categories for special attention. In the case of the
tribal areas the issues were rather complex, having a mixture of both
area-specific and socio-economic elements. In the Sixth Five Year
Plan desert areas were added to this list. In the meantime, the National
Committee on the Development of Backward Areas examined the
entire question of development of backward areas. They identified six
basic categories of backward regions, viz., (i) Hill Areas, (ii) Tribal
Areas, (iii) Drought-prone Areas, (iv) Desert Areas, (v) Chronically
Flood-affected Areas and (vi) Areas affected by salinity.
Need for the Present Study
The present study is an attempt to understand micro realities at the
village and block level and successful or unsuccessful implementation
of development schemes. The study will help in understanding salient
features of various development schemes and will provide feedback to
Self-Instructional Material
199
 Social Development policy makers to enhance efficacy of these schemes at grass-roots
NOTES level. A major objective of the study is to find ground-realities and
have perceptions and understanding of development schemes which
can contribute in making them more efficacious, meaningful to the
people. However, the specific objectives of the study are :
1. To identify the factors which affect the implementation of
development schemes in concrete terms.
2. To see that benefits of which of the schemes are percolating
down to the target groups. And to understand the pattern of
success of these schemes whether distributed uniformly over
larger area in the region or not, and the reasons their of.
3. To assess the extent of impact of development schemes
concretely (as improvement in quantitative terms).
4. To understand what are actual bottlenecks from the first step to
the last step, which result in failure or ineffectiveness of the
respective schemes.
5. To suggest possible alterations that could be made to remove
the bottlenecks observed, so as to get the desired results of
percolating the benefits (of increased national income and
access to scarce resources) down to the masses through the
development schemes.

8.5 DEVELOPMENT SECTORS

8.5.1 Agriculture
Some of the major role of agriculture in economic development of a
country are as follows:
Agricultural sector plays a strategic role in the process of economic
development of a country. It has already made a significant
contribution to the economic prosperity of advanced countries and its
role in the economic development of less developed countries is of
vital importance. In other words, where per capita real income is low,
emphasis is being laid on agriculture and other primary industries.
―Increase in agricultural production and the rise in the per-capita
income of the rural community, together with the industrialisation and
urbanisation, lead to an increased demand in industrial production‖-
Dr. Bright Singh.
The history of England is clear evidence that Agricultural Revolution
preceded the Industrial Revolution there. In U.S.A. and Japan, also
agricultural development has helped to a greater extent in the process
of their industrialisation. Similarly, various under-developed countries
of the world engaged in the process of economic development have by
now learnt the limitations of putting over-emphasis on industrialisation
as a means to attain higher per capita real income. ―Thus industrial and
agricultural developments are not alternatives but are complementary
and are mutually supporting with respect to both inputs and outputs.‖
Self-Instructional Material

200
It is seen that increased agricultural output and productivity tend to Social Development
contribute substantially to an overall economic development of the NOTES
country, it will be rational and appropriate to place greater emphasis
on further development of the agricultural sector.
According to Prof. Kinderberger, Todaro, Lewis and Nurkse etc.,
agriculture makes its contribution to economic development in several
ways, viz.,:
(1) By providing food and raw material to non-agricultural sectors of
the economy,
(2) By creating demand for goods produced in non-agricultural
sectors, by the rural people on the strength of the purchasing power,
earned by them on selling the marketable surplus,
(3) By providing investable surplus in the form of savings and taxes to
be invested in non-agricultural sector,
(4) By earning valuable foreign exchange through the export of
agricultural products,
(5) Providing employment to a vast army of uneducated, backward
and unskilled labour. As a matter of fact, if the process of economic
development is to be initiated and made self-sustaining, it must begin
for agricultural sector.
Role of Agriculture in Economic Development:
The agriculture sector is the backbone of an economy which provides
the basic ingredients to mankind and now raw material for
industrialisation.
Therefore, the role of agriculture for the development of an economy
may be stated as below:
1. Contribution to National Income:
The lessons drawn from the economic history of many advanced
countries tell us that agricultural prosperity contributed considerably in
fostering economic advancement. It is correctly observed that, ―The
leading industrialized countries of today were once predominantly
agricultural while the developing economies still have the dominance
of agriculture and it largely contributes to the national income. In
India, still 28% of national income comes from this sector.
2. Source of Food Supply:
Agriculture is the basic source of food supply of all the countries of
the world—whether underdeveloped, developing or even developed.
Due to heavy pressure of population in underdeveloped and
developing countries and its rapid increase, the demand for food is
increasing at a fast rate. If agriculture fails to meet the rising demand
Self-Instructional Material
201
 Social Development of food products, it is found to affect adversely the growth rate of the
NOTES economy. Raising supply of food by agricultural sector has, therefore,
great importance for economic growth of a country.
3. Pre-Requisite for Raw Material:
Agricultural advancement is necessary for improving the supply of
raw materials for the agro-based industries especially in developing
countries. The shortage of agricultural goods has its impact upon on
industrial production and a consequent increase in the general price
level. It will impede the growth of the country‘s economy. The flour
mills, rice shellers, oil & dal mills, bread, meat, milk products sugar
factories, wineries, jute mills, textile mills and numerous other
industries are based on agricultural products.
4. Provision of Surplus:
The progress in agricultural sector provides surplus for increasing the
exports of agricultural products. In the earlier stages of development,
an increase in the exports earning is more desirable because of the
greater strains on the foreign exchange situation needed for the
financing of imports of basic and essential capital goods.
Johnson and Mellor are of the opinion, ―In view of the urgent need for
enlarged foreign exchange earnings and the lack of alternative
opportunities, substantial expansion of agricultural export production
is frequently a rational policy even though the world supply—demand
situation for a commodity is unfavorable.‖
5. Shift of Manpower:
Initially, agriculture absorbs a large quantity of labour force. In India
still about 62% labour is absorbed in this sector. Agricultural progress
permits the shift of manpower from agricultural to non-agricultural
sector. In the initial stages, the diversion of labour from agricultural to
non-agricultural sector is more important from the point of view of
economic development as it eases the burden of surplus labour force
over the limited land. Thus, the release of surplus manpower from the
agricultural sector is necessary for the progress of agricultural sector
and for expanding the non-agricultural sector.
6. Creation of Infrastructure:
The development of agriculture requires roads, market yards, storage,
transportation railways, postal services and many others for an
infrastructure creating demand for industrial products and the
development of commercial sector.
7. Relief from Shortage of Capital:

Self-Instructional Material

202
The development of agricultural sector has minimized the burden of Social Development
several developed countries who were facing the shortage of foreign NOTES
capital. If foreign capital is available with the ‗strings‘ attached to it, it
will create another significant problem. Agriculture sector requires less
capital for its development thus it minimizes growth problem of
foreign capital.
8. Helpful to Reduce Inequality:
In a country which is predominantly agricultural and overpopulated,
there is greater inequality of income between the rural and urban areas
of the country. To reduce this inequality of income, it is necessary to
accord higher priority to agriculture. The prosperity of agriculture
would raise the income of the majority of the rural population and thus
the disparity in income may be reduced to a certain extent.
9. Based on Democratic Notions:
If the agricultural sector does not grow at a faster rate, it may result in
the growing discontentment amongst the masses which is never
healthy for the smooth running of democratic governments. For
economic development, it is necessary to minimize political as well as
social tensions. In case the majority of the people have to be kindled
with the hopes of prosperity, this can be attained with the help of
agricultural progress. Thus development of agriculture sector is also
relevant on political and social grounds.
10. Create Effective Demand:
The development of agricultural sector would tend to increase the
purchasing power of agriculturists which will help the growth of the
non-agricultural sector of the country. It will provide a market for
increased production. In underdeveloped countries, it is well known
that the majority of people depend upon agriculture and it is they who
must be able to afford to consume the goods produced.
Therefore, it will be helpful in stimulating the growth of the non-
agricultural sector. Similarly improvement in the productivity of cash
crops may pave the way for the promotion of exchange economy
which may help the growth of non-agricultural sector. Purchase of
industrial products such as pesticides, farm machinery etc. also
provide boost to industrial dead out.
11. Helpful in Phasing out Economic Depression:
During depression, industrial production can be stopped or reduced but
agricultural production continues as it produces basic necessities of
life. Thus it continues to create effective demand even during adverse
conditions of the economy.
12. Source of Foreign Exchange for the Country: Self-Instructional Material
203
 Social Development Most of the developing countries of the world are exporters of primary
NOTES products. These products contribute 60 to 70 per cent of their total
export earning. Thus, the capacity to import capital goods and
machinery for industrial development depends crucially on the export
earning of the agriculture sector. If exports of agricultural goods fail to
increase at a sufficiently high rate, these countries are forced to incur
heavy deficit in the balance of payments resulting in a serious foreign
exchange problem.

However, primary goods face declining prices in international market

and the prospects of increasing export earnings through them are
limited. Due to this, large developing countries like India (having
potentialities of industrial development) are trying to diversify their
production structure and promote the exports of manufactured goods
even though this requires the adoption of protective measures in the
initial period of planning.
Contribution to Capital Formation:
Underdeveloped and developing countries need huge amount of
capital for its economic development. In the initial stages of economic
development, it is agriculture that constitutes a significant source of
capital formation.
Agriculture sector provides funds for capital formation in many ways
as:
(i) agricultural taxation,
(ii) export of agricultural products,
(iii) collection of agricultural products at low prices by the government
and selling it at higher prices. This method is adopted by Russia and
China,
(iv) labour in disguised unemployment, largely confined to agriculture,
is viewed as a source of investible surplus,
(v) transfer of labour and capital from farm to non-farm activities etc.
14. Employment Opportunities for Rural People:
Agriculture provides employment opportunities for rural people on a
large scale in underdeveloped and developing countries. It is an
important source of livelihood. Generally, landless workers and
marginal farmers are engaged in non-agricultural jobs like handicrafts,
furniture, textiles, leather, metal work, processing industries, and in
other service sectors. These rural units fulfill merely local demands. In
India about 70.6% of total labour force depends upon agriculture.
Self-Instructional Material

204
Improving Rural Welfare: Social Development

It is time that rural economy depends on agriculture and allied NOTES

occupations in an underdeveloped country. The rising agricultural

surplus caused by increasing agricultural production and productivity
tends to improve social welfare, particularly in rural areas. The living
standard of rural masses rises and they start consuming nutritious diet
including eggs, milk, ghee and fruits. They lead a comfortable life
having all modern amenities—a better house, motor-cycle, radio,
television and use of better clothes.
Extension of Market for Industrial Output:
As a result of agricultural progress, there will be extension of market
for industrial products. Increase in agricultural productivity leads to
increase in the income of rural population which is turn leads to more
demand for industrial products, thus development of industrial sector.
According to Dr. Bright Singh, ―Increase in agricultural production
and the rise in the per-capita income of the rural community, together
with the industrialization and urbanization, lead to an increased
demand in industrial production.‖ In this way, agricultural sector helps
promote economic growth by securing as a supplement to industrial
sector.
From the above cited explanation we conclude that agricultural
development is a must for the economic development of a country.
Even developed countries lay emphasis on agricultural development.
According to Muir, ―Agricultural progress is essential to provide food
for growing non-agricultural labour force, raw materials for industrial
production and saving and tax revenue to support development of the
rest of the economy, to earn foreign exchange and to provide a
growing market for domestic manufactures.‖
8.5.2 COOPERATION
Cooperatives are community-based, rooted in democracy, flexible, and
have participatory involvement, which makes them well suited for
economic development (Gertler, 2001). The process of developing
and sustaining a cooperative involves the processes of developing and
promoting community spirit, identity and social organisation as
cooperatives play an increasingly important role worldwide in poverty
reduction, facilitating job creation, economic growth and social
development (Gibson, 2005).
Cooperatives are viewed as important tools for improving the living
and working conditions of both women and men. Since the users of the
services they provide owned them, cooperatives make decisions that
balance the need for profitability with the welfare of their members
and the community, which they serve. As cooperatives foster
economies of scope and scale, they increase the bargaining power of Self-Instructional Material
205
 Social Development their members providing them, among others benefits, higher income
NOTES and social protection. Hence, cooperatives accord members
opportunity, protection and empowerment - essential elements in
uplifting them from degradation and poverty (Somavia, 2002).
As governments around the world cut services and withdraw from
regulating markets,cooperatives are being considered useful
mechanisms to manage risk for members and keep markets efficient
(Henehan, 1997). In a number of ways, cooperatives play important
role in global and national economic and social development. With
regard to economic and social development, cooperatives promote the
―fullest participation of all people‖ and facilitate a more equitable
distribution of the benefits of globalization. They contribute to
sustainable human development and have an important role to play in
combating social exclusion. Thus the promotion of cooperatives
should be considered as one of the pillars of national and international
economic and social development (Levin, 2002).
In addition to the direct benefits they provide to members,
cooperatives strengthen the communities in which they operate.
According to Somavia (2002) cooperatives are specifically seen as
significant tools for the creation of decent jobs and for the
mobilization of resources for income generation. Many cooperatives
provide jobs and pay local taxes because they operate in specific
geographical regions. According to Wikipedia (2006) and Levin
(2002) it is estimated that cooperatives employ more than 100 million
men and women worldwide. In Nigeria, cooperatives can provide
locally needed services, employment, circulate money locally and
contribute to a sense of community or social cohesion. They can
provide their employees with the opportunities to upgrade their skills
through workshops and courses and offer youth in their base
communities short and long-term employment positions. Students
could also be employed on casual-appointment basis during long
vacations. Through these, cooperatives will contribute to economic
development.
8.5.3 EDUCATION
Government policies and interventions for development in various
sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation. India
is developing country and has implemented growth strategies in
different sectors to enhance its economic status. At global scale. It has
continually shown high growth rate during the post-liberalisation
period through the execution of economic reforms in the beginning of
1990s. After independence, development of the country and the
community has always been the major objective of the government. It
has attained excellence in several key areas that range from
information technology and pharmaceuticals to automotive parts, and
is currently considered as one of the rapidly growing economies of the
Self-Instructional Material

206
world. Though India has gained success in some areas and there are Social Development
positive developments, it is still among the countries with some of the NOTES
lowest indicators of human development. The levels of malnutrition,
illiteracy and poverty are unsatisfactorily high in India. There are
numerous issues like the increase in income disparities and regional
discrepancies which disrupt the growth of nation. Though employment
opportunities have increased but the jobs created are not of high
quality. Although there has been an increase in several social services
like health, nutrition and education, the quality of most of these
services remains poor in most of the rural areas. Major issue is
irresistible majority of the population deprived of basic social
protection. Policy-makers are facing with inconsistency in the
persistence of deprivations and increasing uncertainties among
majority of public in growing wealth and prosperity for some groups.
The Constitution of India authorized the Government to establish a
democratic social order to secure the people and provide social,
economic and political justice. Therefore, the country embarked onto a
path of planned socio-economic development to attain the goals of
justice. However, the patterns of development have changed with time
based on experiences. During the early decades, development was
considered in terms of economic development and the importance was
on a growing public sector with huge investments in basic and heavy
industries. Major objectives of development were formulated and
prioritized by a centralized planning system. Actually, it was basically
a ‗government-led, bureaucracy managed and expert- guided‘
enterprise. Main aim of government for development was to attain
material affluence through economic, industrial and infrastructural
development. This basic approach to development continued to guide
policy makers for the subsequent few decades until new realizations
started dawning upon them.
Mahbubul Haq, the originator of the UN‘s HDR stated that
―The basic purpose of development is to enlarge people‘s choices‖. It
means creating and permitting environment for them to exercise
choices. Any development strategy, must aim at human development
by focusing on facilitating greater access to knowledge; Better
nutrition and health services; More secure livelihoods; Security against
crime and physical violence; Satisfying leisurely hours; Political and
cultural freedoms; and A sense of participation in community
activities. Likewise, Nobel laureate, Prof. Amartya Sen specified that
―development meant expansion of human freedoms, i.e. enhancement
of the capacity of individuals to fully lead the ‗kind of lives they
value‖.
It has been said by economists that if certain basic rights of the
individuals, such as right to elementary education, right to basic health
care, right to work are secured then there will be rapid growth of
country. In other words, development must move beyond economic
Self-Instructional Material
207
 Social Development growth. It must incorporate major social goals such as reducing
NOTES poverty, enhanced opportunities for better education and health and, in
general improved quality of life.
Experts have categorized some areas where government has to play a
vital role.
Creating a good policy environment for economic growth which is
investor-friendly and supportive of inclusive growth. Such a policy
environment will allow the creative spirit of farmers and entrepreneurs
to get full expression. Creating such a policy environment will include
Macro-economic stability, Efficient functioning of markets, Good
financial system for allocating financial resources, Good governance
with emphasis on transparency, accountability and rule of law.
Developing the critical infrastructure: It is required in both rural and
urban areas to support broad and inclusive growth.
Introducing special programmes: For livelihood support for the poor
and the vulnerable, aimed at directly improving their income earning
capabilities and at mainstreaming them in the overall growth process.
Social development: It must be ensured that every inhabitant must
have access to essential public services of acceptable quality in health,
education, skill-development, safe drinking water, sanitation.
Furthermore, in many of these areas of governmental interventions, the
state governments have the major implementing role.
The government of India has following strategy to improve the
effectiveness of its interventions.
One of the strategies has been to target specific services. For instance,
during the last decade, a number of programmes were initiated that
aimed at improving the social services, or services relating to health,
education and income opportunities for less advantaged in society,
such as MGNREGA, NRHM, SSA, ICDS. Additionally, focus on
social sector development will also address the objectives of human
development and inclusive justice.
Another related strategy is the identification of the concentration of
deficiencies among certain socio-economic groups, geographic
groupings, gender, and demographic classes. This recognition has led
to targeting of programmes to specific groups of populace.
Since convergence of interventions also improves the effectiveness of
each intervention, government has gone about a multi-pronged
intervention strategy. Such as offering access to health as well as
education together with laying down critical infrastructure addresses
multiple deficiencies concurrently.
Self-Instructional Material

208
Other strategy of government is to make better institutional Social Development
arrangements and espousal of innovative technology solutions for NOTES
effective and efficient service delivery. For instance, e-governance,
DBT, PPP mode, partnering with NGOs.
Establishing collaboration between public and private sector
providers of social services.
Numerous flagship schemes were launched towards development of
Social Sector including rural development. According to the 12th Plan
document, ―Economic growth, though important but cannot be an end
in itself. Higher standards of living as well as of development
opportunities for all, stemming from the greater resources generated
by economic growth, are the ultimate aim of development policy of
the government.‖ Therefore, Government‘s policy documents
recognise that ultimate objective of development is to guarantee
improvement in incomes and living standards for the citizens.
Government can accomplish this tough objective through quicker
economic growth accompanied by economic and social support
programmes.
Policies and Interventions for Development in various sectors:
In earlier period, there was more focus of government to accumulate
wealth. Economic growth itself was regarded as the function of capital
inputs in the decades of 80s. The main quest of economic policy was
to organize the resources required for achieving a desired rate of
growth. Acceleration in the rate of growth was supposed to take care
of both economic and social problems. Several contemporary
developmental economists such as Mahboob-ul-Haq, Amartya Sen,
Joseph Stiglitz and others stressed the failures of governance in terms
of human and social development in the developing world including
India. When evaluating the various sector development, the social
sector development involves the following constituents:
• Poverty alleviation and employment generation
• Access to education
• Access to improved health services and public health
• Development of critical rural infrastructure, e.g. rural roads,
housing, sanitation, availability of safe drinking water,
electricity etc.
• Urban infrastructure, housing, sanitation, sewage, waste
disposal, urban transport etc.
• Skill development for better livelihood means
• Enhanced social security
• Development of backward regions/ district in the country
Major Governmental Interventions in the Social Sector are as follows:

Self-Instructional Material
209
 Social Development Health: The immediate policy objective in health sector is to follow an
NOTES inclusive approach towards healthcare that included equitable and
comprehensive individual healthcare, improved sanitation, clean
drinking water, nutritious food, hygiene, good feeding practices, and
development of delivery systems responsive to the needs of the people.
8.5.4 HEALTH
NRHM/NHM: The NRHM launched during the 10th Plan , made an
important start in expanding health care facilities in rural areas. The
Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) was launched in October
2007 to offer health insurance cover to BPL families. This has been an
important step in supplementing the efforts being made to provide
quality healthcare to the poor and underprivileged population. It
provides cashless health insurance cover up to Rs 30,000 per annum
per family.
JSY (Janani Suraksha Yojana): This scheme was launched to promote
institutional deliveries, the scheme provides cash incentives to
expectant mothers who opt for institutional deliveries. JSY is being
proposed by way of modifying the existing National Maternity Benefit
Scheme (NMBS) under National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and
is fully funded by GOI. Under this scheme, all pregnant women
belonging to the below poverty line (BPL) households and of the age
of 19 years or above for up to two live births are benefited. Benefits
would be extended to a woman belonging to a BPL family even after a
third live birth if the mother of her own accord chooses to undergo
sterilisation immediately after the delivery.
National Vector-Borne Disease Control Programme
PMSSY (Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana): The
programme is visualised to correct the imbalances in availability of
affordable or reliable tertiary level health care in the country in general
and to enhance facilities for quality medical education in the under-
served states. This involves establishing of big health institutions like
AIIMS and upgrading certain existing institutions across various
states.
AYUSH (Aayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddhi,
Homoeopathy): Mainstreaming AYUSH into health services at all
levels was also an important strategy for the 11th Plan.
Currently, India‘s health care system include combination of public
and private sector providers of health services. Networks of health care
facilities at the primary, secondary and tertiary level, run mainly by
State Governments, provide free or very low cost medical services.
There is also an extensive private health care sector, covering the
entire range from individual doctors and their clinics, to general
Self-Instructional Material hospitals and super specialty hospitals.
210
8.6 LET US SUM UP Social Development

In this unit we have discussed the concepts and definitions of social NOTES
Development, with special reference to social Development of India the
Historical context of the Social Development both in Pre and Post
Independence period. This unit also focuses on the government measures
and Five Year Plan in India. Further this chapter deals with the Development
Sectors including agriculture and Cooperatives, Education and Heath aspects
very deeply with interest of the learner.
8.7 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write the concept of Social Development?
2. What is the development of Third World?
3. Write the meaning of Development from top?
4. What are the indicators prescribed UNRISD?
5. Write the Poverty measures in terms of Deprivations?
6. Write the meaning of Sectoral Development?
8.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Social development refers to the overall transformation of
individuals and society, which may enable every person to
achieve moral, social physical and material well-being.
Egalitarian development is a desired goal, but it remains only
an ‗ideal‘. In spite of development efforts, disparities in various
dimensions of development continue to widen between
societies, regions and groups. Variations are observed when we
compare various regions or countries. Natural
Factors,Technological Factors, Social Factors, Economic Factors,
Cultural Factors, Political Factors
2. Third World countries as there are variations among them,
dictated mainly by their historical and socio-cultural
circumstances. What they seem to share in common is that: a)
They are economically and technologically underdeveloped in
comparison to the countries of the so called developed world. b)
Social planning is a key element in their development process.
Their plans of development incorporate not only economic
concerns, especially removal of poverty, but also concerns
regarding nation building, national culture and social
transformation.
3. The approach of development from the top envisages the
planning and execution, of development schemes by the central
or apex bodies of administration. In other words, the central
organisations decide the nature and direction of plan, formulate
projects and impose them on the people. For instance, the
ministers and high officials sitting in the capital, make the
development plans for rural people without fully realizing their
problems.
4. List of Core Indicators of Socioeconomic Development United
Nations Research Institute on Social Development
(UNRISD);Expectations of Life at Birth ;Percentage of
Population in localities of 20,000 and overConsumption of Self-Instructional Material
211
 Social Development animal protein, per capita, per day; Combined primary and
NOTES secondary enrolment ;Vocational enrolment ratio
5. The report measures human poverty in terms of deprivations:
a)deprivations of life (nearly one-third of the people in the least-
developed countries are not expected to survive to 40);
b)deprivatior7 (particularly of girls); and c)deprivation of'access to
public and private resources, including safe water.
6. The sectoral approach got further accentuated in the ‗green‘ and
‗white‘ revolutions, i.e., development of cash crops, and dairy
products, respectively. Such revolutions have not been
widespread. They are confined to a few states, such as Punjab,
Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
8.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Berger, Peter, 1963. Invitation to Sociology. Danble Day & Co. :
New Delhi.
2. Bottomore, T.B.,1987. Sociology : A Guide to Problems and
Literature. Allen and Unwin : London.
3. Bearly, H.C. 1965. The Nature of Social Control. In Joseph S.
Roucek etal (ed.) Social Control. Affiliated East West Press : New
Delhi.
4. Coser, Lewis, 1956. The Function of Social Conflict. Free Press :
New York.
5. Dahrendorf, Ralph, 1959. Class and Class Conflict in Industrial
Society. Stanford University Press : Stanford.
6. Eshleman, J.R. and Cashion, B.C. 1983. Sociology : An Introduction.
Little Brown & Co. : Boston.
7. Horton, P.B. and Hunt, C.L., 1981. Sociology. McGraw Hill :
London.
8. IESS, 1972. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences. David I.
Sills (ed.) Macmillan : New York.
9. Johnson, H., 1986. Sociology : Systematic Introduction. Allied
Publishers :Bombay.
10. Maclver, R.M. and Page C.H.., 1985. Society. Macmillan : New
Delhi.
11. Merton, R., 1968. Social Theory and Social Structure. Amering
Publication Company : New Delhi.
12. Ogburn, W.V. and Nimcoff, M., 1979. A Handbook of Sociology.
Eurasia Publishing House : New Delhi.
13. Pareto, V., 1935. The Mind and Society. Jonathan Cape : London.
14. Quinney, Richard, 1970. The Social Reality of Crime. Little Brown :
Boston.
15. Sharma, S.L. (ed.), 1986. Development : Socio-Cultural Dimensions.
Rawat Publication : Jaipur.
16. Sorokin, P.A., 1937. Social and Cultural Dynamics. Free Press : New
York.
17. Spengler, Oswald, 1945. The Decline of West. (2 volumes). Knopf :
New York.
18. Sutherland, E.H., 1937. The Professional Thief. University of
Chicago Press : Chicago.
Self-Instructional Material

212
 Agriculture and Rural Development
UNIT IX AGRICULTURE AND RURAL
DEVELOPMENT NOTES
Structure
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Objectives
9.3. Agricultural and Rural Development
9.3.1 Share of Agriculture in the National Income
9.3.2 Agriculture as a Source of livelihood, employment, raw
materials, capital for development and man power
9.4. Agrarian and Land Reforms
9.5 Cooperatives and Rural Development
9.6 Education and Rural Development
9.7 Health and Rural Development
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 Unit- End- Exercises
9.10 Answer to check your Progress
9.11 Suggested Readings
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture plays an important and vital role in any economy
generally, for developing countries particularly and for a country like
India especially. Basically India is an agricultural country with 143
million hectares of land as net sown area, the highest percentage of
land under cultivation in the world. The country accounts for 17
percent of world‘s population and ranks at second largest populated
country. The country has about 69 percent of population living in its
rural areas and villages and the sole source of their livelihood is
agriculture and allied activities. Cereal and many ground crop
production in agriculture has beset many problems and many
scholars have admitted that agricultural diversification towards high
value commodities will strengthen agriculture growth in future and
will result high remunerative returns to farmers. Again the
horticulture and other allied activities have lot of backward and
forward linkages which resulted wide employment opportunities and
income flow, equally distributed to all in these rural areas hence
helps in the development of rural India
9.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you will be able to;
 Understand the importance of Agriculture and rural
Development
 Gain the knowledge about agrarian and Land Reforms
 understand the linkages between Cooperatives and Rural
Development
 Identify the scope of studying the Education and Rural
Development
 Gain the knowledge about the rural health and Rural
Development
Self-Instructional Material

213
Agriculture and Rural Development
9.3 AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
There are only two parameters at major, through T. Shultz in 1979
NOTES has shared in his Nobel Prize speech which rural poverty and
development can be ―Most of the people in the world are poor, so if
we addressed; one is development of agriculture sector, knew the
economics of being poor we would know as land (agriculture) is only
source of earning or much of the economics that really matters. Most
of living to vast majority of rural population. Second is the world's
poor people earn their living from human labour at their disposal
which can be tapped agriculture, so if we knew the economics of by
providing gainful, productive and remunerative agriculture we would
know much of the economics employment. Both these parameters
can be well of being poor‖ (Godoy & Dewbre, 2010). addressed via
agricultural diversification towards Agriculture plays an important
and vital role in any horticulture and high value crops which are high
economy. It is directly and indirectly linked with the remunerative
and labour intensive in nature hence economic activity, growth and
development of other will lead to agricultural development and
upliftment sectors in an economy and to overall welfare and of rural
masses. development of an economy. India is an agrarian The paper
will discuss the common role that economy and agriculture sector has
still lot of agriculture sector is playing and can play for rural bearings
on the overall growth and development of development and will
present a case show of various the country generally and rural
development linkages through which agricultural growth can be
particularly. Although, the economic contribution of transformed to
rural development and overall agriculture to India's GDP is steadily
declining with economic growth. Almost all the studies related to the
country's broad-based economic growth, still agriculture and
development enshrines that agriculture is demographically the
broadest agriculture sector has prime hand in the growth and
economic sector and plays a significant role in the development
transformation of any country. The overall socio-economic fabric of
India. Agriculture, paper will like to describe how agriculture sector
will with its allied sectors, is unquestionably the largest lead to rural
growth and development but for that it livelihood provider in India,
more so in the vast rural is mandatory that agriculture sector itself
must grow areas. 69% of India‘s population lives in rural areas, and
develop at a steady and consistent reasonable and three-fourths of the
people making up these growth. rural populations depend on
agriculture and allied After mid 1990s the agriculture sector in India
starts activities for their livelihoods. to decelerate in terms of
productivity of various The role of agriculture in economic
development has cereals and overall agricultural growth. This was
due been viewed as passive and supportive. Looking to stagnancy of
demand for staples and somewhat the historical experience of
Self-Instructional Material western countries, fatigue of Green Revolution. Further the demand
214
 Agriculture and Rural Development
economic development was seen as mechanism pattern was shifting
towards high value requiring a rapid structural transformation of the
commodities like fruits vegetables, milk, meat etc. economy from
NOTES
one predominantly focused on (Birthal et al. 2007). So to sustain the
growth rate of agriculture activities to a more complex modern
agriculture in the future it was emphasized that industrial and service
sector. As a result, the primary agriculture sector should be
diversified towards the role of agriculture was to provide sufficient
low high value commodities for its role in high income priced food
and man power to the expanding generation and employment
creation (Joshi et al. industrial economy, which was thought to be a
2004; Barghouti et al. 2005). The fruit and vegetable - dynamic and
leading sector in the overall strategy of economic development.
Agriculture sector plays an Agricultural Diversification towards High
Value indispensable part in any strategy of economic Commodities
and Rural Development progress, especially for low income
developing The gap between the number of new rural workers
countries.
9.3.1 SHARE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE NATIONAL INCOME

There are three goals of agricultural development. These are: (a)

achieving high growth by raising productivity; (b) inclusiveness by
focusing on lagging regions, small farmers and women; and (c)
sustainability of agriculture. In order to achieve these goals, we have
to provide medium term strategy and action plan. This sections
examines policies and reforms for attaining these goals. The 10
conclusions of the paper are given below.
(1) Need for change in narrative in the new context: Basically, we
have to change the narrative on agriculture towards more diversified
high value production, better remunerative prices and farm incomes,
marketing and trade reforms, high productivity with less inputs, cost
effective, less chemical and pesticide based, inclusive in terms of
women and youth farmers, small farmers and rain fed areas, nutrition
sensitive, environmental friendly and sustainable agriculture. The
five ‗I‘s in agriculture: Incentives, Investment, infrastructure,
Institutions, Information‘ have to be modified to achieve the goals.
(2) Global trends and Macro policies are equally important for Indian
agriculture: There are many challenges at global level such as climate
change, geo-political and urbanization. These factors and anti-
globalisation is the changing context for food systems and
agriculture. Agricultural economists generally restrict to the policies
relating to farm sector. However, there is a need to look at macro
policies and non-agriculture.

Self-Instructional Material

215
Agriculture and Rural Development
(3) We have to Walk on two legs (agri. and non-agri.) in the
changing context: Rural areas are changing. We have to invest in
agriculture for raising the livelihoods but simultaneously shift
NOTES
population from agriculture to non-agriculture over time. Thus, both
agriculture and non-agricultre are important for raising income of
farm households. Two agricultures: There are two types of
agricultures in India – one is cereal based and the other one is non-
cereal based78. Government policies have been biased towards
cereals particularly rice and wheat. There is a need to shift from rice,
wheat-centric policies to millets based and non-cereal focused
policies to promote diversification of cropping patterns.
(4) Doubling farm income (DFI): Estimates show that we need more
than 10% per annum growth in income to achieve DFI in 2022.
Government seems to be banking on agriculture (crop+livestock)
sector for DFI. But, as shown above. Government should also
promote much more opportunities in non-farm sector in rural areas.
Also, one has to take into account heterogeneity among different
classes of farmers. Similarly, environmental aspects of doubling farm
incomes have to be assessed.
(5) Remunerative price is the most important factor for farmers: Even
after 70 years of independence, we are not able to provide
remunerative prices for farmers. Farmers have been getting low
prices in normal, drought and good years because of distortions in
price and marketing policies. Many reforms in marketing are needed.
(6) Beyond harvest and Freedom for farmers: Agriculture GDP+
indicates that we have to go beyond farming and develop value chain
comprising farming, wholesaling, warehousing, logistics, processing,
and retailing. Farmers want freedom from restrictions on market and
exports. Private sector participation can be improved if some of the
fears like the Essential Commodity Act, stock limit and export bans
are removed. Banning exports hurts the farmers most. There have
been new generation start-ups coming up in agriculture.
(7) Do not forget basics like water and technology: Basics like seeds,
fertilizers, credit, land and water management and technology are
important and they should not be forgotten. Similarly, investment in
infrastructure and R&D are needed. But, we discussed the issues and
policies in water and technology as both are crucial for agricultural
development. Basically it is not investment alone but efficiency in
water management in both canal and ground water is important.
Some countries invested more in technology, extension, education,
transport, energy and institutions. India is trailing behind in all these
areas.
(8) Inclusiveness for broad based growth and equity: Inequalities in
Self-Instructional Material agriculture are high.There is a need to focus on small and marginal
216
 Agriculture and Rural Development
farmers, women, youth, rainfed areas, Eastern and other lagging
regions, social groups like SC and ST farmers. We discussed policy
issues in each of these elements of inclusiveness in agriculture. The
NOTES
role of women in agriculture has been increasing. Women collectives
and group farming can be encouraged to benefit female farmers. An
emerging area of research relates to linkages between agriculture and
nutrition. There can be three entry points namely, importance of
agriculture for inclusive growth, agriculture for diversification of
diets and role of women in agriculture for strengthening agriculture-
nutrition linkages. Farmer households spend considerable amount of
money on health and education. In fact, health expenditures on
catastrophic illness lead to indebtedness in agricultural households.
Otherwise, governments have to provide farmers income similar to
universal basic income.
(9) Measures to take care of impacts of climate change and
improving resilience in agriculture and sustainability: One can
achieve higher agricultural growth but it has to be sustainable in
terms of using lower resources and less input growth. Resilience in
agriculture has to be improved. Climate smart agriculture is being
discussed throughout the world to reduce GHG emissions and
increase resilience. FAO says that there is a need for raising technical
capacity of farmers particularly small holders to enable them adopt
climate-smart agricultural practices. Conservation agriculture and
zero budget natural farming are some of the methods that have to be
used as part of adaptation and mitigation measures for climate
change.
(10) Institutions and Governance: Strengthening institutions and
governance is crucial for achieving growth, equality and
sustainability of agriculture. Institutions throughout the agricultural
value chains and food systems are important for better governance
and effective implementation. They are also important for reducing
inequality. There are several examples of best practices in institutions
relating to alternative markets, contract farming, self help groups,
farmer federations, farmer producer companies, women collectives
like Kudumbashree programme in Kerala, self help groups of
women, institutions relating to canal and ground water irrigation and
natural resource management. We have to scale up some of these
successful institutions for improving agricultural development. To
conclude, agriculture is a state subject according to the Indian
constitution. States have to play active role along with central
government in achieving the three goals of growth, inclusiness and
sustainability. Achieving high growth is important. But, growth
without inclusiveness and sustainability will not be useful.
Agriculture transformation has to be viewed more holistically in
terms of rural transformation and urban linkages. There is a need to
Self-Instructional Material

217
Agriculture and Rural Development
give big push for Indian agriculture for transformation and achieving
farmers‘ welfare.
NOTES

9.3.2 AGRICULTURE AS A SOURCE OF LIVELIHOOD,

EMPLOYMENT, RAW MATERIALS, CAPITAL FOR
DEVELOPMENT AND MAN POWER
The following points highlight the three types of contribution that
agriculture has made towards economic development. The types are:
1. Factor Contribution 2. Product Contribution 3. Market
Contribution.
1. Factor Contribution:
Development of agriculture releases some resources for being
transferred to the other sectors. As these resources are productive in
nature, we call the transfer of these resources to the non-agricultural
sectors as ‗factor contribution‘ of agriculture.
Factor contribution can be in the following forms:
The non-agricultural sectors require funds for acquiring material
capital. In the initial stages of their development, these funds will be
generated in the agricultural sector and then transferred to the other
sectors. In a closed economy in the initial stages, it is the agricultural
sector which commands most of the income, capital and also labour.
Even when an underdeveloped economy is an open economy, the
outside source of capital like foreign aid or foreign commercial
investment can make only a limited contribution to the economic
development. Further, foreign political influence is likely to
accompany such capital and this may not be acceptable to the present
day underdeveloped economies.
The transfer of capital to non-agricultural sectors can be voluntary or
compulsory. It is voluntary when the agriculturists themselves invest
their savings in the industrial projects. The agriculturist industrialist
of England and the land owners of Japan present an important
example of this type of voluntary flow of capital to the non-
agricultural sectors.
The compulsory from of flow of funds is generally brought about by
the government of the day through taxation on the agricultural sector
its net proceeds being spent for the development of the non-
agricultural sectors.
Land tax in Japan is often quoted as an example of this compulsory
transfer of funds from the agricultural sector to other sectors. It
formed 80% of the total tax revenue of the Government in the last
two decades of the 19th century.
Self-Instructional Material

218
 Agriculture and Rural Development
Forced extraction of surplus from agriculture by taxation,
confiscation, imposition of levies or arbitrarily kept low prices of
agricultural products, can be the other measures taken by the
NOTES
government to transfer funds from the agricultural sector to the non-
agricultural sectors.
However, compulsion is not always necessary for the transfer of
funds. Agricultural development itself may bring down the price of
agricultural produce, reduce the cost of production in manufacturing
and other sectors, increase their profits and thus indirectly help in the
generation of capital in these sectors.
There is yet another way through which agriculture can provide
capital to the non-agricultural sectors. Nurkse has referred to this
process. According to him in densely populated agricultural
economies, there already exists zero value labour i.e. labour whose
contribution at the margin to agriculture is zero.
This is what we call disguisedly unemployed labour. This labour can
be taken away from agriculture and utilized for producing some
overhead capital, though of crude nature e.g., embankment, canals
etc., some of which can help in the development of non-agricultural
sectors. We may, however, note that this source of capital is available
only in over populated economies.
(b) Provision of Labour:
Another factor contribution of agriculture towards economic
development is through the release of labour by the agricultural
sector for the non-agricultural sectors.
There are three potential sources of labour supply for the developing
non-agricultural sectors, namely:
(i) Natural population growth,
(ii) Immigration and
(iii) Farm population.
The supply of labour from first two sources can never be smooth and
adequate. Supply through population growth will be very slow in
coming forth. It may also be noted in the interest of the nation to
encourage population growth. Immigration has its own problems.
Differences in religion, language, customs, lack of knowledge etc.,
act as strong barriers for immigration. Under these circumstances, for
a rapid development of the non-agricultural sectors, farm population
remains the only dependable source of labour supply.

Self-Instructional Material

219
Agriculture and Rural Development
However, it may be noted that movement of farm labour to the non-
agricultural sectors is not always easy. Transfer of labour from the
agricultural sector to the developing non-agricultural sectors may not
NOTES
create a serious problem in over-populated countries.
There is already a surplus labour force in the agricultural sector of
these countries and it can be easily drawn into the industrial sector
without fall in agricultural output. The problem is more serious in
sparsely populated countries.
There is no disguised unemployment there and any shifting of labour
agriculture to non-agricultural sectors will bring down the
agricultural production. However, a country moving on the
development path cannot afford such a fall in agricultural production
because of various reasons.
Firstly, it needs more raw materials from the agricultural sector and
secondly, the labour shifting from agriculture to non-agricultural
sectors will increase its consumption of food grains because of
increase in its income.
So, in sparsely populated countries, it is desirable that the transfer of
labour from the agricultural sector for the development of the non-
agricultural sectors is also preceded or accompanied by an increase in
the productivity in the agricultural sector itself.
This does not mean that agricultural development is not necessary for
the overall economic development of an over-populated country.
More agricultural output is needed for the developing industrial and
other non-agricultural sectors even in over populated countries. Only
difference is that labour may be more easily available for the
developing non-agricultural section in over-populated countries.
Kuznet has expressed the importance of transfer of labour from the
agricultural sector to non-agricultural sectors in another way. He
feels that this transfer also, infect, implies a transfer of capital
invested in the agricultural labour. He says ―…we could still argue
that internal migration of labour from agriculture represents a large
transfer of valuable resources to the non- agricultural sectors and a
large contribution to the country‘s growth.‖
May be, what he says is of somewhat doubtful validity in the initial
stages, but it is perfectly correct in the later stages of economic
development when agriculture has started using improved
technology. The labour transferred to the non-agricultural sectors is
now well trained and more educated.
2. Product Contribution:

Self-Instructional Material

220
 Agriculture and Rural Development
The product contribution of agriculture towards an overall economic
development takes two forms.
These are described below: NOTES

(a) Provision of Wage Goods:

When the non-agricultural sectors are to be developed, people will
have to shift from agriculture to various occupations in these sectors.
But they will require food for their sustenance even after shifting to
new sectors. In fact their demand for food grains is likely to increase
as a result of increase in their income after their transfer to the non-
agricultural sectors.
The demand for food grains can also increase because of another
reason. The farming population still left in agriculture might find its
income increased due to higher prices of agricultural products as a
result of increased demand. This may spur it to increase its own
consumption also.
As the non-agricultural sectors develop, their dependence on
agriculture for other contributions like that of capital, labour, raw
material etc., is reduced. However, dependence of the non-
agricultural sectors on agriculture for provision of wage goods will
be as strong as ever unless, of course, new scientific innovations also
result in the production of perfect synthetic substitutes for food
grains.
(b) Provision of Industrial Raw Materials:
The other product contribution made by agriculture for the
development of the non-agricultural sectors of the economy,
especially the secondary sector, is in the form of provision of raw
materials.
A study of the history of industrial development of advanced nations
will show that the agro-based industries were the first to develop in
such countries. There are many reasons for priority being given to
agro- based industries in the initial stages of economic development.
Firstly, it is easier to produce raw materials in the agricultural sector.
Minerals which form, the other source of industrial raw materials
involve extensive use of capital which may be available in the
beginning. Secondly, agro-based industries, generally, have flexible
techniques of production.
These techniques range from the extremely labour intensive ones to
the highly capital intensive ones. This is the case, for example, with
agro-based industries like textiles, sugar, grain milling, hide
processing etc. In case of such industries, it is open for a firm to
Self-Instructional Material

221
Agriculture and Rural Development
produce the commodities with a technique, as determined by the
availability of capital etc.
NOTES In the initial stages, for example, labour intensive techniques can be
used to produce the commodities. Later on, where more funds are
available, the producers can switch on to relatively more capital
intensive techniques for production. In case of mineral based
industries, the option to select a technique is very much limited. All
the techniques are generally capital intensive.
There is yet another factor which favours the development of agro-
based industries in the beginning. It is said that it is easy to shift a
labourers from a farm to a factory if the factory uses a farm product
as a raw material.
The subject (psychological) cost of transfer of labour from
agriculture to industry in such a case is very low. It is felt if a
labourer shifts from the agricultural sector (the major source of
labour in the initial stages of industrial development), he will feel
more at home while working in an agro-based industry than in a
mineral-based industry.
The preceding discussion clearly implies that more of industrial raw
materials have to be produced in the agricultural sector in the initial
stages of development. This could be achieved either by bringing
additional area under cultivation or diverting land from food crops to
industrial raw materials or by increasing the productivity of various
crops.
Division of land from food crops to raw material will not be desirable
because as industrialisation proceeds, more of food grains may be
required due to increasing income of the people. The other two
methods can be or rather have to be adopted for increasing
agricultural production if agro-based industries are to be set up in the
economy.
3. Market Contribution:
The contribution focuses attention on the flow of goods generated by
the development of the agricultural sector-flow which helps the
development of the other sectors.
This contribution can take various forms:
(a) Expanded Market for the Products of Other Sectors:
So far, we have been emphasizing that agricultural development is
necessary for providing inputs necessary for the development of
other sectors of an economy. However, any sector, for its
development, does not only require the necessary inputs for
Self-Instructional Material production but also a wide market for its growing production.
222
 Agriculture and Rural Development
Agriculture provides an expanding market for the products of the
other sectors in the initial stages of development of the economy.
Agricultural sector, while helping the development of the other
NOTES
sectors, also finds the income of its people increasing. This increased
income, in turn, leads to an additional demand for the products of
other sectors, not only for consumption purposes but also for
production.
It may be noted here that, no doubt, the other sectors can sell their
products in foreign markets, rather than depend on the domestic
market provided by the agriculture sector. However, in practice, it is
not wise to rely upon a foreign market in the initial stages of
development.
Lack of sufficient knowledge about the foreign countries, excessive
competition, unfavourable commercial policies of the foreign
countries etc., will make the entry as operation of the domestic firms
in foreign markets rather risky and unprofitable.
(b) Flow of Agricultural Products to Other Sectors of the Economy:
Development of agriculture makes another type of market
contribution also to the economy. As agriculture develops and its
production becomes more market oriented, many other institutions,
generally non-agricultural in character, come into existence. These
institutions include those providing processing, packing and
distribution services.
David Metcaff focuses our attention on these two market
contributions,‘In a more effective way. According to him,
Agricultural development through providing market for agricultural
input & consumers‘ good, promotes the development of industrial
sector.
Developments industrial sector, in turn helps in the development of
the agricultural sector through the spread of modern technology in
agriculture and providing an expanded market for agricultural
products. This is a virtuous circle which in the process gives rise to
institutions facilitating two way exchange of commodities.
(c) Development of International Trade:
Surplus products from the agricultural sector, as a result of its
development, can move to the international market. This, in turn, can
result in the flow of necessary capital as well as consumer goods
from outside.
The growth process of the economy as a whole can thus gain
momentum. So, in a way, we can say that in the case of development
Self-Instructional Material

223
Agriculture and Rural Development
of international trade, agriculture combines market contribution with
factor contribution for the development of non-agricultural sectors
NOTES
Check your progress - 1
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. Write the three goals for Agriculture Development?

2. List the three types of agriculture and economic development?

9.4. AGRARIAN AND LAND REFORMS

Policies and programmes which are to be followed in different sectors of

the economy during the second five year plan represent a balanced and
combined approach to the central problems of economic development and
social justice. Among these, measures of land reform have a place of
special significance, both because they provide the social, economic and
institutional framework for agricultural development and because of the
influence they exert on the life of the vast majority of the population.
Indeed, their impact extends much beyond the rural economy. The
principles of change and reorganisation on which the scheme of land
reform is based are paTt of a wider social and economic outlook which
must needs apply in. some degree to every part of the economy. They have
therefore to be viewed in a somewhat larger context than that of effecting
adjustments between the interests of different sections of the population
which depend on land.
2. In setting out the land policy for the period of the First five year plan,
while a proper emphasis was placed on the social aspect, it was pointed out
that the increase of agricultural production represented the highest priority
in planning over the next few years, and that the agricultural economy had
to be diversified and brought to much higher levels of efficiency. These
considerations have a special importance during the period of the second
five year plan. In the first place, the ambitious programme of industrial
development which is now being undertaken, implies large and steadily
increasing claims both on raw materials and on food production. Increase
in the supply of raw materials was the principal factor behind the growth of
industrial production achieved during the first plan. India's ability to
produce a range of agricultural commodities for which there is world-wide
demand, such as tea, jute, cotton, oilseeds. and others is an element in her
industrial potential which must be developed to the greatest possible
extent. In recentyears imports of food have been on a much smaller scale
than before, but food production has yet to reach levels at which nutrition
can be improved and domestic requirements are fully assured under all
circumstances, and, at the same time. a margin remains to pay for imports
of machinery and of industrial raw materials needed for rapid
industrialisation. Moreover, with increase in population, growth of towns,
cities and industrial centres, and improvement in incomes and standards of
Self-Instructional Material living, the internal demand for food is already increasing in volume and
224
becoming more diverse. Equally, as explained in earlier chapters, the large Agriculture and Rural Development

outlay to be undertaken in the second five year plan can only be sustained
if internal production, especially of food and cloth, is rapidly stepped up.
NOTES
Thus, the need to enhance the capacity of Indian agriculture to provide the
surpluses needed to support industrial development and the wider
economic considerations on which the fulfilment of the plan depends both
lead to the same conclusion, namely, that a substantial increase in
agricultural production, diversification of the agricultural economy, and the
building up of an efficient and progressive system of agricultural
production are among the most urgent tasks to be accomplished during the
second five year plan.
3. Against the background of these considerations. the objectives of land
reform are twofold: firstly, to remove such impediments upon agricultural
production as arise from the character of the agrarian structure; and
secondly, to create conditions for evolving, as speedily as may be possible,
an agrarian economy with high levels of efficiency and productivity. These
aspects are interrelated, some measures of land reform bearing more
directly on the first aim, others to a greater extent on the second. Thus, the
abolition of intermediaries and the protection given to tenants arc intended
to give to the tiller of the soil his rightful place in the agrarian system and,
by reducing or eliminating burdens he has borne in the past. to provide him
with fuller incentives for increasing agricultural production. Similarly, to
bring tenants into direct relation with the State and to put an end to the
tenant-landlord nexus are essential steps in the establishment of a stable
rural economy. In the conditions of India large disparities in the
distribution of wealth and income are inconsistent with economic progress
in any sector. This consideration applies with even greater force to land.
The area of land available for cultivation is necessarily limited. In the past
rights in land were the principal factor which determined both social status
and economic opportunity for different groups in the rural population. For
building up a progressive rural economy, it is essential that disparities in
the ownership of land should be greatly reduced. In view of the existing
pattern of distribution and size of agricultural holdings, redistribution of
land in excess of a ceiling may yield relatively limited results. Neverthless,
it is important that some effective steps should be taken in this direction
during the second five year plan so as to affored opportunities to landless
sections of the rural population to gain in social status and to feel a sense of
opportunity equally with other sections of the community. Reduction of
disparities in the ownership of land is also essential for developing a co-
operative rural economy, for, co-operation thrives best in homogeneous
groups in which there are no large inequalities. Thus, programmes for
abolishing intermediary tenures, giving security to tenants and bringing
tenants into direct relationship with the State with a view to conferring
ownership upon them are steps which lead to the establishment of an
agrarian economy based predominantly on peasant ownership.
4. Small and uneconomic agricultural holdings have long been the most
difficult problem in the development of the rural economy. There is
general agreement that it is through reorganisation along cooperative lines
that Indian agriculture can become efficient and productive. During the
second five year plan it is proposed to take a series of measures which will Self-Instructional Material

225
Agriculture and Rural Development lay the foundations for co-operative reorganisation of the rural economy.
Once the vast majority of cultivators become owners or virtual owners of
land in their own right, programmes for the consolidation of holdings
NOTES
asssume a great deal of urgency both in themselves and as a stage in the
development of cooperation. In carrying out these programmes sufficient
experience has been gained in several parts of the country for marked
progress to be achieved in this field during the second five year plan.
Closely associated with consolidation is the adoption of improved land
management practices. It is one of the primary aims of the national
extension and community projects to help the people of each village and
each area to organise themselves for greater production, to bring them
technical guidance and other assistance and in particular, to assist weaker
and under-privileged sections of the rural community in raising their
standards. Conditions have to be created in which an increasing number of
activities in rural economic life, both non-agricultural and agricultural, are
undertaken through co-operative organisations. As the village is the most
convenient unit for rural community development, various measures to be
undertaken for developing co-operatives and panchayats and for
strengthening rural economic life through the organisation of national
extension services, credit, marketing and processing and village and small
industries are intended to lead to the development in each area, according
to its conditions, of suitable systems of cooperative village management.
Co-operation in one field stimulates and supports co-operation in others.
Co-operative development is a vast and growing field of constructive
endeavour and, for cooperation to evoke a degree of sustained enthusiasm
and effort, it is important that it should be organised with the utmost
attention to efficiency in management.
5. As different phases of the land reform programme are implemented, care
has to be taken to ensure that the positive aspects are especially stressed,
and measures of land reform worked outwith a view to increased
agricultural production. From this aspect the national extension and
community development programmes, and programmes for agricultural
development, rural credit and marketing and others are as vital to the
success of land reform as land reform is vital to their success. Naturally,
while the direction may be clear, the pace and the precise content of land
reform programmes have to be related closely to the conditions prevailing
in each State. Land reform imposes upon the machinery of the Government
large administrative responsibilities and, as pointed out later in this
chapter, tasks of great complexity, to which many State administrations
may not yet feel equal, have to be undertaken in the course of a few years.
Almost all of them demand a wide measure of public support and
understanding and much mutual adjustment within the community. There
are also many intangible factors which each State has necessarily to take
into account These considerations have been kept in view during the first
five year plan in the work of the Central Committee for Land Reforms,
which includes members of the Planning Commission and the principal
Central Ministers concerned, and reviews from time to time the progress of
land reform in different parts of the country. They have also been kept in
view by the Panel on Land Reform, which has assisted the Planning
Commission during the past year in the study of various problems
Self-Instructional Material
connected with tenancy reform, size of holdings, reorganisation of
226
agriculture and Bhoodan. The proposals for land reform and cooperative Agriculture and Rural Development

development set out in the plan are therefore in the nature of a broad
common approach which has to be adapted and pursued in each State as
NOTES
part of the national plan with due regard to local conditions and in response
to local needs.

Green Revolution
At the time of its independence, India was an agricultural dependent
economy. And yet the state of Indian agricultural sector was dismal. From
the lack of investment, a dearth of technology, low yield per acre and many
such problems plagued the industry. And so the Indian government took
steps to bring about the Green Revolution using HYV seeds. Let us see
how.
The Green Revolution started in 1965 with the first introduction of High
Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds in Indian agriculture. This was coupled with
better and efficient irrigation and the correct use of fertilizers to boost the
crop. The end result of the Green Revolution was to make India self-
sufficient when it came to food grains.
After 1947 India had to rebuild its economy. Over three-quarters of the
population depended on agriculture in some way. But agriculture in India
was faced with several problems. Firstly, the productivity of grains was
very low. And India was still monsoon dependent because of lack of
irrigation and other infrastructure.
There was also an absence of modern technology. And India had
previously faced severe famines during the British Raj, who had only
promoted cash crops instead of food crops. The idea was to never depend
on any other country for food sufficiency.
So in 1965, the government with the help of Indian geneticists M.S.
Swaminathan, known as the father of Green Revolution, launched the
Green Revolution. The movement lasted from 1967 to 1978 and was a
great success.
Green Revolution: Introduction, HYV Seeds, Impact on the Economy etc.

Features of the Green Revolution

The introduction of the HYV seeds for the first time in Indian agriculture.
These seeds had more success with the wheat crop and were highly
effective in regions that had proper irrigation. So the first stage of the
Green Revolution was focused on states with better infra – like Punjab and
Tamil Nadu.
During the second phase, the HYV seeds were given to several other states.
And other crops than wheat were also included into the plan
One basic requirement for the HYV seeds is proper irrigation. Crops from
HYV seeds need alternating amounts of water supply during its growth. So
the farms cannot depend on monsoons. The Green Revolution vastly
improved the inland irrigation systems around farms in India.
Self-Instructional Material

227
Agriculture and Rural Development The emphasis of the plan was mostly on food grains such as wheat and
rice. Cash crops and commercial crops like cotton, jute, oilseeds etc were
not a part of the plan
NOTES
Increased availability and use of fertilizers to enhance the productivity of
the farms
Use of pesticides and weedicides to reduce any loss or damage to the crops
And finally the introduction of technology and machinery like tractors,
harvesters, drills etc. This helped immensely to promote commercial
farming in the country.

Market Surplus
The Green Revolution by and far was a success. But now there was another
aspect to it. The government had to ensure that the benefit of the higher
productivity was passed on to the general public. If the farmers kept the
grains for themselves then the benefit of the higher productivity would be
lost.
But thankfully this did not happen. Due to the high yield and productivity
of the farms, the farmers started selling their produce in the markets. The
portion of the produce which is sold by them is known as market surplus.
And so the higher output caused due to the Green Revolution started
benefiting the economy. There was a decline in the prices of grains and
such food products. The common man was able to easily afford to buy
them. The government was even able to stock grains and build a food bank
in case of future food shortages.

Impact of the Green Revolution

Increase in Agricultural Production: Foodgrains in India saw a great rise in
output. It was a remarkable increase. The biggest beneficiary of the plan
was the Wheat Grain. The production of wheat increased to 55 million
tonnes in 1990 from just 11 million tonnes in 1960.
Increase in per Acre Yield: Not only did the Green Revolution increase the
total agricultural output, it also increased the per hectare yield. In case of
wheat, the per hectare yield increased from 850 kg/hectare to an incredible
2281 kg/hectare by 1990.
Less Dependence on Imports: After the green revolution, India was finally
on its way to self-sufficiency. There was now enough production for the
population and to build a stock in case of emergencies. We did not need to
import grains or depend on other countries for our food supply. In fact,
India was able to start exporting its agricultural produce.

Employment: It was feared that commercial farming would leave a lot of

the labour force jobless. But on the other hand, we saw a rise in rural
employment. This is because the supporting industries created employment
opportunities. Irrigation, transportation, food processing, marketing all
created new jobs for the workforce.
Self-Instructional Material

228
A Benefit to the Farmers: The Green Revolution majorly benefited the Agriculture and Rural Development

farmers. Their income saw a significant raise. Not only were they
surviving, they were prospering. It enabled them to shift to commercial
NOTES
farming from only sustenance farming.

White Revolution
The White Revolution in India was successful in transforming the country
from a milk deficient nation to a world leader in milk production. It helped
dairy-farming become India‘s largest self-sustaining industry and also,
India‘s largest rural employment provider.

White Revolution: A Dire Need for India

The pre and immediate post independence era witnessed India crying for
milk. When the Britishers finally left India in 1947, they left India crippled
with low production capacity, no technical know how to improve its
economic condition. On the top of it, the partition led to political and
military crisis. Yet India needed to rebuild itself.
The foundation for white revolution was laid in 1964-65‘s Intensive Cattle
Development Program (ICDP), in which a package of improved animal
husbandry was given to cattle owners to initiate the white revolution in
India.

The milk man of India, ‗Dr. Varghese Kurien‘ led India away from the
darkness of lack of education, less productivity, use of obsolete means ,
poor conversion rate to the light of massive milk production, refinement in
the dairy-agricultural sector, breaking of conventional barriers of caste and
gender parity. Very rightly, he has been termed ‗Father of the white
Revolution‘.
Operation Flood: Boost for White Revolution
The revolutionary, ‗Billion-litre idea‘ and execution of the world‘s largest
dairy-agricultural development program, ‗Operation Flood‘ transformed
India from a nation with potential in the dairy industry to a nation with
massive production of milk and dairy products.
Operation Flood is the program that followed in 1970, initiated by the
National Dairy Development Board to speed up "the White Revolution." It
created a national milk grid linking producers throughout India with
consumers in over 700 towns and cities, reducing seasonal and regional
price variations while ensuring that the producer gets a major share of the
price consumers pay, by cutting out middlemen.
The bedrock of Operation Flood that made the White Revolution a success,
was village milk producers' co-operatives, which procured milk and
provided inputs and services, making modern management and technology
available to members. Operation Flood's objectives included:
Increase in Milk Production

Augment rural incomes

Self-Instructional Material

229
Agriculture and Rural Development Fair prices for consumers
Removing poverty in the rural areas
NOTES
3 Phases of Operation Flood: Surpassing the White Revolution Targets
Phase 1 (1970-80) of Operation Flood that provided a great boost to White
Revolution programme, was Financed by the sale of skimmed milk powder
and butter oil donated by the European Economic Community through the
World Food Program. During this phase, 18 of India‘s premier milk sheds
were linked with consumers in India‘s major metro cities.
Phase 2 (1981-85) of Operation Flood that flooded India with milk,
surpassing the targets of White Revolution in India saw the Milk sheds
going up from 18 to 136. Urban markets expanded the outlets for milk to
290. By the end of 1985, a self sustaining system of 43,000 village
cooperatives had been covered.
Phase 3 (1985-96) of Operation Flood enabled the dairy cooperatives to
expand and strengthen the infrastructure. Great technology upgrade in the
dairy industry was a hallmark of this phase that made White Revolution an
ongoing activity without looking back.

10 Key Features of ‗White Revolution in India‘

 Adopting new methods in case of cattle in animal husbandry.

 Changing of composition of feed ingredients in different
proportions.
 Fixing of different producer costs on a sliding scale of India.
 Small, farmer controlled network was created through the dairy
cooperatives.
 India became highest dairy producer in the world from 1998
onwards surpassing the USA, in 2010-11 India contributed to about
17% of the global output in milk production.
 In 30 years, milk available per person doubled in India.
 India‘s total milk production output, increased by 4 times due to the
successful implementation of the white revolution.
 Helped eliminate middlemen and provided 70-80% of the price by
the consumers to the farmers.
 Phenomenal growth in Milk Production in the country from 20
million MT to 100 million MT in a span of 40 years.
 The dairy cooperative movement has spread across the length and
breadth of the country, covering more than 125,000 villages of 180
Districts in 22 States.
Few critics do argue that due to white revolution in India, importance has
been given to high yielding breeds only, resulting in decimation of the
Indian breeds. They argue that although foreign breeds yield high they
require greater feed and are not suitable to Indian conditions.
The entire white revolution can be summarized as a purpose for
empowering the Indian farmers and the agriculture in India. It was a brave
Self-Instructional Material
attempt to give the dairy farmers the control of their own fate and to tap

230
into the massive dairy resources present in India. Despite all the criticisms, Agriculture and Rural Development

the critics agree that the White Revolution very well transformed India into
the dairy powerhouse of the world.
NOTES
Yellow Revolution
Dr. Ashok Vishandass, Member, Commission for Agricultural Costs and
Prices (CACP), Government of India, was at IIM Bangalore on Tuesday
(March 11) to address students on the Role of Agriculture in National
Income and Agricultural Pricing in India. He answers questions on the
rationale of MSP, the need for a yellow revolution in India and the buffer
stock policy.

Food habits and dietary patterns in India are changing. What are the
plans for providing rich protein diet, including pulses to the Indian
Population?
As income levels increase, food habits of people change. This happens
across time and space; it has happened in countries across the world.
People move from cereals to pulses to other protein-rich food like beef (if
you are non-vegetarian) depending upon a person's needs. In India, we
have realized that pulses are where we need to do more in terms of
domestic production because we are deficient - we are importing a lot of
pulses. Last year, we imported pulses worth more than Rs. 11,000 crore.
For vegetarians, pulses are very important. So, we need to focus on pulses.
In the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices, our mandate is to
look after 23 commodities - we recommend the minimum support price
(MSP) of these 23 commodities. Pulses come under these 23 commodities.
If you look at the last 3-4 years, our emphasis has been disproportionate
(when compared to other crops) on pulses - we have been increasing MSP
for pulses (compared to other crops). This is the signal the CACP is
sending out.

What is the reason for the ever increasing minimum support prices for
food grains?
Prices are not arbitrarily decided. We consider several factors when we
decide MSP. Last year, we did not increase wheat prices. There are a few
instances when we have not increased prices. On the other hand, we did
increase MSP on cereals. We wanted to give the right signal to the farmers
as regards the right price. When the situation so warrants, then we increase
MSP. It is all based on economic sense; it is not arbitrarily done. And when
the situation warrants, why not extend the MSP to our own farmers instead
of extending it to farmers of other countries by importing food grains!

What is the rationale of MSP?

When we decide the Minimum Support Price, we look at 5-6 factors. We
consider the cost of production because farmers have to be taken care of;
we consider the demand-supply pattern in the country; we consider the
consumer - we have to execute a fine balancing act between the producers
on one side and the consumers on the other; we consider domestic and Self-Instructional Material

231
Agriculture and Rural Development international prices; and we consider terms of trade between agriculture
and non-agriculture sectors. Hypothetically speaking, if MSP wasn't in
existence, there are studies which have established that there wouldn't have
NOTES
been public stocks of a commodity and the private players would have
jacked up the prices, forcing the consumer to pay dearly for it. When we
decide MSP, then the public authorities such as the Food Corporation of
India (FCI) procure the commodity and once they procure, then the private
players know that the government has so much stock and understand that
they cannot arbitrarily jack up the prices. To give an example, onion prices
shot up recently. Onion is not under the domain of MSP.

In view of the falling crop area and fluctuating consumption of

chemical fertilizers, how do we maintain high food production in
India?
In my view, it is not important how much area is being cultivated; it is
more important to note how much we are able to produce. To meet
demand, we have to increase productivity. If we are able to produce more
with fewer resources, then we are being efficient. We should use our
resources - human resources, land and water - efficiently because resources
thus saved can be used elsewhere. That is how productivity increases and
cost of production goes down. Then we become competitive both in
domestic and international markets. Once we become competitive, then
farmers' income will also increase and this will reduce rural poverty.
Increased productivity will have a cascading effect.

Is there a need for yellow revolution in India?

Sure. On the one hand, our granaries are overflowing with rice and wheat,
but on the other we are battling a shortage of oilseeds and pulses. To
illustrate the point, we imported pulses and oil seeds worth Rs 74,000 crore
in 2012-13. We are short in oilseeds by 50 per cent of our consumption.
This is something we have to address on priority. So, yes, yellow
revolution is definitely required.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. Write the meaning of Green Revolution?

4. Write the meaning of White Revolution?

9.5 COOPERATIVES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

India lives in villages where most of the inhabitants are small, marginal,
landless farmers and artisans. After independence, agriculture was
identified as one of the thrust areas for rural development. Even at that
time, the policy makers had visualized the fact that without people‘s
participation and institutional support, the rural development programmes
Self-Instructional Material could not be pushed through. Considering the situation of the rural sector,
232
the importance of the panchayati system and cooperatives was recognized Agriculture and Rural Development

and these institutions were assigned specific roles to play. The main task
assigned to these institutions was to work for community development, to
NOTES
eradicate rural poverty, to reduce inequalities and to eliminate privileges.
Since the 1960s, a number of rural development programmes, such as the
Panchayati Raj and land reforms or the Green and the White Revolutions
through technical and cooperative missions, have been initiated and
implemented. In a village, the cooperative society enjoys a focal position
as an important socio-economic institution. The objective of the
cooperative society is to provide services to its members (i.e. the rural
community) and these services, which you will study in later units, are
multifaceted. Although the membership of cooperatives does not include
the entire population of a village, it does include a major part and a broad
spectrum of the rural population. Besides, in implementing any community
development schemes by other agencies (for example, the removal of
illiteracy, making people conscious of their environment, health care,
poverty alleviation, water management, etc.), the involvement of
cooperatives is envisaged to seek consensus of the village community, as
the cooperatives comprise a majority and a cross section of the village
community. Moreover, a cooperative is a legal entity. It has institutional
networks and infrastructure facilities at the grass roots level. It is also
involved in social welfare and social protection activities of the rural
people, such as village adoption, insurance, promotion of schools,
hospitals, development of social forestry, etc. It has also generated rural
employment for large sections of rural people through its agro-ancillary
activities. In what follows, you will study in detail about the emergence of
cooperatives, cooperative principles and their values, structure, functions,
institutional networks, types of activity and finally you work through a
review of the performance of cooperatives in rural development.
The main aim of this unit is to familiarize you with the concept of
cooperatives, their principles, values, policies and the role they have played
in the development of agriculture and rural employment. Besides, it also
aims at acquainting you with the various types of cooperatives operating in
India and their socio-economic goals and development plans for the
welfare of the rural people.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF COOPERATION

The word cooperation has many meanings, but in common discourse it
means working, living and thinking together. In our existing socio-
economic context, however, we need to define it somewhat differently—
‖Cooperation is a form of organization wherein persons voluntarily
associate with each other as human beings on the basis of equality for the
promotion of mutual economic interests‖. As per the definition given by
the International Labour Organization (ILO), a cooperative society is an
association of persons, who assemble for their common
cause and work together voluntarily on democratic lines. According to the
definition given by the ―International Cooperative Alliance‖(ICA), a
cooperative is an association of persons united voluntarily to meet their
common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a
Self-Instructional Material
jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise. It means that
233
Agriculture and Rural Development cooperatives are based on the values of self-help, self– responsibility,
democracy, equality, equity and solidarity in the tradition of their founders.
NOTES Cooperative members believe in the ethical values of honesty, openness,
social responsibility and caring for others. Therefore, the cooperatives are
different from the private enterprise in their forms of ownership, control,
distribution of profits, values of equality, equity, solidarity and social
responsibility.

PRINCIPLES OF COOPERATION
The principles and the guidelines by which cooperatives put their values
into practice
are:
i) Voluntary and open membership: It means that the membership shall be
voluntary and available without any restrictions/discrimination on the basis
of gender or social, political or religious affiliations. All the members can
make use of the services of their cooperative and willingly accept the
responsibilities of membership.
ii) Democratic member control: Cooperatives are democratic organizations
controlled and managed by their own members. The primary members of
cooperative societies enjoy equal rights of voting (one member one vote)
and participation.
iii) Members‘ economic participation: Economic results arising out of the
operations of the society belong to the members and shall be distributed
among them proportionately according to the size of their transactions with
the society, while a part of the funds will be kept aside for specified
purposes as per the provisions.
iv) Autonomy and independence: Cooperatives are autonomous, self-help
organizations controlled by their members. If they enter into agreements
with others including governments to raise capital from external sources
they do so on terms that ensure democratic control by their members and
maintain their cooperative autonomy.
v) Education, training and information: Cooperative provide education
and/or training for their members, elected representatives, managers and
employees so that they may contribute effectively to the development of
their cooperatives.
vi) Cooperation among cooperatives: All cooperative organizations, in
order to best serve the interests of their members and community, shall
actively cooperate in every practical way with other cooperatives at local,
national, and international levels.
vii) Concern for community: Cooperatives work for the sustainable
development of their communities through policies approved by their
members.

EVOLUTION OF COOPERATIVES IN INDIA

Self-Instructional Material

234
After having studied the concept, values, principles and functions of the Agriculture and Rural Development

cooperative enterprise, it will be appropriate to study the emergence of

cooperatives in contemporary India, in particular the way they have
NOTES
evolved since independence.
Before we do so, however, let us have a brief account of the pre-
independence scenario.

Pre-independence Scenario
In India, the cooperative movement began its work with the objective of
making breakthroughs in the stagnation of the poorer classes who were
heavily indebted and were fully in the grip of Sahukars. With the
enactment of the 1904 Act, the first cooperative credit society was
registered on 8th May, 1905 in the then state of Bombay in the Gadag
Taluka of the Dharwad district under the name of Kanginhal Agriculture
Credit Cooperative. By 1911, the number of registered societies rose to
5321 with a membership of 305,060. Subsequently, the 1904 Act was
replaced by another passed in 1912, with a broader base, opening
registration to non-credit cooperatives also. The Reform Act was passed in
1919, when cooperatives became a state/provincial subject. The decade
from 1919 to 1929 was a period of unplanned expansion and some re-
organization. During the period 1930/31-1937/38, the movement under
went a number of changes. This period is known for the great depression,
which was a major setback for the cooperatives in India, mainly due to our
backward economy and the disturbed political atmosphere. The arrears of
the loans of cooperatives rose from 39% in 1930-31 to 63% by 1937-38.
But the Second World
War (1939 to 1946) came as a boon for agriculturists, as the prices of
agricultural commodities rose significantly, and the cooperatives revived.
The repaying capacity of the farmers increased significantly, they were
able to clear off their old debts and the arrears came down from 63% in
1937-38 to 39% in 1945-46. This period is considered the recovery period.

Post-independence Scenario
After the independence of India in 1947, the country adopted the policy of
planned economic development for establishing an integrated and just
society, providing individual liberty, equality of opportunity and a basic
economic minimum for all. Cooperation was accepted as an effective and
important instrument for achieving the objectives of rural economic
development.
The first five-year plan (1950-51 to 1955-56) emphasized that all
agricultural families/ households may join as members of primary
agriculture cooperatives. In turn, these societies would take care of their
needs and safe guard the interests of farmers and artisans. During this plan
period, the number and membership of cooperatives went up from 115,462
and 5.2 million in 1950-51 to 159,939 and 7.8 million by 1955-56
respectively.
Self-Instructional Material

235
Agriculture and Rural Development In the year 1951, the RBI set up a committee known as the All India Rural
Credit Survey Committee and its report was published in 1954. At that
time, the main thrust was on the viability concept. It was observed that
NOTES
only 20% of the cooperatives were found to be economically viable due to
their limited operations and it was recommended that large size
cooperative societies should be organized to procure more business. It was
also recommended that a government, with a share capital to the extent of
51%, be allowed to become a partner in cooperatives. Beside, it was
recommended that the credit delivery system be three-tier for short and
medium term loans, and long-term credit be arranged through land
development banks. Also, the need for an effective cooperative training
system to develop a sound network of institutions from the village to the
national level was emphasized in order to guide Rural Credit and Banking
and implement the rural programmes effectively. Fortunately, the
Government accepted all the recommendations of the committee.

Structure of the Cooperative Credit System

By and large, the structure of production credit is a three-tier system
comprising the State Cooperative Bank at the state level, the District
Cooperative Bank at the district level and the Primary Agriculture
Cooperative Society at the village level. The investment credit structure
has two tiers, i.e. the State Cooperative Agricultural and Rural
Development Banks at the state level and Primary Agricultural
Cooperative Rural Development Banks at the grass roots level. But
wherever there is no structure for providing the investment credit, it is
rooted through the production credit system as explained in the diagram
below. Beside, there are national level Federations which take care of
policy, planning and promotional works in this case. The refinance to
cooperative banks comes largely from the National Bank for Agricultural
and Rural Development (NABARD)

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE NON-CREDIT

COOPERATIVES
In the previous units, you have learnt about the importance and role of
credit cooperatives in the development of agriculture in India. Equally
important are the non-credit cooperatives and their role in rural
development. The important segments of non-credit cooperatives are
Marketing, Consumers, Dairy, Fishery, Fertilizers, Handloom and
Handicrafts, Labour, Irrigation, Agro–processing, Transport, Weavers,
Industry, Farming, Electricity, Poultry, etc. The non-credit cooperatives
came into existence partly out of necessity and partly out of ideological
reasons. The non-credit sector has played a significant role in
developinginfra-structural facilities, which have helped in providing value
additions to the agricultural produce as well as boosted employment in the
rural sector.

REGISTRATION PROCESS FOR COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES

A society is an association of several individuals combined using a mutual
accord to deliberate, govern and act cooperatively for some communal
Self-Instructional Material

236
purpose. Societies are usually registered for the advancement of charitable Agriculture and Rural Development

activities like sports, music, culture, religion, art, education, etc.

Society Registration, under, The Society Registration Act, in India, lays NOTES
down certain procedures for the sake of society registration & operation.
This act was implemented with the purpose of augmenting the legal
stipulations of society registration for the advancement of literature, fine
arts, science or distribution of awareness for bountiful purposes. The
society registration act, 1860 has been accepted by several state
governments without or with further amendments.
A society registration can be done for the development of fine arts, science,
or literature or else for diffusion of purposeful knowledge or charitable
purposes of political education. According to section 20 of Society Act,
1860, a society registration can be done for following purposes:
Steps for Registering a society In India
A Society can be created by a minimum of 7 or more persons. Apart from
persons from India, companies, foreigners, as well as other registered
societies can also register for the Memorandum of the society. Similar to
Partnership firms, society can also be either unregistered or registered. But,
only the registered societies will be able to withstand consigned properties
and/or have an ensemble filed against or by the society.
Society registration is maintained by state governments. Thus, the
application for society registration must be created to the specific authority
of the state, where the registered office of society is situated.

For Society registration, the establishing members must agree with the
name of society first and then prepare for the Memorandum, followed by
Rules & Regulations of the society.

Selection of a Name
When selecting a name for society registration, it is vital to understand that
according to Society Act, 1860, an identical or similar name of a currently
registered society will not be allowed. Moreover, the proposed name shall
not suggest for any patronage of state government or government of India
or fascinate the provisions of Emblem & Names Act, 1950.

Memorandum of Association
The Memorandum of society along with Rules & Regulations of society
must be signed by every establishing member, witness by Gazetted Officer,
Notary Public, Chartered Accountant, Oath Commissioner, Advocate,
Magistrate first class or Chartered Accountant with their official stamping
and complete address. The memorandum must also contain details of
members of the society registration along with their names, addresses,
designations, and occupations. The following document has to be prepared,
submitted and signed for the sake of registration:

 Requesting society registration by providing covering letter, signed

by all establishing members Self-Instructional Material

237
Agriculture and Rural Development
 Duplicate copy of Memorandum of Association of society along
with certified copy
NOTES  Duplicate copy of Rules & Regulations of society along with
duplicate copy duly signed by all establishing members

 Address proof of registered office of society as well as no-objection

certificate (NOC) issued by landlord

 Affidavit avowed by secretary or president of society declaring

relationship among subscribers

 Few minutes of meeting regarding the society registration along

with providing some essential documents.

Documents required to register a society In India

list of required documents Following are the documents required for the
Society Registration in India:
1. PAN Card of all the members of the proposed society has to be
submitted along with the application.
2. The Residence Proof of all the members of the society also has to be
submitted. The following can be used as a valid residence proof:

 Bank Statement
 Aadhaar Card
 Utility Bill
 Driving License
 Passport

3. Memorandum of Association has to be prepared which will contain the

following clauses and information:

 The work and the objectives of the society for which it is being
established
 The details of the members forming the society
 It will contain the address of the registered office of the society

4. Articles of Association also have to be prepared which will contain the

following information:
Rules and regulations by which the working of the society will be
governed and the maintenance of day to day activities
It will contain the rules for taking the membership of the society
The details about the meetings of the society and the frequency with which
they are going to be held is to be mentioned

 Information about the Auditors

 Forms of Arbitration in case of any dispute between the members
of the society
Self-Instructional Material  Ways for the dissolution of the society will also be mentioned
238
  Once the rules have been formed, they can be changed but the new Agriculture and Rural Development

set of rules will be signed by the President, Chairman, Vice

President and the Secretary of the Society.
NOTES
5. A covering letter mentioning the objective or the purpose for which the
society is being formed will be annexed to the beginning of the application.
It will be signed by all the founding members of the society.
6. A copy of the proof of address where the registered office of the society
will be located along with a NOC from the landlord if any has to be
attached.
7. A list of all the members of the governing body has to be given along
with their signatures.
8. A declaration has to be given by the president of the proposed society
that he is willing and competent to hold the said post.

All the above documents have to be submitted to the Registrar of Societies

along with the requisite fees in 2 copies. On receiving the application, the
registrar will sign the first copy as acknowledgment and return it while
keeping the second copy for approval. On proper vetting of the documents,
the registrar will issue an Incorporation Certificate by allotting a
registration number to it.
The signed Rules & Regulations, as well as Memorandum, has to be filed
with concerned society or registrar of state with a mentioned fee. If the
registrar is fulfilled with society registration application, then they will
certify that the society is registered.

9.6 EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The World Bank has defined Rural Development ―as a strategy designed to
improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people- the
rural poor.‖ Half of the population lives in the villages. The contribution of
rural India towards the economic development is not hidden from any of
us. Earlier the people used to correlate rural development with agricultural
development and thus focus was only on the increased agricultural
production. But with the changing time, this misbelieve has also changed.
Today the concept of rural development is fundamentally different that it
was used to be 2 or 3 decades ago. Now rural development includes
development improving the quality of life of rural people. It constitutes
improvement in their health and nutrition, education, safe and healthy
environment, fairness in income distribution and no discrimination in
gender.

The continuous growth of the Indian economy forces the Indian

government to accelerate the process of developing all the branches of the
Indian education system. As more than half of the population in India lives
in villages, therefore the education system in rural area also plays a
significant contribution in the growth of the economy. Education has a
desirable controlling influence over development of the rural individual,
family, community and society that leads to reduced poverty and controlled
unemployment. Functions of education include imparting social change, Self-Instructional Material

239
Agriculture and Rural Development making rural people aware about their rights, improving individual
standard of living, providing employment and income opportunities to
rural people and so on. The present system of education in India was
NOTES
introduced by the British in the 20th century. The system so given has a
western style and content, ignoring traditional structures and so has
declined. After independence, the Central Government has taken the
responsibility of technical and higher education. The central government
through the Ministry of Human Resource Development‘s Department of
Education and the governments at the states formulated the education
policy
and planning. Present scenario of rural education in India:Right to
Education is the primary right of every citizen of India, whether a child
resides in a high profile society or in a far away not so developed secluded
village. In India, condition of rural education is still improving, the
conditions of these rural schools is still very poor. There are very few
schools in the rural areas and children have to travel far away distances to
avail these facilities and most schools in these locations do not provide
drinking water. The quality of education is also very poor. The teachers get
very less income so, most of the time the teachers are either absent or they
do not teach properly.
Schools in rural areas are promoted to raise the level of education and
literacy in rural India. The main aim of running these types of schools in
India is to increase the rates of literacy in rural areas. More than 40 per
cent of India‘s population is illiterate and cannot read or write. And schools
in rural areas are inadequate and often equivalent to being non-existent.
Thus, government‘s initiative to set up schools in rural areas came into
picture. According to Just Indian Schools the conditions of rural education
in India, is improving steadily and the government is also providing full
support and

providing with many initiatives. The fee structure in these schools is also
very low so that every child can study and afford it. . There are many
initiatives taken by the government, but they are not implemented in the
schools, so the present scenario remains the same. Though there are very
few schools in rural areas, children and their parents are showing interest
and availing school facilities in these remote locations. Children have to
walk miles to reach their school. Rural schools pay special attention to
children in these locations so that each child gets an equal and important
opportunity. They promote reading and writing and enhanced basic
education. These schools also provide study material to every student apart
from, meals during school hours, uniforms etc. Rural village schools also
have implemented library system, which provide books, newspapers and
magazine to children. They not only provide science kits and equipment
for hands-on-learning, but also notebooks, textbooks and pencils to poor
children. Apart from that they also give scholarships to deserving students
regularly, who wish to study ahead. They create community awareness,
about the need for education and world literacy. Many indirect benefits of a
basic rural education include poverty reduction, disease control, enhanced
employment opportunities and increasing rate of literacy. The curriculum
Self-Instructional Material includes English, Mathematics, General Knowledge and Drawing. Apart
240
from that they also provide Value Education and Computer Education. Agriculture and Rural Development

With the help of rural education every family and child has excess to basic
primary education. Individual‘s special talents are recognized. The
NOTES
teaching methodology ensures that each and every student is exposed to
educational experience in an active and dynamic learning environment, so
that they can achieve excellence. Teachers also encourage every student to
express their views, observations and experiences. The main objectives of
rural school‘s is to ensure that every child in rural India receives quality
education which prepares them to compete in the competitive global
environment. Rural education initiative has the following objective: – To
provide free standard education to rural children – Supporting children for
higher education. – Guiding and Supporting Research scholars in
Educational Development. – Implementing new teaching methodologies
and Assessment system. – Promoting all schools to stress free
environment.
Urban education v/s rural education: – There are many schools in cities and
towns whereas; there are very few schools in villages and the rural areas. –
There are transportation facilities like bus pick and in urban schools where
as children in rural areas have to walk miles to reach their schools. – Basic
amenities like no drinking water in provided in some of the schools in
villages. – Level of education in urban schools is far advanced as compared
to the basic level taught in rural schools. – Computer education is given
high importance in urban areas where as very few schools in villages give
computer training. – Group classes are taken by using video conferencing
and audio conferencing in urban schools where as no such facilities are
provided for students in rural schools. – The teachers are given tools like
laptops, printers to provide notes and other important notices to the
children in urban schools while there are no such facilities in the rural
schools. – School infrastructure in case of cities and urban areas is much
more advanced as compared to that in schools in rural
areas where some times children are even made to sit on the floor due to
non-availability of furniture. – School education in urban areas is more
advanced especially since there is a lot of computer aided teaching. –
Apart from the course curriculum rural schools are not able to involve
children in other activities like sports, cocurricular activities and
competitions. Such events and activities tend help in the over all
development of the children.

Problems faced in rural education in India:

India is developing rapidly and many initiatives had been taken for the
development of rural India, still much more have to be done. There are
several problems being faced by the schools running in rural India. Some
of these problems are stated below:

Lack of infrastructure:
Many schools in villages lack proper infrastructure facilities. There are no
proper facilities for sitting as sometimes children are even made to sit on
the floor due to non-availability of furniture. The school building lacks
doors and windows, and so the wind and animals enter unimpeded. Self-Instructional Material

241
Agriculture and Rural Development Low income:
Teachers in the villages also get very less income in comparison to the
NOTES teachers that teach in urban schools. As teachers are not satisfied with their
income, they generally do not give proper attention to the students.

Lack of transportation facilities:

This is one of the biggest problems being faced by the children going to
village schools. As there are no proper transport facilities available
children don‘t like to travel miles to come to school.

Less in number:
In comparison to the number of schools present in urban area i.e., cities or
towns, there are very few schools in villages or rural areas.

Lack of basic amenities:

Even the basic amenities like drinking water, clean toilets etc are also not
available in many of the schools at villages.

Lack of extra-curricular activities:

Apart from the course curriculum rural schools are not able to involve
children in other activities like sports, cocurricular activities and
competitions. Such events and activities tend help in the over all
development of the children. – There is no excess to supplemental
education.

Deficiency of funds:
One of the severe hurdles in the education system in rural India is the
unavailability of funds. Some schools do not have funds even for
purchasing benches, blackboards etc.
Reasons for the failure of rural education : – The teachers do not get any
support from the parents in villages on the part of curriculum. Parents in
villages want that their children should be provided with education related
to agriculture so that they can help them. This thinking act as an obstacle in
bringing the children to schools. – In several schools of villages, the
premise of school is also not sufficient to accompany all the students. –
Lack of illiteracy on the part of the parents also acts as an obstacle in
attracting the students in rural areas. – As teachers in rural areas get very
less salary in comparison to the teachers teaching in schools located in
towns or cities, they do not give their 100%. – Students in the rural areas
are also not interested in education because it is not appealing as any
computers, laptops, internet facility made available for them. Suggestions
for improving rural education in India:
Some of the suggestions that can be adopted for improving the education
system in rural: – The curriculum of rural education can be updated and
should accompany education related to farming, gardening etc. – To attract
more number of students and creating enthusiasm in them for learning,
Self-Instructional Material visual aids like projectors, television etc. can be used to show some
242
educational movies. – To motivate the teachers they should be made to feel Agriculture and Rural Development

proud that by teaching in the rural or remote area they are acting as a
helping hand in the development of economy. – Some special sessions or
NOTES
classes can be conducted for the parents to make them realize the
significance of education for their children. – To appreciate the efforts of
students, some type of scholarships either in the form of gifts or books can
be given to them who perform well in the class.

Initiatives taken by the Government:

For promoting the importance of education in India, Ministry of Law and
Justice had introduced ‗The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act, 2009‘. It is an Act introduced to provide free and
compulsory education to all children between the ages of six to fourteen
years. Several central and state level initiatives have been in operation
from the early 1980s.The main objectives of all these initiatives include
increasing girls enrolment, improving educational outcomes, strengthening
community involvement, improving teaching and learning materials, and
providing in-service teacher training in villages. Some of these initiatives
are:

Lok Jumbish Project:

The Lok Jumbish (LJ) project has 75 blocks covering approximately 12
million of population. LJ works hand in hand with government agencies,
teachers, NGOs, elected representatives and the people in an interactive
group effort to promote universalization of primary education. It works on
seven guiding principles. These are: – A process rather than a product
approach. – Partnerships. – Decentralized functioning.
– Participatory learning. – Integration with the mainstream education
system. – Flexibility of management. – Creating multiple levels of
leadership committed to quality and mission mode.

Shiksha Karmi Project:

The Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) is being implemented since 1987, with
assistance from the Swedish International Development Cooperation
Agency (SIDA). It aims universalisation and qualitative improvement of
primary education in the backward and remote villages of Rajasthan, with
special focus on girls. SKP has set up the Village Education Committees
(VECs) in 2000 villages to promote community involvement in primary
education and encourage village level planning. SKP also runs non-formal
classes known as Prehar Pathshalas schools of convenient timings. For
girl‘s education, Angan Pathshalas are being run in three blocks. The
programme at present covers over 150,000 students in 1,785 schools and
3,250 Prehar Pathshalas , involving over 4,271 Shiksha Karmis.

Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA):

The main goal of this program is that all children of 6-11 years of age
should complete primary education by the year 2007 and all children of 6-
14 years of age should complete eight years of schooling by 2010. This
plan covers the whole country with special emphasis on girl education and Self-Instructional Material

243
Agriculture and Rural Development education of Schedule Caste (SC) and Schedule Tribe (ST) children and
children with special needs. The SSA centers are mainly opened in those
areas, which do not have any school or where schools are very far off.
NOTES
Special girl oriented programs include: Girl education at elementary level,
National Program for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) ,
Kasturba Gandhi Balika

Vidyalaya (KGBV), Mahila Samakhya Scheme

District primary education program: This programme was launched in
1994 with the objective of universalization of primary education. Its main
features are Universal Access, Universal Retention and Universal
Achievement. It aims that the primary education should be accessible to
each and every child of school going age, once a child is enrolled in school
he/ she should be retained there.
The final step is achievement of the goal of education. The main
components of this programme are: – Construction of classrooms and new
schools – Opening of non-formal schooling centers – Setting up early
childhood education centers. – Appointment of teachers. – Providing
education to disabled children. The programme has been successful to the
large extent as 1,60,000 schools and 84,000 alternative schools have been
opened under this program. And work is going on for the
construction of new buildings of 52,758 schools. 4,20,203 disabled
students have been successfully enrolled into the schools. National
programme of nutritional support to primary education (school meal
programme):
This programme was launched on 15th August 1995 with a view to
increase enrolment, retention and attendance in primary schools by
augmenting nutritional meal to children. Under this scheme children
attending the school are given free cooked meal of 100gms every day and
positive results have gained with this scheme. By 1997-98 this scheme has
covered around 110million children of primary school. It is implemented
for the students of classes‘ I-V. Operation blackboard: This scheme was
launched in 1987 with a motto of improving the school environment. For
the sake of retaining and enhancing the learning skills of children this has
been started. This scheme has brought a remarkable improvement in
primary education. Nearly 5,23,000 primary schools have been covered in
the beginning.

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
5. Write the meaning of Co Operatives?

6. Write the meaning of Sarva Shikshya Abhyan?

9.7 HEALTH AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Self-Instructional Material

244
Rural Health care is one of biggest challenges facing the Health Ministry Agriculture and Rural Development

of India. With more than 70 percent population living in rural areas and
low level of health facilities, mortality rates due to diseases are on a high.
NOTES
Download our Whitepaper Rural Health Care- Towards Healthy Rural
India, on how technology can be leveraged for improving health care in
Rural India, excerpts are below.
Reality of Healthcare in Rural India
Healthcare is the right of every individual but lack of quality infrastructure,
dearth of qualified medical functionaries, and non- access to basic
medicines and medical facilities thwarts its reach to 60% of population in
India. A majority of 700 million people lives in rural areas where the
condition of medical facilities is deplorable. Considering the picture of
grim facts there is a dire need of new practices and procedures to ensure
that quality and timely healthcare reaches the deprived corners of the
Indian villages. Though a lot of policies and programs are being run by the
Government but the success and effectiveness of these programs is
questionable due to gaps in the implementation. In rural India, where the
number of Primary health care centers (PHCs) is limited, 8% of the centers
do not have doctors or medical staff, 39% do not have lab technicians and
18% PHCs do not even have a pharmacist.
India also accounts for the largest number of maternity deaths. A majority
of these are in rural areas where maternal health care is poor. Even in
private sector, health care is often confined to family planning and
antenatal care and do not extend to more critical services like labor and
delivery, where proper medical care can save life in the case of
complications.

The Problems
Due to non accessibility to public health care and low quality of health care
services, a majority of people in India turn to the local private health
sector as their first choice of care. If we look at the health landscape of
India 92 percent of health care visits are to private providers of which 70
percent is urban population. However, private health care is expensive,
often unregulated and variable in quality. Besides being unreliable for the
illiterate, it is also unaffordable by low income rural folks.
To control the spread of diseases and reduce the growing rates of mortality
due to lack of adequate health facilities, special attention needs to be given
to the health care in rural areas. The key challenges in the healthcare sector
are low quality of care, poor accountability, lack of awareness, and limited
access to facilities.
Various organizations are coming together for improvements in health care
and technology plays a crucial role to facilitate this. Information and
communications Technology provides hosts of solutions for successful
implementation of these changes.
Technology for Rural Health Care
Self-Instructional Material

245
Agriculture and Rural Development Several organizations are working alongside the government and NGOs to
help relieve the burden on the public health system using mobile
technology. India has over 900 million mobile phone users and this fact
NOTES
can be leveraged to employ better practices in even the remote areas.
Leading global organizations of healthcare industry are using our mobile
technology to enhance the quality of care and bridge the gaps in healthcare
services.
Gram Vaani provides cutting- edge mobile and IVR solutions to automate
processes and applies best practices in the field. Our services cater to
health care sector, social sector, and corporate organizations for connecting
with the difficult to reach markets at bottom of the pyramid.
We have built simple technologies on mobile to suit the needs of different
sectors and verticals. By improving the systems and functions of our
clients we have impacted thousands of lives in rural India. Through mobile
and IVR services we have an extensive reach across the demography. Our
initiative is focused on delivering best tools and solutions to our partners
for reaching out to the rural markets and gives a platform to be directly
connected to them. Leading global organizations of healthcare industry are
using our technology to enhance the quality of care and bridge the gaps in
healthcare services in rural India.

Improving Healthcare on the ground

We are employing mobile technology in several healthcare projects for
leading global organizations. In partnership with the White Ribbon
Alliance for Safe Motherhood, for a program of Merck for Mothers, we
are working to upgrade the quality of maternity healthcare in India. There‘s
growing evidence from developing countries confirming that patient‘s
perception of quality of care and satisfaction with care are critical to
utilization of health services. To this end, we are building a quality-of-care
checklist for expectant mothers (and their families) to answer using mobile
phones and rate on factors such as whether they were treated with respect
during the delivery, whether they got entitlement for institutional delivery,
whether the transportation provided was of good quality, etc.

This tool is constructive for:

 Making women aware of their rights to demand good quality of

care,

 Bringing accountability by highlighting lapses in the health

delivery process, and,

 Increasing uptake of appropriate health services at the right venues

As a part of another healthcare program Ananya in Bihar, with NGO‘s

PATH and PCI, we are mobilizing communities using our voice
technologies to demand greater accountability from the health delivery
infrastructure. Through simple education and discussion programs on
mobile we make the marginalized communities aware of best practices in
healthcare and sanitation, and about their rights and entitlements from the
Self-Instructional Material health delivery system. The community members are encouraged to engage
246
and share their stories with each other on our open mobile platform, and to Agriculture and Rural Development

demand grievance redressal and accountability from the health system.

9.8 LET US SUM UP NOTES

In this unit we have discussed in details about the Agriculture and

Development because agriculture share is playing vital role in the National
income. Also discussed about the agriculture as a source of Livelihood,
employment , raw materials, capital for development of man power.
Further this unit also focuses on agrarian land reforms, green, white and
yellow revolution. The role of Cooperatives is very important and also
deals with education and health which is important components to
interconnection with Rural Development.
9.9 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write the three goals for Agriculture Development?
2. List the three types of agriculture and economic development?
3. Write the meaning of Green Revolution?
4. Write the meaning of White Revolution?
5. Write the meaning of Co Operatives?
6. Write the meaning of Sarva Shikshya Abhyan?
9.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. There are three goals of agricultural development. These are:

(a) achieving high growth by raising productivity; (b)
inclusiveness by focusing on lagging regions, small farmers
and women; and (c) sustainability of agriculture. In order to
achieve these goals, we have to provide medium term strategy
and action plan
2. the three types of contribution that agriculture has made
towards economic development. The types are: 1. Factor
Contribution 2. Product Contribution 3. Market Contribution.
3. The Green Revolution started in 1965 with the first introduction of
High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds in Indian agriculture. This was
coupled with better and efficient irrigation and the correct use of
fertilizers to boost the crop. The end result of the Green Revolution
was to make India self-sufficient when it came to food grains.
4. The White Revolution in India was successful in transforming the
country from a milk deficient nation to a world leader in milk
production. It helped dairy-farming become India‘s largest self-
sustaining industry and also, India‘s largest rural employment
provider.
5. The word cooperation has many meanings, but in common
discourse it means working, living and thinking together. In our
existing socio-economic context, however, we need to define it
somewhat differently—‖Cooperation is a form of organization
wherein persons voluntarily associate with each other as human
beings on the basis of equality for the promotion of mutual
economic interests‖. As per the definition given by the International
Self-Instructional Material

247
Agriculture and Rural Development Labour Organization (ILO), a cooperative society is an association
of persons, who assemble for their common
NOTES 6. Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA): The main goal of this program is
that all children of 6-11 years of age should complete primary
education by the year 2007 and all children of 6-14 years of age
should complete eight years of schooling by 2010. This plan covers
the whole country with special emphasis on girl education and
education of Schedule Caste (SC) and Schedule Tribe (ST) children
and children with special needs. The SSA centers are mainly
opened in those areas, which do not have any school or where
schools are very far off. Special girl oriented programs include: Girl
education at elementary level, National Program for Education of
Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) , Kasturba Gandhi Balika

9.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Chamber, R (1994). The Origins and Practice of PRA, lDS,

University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
2. Chamber, R. (1994). Participatory Rural Appraisal: Challenges.
Potentials and Paradigm. In World Development, Vo1.22, No.1 0,
Great Britain. Elsevior Science Ltd.
3. Gadewar, A.U and Jagdeesh C. Kalla. (Undated). Participatory
Rural Appraisal: Concepts and Procedure. National Academy of
Agricultural Research Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.

4. Gurumoothy, T.R. (2000). Self Help Groups Empower Rural

WOII/cn. Kurukshetra, 48:5:36-40.
5. Harper, Malcom. (1995). Self Help Groups - Some Issuesfront
India. Small Enterprise Development. 7:20:36-41.
6. Krishnarnurthi, B. (1996). Self-Help Organisation: A Case Study of
Thrift and Credit Societies, Adilobad district, Andhra Pradesh .. In:
Rajagopalan (Ed) Rediscovering co-operation, Indian Institute of
Rural Management, Anand, Gujarat.

7. .Kumaran, K. P.(1997). Self-Help Groups: an Alternative to

Instituti. .nal Cr.edit to the Poor- A case study of Andhra Pradesh.
Journal cif Rural Development. Mukhcrjce, Necla (2002).
Participatory Learning and Action. Concept Publishing Company,
New Delhi.

8. VIYRADA (1995). Self-Help Groups. The concept a Mysore

Rehabilitations Agency. p-I-5
9. NABARD (1995). Report of the Working Group on Non-
government Organisation and Self-Help Groups, Mumbai.

Self-Instructional Material

248
10. Nambodri, N. Y. and Shiyani, R.L. (2001). Potential Role of Self- Agriculture and Rural Development

Help Group ill Rural Financing. Indian Journal of Agricultural

Economics. 56:3:2001.
NOTES
11. Perkin D. D. (1995). Speaking Truth to Power: Empowerment
Ideology as Social Intervention and Policy. American Journal of
Community Psychology: '23:5:765-794 .

Self-Instructional Material

249
Communication and Rural Development

NOTES
UNIT-X COMMUNICATION AND
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Structure
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Objectives
10.3. Communication and Rural Development
10.3.1 Meaning and Scope of Communication
10.3.2 Channels and Stages of Communication
10.3.3 Methods of Communication
10.3.4 Skills of Communication
10.3.5 Theories and Models of Communication
10.3.6 Barriers of Communication
10.4. Communication and its role in Rural Development
10.5 Satellite Instructional Television Experiments (SITE)
10.6 Use of Mass Media in Communication
10.7 Traditional Local folk media
10.8 Let Us Sum Up
10.9 Unit- End- Exercises
10.10 Answer to check your Progress
10.11Suggested Readings
10.1 INTRODUCTION
All of us are born and live in a society. As members of a society, we
will have to establish relationships with individuals, groups and
institutions either permanently or on a temporary basis.
Communication helps us to belong to a society and benefit by such
relationships. Communication simply means moving and receiving
messages or information from one point to another point. Individuals
communicate with each other. They may also communicate with
others as members of a group. Individuals also communicate with
organizations and with 'larger audiences. Therefore, there are a
number of situations in which communication takes place.
One needs a channel or medium to move these messages. In addition
to face-to-face verbal communication (sign language in case of the
deaf & dumb) a variety of other means such as newspaper, book,
magazine, radio and TV, tape recorders, VCRs, teleprinters,
facsimiles etc., are available as other channels of communication.
The advancement of technologies have helped the speed of the
transmission of messages over the different media.
Soon we will be discussing the history of communication, its several
definitions, what constitutes communication, the various stages and
variables in the process of communication and the functions and
effects of communication.
There is really nothing that is difficult to understand about
communication provided you analyze a daily communication
Self-Instructional Material situation - like when you talk to others or vice-versa or ask yourself
250
questions like who publish newspapers, why you watch television Communication and Rural Development

and what benefits do you derive from watching. It is all simple as NOTES
you will learn from the following text.

10.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This unit is aimed at familiarizing you with the concept and meaning
of communication. You will realize that it sounds simple but in
reality the concept is complex. This is why, we break it into its
several components, an analysis of each of which will help you to
understand the whole. After going through this unit, you will be able
to:understand the meaning of communication;
i) analyze the various elements making up co &
communication process;
ii) describe communication models;
iii) show different levels at which communication takes place;
iv) map out the scope and functions of communication.

10.3 Communication and Rural Development

Communication is what you and I do and for that matter, everyone
does every day. When I speak to you or you speak to me, it is
communication. When I write to you, I am communicating with you.
Suppose I want to call a person who is not within hearing distance, I
wave my hand.
This Waving also is communication. If I draw a chart showing the
increase in prices, this chart becomes communication. You might
have noticed in all these examples that someone is saying something
to someone else - transmission of a message or information.
The person who is saying something is the source; what he is saying
is the message and the person he addresses or talks to is the receiver.
However, you cannot talk to another person unless there is air which
carries the sounds of your speech. The air thus becomes the channel.
Thus you will see that there are four major elements in the
communication process – the source wishing to say something, the
message or what the source wishes to say. the channel or the medium
which came the message to its destination and the receiver who is the
target of the message. So, we have (i) source, (ii) message, (iii)
channel and (iv) receiver as the four major constituents in the process
of communication.
No society or community can sulvive without communication. In
fact, without comhunication,every gerson becomes an island. Human
beings foml a society or conllnunity with the help of communication.
The word conmlunicate is derived from the Latin word "Communis",
When we communicate, we establish a communication bond among
ourselves, derive a common learning, common understanding and so
on. Communication is an effort to explain ourselves to others and in Self-Instructional Material

251
Communication and Rural Development turn understand others. In this effort, we succeed or fail in varying
NOTES degrees.
We give below a number of definitions listed by J. Black and Freed J.
Whitney in their book "Introduction to Mass Communication " (Win.
C. Brown Publishers. low, USA, 1988). Each of them looks at
communication from a different angle. They are:
Communication is the process of transmitting meaning and source
between individuals; Communication is the process by which an
individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli (usually verbal
symbols) to modify the behavior of other individuals (my nicatees);
Communication occurs whenever information is passed from one
place to another; Communication is not simply the verbal, explicit
and interaction transmission of messages; it includes all those
processes by which people influence one another; . communication
~omnlunicahdn occurs when person A communicates message B
through channel C to person D with effect E. '
Some authors describe communication as S - R for the stimulus -
response process, or the interaction between a source and receiver,
thus S and R standing for two referents each. Stimulus is anything
that sets our sensory organs into motion and sends messages to the
mind. Flor example, fragrance stimulates our nose and sends a
message to our brain. The sensory prgans are nose, ears, eyes, tongue
and skin. Response is the reaction of the receiver to stimulus. In other
words, S and R stand for sender or source and receiver. It is enough
for us to know at this stage that communication is a process that takes
place between two sides or points between which there is an
exchange of messages in the forin of ill formation, knowledge,
thought, attitudes and beliefs through a variety of channels.
These channels may be just air which carries the sounds of
communication or on which pamphlets, posters, books, magazines,
newspapers, letters etc., are printed or electronic meha like radio and
TV or simple stone (sculpture, milestones) or cloth (painting). These
are channel9 or carriers of messages. But all of us need syinbols or
signs which stand for something we want,to say, We may call this
language or code. We use the word "dog" to refer to a dog. We have
a word which stands for every animal, plant, thing, human being,
thought, idea and experience known to us. These words constitute the
language of a society; which can be written down if that society has a
script. There are societies or communities in the world which do not
have a script. In such a case, the reach of communication is limited.
Apart from the channel, a language (not necessarily spoken or
written) is necessary to express or convey the message over or
through a channel. In dance, messages are transferred or
Self-Instructional Material communicated through body language consisting of body postures,
252
body stance, body gyrations, movement of feet, hand gestures, eye Communication and Rural Development

movements etc., known as the language of dance. Just as spoken NOTES

languages differ from one community to the other, dance language
also differs. In India, we have Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi, Odissa,
etc., which are dance languages. In the West, we have Walk, Fox
Trot etc. Just as commutation requires both the sender and the
receiver to know the same or common language, in dance too, the
receiver must know the language of dance to understand (receive) the
messages sent by the dancer.
A milestone is a form of communication. It tells you how many miles
you are away from your destination. Lights are communications
which tell you to stop or to go or to be ready.
The barking of a dog is a communication telling you that a stranger is
on the prowl. Man also communicates with animals in a language
known to him and the animal.
An angry man need not express anger in words. He can show it
simply through facial expression. just as a person can communicate
happiness or grief through tears.
Thus there is no end to the number of ways in which communication
takes place. We will wind up the definition of communications by
quoting an expert : "Communications the form of interaction thar
takes place through .symbols. The symbols may be gestural, pictorial,
plastic, verbal or any other as stimuli to behavior which would not be
evoked buy the symbolitselfin the spectral contradictions of the
persons who respond."
Communication thus includes a very wide range of activity and has a
variety of meanings and covers all forms of expression ainled at
achieving mutual understanding.
Thus we see that communication is what keeps the society going
because each of us is a part of a society and has to communicate with
its other members. This we do through speech, writing, songs, body
motion etc. We have also become familiar with definitions of
communication which tell us that a communications needs a source, a
message, a channel and a receiver. You might have noted the ward
"process" recurring in many of the definitions.
10.3.1 MEANING AND SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION

We live in a society. Besides ourselves, there are others who may be

rich or poor, living in big houses or in huts, literate or illiterate. They
may also belong to different religions and communities, often
speaking different languages. But still all of them can speak or
interact with one another. Such interaction is essential for societies to
Self-Instructional Material

253
Communication and Rural Development survive. We ask questions and get answers, seek information and get
NOTES it.
We discuss problems and come to conclusions. We exchange our
ideas and interact with others. For doing all these we use
communication. Imagine a situation where we are not able to speak
and interact with others or think of a family living in the same house
without speaking to each other? Such situations can create plenty of
problems. When we get angry don‘t we stop talking to our friends or
family members at least for some time? Soon we talk it over or
discuss matters and begin normal conversation.
If we do not speak to each other we cannot understand each other. So
communication can help us to understand each other and solve
problems. But what is communication?
So far we have seen how we use communication. Now let‘s try and
define communication. But defining communication is not very easy.
It means many things to many people. Unlike definitions of a theory
or some scientific term ‗communication‘ has no definition accepted
by all experts.
We know that when we convey something by words, we may call it a
message. If you are used to a mobile phone you would know the term
‗SMS‘. This SMS is the short form for ‗Short Message Service‘.
Here the messages are short sentences or just a word or a phrase or a
sentence like ―I am in a meeting‘‘. ―Please call me at 4:00 p.m‖ or
―congratulations‖ or ―see you at home‖. These are all messages.
They are short and when someone receives them they ‗understand‘ it.
For example, take the message ―I am in a meeting‘‘. Please call me at
4:00 p.m‖. It does not need any explanation. The moment you read it,
you can understand it. Suppose someone has passed an exam. Just
send a message ―congratulations‖. The person who gets it
immediately follows it. So shall we use these two words, namely
‗message‘ and ‗understand‘, and define communication. Let‘s try.
―Communication is a message understood‖. Unless a message is
understood we cannot say that communication has taken place. Let‘s
send a message to someone else‘s phone, ―where came first‖. The
person who gets this message would wonder what it means. It does
not make any sense. The receiver of the message just does not
understand it. So for communication to take place, there are two
conditions. First, there should be a clear message. Secondly, that
message must be understood by the receiver, for whom it is meant. In
society, we all interact with messages.. Without interactions, a
society cannot survive. Social interaction is always through
messages. So we can also define communication in the following
words.
Self-Instructional Material

254
―Communication is social interaction through messages.‖ Think of Communication and Rural Development

telling someone, ―It is very warm today‖ or ―I am bored with the NOTES
history classes.‖ In both these cases, we are communicating what ‗we
experience‘. The weather being warm is what you feel or experience
physically. Getting bored with a subject is a different feeling which
needs some amount of education or experience in a class room. In
both cases we are sharing our feeling or experience with someone
else. So we may say that ―communication is sharing of experience.‖
SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION
Scope of communication means the normal functioning area of this
subject. Since communication is essential in every sphere of human
life, its scope is wide and pervasive. From cradle to grave, human
beings are somehow engaged in communication. No one can pass
even a day without communication. In the following a brief
discussion on scope of communication is given…
Communication in personal life: Communication is closely
related with every sphere of human life. From dawn to sleep at night,
a person communicates with others. This reveals that communication
is the part and parcel of human life.
Communication in social life: Now we are on the verge of human
civilization and living in an integrated society. In social life, people
need to develop social bondage. Communication helps us in creating
and strengthening this social bondage.
Communication in the state affairs: Communication is also pervaded
in all areas of state affairs. Without communication, state neither can
administer its various wings nor can maintain relationships with the
other part of the world. Due to revolutionary change in
communication technologies, the whole world has turned into a
global village.
Communication in business: In this post-modern age, we cannot
think of business without communication. Communication is the
lifeblood of business as it provides necessary information in
formulating business plans and policies. It also ensures effective
performance of business activities like production, distribution,
finance, warehousing etc. Thus; ultimate success of the business
depends on successful communication.
Communication in management: Management is the means of
achieving organizational goals. Efficiency and effectiveness of
management depend on effective communication with the various
internal and external parties. Every function of management depends
on communication. In fact, without information plans cannot be
formulated, activities cannot be organized, directives cannot be
issued and control cannot be ensured. Self-Instructional Material

255
Communication and Rural Development Communication in industrial relations: Industrial relation means a
NOTES labor management relationship in the industry or in an organization.
Congenial industrial relation is a precondition for business success.
On the other hand, free and fair communication is a pre-requisite for
creating good industrial relation. Free flow of information lessens
doubt, confusion and controversies between workers and
management. As a result, harmonious relationship develops in the
organization.
Communication in international affairs: In this age of globalization,
communication is not merely confined within the national boundary.
Countries are exchanging their cultural, economical, social, political,
educational and technological affairs with each other continuously. In
order to facilitate cooperation and communication among countries,
various regional and international bodies namely the United Nations,
World Bank, NAFTA, SAFTA, ASEAN, SAARC, EU etc. Have
been formed. Through these bodies, counties communicate various
bilateral and multilateral issues among them.
Communication in religion: Communication is also present in
perching, spreading and circulation various religious doctrines.
Prophets and saints have preached the verses of almighty to their
followers and even now, many religious thinkers are performing the
duty of preaching and circulating religious verses.
From the above discussion, we can draw the conclusion that the
scope of communication is so wide that encompasses almost every
sphere of our personal, social, national, international and religious
lives.
10.3.2 CHANNELS AND STAGES OF COMMUNICATION
CHANNELS
In an organization, information flows forward, backwards and
sideways. This information flow is referred to as communication.
Communication channels refer to the way this information flows
within the organization and with other organizations. In this web
known as communication, a manager becomes a link. Decisions and
directions flow upwards or downwards or sideways depending on the
position of the manager in the communication web.
For example, reports from lower level manager will flow upwards. A
good manager has to inspire, steer and organize his employees
efficiently, and for all this, the tools in his possession are spoken and
written words. For the flow of information and for a manager to
handle his employees, it is important for an effectual communication
channel to be in place.
The Working of a Communication Channel Through a modem of
Self-Instructional Material communication, be it face-to-face conversations or an inter-
256
department memo, information is transmitted from a manager to a Communication and Rural Development

subordinate or vice versa. An important element of the NOTES

communication process is the feedback mechanism between the
management and employees.
In this mechanism, employees inform managers that they have
understood the task at hand while managers provide employees with
comments and directions on employee's work. Importance of a
Communication Channel A breakdown in the communication
channel leads to an inefficient flow of information. Employees are
unaware of what the company expects of them. They are uninformed
of what is going on in the company.
This will cause them to become suspicious of motives and any
changes in the company. Also without effective communication,
employees become department minded rather than company minded,
and this affects their decision making and productivity in the
workplace. Eventually, this harms the overall organizational
objectives as well. Hence, in order for an organization to be run
effectively, a good manager should be able to communicate to his/her
employees what is expected of them, make sure they are fully aware
of company policies and any upcoming changes.
Therefore, an effective communication channel should be
implemented by managers to optimize worker productivity to ensure
the smooth running of the organization. Types of Communication
Channels The number of communication channels available to a
manager has increased over the last 20 odd years. Video
conferencing, mobile technology, electronic bulletin boards and fax
machines are some of the new possibilities.
As organizations grow in size, managers cannot rely on face-to-face
communication alone to get their message across. A challenge the
managers face today is to determine what type of communication
channel should they opt for in order to carryout effective
communication. In order to make a manager's task easier, the types
of communication channels are grouped into three main groups:
formal, informal and unofficial.
Formal Communication Channels
A formal communication channel transmits information such as the
goals, policies and procedures of an organization. Messages in this
type of communication channel follow a chain of command. This
means information flows from a manager to his subordinates and
they in turn pass on the information to the next level of staff. An
example of a formal communication channel is a company's
newsletter, which gives employees as well as the clients a clear idea
of a company's goals and vision. It also includes the transfer of
information with regard to memoranda, reports, directions, and Self-Instructional Material

257
Communication and Rural Development scheduled meetings in the chain of command. A business plan,
NOTES customer satisfaction survey, annual reports, employer's manual,
review meetings are all formal communication channels.
Informal Communication Channels
Within a formal working environment, there always exists an
informal communication network. The strict hierarchical web of
communication cannot function efficiently on its own and hence
there exists a communication channel outside of this web. While this
type of communication channel may disrupt the chain of command, a
good manager needs to find the fine balance between the formal and
informal communication channel.
An example of an informal communication channel is lunchtime at
the organization's cafeteria/canteen. Here, in a relaxed atmosphere,
discussions among employees are encouraged. Also managers
walking around, adopting a hands-on approach to handling employee
queries is an example of an informal communication channel.
Quality circles, team work, different training programs are outside of
the chain of command and so, fall under the category of informal
communication channels.
Unofficial Communication Channels
Good managers will recognize the fact that sometimes
communication that takes place within an organization is
interpersonal. While minutes of a meeting may be a topic of
discussion among employees, sports, politics and TV shows also
share the floor.
The unofficial communication channel in an organization is the
organization's 'grapevine.' It is through the grapevine that rumors
circulate. Also those engaging in 'grapevine' discussions often form
groups, which translate into friendships outside of the organization.
While the grapevine may have positive implications, more often than
not information circulating in the grapevine is exaggerated and may
cause unnecessary alarm to employees. A good manager should be
privy to information circulating in this unofficial communication
channel and should take positive measures to prevent the flow of
false information. An example of an unofficial communication
channel is social gatherings among employees.
Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. Write the meaning of Communication?

Self-Instructional Material 2. Write the Scope of Communication?.

258
 Communication and Rural Development

NOTES

STAGES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a key component to living a successful life.
Possessing effective communication skills can improve your career,
your relationships, and increase your people skills. There are seven
stages to basic communication. By knowing and understanding these
stages you will be able to better communicate in your personal and
professional life.
Sender – Know the message you want to communicate and make
sure that message contain useful and correct information.
Encoding – Encoding is the process where the information you
would like to communicate gets transferred into a form to be sent and
decoded by the receiver. The ability to deliver the message clearly as
well as be able to discard any confusing or potentially offensive
themes such as cultural issues, or missing information is imperative
in this stage.
Channel – Channels are the way you convey your message. These
channels include verbal such as telephone, and face-to-face
conversations as well as non-verbal such as e-mail and text
messaging. Each individual channel has its strengths and weaknesses
in terms of communicating. For example, it is better to give
instructions non-verbally rather than expecting the person you are
communicating with will remember everything you tell them. You
would also never critique or criticize anyone through a non-verbal
channel at the risk of having a misunderstanding.
Decoding – Decoding is on the receiving end of communication.
This stage is just as important as encoding. Communication can go
downhill at this stage if the receiver is not practicing active listening
skills or if they do not possess enough information to accurately
decode the message.
Receiver – Know your audience. Each individual person on the
receiving end of your message already has their own ideas and
thoughts that will absolutely influence the way they translate your
message. By getting to know your audience better you will be able to
have a better understanding of how they will react to what you are
trying to communicate.
Feedback – As you are communicating your message your audience
will provide you with non-verbal and verbal reactions. You will be
able to asses while communicating your message if it is being
Self-Instructional Material

259
Communication and Rural Development conveyed accurately by paying close attention to non-verbal cues
NOTES first such as returning eye contact, head nodding etc.
Context –Context is the environment in which your message is being
delivered. For example, If you‘re making a work presentation
chances are you will be speaking more professionally, than if you
were conversing casually with a neighbor or friend.
10.3.3 METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
Methods of Communication
The standard methods of communication are speaking or writing by a
sender and listening or reading the receiver. Most communication is
oral, with one party speaking and others listening.
However, some forms of communication do not directly involve
spoken or written language. Nonverbal communication (body
language) consists of actions, gestures, and other aspects of physical
appearance that, combined with facial expressions (such as smiling
or frowning), can be powerful means of transmitting messages. At
times, a person's body may be ―talking‖ even as he or she maintains
silence. And when people do speak, their bodies may sometimes say
different things than their words convey. A mixed message occurs
when a person's words communicate one message, while
nonverbally, he or she is communicating something else.
Although technology such as e‐mail has lessened the importance of
nonverbal communication, the majority of organizational
communication still takes place through face‐to‐face interaction.
Every verbal message comes with a nonverbal component. Receivers
interpret messages by taking in meaning from everything available.
When nonverbal cues are consistent with verbal messages, they act to
reinforce the messages. But when these verbal and nonverbal
messages are inconsistent, they create confusion for the receiver.
The actions of management are especially significant because
subordinates place more confidence in what managers do than what
they say. Unless actions are consistent with communication, a feeling
of distrust will undermine the effectiveness of any future social
exchange.
Oral communication skills
Because a large part of a manager's day is spent conversing with
other managers and employees, the abilities to speak and listen are
critical to success. For example, oral communication skills are used
when a manager must make sales presentations, conduct interviews,
perform employee evaluations, and hold press conferences.

Self-Instructional Material

260
In general, managers prefer to rely on oral communication because Communication and Rural Development

communication tends to be more complete and thorough when NOTES

talking in person. In face‐to‐face interactions, a person can judge how
the other party is reacting, get immediate feedback, and answer
questions. In general, people tend to assume that talking to someone
directly is more credible than receiving a written message.
Face‐to‐face communication permits not only the exchange of words,
but also the opportunity to see the nonverbal communication.
However, verbal communicating has its drawbacks. It can be
inconsistent, unless all parties hear the same message. And although
oral communication is useful for conveying the viewpoints of others
and fostering an openness that encourages people to communicate, it
is a weak tool for implementing a policy or issuing directives where
many specifics are involved.
Here are two of the most important abilities for effective oral
communication:
Active listening. Listening is making sense of what is heard and
requires paying attention, interpreting, and remembering sound
stimuli. Effective listening is active, requiring the hearer to ―get
inside the head‖ of the speaker so that he or she can understand the
communication from the speaker's point of view. Effective listeners
do the following:

 Make eye contact.

 Schedule sufficient, uninterrupted time for meetings.
 Genuinely seek information.
 Avoid being emotional or attacking others.
 Paraphrase the message you heard, especially to clarify the
speaker's intentions.
 Keep silent. Don't talk to fill pauses, or respond to statements
in a point‐counterpoint fashion.
 Ask clarifying questions.
 Avoid making distracting gestures.
 Constructive feedback. Managers often do poor jobs of
providing employees with performance feedback. When
providing feedback, managers should do the following:
 Focus on specific behaviors rather than making general
statements
 Keep feedback impersonal and goal‐oriented
 Offer feedback as soon after the action as possible
 Ask questions to ensure understanding of the feedback
 Direct negative feedback toward behavior that the recipient
can control
Written communication skills Self-Instructional Material

261
Communication and Rural Development Written communication has several advantages. First, it provides a
NOTES record for referral and follow‐up. Second, written communication is
an inexpensive means of providing identical messages to a large
number of people.
The major limitation of written communication is that the sender
does not know how or if the communication is received unless a
reply is required.
Unfortunately, writing skills are often difficult to develop, and many
individuals have problems writing simple, clear, and direct
documents. And believe it or not, poorly written documents cost
money.
Managers must be able to write clearly. The ability to prepare letters,
memos, sales reports, and other written documents may spell the
difference between success and failure. The following are some
guidelines for effective written communication:

 Use the P.O.W.E.R. Plan for preparing each message: plan,

organize, write, edit, and revise
 Draft the message with the readers in mind
 Give the message a concise title and use subheadings where
appropriate
 Use simple words and short, clear, sentences and paragraphs
 Back up opinions with facts
 Avoid ―flowery‖ language, euphemisms, and trite expressions
 Summarize main points at the end and let the reader know
what he must do next

10.3.4 SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication skills are those skills which are needed to speak and
write properly. A person who is able to speak appropriately whilst
maintaining eye contact with the audience, uses varied vocabulary
and articulate speech to suit the need of the audience is generally said
to be an effective speaker. Similarly, an effective writer should be
able to use written words in various styles and techniques to
communicate his/her message and ideas to the readers. One should
have the ability to listen carefully and write and speak clearly in any
situation.
Therefore good reading, writing, speaking and listening skills
are essential for effective communication. As a student, you may
study any language, but it is important that you are able to read,
write, speak and listen well in order to communicate properly.
Speaking more than one language can help you to communicate well
with people around the world. Learning English can help you to
communicate with people who understand English besides the
Self-Instructional Material language you have been exposed to speaking the language from easly
262
childhood, for example, your mother tongue. In the present time, a Communication and Rural Development

thorough knowledge of the language with communication skills is NOTES

very important in any occupation or to set up a business.

The Importance of Communication Skills

Having strong communication skills aids in all aspects of life – from
professional life to personal life and everything that falls in between.
From a business standpoint, all transactions result from
communication. Good communication skills are essential to allow
others and yourself to understand information more accurately and
quickly.
In contrast, poor communication skills lead to frequent
misunderstanding and frustration. In a 2016 LinkedIn survey
conducted in the United States, communication topped the list of the
most sought-after soft skills among employers.
How to Improve Your Communication Skills
Here are some pointers to look out for when looking to improve your
ability to effectively communicate with others:

1. Listening
To become a good communicator, it is important to be a good
listener. It is important to practice active listening – pay close
attention to what others are saying and clarify ambiguities by
rephrasing their questions for greater understanding.
2. Conciseness
Convey your message in as few words as possible. Do not use filler
words and get straight to the point. Rambling will cause the listener
to tune out or be unsure of what you are talking about. Avoid
speaking excessively and do not use words that may confuse the
audience.
3. Body language
It is important to practice good body language, use eye contact,
utilize hand gestures, and watch the tone of the voice when
communicating with others. A relaxed body stance with a friendly
tone will aid in making you look approachable by others.
Eye contact is important in communication – look the person in the
eye to indicate that you are focused on the conversation. But make
Self-Instructional Material

263
Communication and Rural Development sure to not stare at the person as it can make him or her
NOTES uncomfortable.
4. Confidence
Be confident in what you say and in your communication interactions
with others. Being confident can be as easy as maintaining eye
contact, maintaining a relaxed body stance, and talking with
concision. Try not to make statements sound like questions and avoid
trying to sound aggressive or demeaning.
5. Open-mindedness
In situations where you disagree with what someone else has to say,
whether it be with an employer, a co-worker, or a friend, it is
important to sympathize with their point of view rather than simply
try to get your message across. Respect the opinion of others and
never resort to demeaning those who do not agree with you.
6. Respect
Respecting what others have to say and acknowledging them is an
important aspect of communication. Being respectful can be as
simple as paying attention to what they have to say, using the
person‘s name, and not being distracted. By respecting others, the
other person will feel appreciated, which will lead to a more honest
and productive conversation.
7. Using the correct medium
There are several different forms of communication to use – it is
important to choose the right one. For example, communicating in
person about serious matters (layoffs, salary changes, etc.) is more
appropriate than sending an email regarding the matter.
Good Communication Skills for a Great Career
Succeeding in your career requires good communication skills. You
need to know what you want and how you are going to attain it.
Being an excellent communicator can help propel your career.
Good communication skills can aid in helping you land an interview
and pass the selection process. Being able to articulate well provides
a significant advantage! To do your job effectively, you have to
discuss problems, request information, interact with others, and have
good human relations skill – these are all part of having good
communication skills. They help in being understood well and in
helping understand the needs of those around you.
Bad Communication in the Workplace

Self-Instructional Material

264
Communication drives workplace success. Although the detriments Communication and Rural Development

of poorly communicating with others may not be apparent in the NOTES

short term, it has a crippling effect on the workplace in the long-term.
Here are some signs of bad communication:

 Lack of specific communication

 Using the incorrect mediums to convey important messages
 Passive-aggressive communication
 Lack of follow-through and consideration
 Blaming and intimidating others
 Failing to listen
An example of poor communication would be the RadioShack layoff
notices in 2006. The electronics chain laid off 400 employees by
notifying employees by email. The company faced significant
backlash following the move, with many surprised that it used email
instead of face-to-face meetings.
10.3.5 THEORIES AND MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
THEORIES & MODELS
The term ‗theory‘ is often intimidating to students. Theories provide
an abstract understanding of a process, Miller says. It is simply a
summary of a process. Hoover (1984) defines it as ―a set of inter-
related propositions that suggest why events occur in the manner that
they do‖. Foss, Foss and Griffin (1999) defines theory as, ―a way of
framing an experience or event—an effort to understand and account
for something and the way it functions in the world‖. Any thoughts
or ideas about how things work in the world or one‘s life are personal
theories. Theories are essentially frameworks for how the world
works, and therefore guide how to function in the world. Theory is an
idea of how something happens. It is an attempt to explain or
represent an experience. The term communication theory may refer
to a single theory or an entire set of theories related to
communication. ―Theories are not just things to be read and learned.
They are constantly evolving works.‖ (Littlejohn, 2002, p. 25)
The origin of the word ‗Model‘ could be traced to the French word
modèle; Italian modello, diminutive of modo, form, and Latin modus,
measure, standard; Model refers to representation/replica of the
original. A model is thus a schematic description of a system, theory,
or phenomenon that accounts for its known or inferred properties and
may be used for further study of its characteristics. Communication
models seek to represent the structure and key elements of the
communication process.
2. COMMUNICATION THEORIES

Self-Instructional Material

265
Communication and Rural Development In a field like Communication, theories are important to understand
NOTES because they directly impact our daily lives. The first function
communication theories serve is that they help us organize and
understand our communication experiences. A second function is that
they help us choose what communicative behaviours to study. A third
function is that they help us broaden our understanding of human
communication. And the fourth function is that they help us predict
and control our communication. A fifth function of theories is that
they help us challenge current social and cultural realities and
provide new ways of thinking and living.
While theories serve many useful functions, these functions do not
really matter if we do not have well-developed theories that provide a
good representation of how our world works. Littlejohn considers a
communication theory to be "any conceptual representation or
explanation of the communication process"
COMMUNICATION THEORIES
To quote Robert T Craig, from his landmark article, Communication
Theory as a Field in 1999, "(...) Although there exist many theories
of communication (...) there is no consensus on communication
theory as a field‖. Craig "proposes a vision for communication theory
that takes a huge step toward unifying this rather disparate field and
addressing its complexities." Craig focused on communication theory
as a practical discipline and shows how "various traditions of
communication theory can be engaged in dialogue on the practice of
communication." Craig identifies seven different traditions of
Communication Theory and outlines how each one of them would
engage the others in dialogue.

 Rhetorical
 Semiotic
 Phenomenological
 Cybernetic
 Socio-Psychological
 Socio-cultural
 Critical
RHETORICAL THEORY
Rhetorical theory is said to have begun on the Island of Sicily when a
dictator was overthrown, leaving landowners to argue in court over
who rightfully owned the land - the original owners or those who had
been given the land during the tyrant's regime? Under the Greek legal
system of the time, individuals had to present their own cases in court
- creating the need for individuals to become adept at the art of
rhetoric. Corax can be credited with the first formal rhetorical theory;
Self-Instructional Material he wrote a treatise ‗The Art of Rhetoric‘ to assist those involved in
266
the land disputes. In this, he highlighted the importance of Communication and Rural Development

probability to rhetoric; a speaker should argue from general NOTES

probabilities or create a probable connection or basis for belief when
actual facts cannot be established. No longer confined to the public
domains of classical Greece, rhetorical theorists study every kind of
context in which symbol use occurs. Today, this means studying
everything from intrapersonal to interpersonal to public discourse to
social movements and mediated discourse. Rhetorical theories
address what makes public, personal diaries as rhetoric, and
television, the Internet, and Web sites as rhetorical arte facts. Thus
rhetorical theory includes the study of visual and nonverbal elements,
such as the study of art and architecture, buildings and all design
elements of cities, and dress and
appearance, to sports, to name a few. There is hardly anything that is
part of the human experience that cannot be looked at from a
rhetorical perspective. Rhetorical theory has also seen a shift away
from a strict focus on persuasion. For some rhetorical theorists, all
human symbol use is inherently persuasive – no matter what our
intent, anything we say or write, whether intentional or not, affects
those around us. Other rhetorical theorists continue to focus on
delineating how persuasion works in new arenas for theorizing. Yet
others question the persuasive act itself. In general the focus on
persuasion and its possibilities has led to an ongoing interest among
rhetorical theorists in rhetoric's relationship to social change.
SEMIOTIC THEORY
John Locke (1690) introduced the term ‗semiotics‘ into the English
language as asynonym for ―doctrine of signs‖ (Latin: doctrina
signorum, the oldest name for the study of what is now called
‗semiosis‘ or ―the action of signs‖). There already existed in Locke‘s
time (and long before) the Greek term Σημειωτικὴ, ―semeiotics‖, to
name that branch of medical science concerned with the study of
symptoms of disease or σημεια -‗natural signs‘ in today‘s language.
Research into sign systems began with the ancient Greeks, and in the
course of Western history many writers and scholars have studied the
various processes by means of which signification is produced. In
the modern world the major areas which have been the object of
semiotic study are literature, environmental and social structures,
visual and plastic arts, ritual, myth, pedagogy, and gesture.
Consequently, semiotics is very much an interdisciplinary science.
Semiotics is the science of communication and sign systems, of the
ways people understand phenomena and organize them mentally, and
of the ways in which they devise means for transmitting that
understanding and for sharing it with others. Although natural and
artificial languages are central to semiotics, it covers non-verbal
signaling and extends to domains whose communicative dimension is
Self-Instructional Material

267
Communication and Rural Development perceived only unconsciously. Knowledge, meaning, intention and
NOTES action are thus fundamental concepts in the semiotic investigation of
phenomena.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY
Phenomenological theorists emphasize that each person actively
constructs her or his own world. According to the Phenomenological
approach to personality, the specific ways each person perceives and
interprets the world make up personality and guide one‘s behaviour.
People's view of reality/perspective is important in guiding their
behaviour and is shaped by learned expectations. These expectations
form personal constructs which are generalized ways of anticipating
the world. Carl Roger's Self Theory emphasized self-actualization
which he described as the innate tendency toward growth that
motivates all human behaviour. Rogers distinguished between the
actual self and the ideal self. Problems develop when the two self
concepts do not match or when one's expectations or ideals don't
match reality.
Abraham Maslow (Humanistic Psychology) believed that self-
actualization is not just a human capacity but a human need. Maslow
argued that there was a hierarchy of needs that all humans have, and
beginning at the bottom of the hierarchy, each need in the hierarchy
must be satisfied before one can move to the next level.
CYBERNETIC THEORY
In 1948, Norbert Wiener coined the term "cybernetics" to elaborate
on the existing theory of the transmission of messages by
incorporating his idea that people send messages within a system in
an effort to control their surrounding environment (Wiener, 1954).
The basic function of communication, which Wiener defines in his
theory as the processing of information, is to control the environment
in which one lives. This idea suggests that the goal of human
communication is to become familiarized with a certain environment
while simultaneously influencing aspects of it. With this, Wiener
asserts that, ‗the purpose of Cybernetics to develop a language and
techniques that enable us to attack the problem of control and
communication in general and find the proper repertory of ideas and
techniques to classify their particular manifestations under certain
concepts‘ (Wiener, 1954, p.16). Thus, he defines the problem in
terms of control and system malfunctions through the understanding
of the Cybernetic theory. Wiener (1954) introduces the ideas of
entropy and feedback into his theory (p. 20). A shortcoming is that
Wiener‘s theory assumes people are built like complex machines and
so, are capable of interpreting and processing feedback and making
changes in order to fit in to an environment. Watzlawick et al. (1967)
Self-Instructional Material

268
go beyond Wiener‘s theory of Cybernetics to explain why problems Communication and Rural Development

in human relationships are not easily influenced by feedback. NOTES

SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY
Social Psychology is a branch of Psychology that studies individuals
in the social context. It focuses on the individual and also relies on
the scientific research to generate the theories of social behaviour.
Social Psychology offers a considerable insight into the individual
and society, and into the human condition. One of the major currents
of theory in this area sprang from the work of philosopher and
sociologist George Herbert Mead at the University of Chicago from
1894. Mead is credited as the founder of symbolic interactions.
Social exchange theory emphasizes the idea that social action is the
result of personal choices made in order to maximize benefits and
minimize costs. A key component of this theory is the postulation of
the "comparison level of alternatives", which is the actor's sense of
the best possible alternative (i.e., the choice with the highest benefits
relative to costs). However, social exchange theories differ from
economic theories by making predictions about the relationships
between persons, and not just the evaluation of goods.
SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY
Socio-cultural theory looks at the contributions that society makes to
individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between
developing people and the culture in which they live. Socio-cultural
theory grew from the work of seminal psychologism. Lev Vygotsky,
who believed that parents, care givers, peers and the culture were
largely responsible for the development of higher order functions.
According to Vygotsky, "Every function in the child's cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the
individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then
inside the child (intra- psychological). As his work became more
widely published, his ideas have grown increasingly influential in
areas including child development, cognitive psychology and
education. Socio-cultural theory focuses not only on how adults and
peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs
and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place. An
important concept in socio-cultural theory is known as the zone of
proximal development. The zone of proximal development "is the
distance between the actual development level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development
as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers." Essentially, it includes all of
the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or
perform on their own yet, but is capable of learning with guidance.
CRITICAL THEORY Self-Instructional Material

269
Communication and Rural Development Critical theory was first defined by Max Horkheimer of the Frankfurt
NOTES School of Sociology in his 1937 essay Traditional and Critical
Theory. Critical theory is a social theory oriented toward critiquing
and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory
oriented only to understanding or explaining it. Horkheimer wanted
to distinguish critical theory as a radical, emancipatory form of
Marxian theory. Critical theory questions and challenges the
conviction that what is, or what is in the process of becoming, or
what appears to be, or what is most commonly understood to be, or
what is dominantly conveyed to be, is also at the same time right and
true, good and just, and necessary and inevitable: critical theory does
not, at least not automatically, accept any of this. Critical theory is
always particularly concerned with inquiring into the problems and
limitations, the mistakes, the contradictions and incoherence, the
injustices and inequities in how human beings operate within
particular kinds of structures and hierarchies of relations with each
other, facilitated and regulated by particular kinds of institutions,
engaged in particular kinds of processes and practices, have formed,
reformed, and transformed ourselves, each other, and the
communities, cultures, societies, and world in which we live.
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
In this section, you will learn about three models of communication:

 Linear model
 Interactive model
 Transactional model
Linear Model
The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear
process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens.
Laswell‘s (1948) model was based on the five questions below,
which effectively describe how communication works: Shannon and
Weaver‘s (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts
understanding between the speaker and the listener. It is a one way
model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding
a message and channelling it to the receiver in the presence of noise.
Its major drawback is that it assumes that there is a clear cut
beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback
from the receiver; e.g. Mass communication - television, radio,
newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for
feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e- mail can
be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because
listeners can still give feedback nonverbally.
Interactive Model
Self-Instructional Material

270
The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as Communication and Rural Development

a one-way process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also NOTES
implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages.
Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with an interactive model
that saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or
speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the
feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the
listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given
either verbally or nonverbally, or in both ways. This model also
indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they
have common fields of experience, or fields which overlap.
Effectively, this is two linear models stacked on top of each other.
The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then
becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender
(feedback). This indicates that communication is a two way process.
Feedback is not simultaneous, e.g., Instant Messaging (IM). The
sender sends an IM to the receiver, and then the original sender has
to wait for the IM from the receiver to react.
Transactional Model
The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not
indicate that ommunicators can both send and receive messages
simultaneously. This model also fails to show that communication is
a dynamic process which changes over time. The transactional model
shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each
person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and
can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages. The model
implies:
Transactional‖ means that communication is an ongoing and
continuously changing process;

 In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to

all the other elements. There is this interdependence where
there can be no source without a receiver and no message
without a source;
 Each person in the communication process reacts depending
on factors such as their background, prior experiences,
attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.
Figure 4 shows a transactional model of communication that takes
into account ―noise‖ in communication as well as the time factor.
The outer lines of the model indicate that communication happens
within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common
campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family,
religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen
in the communicators‘ fields of personal and common experiences.
Self-Instructional Material

271
Communication and Rural Development The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as
NOTES receiver simultaneously.
This model assumes:

 That people are connected through communication;

 They are engaged in transaction.
 It recognizes that each of player is a sender-receiver, not just a
sender or a receiver.
 It recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. .
 The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize
the communication environment.

10.3.6 BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION
Stereotyping
Stereotyping causes one to typing a person, a group, an event or a
thing on over simplified conceptions, beliefs or opinions.
Stereotyping can substitute for thinking, analysis and open
mindedness for a new situation. Stereotyping is a barrier to
communication when it causes people to act as if they already know
the message that is coming from the sender or worse, as if no
message is necessary because everybody already known. But senders
and listeners should continuously look for and address thinking,
conclusions and actions based on stereotypes.
Wrong Channel
Using the wrong channel in communication is most likely to lead to
misunderstanding, and can cause mistrust in others. Selecting the
wrong communication channel can cause communication obstacles
including information overload and inadequate feedback. Information
overload occurs when receiving information faster than processing.
For example, receiving too many emails dilutes the meanings of the
emails' messages. The dilution of messages can lead to messages
becoming lost. Selecting a communication method which offers the
appropriate opportunity for feedback proves important.
Language Barrier
Increased globalization is forcing a growing number of business
managers and employees to interact across linguistic boundaries.
Self-Instructional Material According to Henderson (2005), since language affects almost all
272
aspects of everyday life, there needs more of a focus on Communication and Rural Development

communication barriers by researchers and practitioners engaged in NOTES

international business and management.
The issue of language barriers is particularly critical during
intercultural service encounters. Intercultural service Thacker
encounters, where the customer and the service provider are from
different cultures, is very common in the service sector, especially in
the western countries.
Such intercultural service encounters may be influenced not only by
cultural differences but also by language barriers. Customers may
find it difficult to communicate or even get necessary information
regarding products or services.
Despite its importance, the effects of language barriers on ESL
(English as a Second Language) customers‗ service experiences have
been largely neglected in academic research. Language is not only a
medium of communication, but also linked to an individual‗s or
social identity.
Lack of Feedback
Feedback is the mirror of communication. Feedback mirrors what the
sender has sent. Feedback is the receiver sending back to the sender
the message as perceived. Static communication creates a vacuum.
The speaker assumes the message is received but has no feedback
from the listener. This lack of feedback means the speaker fails to
modify the message to help the listener better understands the
speaker's attitude and position. When businesses fail to create open
feedback channels, they operate in a communication vacuum.
Without feedback, communication is one way process. Feedback
happens in a variety of ways. Asking a person to repeat what has
been said, for example, repeats instructions, and is a very direct way
of getting feedback. Feedback may be as subtle as a starve, a puzzled
look, and or failure to ask any questions often complicated
instructions have been given. Both sender and receiver can play an
active role in using feedback to make communication truly two ways.
Feedback should be helpful rather than harmful. Prompt feedback is
more effective that feedback served up until the right moment.
Feedback should deal in specific rather than generalities. Feedback
should be approached as a problem in perception rather than a
problem of discovering the facts.
Poor Listening Skills
Listening is difficult. A usual speaker says about 125 words per
minute. The usual listener can receive 400-600 words per minute.
Thus, about 75 per cent of listening time is free time. The free time Self-Instructional Material

273
Communication and Rural Development often sidetracks the listener. The solution is to be an active rather
NOTES passive listener. One important listening skill is to be prepared to
listen. Thus, our thoughts about other people and other problems
search for meaning in what the person is saying. A mental outline or
summary of key thoughts can be very helpful. Avoid interrupting the
speaker. To be quite is a useful listening guideline. To be quite for
some more is useful extensions of this guideline withhold evaluation
and judgment until the other person has finished transmitting
messages. A listener‗s premature frown, shaking of the head or bored
look can easily indicate the other person that there is no need to
communicate his or her idea again providing feedback is the most
important active listening skills.
Ask questions, nod in agreement. Look the person straight into the
eye. Lean forward. Be an animated listener. Focus on what the other
person is saying. Repeat key points. Active listening is particularly
important in dealing with an angry person. Encouraging the person to
speak i.e., to vent feelings, is essential to establishing communication
with an angry person. Repeat what the person has said. Ask questions
to encourage the person to say again what he or she seemed most
anxious to say in the first place. An angry person will not start
listening until they have cooled down. Telling an angry person to
cool down often has the opposite effect. Getting angry with an angry
person only assures that there are now two people not listening to
what the other is saying. Interruption
The interruption in communication may be due to something more
pressing, rudeness, lack of privacy for discussion, and a drop in
visitor, an emergency or even the curiosity of someone else wanting
to know what two other people are saying. Regardless of the cause,
interruptions are a barrier to communication. In the extreme, there is
a reluctance of employees and family members even to attempt
discussion with a manager because of the near certainty that the
conversation will be interrupted. Less extreme but serious is the
problem of incomplete infrastructure because someone come by with
pressing questions.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. Write the meaning of Coding and Decoding?

4. Write the Models of the Communication?.

Physical Distraction
Physical distractions are the physical elements that get in the way of
Self-Instructional Material communication. Examples of such things include the telephone, a
274
pick-up truck door, a desk, an uncomfortable meeting place and Communication and Rural Development

noise. The physical distractions are common on farms. If the phone NOTES
rings, the tendency is to answer it even if the caller is interrupting
into a very important or even delicate conversation. A bad cellular
phone line or a noisy restaurant can destroy communication. If an E-
mail message or letter is not formatted properly, or if it contains
grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver may not be able to
concentrate on the message because the physical appearance of the
letter or E-mail is sloppy and unprofessional.
The supervisor may give instructions from the driver‗s seat of a
pickup truck. Talking through an open window and down to an
employee makes the truck door a barrier. A person sitting behind a
desk especially if sitting in a large chair, talking across the desk is
talking from behind a physical barrier. Two peoples talking, facing
each other without a desk or truck–door between them have a much
more open and personal sense of communication. Uncomfortable
meeting places may include a place on the farm that is too hot or too
cold. Another example is a meeting room with uncomfortable chair
that soon changed people to stand even if means cutting short the
discussion. Noise is a physical distraction simply because it is hard to
concentrate on a conversation if hearing is difficult.

10.4. COMMUNICATION AND ITS ROLE IN RURAL

DEVELOPMENT
Communication is the core activity of human association in general
and progress as well as development in particular. No human life can
exist in isolation. A man can survive only in society and the survival
in society is possible with communication. Therefore,
communication is identified as the oldest continued activity of human
being since birth and goes on and on till death. More precisely,
communication is the basic need of human beings and web of society
which makes the survival, growth, progress and development of man
possible and holds the society intact and progressive.
Communication is a vital part of personal life in the society. It is
equally important in business, education, civilization, administration
and other situations where people encounter with each other to
satisfy their needs and wishes. Communication maintains and
animates the life. It leads people from instinct to inspiration, through
process and system of enquiry, command and control. It creates a
common pool of ideas, strengthens the feeling of togetherness
through the exchange of messages and translates through into action.
As the world has advanced, the task of communication has become
more complex. However, unless some basic structural changes are
introduced, the potential benefits of technological and
communication development will hardly be put at disposal of the
majority of mankind. The rural poverty and its related incidences
may decline if one puts efforts for sustained growth in agricultural Self-Instructional Material

275
Communication and Rural Development production. The extension communication system and network is the
NOTES key input in increasing the performance in agricultural production.
Therefore, the communication is the most powerful input which
brings substantial development in socio-economic status of an
individual.
Present Indian extension system is under numerous pressures
where the extension workers, have to cater not only vast population
but also to perform administrative, election, input supply and other
works. Under these circumstances, it is not practically possible to
serve all the farmers, all the time for all the problems when ratio of
extension worker and farmer, the sender and receiver is more than
1:1000. Therefore, the potential of mass media can be exploited to
serve the rural population in this direction. Electronisation and
mechanization in communication systems have provided opportunity
to access the information rapidly, accurately and repeatedly. To reach
the unreach modern electronic gadgets and systems have been
introduced to cope-up the requirements. The government of India has
realized the need and utility of these electronic equipments for rural
population. Therefore, massive programmes of cyber extension,
digital interactive distance learning, online networks, computers
aided multimedia; internet and free online telephones etc. have been
launched for the farmers. Some of the major extension technology
systems and approaches are being used presently like kisan call
centre (1551), Cyber Extension, computer-internet connectivity etc.
The use of present extension and communication technology
system is based on the initiative of the farmers-the receiver itself.
This is possible only when the farmer is conversant with the
knowledge of handling system, approach etc. about present
communication technology system as well as the positive attitude
towards the system. In view of the progressive farmers, its use is
judicious as they have high level of positive communication
behaviour has resulted the desired results in their agricultural
profession. As far as the farmers of hilly areas of Jammu and
Kashmir, U.P., Bihar and like backward areas are concerned they are
traditionalist-hardliners and shy in nature with poor communication
behaviour. They hesitate to adopt recent technologies. The reason of
poor communication behaviour is not only because of their personal
weaknesses but there are number of constraints which come in the
way and restrict them to make use of extension personnel‘s and
communication channels.
Communication in agriculture is not only to inform and create
awareness among the farmers but also to implement new ideas that
change the mode of farming. Village extension workers (VEWs)
inform the farmers about the new technologies, but they are not
keeping pace with the advancement of technical know-how.
Self-Instructional Material

276
Secondly, the message has to travel through many stages from its Communication and Rural Development

source to the ultimate users. Due to this hierarchical transfer NOTES

sometimes it loses its meaning and originality. Communication is the
vital aspect to change the behaviour of the receiver. As a matter of
fact, no executive can be successful without communicating
effectively with his superiors or subordinates. Messages could be in
the form of words, symbols, signs, letters or actions. The importance
of communication has been greatly emphasized by all the
management experts. Communication is like a part of an individual‘s
life as well as organizational existence. Its importance is self-
explanatory and is having common experience of all as well. The
transfer of science to rural people in India and gradual inoculation of
scientific attitude in their everyday life, need to demonstrate in the
language which will be understood and appreciated by the rural
people. In order to make the farming community enlightened and
better skilled in the use of improved management practices, fast
communication devices are required to break through the message
effectively.

10.5 SATELLITE INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION

EXPERIMENTS (SITE)
SITE was the largest communication experiment in the use of
satellite in support of developmental and educational programmes in
modern times. The main impetus for the SITE project came from
Prof. V. A. Sarabhai. In 1969, India and USA started an experiment
called SIET by means of Satellite-based Education Applications
Technology Satellite (ATS-6). On May 30, 1974, the Satellite was
launched from Cape Carnival in USA. The telecast via this satellite
began in India from August 1, 1975. Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) with All India Radio (AIR) took the
responsibility of broadcasting ETV programmes to the selected
villages in six states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Orrisa,
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, selected on the basis of their
educational backwardness.
The experiment continued from August 1975 to July 1976. The
instructional objectives of SITE were in the fields of education,
agriculture, health and family planning and national integration.
About 2400 Direct Reception Television Sets (DRS) deployed for
SITE were located in different cultural, linguistics and agricultural
regions of the country. Different socio-economic environments were
also chosen for the purpose. Television broadcasts via satellite were
made available for four hours a day, one and half hour in the morning
and two and half hours in the evening. Morning times were utilized
for broadcasting programmes for children which were enrichment
programmes for the age group 5 to 12 years; evening programmes
were directed to adults.
Self-Instructional Material

277
Communication and Rural Development SITE covered four different language regions but children of other
NOTES regions also watched these programmes on school days. Though the
programmes were meant for children, others also viewed the
programmes within the school. These were not based on school
syllabi but intended to provide general enrichment. Governments of
each state receiving SITE programmes were responsible for
electrifying the school, which housed the television receiver.
The contents of the programmes were identified by a group of
educationists drawn from National Council of Education Research
and Training (NCERT). It was then placed before the senior officials
of Department of Education of each of the State Institutes of
Educational Technology (SIET) in the respective states. ISRO
produced a series of programmes in science, which aimed at
developing scientific thinking. Production studio was also set up by
ISRO in Bombay and its staff developed one of the educational
series. Programmes were produced at three Base Production Centers:
Delhi (Hindi), Cuttack (Odia) and Hyderabad (Telgu and Kannada).
The format of the programmes was lecture demonstration followed
by documentary, drama and discussion. Before approaching the
programmes for broadcast purpose, a few prototypes were produced
and pretested in different villages. The purpose of this pretesting was
to test the acceptability of the programmes.
Experience during SITE period was quiet encouraging for further
expansion of television service in the country. Government decided
to start the SITE continuity community-viewing programme. Forty
percent of the villages were provided community-viewing facility in
six SITE cluster areas by setting terrestrial transmitters. This was
possible because the infrastructure existed and studio facilities
developed during SITE Terrestrial transmission was made available
from 1977 to 1982 and educational programmes were available in the
morning hours along with other programmes in the evening. An
important highlight for SITE was teacher training through
multimedia. Nearly 50,000 teachers were exposed to this training in
two installments. Experts planned the lessons. SITE experiment drew
attention of the world. Two international teams, one sponsored by
United Nations and other by Commonwealth Broadcasting
Association toured the SITE areas and gave favorable reactions.
10.6 USE OF MASS MEDIA IN COMMUNICATION
The history of organised development communication in India can be
traced to rural radio broadcast in the 1940‗s. Independent India‗s
earliest organised experiments in development communication
started with communication development projects initiated by the
union government in the 1950‗s. Different medium was used in the
following manner for development purpose:

Self-Instructional Material

278
NEWSPAPER as a medium of Development Communication: The Communication and Rural Development

power of the press arises from its ability of appearing to the minds of NOTES
the people and being capable of moving their hearts. However, it has
been noticed that the press has not met the requisite interest in
developmental communication. In order to correct the imbalances
noticed in the media coverage of Rural Development Programs and
to ensure that these program are portrayed in proper perspective,
several steps are taken to sensitize the media about issues relating to
rural development.
The Ministry on a regular basis interacts with the Press mainly
through the Press Information Bureau (PIB). Review press
conference, press tours and workshops are organised through PIB,
with the financial assistance from the Ministry, so as to sensitize
press persons about Rural Development Program. For the purpose of
creating awareness in respect of rural develop programs among the
general public and opinion makers and for disseminating information
about new initiatives, the Ministry issues advertisements at regular
intervals in national and regional press through DAVP. To enable
people in rural areas to access information on Rural Development
Program a booklet ‗Gram Vikas‗ Programs at a glance is brought out
in regional languages.
RADIO as a means of development communication: Radio from its
very inception played an important role in development
communication; this is mainly due to its advantage of reaching to a
large number of people from difference section of the society.
Universities and other educational institutes‗ especially agricultural
universities, through their extension networks and international
organisations under the UN umbrella carried the development
communication experiment. Community radio is another important
medium which is growing in importance especially in rural India.
Here, NGOs and educational institutions are given license to set up a
local community radio station to broadcast information and messages
on
Participation of local community is encouraged. As community radio
provides a platform to villager to broadcast local issues, it has the
potential to get positive action.
Radio Rural Forum: All India Radio has been the forerunner in the
process of implementing communication strategy adopted by the
government. The Radio Rural Forum experiment of 1956, covered
156 villages. It contained 30 minute duration program two days a
week on different issues like agriculture and varied subjects that
could promote rural development. Efforts are being constantly made
to use radio for social change. Apart from radio rural forum, other
continuous efforts are being made to bring in development. As in the
case of project taken up to promote adult literacy in the 1980s. More Self-Instructional Material

279
Communication and Rural Development recently, NGOs have helped broadcast program on women and legal
NOTES rights etc.
Local Service of AIR: On the basis of the Verghese Committee
(1978) report which recommended a franchise system for promoting
local radio for education and development. Several NGOs use local
radio to further their development activities. For instance, Chetana of
Kolkata records their program on adult education, in the field using
local talents.
School Broadcast: Programs for school are broadcast from the metros
and other centers of AIR. Many teachers make excellent broadcast
through this platform. AIR draws up these programs on the advice of
Consultative Panels for School Broadcast.
TELEVISION as a Medium for Development Communication: TV in
India was introduced in 1959, on an experimental basis. Its very
inception was with the aim to see what TV could achieve in
community development and formal education. From this we can
very well understand the importance of television for development
communication. Today, after 50 years of Indian television, we see
that broadcasters still broadcast program with an eye on social
responsibility, serials that incorporate socially relevant themes,
interactive talk shows and open forums with government
representatives responding to audience queries are popular
programmes. In 1967, Delhi Television centre launched Krishi
Darshan Program at the behest of Dr. Bikram Sarabhai and Prof R. S.
Swaminathan. The object of this program was popularisation of
modern method in agriculture through the television.
TV has been used as an aid to satellite communication technology to
effectively bring in development. Satellite communications
technology offers unique capability of being able to reach out to very
large numbers spread over large distances even in the most remote
corners of the country. In India, ISRO has continuously pursued the
utilization of space technology for education and development. This
has been done through different projects like Educational TV (ETV),
SITE, Kheda project and Country wide classroom (CWC) project.
Over a period of last 30 years, these programmes have been designed
to cater to the country‗s need for education, training, and general
awareness among the rural poor. Among them few efforts shall be
discussed in the following categories. These are: Satellite
Instructional Television Experiment (SITE, 1975-76): This one year
project was primarily undertaken to develop special development
programmes through the satellite communication to six rural clusters,
which included a total of 2330 villages of 20 districts spread over six
states—Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Self-Instructional Material Rajasthan and Gujarat. Its objectives were:
280
1. Improve the rural primary education. Communication and Rural Development

NOTES
2. Provide training to teachers.
3. Improve agriculture, health, hygiene, and nutritional practices and
4. Contribute to family planning and national integration.
The success of SITE can be judged from the fact that, after the
completion of the project evaluation studies showed that exposure to
developmental messages through television had contributed to the
widening of horizon of the villagers.
Kheda Communication Project (KCP, (1975-89): SITE demonstrated
that the centralization, inherent in the technology of direct
broadcasting, was a limitation, hence the idea of limited rebroadcast‗
was conceived, giving birth to the KCP. This project was launched in
1975. 607 community television sets have been installed in 443
villages of Kheda district of Gujrat. Doordarshan and space
application centre produces programme for one hour every day. The
programmes mainly concentrate on and discussed the problem of the
poorer classes. Evaluation of Kheda project revealed that women in
particular gained knowledge from TV viewing. The serials generated
self-confidence, realization of equality etc. Educational Television
(ETV): Education is a vital instrument of social transformation and
important input in development effort. The Indian National Satellite
(INSAT) is being used to provide Educational TV (ETV), services
for primary school children in six states. University Grants
Commission (UGC) is using this for its countrywide classroom
programme on higher education (college sector). INSAT is also used
by the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) for
distance education progammes and Doordarshan for Science Channel
progranmmes. To meet the needs of development ISRO has taken up
the ‗TeleEducation‗
by launching EDUSAT, a satellite totally dedicated to the nation‗s
need for education. EDUSAT strengthens education efforts by
augmenting curriculum based teaching, providing effective teachers‗
training, and community participation. The networks are capable of
facilitating live lectures/power point presentations with student
interaction, web based learning, interactive training, virtual
laboratory, video conferencing, data/video broadcast, database access
for reference material/library/recorded lectures etc., on line
examination and admissions, distribution of administrative
information, etc.
NEW MEDIA as a medium of Development Communication: New
media or computers started creeping in the Indian Society around
1986. The actual transition in India happened after 1996 when
several independent media houses brought out news website. Today, Self-Instructional Material

281
Communication and Rural Development new media has become an active tool in the run to development
NOTES communication. This takes various forms like E-Governance, E-
Choupal, Telecentres etc.

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
5. Write the meaning of Site ?

6. Write the use of mass media in Communication?

.
E-GOVERNANCE: In simple terms, electronic governance is the
delivery of public services and information at the doorstep of the
people with the help of computers. Citizens can use the Information
Community Technology (ICT) as administrative tools to pave the
way for a silent, social change. E-governance can play the role of a
catalyst for sustainable inclusive growth. E-governance uses the ICT
for planning, implementation, and monitoring of government
programmes. Through e-governance, government can carry out
effective Management Information System (MIS) and get real time
information and reports of activities at the Block level. The
Karnataka government‗s Bhoomi project has led to the
computerisation of the centuries-old system of handwritten land
records in the rural area. E-medicine, through use of new media, can
reach quality healthcare in a remote village. A Kolkata-based
hospital leverages e-governance for tropical medicine. The hospital
employs telemedicine to assist doctors in rural areas. This method
does away with patients having to travel all the way to Kolkata, from
remote villages, for treatment. A villager gets the benefit of being
treated by both a local doctor and a specialist in the state capital.
E-CHOUPAL: Traditionally, choupal is known as the central
gathering place in the village, a kind of rural forum, where people
discuss, debate and decide on their course of action about some
burning issues in the community. E-choupals in the digital age share
information through the Internet while retaining their pristine,
democratic character. The Internet has started revolutionising the
way Indian farmers do business. The system constitutes an Internet
enabled kiosk in a village, manned by a villager. He is familiar with
computers and known as the choupal sanchalak (one who conducts
the forum). The sanchalak acts as the interface between the computer
and the farmer. Farmers can use the kiosks to check the current
market prices of agricultural commodities, access market data better
farming practices. Initially apprehensive, farmers have slowly but
steadily familiarised themselves with the new system. New Media‗s
interactivity and easy access have made it a commendable medium
Self-Instructional Material for development communication.
282
 Communication and Rural Development
10.7 TRADITIONAL LOCAL FOLK MEDIA
In the first two units of the block, we had described the origin and NOTES

development of the mass media the Press, Radio, Television and

Cinema. As distinguished from these modem media, in this unit we
shall dwell on the traditional folk media, .which are deep-rooted in
our culture and have been with us naturally for ages. We shall
explain the nature of these folk media, enumerate the different types
and suggest methods for increasing their efficiency. After this, in the
concluding unit of this block, we shall move on to the latest
communication technologies of computer, me & In India satellite and
the like. These are aptly called the "New Communication
Technologies".
TRADITIONAL FOLK MEDIA: WHAT ARE THEY?
"Traditional Folk Media" is a term used to denote "people's
performances". It describes folk dance, rural drama and musical
variety of the village people. This term speaks of those performing
arts which are cultural symbols of a people. These performing arts
pulsate with life and slowly change through the flux of time. During
the past five decades they have been increasingly recognized as
viable tools to impart even development messages, both as live
performances as also in a form integrated with electronic mass
media. They have rightly come to be called "Traditional Folk Media"
for communication. For millions of people living in remote areas in
developing countries, to whom information is to be quickly imparted,
mass media channels of sound and sight do hold a glamour but often
enough they mask the message. Therefore, a premium is now being
put on traditional folk performances which were once considered
mere. Museum pieces. Traditional folk media have been consciously
persuaded to come out of their shell to give a personal touch lo the
otherwise impersonal mass media programmes. Behavioral changes
are most easily brought about by personal interaction. And traditional
folk media are personal forms of communication, of entertainment.
These forms of art are a part of the way of life of a community and
provide acceptable means of bringing development issues into the
community on its own tennis. Traditional folk media are playing a
meaningful role in the affairs of developing countries in Asia and
Africa. As a much loved body of interpreters of indigenous culture,
they have proved to be highly influential with the rural masses. For
policy makers and administrators, they are matchless as persuasive
means of communication. For mass media personnel they are an
inexhaustible treasure of colorful forms and meaningful themes.
ROLE OF TRADITIONAL FOLK MEDIA IN
COMMUNICATING MODERN THEMES
India is a treasure-house of people's performing arts. There is a
tremendous wealth and variety in traditional folk media of India.
Conventionally the traditional folk performances have been theme-
carriers, usually carrying themes of morality. They have served as Self-Instructional Material

283
Communication and Rural Development "night schools'? in rural areas. Among the rural performances the
NOTES "flexible" ones like the ,puppet and katha-kirtan have shown their
capacity to absorb any modern message, and reflect it in tenns that
are easily understood by the village masses. Several song types have
handled vital contemporary themes like the green revolution,
scientific temperament, eradication of illiteracy and superstition,
family welfare, health and sanitation. The rural drama, with its stock
characters, has also came across modern messages, without, in any
way hurting the community's
Traditional culture. When handled with care and consideration, the
sensitive folk media have proved themselves to be meaningful and
effective tools of communication for development. During the past
four or five decades, they have slowly acquired a functional
dimension without losing their cultural roots.

10.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed Communication and Rural
Development, starting from meaning, scope, channels and stages of
communication. Also classified interpersonal and group communication,
mass communication. Further theories and models of communication.
Discussed about the satellite in support of developmental and
educational programmes in modern times and uses of Mass Media
communication in Rural Development.
10.9 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write the meaning of Communication?
2. Write the Scope of Communication?.
3. Write the meaning of Coding and Decoding?
4. Write the Models of the Communication?.
5. Write the meaning of SITE?
6. Write the use of mass media in Communication?
10.11 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Communication is what you and I do and for that matter,
everyone does every day. When I speak to you or you speak to
me, it is communication. When I write to you, I am
communicating with you. Suppose I want to call a person who
is not within hearing distance, I wave my hand.
2. Scope of communication means the normal functioning area
of this subject. Since communication is essential in every
sphere of human life, its scope is wide and pervasive. From
cradle to grave, human beings are somehow engaged in
communication. No one can pass even a day without
communication. In the following a brief discussion on scope
of communication is given…
3. Encoding – Encoding is the process where the information
you would like to communicate gets transferred into a form to
be sent and decoded by the receiver. The ability to deliver the
Self-Instructional Material message clearly as well as be able to discard any confusing or
284
 potentially offensive themes such as cultural issues, or missing Communication and Rural Development

information is imperative in this stage. NOTES

Decoding – Decoding is on the receiving end of
communication. This stage is just as important as encoding.
Communication can go downhill at this stage if the receiver is
not practicing active listening skills or if they do not possess
enough information to accurately decode the message.
4. Three models of communication: (1) ;Linear model; (2)
Interactive model ; (3) Transactional model
5. SITE was the largest communication experiment in the use of
satellite in support of developmental and educational
programmes in modern times. The main impetus for the SITE
project came from Prof. V. A. Sarabhai. In 1969, India and
USA started an experiment called SIET by means of Satellite-
based Education Applications Technology Satellite (ATS-6).
On May 30, 1974, the Satellite was launched from Cape
Carnival in USA. The telecast via this satellite began in India
from August 1, 1975.
6. NEW MEDIA as a medium of Development Communication:
New media or computers started creeping in the Indian
Society around 1986. The actual transition in India happened
after 1996 when several independent media houses brought
out news website. Today, new media has become an active
tool in the run to development communication. This takes
various forms like E-Governance, E-Choupal, Telecentres etc.
10.12 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Asian Mass Conununication Research and Infor~l~ation Centre,
(AMCRIC), 1985.
2. Developnient Comntunicntion : A Resou~e Adanrmlfor Teaching.
AMCRTC, Singapore.
3. Assifi N.M. French James H. (compiled) 1985.C;uidelinesfor
~orrrrtlur?icnbon Support for Rtrral Development Canlpaign.
UNDP/DTCP Bangkok
4. Benjamin, J.B. 1986. Communication : Concepts and Contex~v.
Harper & Row Publishers, New York. Media
5. Casley D.J. & Lury D. A. 1985. Monitoring and Evaluation of
Agriculture and Rural Development Project. (A World Bank
Publication) The John Hopkins University Press, USA. I
6. CIRDAP, 1985. hlonitoring and E\laluation---Arrar~ge~?~ent.v &
Techniques in Rural
7. Development. Centre on Integrated Rural Dcvelop~neiit for Asia
and tlie Pacific (CIRDAP), Dhaka.
8. Hunt G.T. 1985. Efictive Cbrnrrrunication. Prciitice-Hall, USA.
9. Rogers, W. 1984. Co~rtmu~~icationn Actior~.
Holt/RineliartlWinston, USA. UN-ACC TAsk Force : 1986.
Monitoring and valuation-~trlding Principles. IFAD, Ronle.
10. Gearge M. Beal and Evert M. Rogers (1957). Information Sources
in the Adoption Process oJNew Fabrics, Journal of Home
Economics, 49:630-634. ' Self-Instructional Material

285
Communication and Rural Development 11. David X. Berlo (19GO). The Process of Communication . New
NOTES
York: Holt, Rinehast and Winston, inc.
12. F.C. Fliegel and others (1968). Agricultural Innovations in Indian
Mileages, Hyderabad: Communication Channels and Their Use in
Rural National Institute of Community Development.
13. Joseph T. Klapper (1950). The Eflects of Mass Media, New York :
Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University.
14. Kurt Lewin (1948). Resolving Social Conflicts, New York : Harper
and Brothers.
15. Paul F. Lazarsfeld and H. Menzel (1992). "Mass Media and
Personal Influence" in Wilbur
16. Schramm (ed). The Science of Human Communication: New York
Basic Books.
17. Paul Neurath (1960). Radio Farm Forum in India, Delhi :
Government of India Press.
18. Evertt M. Rogers (1962, 1983). Digusion of Innovations. New
York : Free Press of Glencoe.
19. Evertt M. Rogers and F.F. Shoemaker (197 1). Communication
oflnnovation : A Cross-Cultural Approach, New York : The Free
Press.

Self-Instructional Material

286
 Community Participation
UNIT-XI COMMUNITY
NOTES
PARTICIPATION
Structure
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Objectives
11.3. Community Participation
11.3.1 Meaning of Community Participation
11.3.2 Elements Community Participation
11.3.3 Principles and obstacles in Community Participation
11.4. Participatory Communication
11.4.1 Concept and Methods of Participatory Communication
11.4.2 Use of Communication for Community Participation
11.5 Participatory Communication for Rural Development
11.6 Let Us Sum Up
11.7 Unit- End- Exercises
11.8 Answer to check your Progress
11.9 Suggested Readings
11.1 INTRODUCTION
While planning and developing rural development programmes, the
government or a voluntary agency may follow different approaches. You
have seen that very often government schemes and programmes are
prepared at the state capital and are handed down to district and block level
for implementation, following the same schematic pattern. Such
programmes usually end up by remaining government activities as the
beneficiaries themselves are neither involved nor have access to
planning/decision making processes and systems. There is little scope for
flexibility to make changes in response to local needs. We see today
passive dependence on government initiatives and the implementation of
programme according to the government‟s perception of what is good and
necessary for the community. The people, for whom these programmes are
meant, participate only as beneficiaries. In this unit we shall discuss how to
develop a rural development programme that is community based. First,
we shall analyse the meaning of a community based programme. Secondly,
we shall learn how to plan a community based programme followed by a
brief analysis on the techniques in working with the community.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims at familiarizing you with the process and methods involved
in developing programmes and projects that are community based. After
reading this unit you will be able to :
 Outline the concept of community based programmes;
 Indicate the steps involved in identifying community needs;
 State the process of identifying beneficiaries and resources; and
 Describe the principles of working with communities.
11.3 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
11.3.1 Meaning of Community Participation
Hansen et al (2003) supported this, identifying that the overall objective of
community participation is twofold in that it is a mechanism to empower
and facilitate an improvement in the lives of the world‟s poor people. Kelly
Self-Instructional Material

287
Community Participation (2001:15) did not clearly identify the importance of community decision-
making but does identify the crucial role of power in decision-making:
NOTES
„participation is a range of processes through which local
communities are involved and play a role in issues which affect them. The
extent to which power is shared in decision-making varies according to
type of participation‟.
Numerous other definitions of participation can be found in the
literature for example (Bamberger 1988; van Asselt Marjolein and Rijkens-
Klomp 2002; Warner 1997 ). The key finding for Fals-Borda (1991) is that
participation is a real and endogenous experience of and for the common
people, that reduces the differences between experts and community and
between mental and manual labor. O‟Neill and Colebatch (1989) identified
that participation is real when participants are able to determine their
outcomes (cited in (Sarkissian, Walsh et al. 1997) page 17).
The most common misinterpretation occurs when people fail to
understand the difference between participation and consultation (Coakes
1999). Sarkissian, Walsh et al (1997: 17) made the distinction: „community
participation indicates an active role for the community, leading to
significant control over decision‟ while consultation is taken to mean
„sharing of information but not necessarily power‟. Often the terms
participation and consultation are used interchangeably, particularly in
Australia (Sarkissian, Walsh et al. 1997). Coakes (1999:1) provided an
example when she used the term consultation inappropriately stating that
„consultation is about involving the public in decision making in a
structured and rigorous way‟.
It is clear that there is confusion surrounding the definition of
participation and that what is needed is a more baggage-free, or more
easily understood term or terminology. Terminology that would replace
participation is „collective action‟ or „collective governance‟, as these
terms emphasizes the power relationships and the need for equity which
defines genuine participation in the development literature (Kelly 2001).
„Good governance‟ is another possibility although it is considered to be too
broad a term to be of immediate operational relevance in its totality.
„Participatory governance‟ adopts a narrower perspective that is more
useful in development situations (Schneider 1999).
11.3.2 ELEMENTS COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
Communities are defined by the people who live and work within
the buildings and occupy the streets, each defining the unique fabric of the
neighborhood. One of the founding philosophies at Rebuild by Design is
that the community members are the experts who should have agency over
the development of their communities. Embedding that philosophy in each
of our projects ensures the development of sustainable relationships
between community members, design teams and government. Since the
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) announced
the funding of seven projects in the Hurricane Sandy region in June 2014,
state and city governments have studied, tested and refined each project in
preparation for implementation. In that time, governments with the help of
designers, engineers, architects, planners, specialists and other experts have
used various techniques to engage the community and successfully prepare
the Sandy region for a changing climate. Rebuild by Design continues to
follow the progress of the funded projects and has observed many creative
Self-Instructional Material

288
and innovative community engagement strategies. The success of the seven Community Participation
funded projects depends largely on the degree, quality and continuation of NOTES
community collaboration. This document captures and synthesizes Rebuild
by Design‟s observations of community engagement, highlighting the best
practices among the seven projects as they are implemented.
As project teams continue to engage their communities, these best practices
can inspire project teams to effectively engage communities and develop
innovative projects with sustainable results.
11.3.3 PRINCIPLES AND OBSTACLES IN COMMUNITY
PARTICIPATION
Community participation is seen by some as a way for stakeholders to
influence development by contributing to project design, influencing public
choices, and holding public institutions accountable for the goods and
services they provide. Some view participation as the direct engagement of
affected populations in the project cycle—assessment, design,
implementation, monitoring, and evaluation—in a variety of forms. Still
others consider participation an operating philosophy that puts affected
populations at the heart of humanitarian and development activities as
social actors with insights, competencies, energy, and ideas of their own.
Community engagement has numerous benefits and is critical in every
stage of post-disaster recovery and reconstruction. This chapter encourages
agencies involved in reconstruction to offer affected communities a range
of options for involvement in reconstruction. It addresses the organization
of affected communities and participation by individuals, communities,
and community-based organizations (CBOs).
 Reconstruction begins at the community level. A good
reconstruction strategy engages communities and helps people
work together to rebuild their housing, their lives, and their
livelihoods.
 Community-based approaches require a somewhat different
programming flow that begins with mobilizing social groups and
communities and having the community conduct its own
assessment.
 A very strong commitment and leadership from the top are needed
to implement a bottom-up approach, because pressure is strong in
an emergency to provide rapid, top-town, autocratic solutions.
 “The community” is not a monolith, but a complex organism with
many alliances and subgroups. The community needs to be engaged
in order to identify concerns, goals, and abilities, but there may not
be consensus on these items.
 The scale at which community engagement is most effective may
be quite small, for example, as few as 10 families.
 Engagement of the community may bring out different preferences
and expectations, so agencies involved in reconstruction must be
open to altering their preconceived vision of the reconstruction
process.
 Numerous methods exist for community participation, but they
need to be adapted to the context, and nearly all require facilitation
and other forms of support.

Self-Instructional Material

289
Community Participation  Transparency and effective communication are essential to
maintaining engagement and credibility with the community and
NOTES
within the community during the reconstruction process.
 The reconstruction approach may affect the type and level of direct
participation in reconstruction.
Risks and Challenges
 Government forgoing genuine participation, due to political and
social pressures to show that the reconstruction process is
advancing.
 Lack of support by the community for the reconstruction project
because of limited involvement of stakeholders, particularly the
affected community, in planning and design.
 Failing to understand the complexity of community involvement
and believing that “the community” is a unified, organized body.
 Ignoring how the community is already organized when
introducing participatory activities.
 Underestimating the time and cost of genuine participatory
processes.
 Conducting poorly organized opinion surveys and believing that the
responses to those surveys are representative of the community.
 Failing to find or develop facilitators and trainers who understand
and believe in the community-based approach.
 Rejecting established models of community organization—or
alternatively blindly adopting models from other countries or
contexts—without evaluating how they should or could be adapted
to the specific conditions of the locality in question.
 Thinking that all community organizations are democratic and
representative, or forgetting that they have their own agendas.
 Confusing the role of national NGOs with that of genuine CBOs.
 Agencies believing that they are being participatory by establishing
a relationship with one specific local organization or spokesperson.

11.4. PARTICIPATORY COMMUNICATION

Participatory communication has been defined as “a dynamic,
interactional, and transformative process of dialogue between people,
groups, and institutions that enables people, both individually and
collectively, to realize their full potential and be engaged in their own
welfare” (Singhal, 2003). Participatory communication initiatives create
opportunities for people to articulate their views, identify common
concerns, and seek solutions from within their community. The teachings
of Paulo Freire, the Brazilian educator and activist, had a major influence
on the development of the participatory model. According to Freire, the
process of raising questions and engaging in dialogue sparks “critical
consciousness,” which enables the shift from reflection to action (Freire,
1970). Since participatory communication emerged in the 1960s, non-
governmental organizations and community-based groups have led the way
in practice and innovation.

Key elements of participatory communication include:

 Identification and prioritization of needs, goals, measures of
Self-Instructional Material
change, and desired outcomes by community members
290
  A focus on “horizontal” interactions, such as dialogue and Community Participation
exchange (versus “top-down” or “vertical” activities) NOTES
 An emphasis on self-representation to promote collective well-
being
 A focus on collaborative processes rather than on “products”
 A focus on identifying solutions and positive models of change
from within the community, rather than applying examples from
outside
 Explicit integration of social empowerment and capacity-building
goals
 Recurring cycles of reflection and action

11.4.1 CONCEPT AND METHODS OF PARTICIPATORY

COMMUNICATION

Stakeholders often have very different visions and definitions of

participation in development. Therefore, for development practitioners to
be clear on their conceptual approach to participation, No consensus exists
around a common definition of participation: it varies depending on the
perspective applied. Some stakeholders define participation as the
mobilization of people to eliminate unjust hierarchies of knowledge,
power, and economic distribution. Others define it as the reach and
inclusion of inputs by relevant groups in the design and implementation of
a development project. These examples represent two of the main
approaches to participation: a social movement perspective and a project
based or institutional perspective. These perspectives share a common
understanding of participation as the involvement of ordinary people in a
development process leading to change. Their scope and methods,
however, can differ.
Six phases of planning
Communication planning for development is a logical process guided by a
systematic and rational framework. This framework could be developed
through situation-specific data gathered using participatory research
techniques
Preliminary situation assessment
Situation assessment could be done most effectively in a participatory
manner through PRCA or participatory rural communication appraisal.
Three kinds of analysis are done in PRCA: audience analysis, programme
analysis, and situation analysis. Audience analysis Audience analysis is
essentially "listening" to what potential users of information need. They are
the ones whom the communication program intends to reach. Users of
information are also referred to as stakeholders of a communication
program. Collecting baseline information about these stakeholders is an
essential preliminary step towards developing a communication strategy.
Segmentation, or dividing large groups of stakeholders into smaller groups,
helps achieve focus in communication strategy development. Segmentation
is usually done in two ways:
 Conventional segmentation according to socio-economic status
(income, education, age, sex, etc.), place of residence (urban-rural),
and language/ethnic group
Self-Instructional Material

291
Community Participation  Innovative segmentation based on behaviour, needs, and values
and lifestyles.
NOTES
 Situation analysis: In doing situation analysis, planners look at
both the possible problem to be addressed by the communication
program and the conditions surrounding such problem.
What are the factors which cause a gap between the existing and desired
behavior of stakeholders? Is the problem due to the stakeholders' lack of
awareness or knowledge of the nature of the problem? Or is it attitudinal in
nature? Could the gap be due to their lack of skills to carry out certain
practices? Situation analysis likewise includes assessing the
communication resources in the area which could be tapped for the
communication program. Knowledge of the area's mass and small media,
as well as interpersonal means of communication, should contribute
substantially to strategy development. Programme analysis When doing
program analysis, program planners need to take both an inward and an
outward look at the situation that is, looking at the organization's own
vision, policies, resources, strengths, and weaknesses relevant to the
problem. Are there adequate resources to realize this vision? How well are
program managers using available resources? At the same time, it is
important to scan the environment for existing programs that could affect,
positively or negatively, the communication strategy to be developed.
Methods of participation
Participation can be used as a goal or as a tool for specific
projects. The four categories below refer to different levels of participation
and communication:
Passive participation
The stakeholders of a project essentially act as "empty vessels"
and receive information. Feedback is minimal if at all and participation is
assessed through methods such as head counts.
Participation by consultation
Researchers or "experts" pose questions to the stakeholders. Input
can be provided at different points in time but the final analysis and
decision-making power lies in the hands of the external professionals
whom may or may not take the stakeholders' decisions into consideration.
Participation by collaboration
Groups of primary stakeholders are formed in order to participate
in discussion and analysis. Objectives are predetermined. This method
incorporates components of horizontal communication and capacity
building among all stakeholders.
Empowerment participation
Primary stakeholders are capable and willing to become involved
in the process and take part in decision-making. Outsiders are equal
partners, but the stakeholders make the final decisions as ownership and
control of the process rests in their hands. Knowledge exchange leads to
solutions.

Minga Peru case study

Minga Peru is a non-profit organization formed to address issues
of "social justice, gender equality, reproductive health, and human rights".
Minga has targeted the northern Loreto region for its development of
"communicative spaces" which hope to spark debate and participation from
Self-Instructional Material

292
the community. In order to achieve these goals they have produced a radio Community Participation
program, started a community empowerment and leadership program and NOTES
supported income generating activities.
These activities are community-based approaches as evidenced by
editorial letters being sent to the radio program, use of youth
correspondents which provides the community with access to and voice
within the broadcast, and emphasis on social networking which has
resulted in stronger social cohesion. The most prominent outcomes in the
empowerment of women through self-confidence. Women are better able
to develop professional and social networks and have improved capacity to
handle health challenge

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. Write the meaning of Community participation?

2. Write the concept of Passive participation?

11.4.2 USE OF COMMUNICATION FOR COMMUNITY

PARTICIPATION
We have discussed the need to go beyond transmitting messages
or information and persuading people. The role of the researcher or
development practitioner in using communication does not consist in
transmitting or disseminating messages, but in facilitating participation in
local development. The success of communication activities is closely
linked to the perception of the researcher or development practitioner‟s
role as facilitating that process of community participation. If you see your
role as conceiving and disseminating messages, you will no longer be of
help to community groups in identifying development problems and
implementing action. Similarly, you must be careful not to substitute
yourself, often unsuccessfully, for the competent local technical resources;
instead you must facilitate their collaboration and participation in the
development initiative identified. As well, you must learn to involve
community groups more closely in the communication strategy, and help
them take ownership of the initiative rather than seeing themselves as
beneficiaries of a research or development intervention. To facilitate this
participation, the researcher or development practitioner must be prepared
to assume several different functions:
 Facilitate dialogue and the exchange of ideas among different
groups and specific individuals: this presupposes a sound
understanding of the local setting.
 Encourage thinking about local development problems and
possible solutions or about a common goal to achieve the desired
results: this presupposes a thorough understanding of the subject, or
enlisting people who have such an understanding.
 Support the identification and realization of a concrete set of
actions for experimenting or implementing the solutions identified
or for achieving an identified development goal: by facilitating the
different groups involved in those actions to share their views.
Self-Instructional Material

293
Community Participation  Support efforts at awareness-building, motivation, learning and
implementing the development action: by using communication
NOTES
strategies appropriate to each group of participants.
 Ensure the effective circulation of information among different
participants: by using communication tools and channels
appropriate to the groups involved.
 Support decision-making: by facilitating consensus among
different categories of players.
 Develop local collaboration and partnerships by establishing
alliances with local resource persons and agencies and serving as a
conduit between the groups and these partners.
 Monitor the development initiative: by ensuring that actions taken
are followed and evaluated.
 Make sure that the authorities or resource agencies in a position to
assist the development action are aware of local viewpoints and
needs.
11.5 PARTICIPATORY COMMUNICATION FOR
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Rural development concerns usually focus on determining what
rural people need in order to move up the socio-economic ladder. Most
interventions revolve around investments and technologies that would
improve livelihood, and the inputs necessary to put these technologies into
use. While these are considered necessary conditions to help bring about
development, they are not necessarily sufficient to sustain the desired
progress.
Development efforts in recent years have started to focus on other
equally important factors such as human capacity and access to relevant
information, knowledge and services. Documented experiences and lessons
from the field have in fact indicated that development tends to fail for two
basic reasons (Mefalopolus, 2008):
 lack of participation
 ineffective communication
This has increasingly drawn attention from purely technological aspects to
the institutional and social gaps that can affect rural development, such as
(Leeuwis and Hall, 2010):
 lack of information and knowledge about correct technologies and
practices for managing the fragile natural environment;
 unresolved social and political conflicts that prevent communities
from working together to address communal needs and interests;
 far-flung and isolated rural communities with no access to
information that could help them prepare for any eventuality;
 poor skills or capacity of rural actors to undertake development
initiatives on their own;
 weak capacity of local institutions to respond to local needs;
 lack of physical and social infrastructures support at the local level
that would enable to enhance human and social capital.
In all the above, it is clear that the element of good communication
becomes part of the solution. Responding to these challenges requires a
combination of immediate, medium and long-term measures directed
towards:
Self-Instructional Material  strengthening rural knowledge institutions;
294
  Improving knowledge and information sharing among the variety Community Participation
of rural actors and stakeholders (national agricultural research and NOTES
extension systems, educational institutions, private service
providers, grassroots organizations, NGOs, etc.);
 Encouraging people‟s participation to promote concerted action.

Rural development involves participatory innovation and social

learning. For innovation, it makes use of small-scale, low-cost and simple
technologies made possible by whatever resources local communities have.
For social learning, stakeholders engage in processing lessons gained from
experience and share these among themselves as a basis for improving
practices. Building local capacity therefore begins with the identification of
local talents, good practices and know how within rural communities. This
requires multi-stakeholder participation and dialogic communication.
People‟s empowerment, both as a means and an end, lies at the heart of this
approach to rural development where information, knowledge and
communication are to be considered strategic assets.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. What are the institutional gaps that can develop the RD?

4. What is the Rural Development and Participatory Innovations?

11.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed Community Participation in details meaning.
Elements, base, Principles and obstacles in Community Participation and
also document the participatory Communication, concept and methods use
of communication for community participation and participatory
communication for Rural Development.
11.7 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write the meaning of Community participation?
2. Write the concept of Passive participation?
3. What are the institutional gaps that can develop the RD?
4. What is the Rural Development and Participatory Innovations?
11.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Hansen et al (2003) supported this, identifying that the overall
objective of community participation is twofold in that it is a
mechanism to empower and facilitate an improvement in the lives
of the world‟s poor people. Kelly (2001:15) did not clearly identify
the importance of community decision-making but does identify the
crucial role of power in decision-making:
2. Passive participation : The stakeholders of a project
essentially act as "empty vessels" and receive information.
Feedback is minimal if at all and participation is assessed through
methods such as head counts.
Self-Instructional Material

295
Community Participation 3. This has increasingly drawn attention from purely technological
aspects to the institutional and social gaps that can affect rural
NOTES
development, such as (Leeuwis and Hall, 2010):
4. Rural development involves participatory innovation and social
learning. For innovation, it makes use of small-scale, low-cost and
simple technologies made possible by whatever resources local
communities have. For social learning, stakeholders engage in
processing lessons gained from experience and share these among
themselves as a basis for improving practices. Building local
capacity therefore begins with the identification of local talents,
good practices and know how within rural communities. lack of
information and knowledge about correct technologies and
practices for managing the fragile natural environment.

11.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Bloch, M., & Parry, J. (1982) Death and regeneration oflife.
Anonymous, (1991). A4anual for IRDP and Allied progranltnes
TRYSEM and DWCRA. Departinent of Rural Development.
Ministry of Agriculture. Government of India, New Delhi.
2. Benor, D. and Baxter, M. (1984). Training and Vsit System. The
World Bank, 1 Washington D.C.
3. Bhatnagar, O.P. and Desai, G.R (1987). Management of
Agricultural Extension: Concept and Constraints. NIRD.
Hyderabad.
4. Dahama, O.P. and Bhatnagar, O.P. (1985). Education and
Conrnlunica!ion for Development. (2nd Edn.). Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co.. New Delhi.
5. Richards, M.D., Nielander, W.A. (1969). Readings in Managentent
(In Edn.). South & Western Publishing Co., Ohio.
6. Roy, G.L. (199 1). Extension Communication and Management.
Naya Prokash, Calcutta.
7. Scanlan, B.K. (1973). Principles of A4anagenlent and
Organizational Behavior. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York.
8. Van den Ban, A. W. and Hawkins, H.S. (1 988). Agricultural
Extension. Longman Scientific & Technical, and John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York.

Self-Instructional Material

296
 Rural Development Programmes
UNIT XII RURAL DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMMES NOTES
Structure
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Objectives
12.3. Rural Development Programme
12.3.1 Drought prone Area Programme (DADP)
12.3.2 Hill area Development Programme (HADP)
12.3.3 Tribal Area Development Programme (TADP)
12.3.4 Command Area Development Programme (CADP)
12.3.5 Desert Development Programme (DDP)
12.3.6 Watershed Development Programme (WDP)
12.3.7 Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP)
12.4. High yield variety Programme
12.5 Hariyali
12.6 MP‘s Area Development Programme
12.7 MLA‘s Area Development Programme
12.8 Let Us Sum Up
12.9 Unit- End- Exercises
12.10 Answer to check your Progress
12.11 Suggested Readings
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Rural development has been one of the important objectives of
planning in India since Independence. Intervention of the Government in
rural development is considered necessary in view of the fact that a
sizeable population continues to reside in rural areas despite growing
urbanization. It is also required, as the market forces are not always able
to improve the welfare of the rural masses because of certain structural
rigidities and institutional deficiencies existing in these areas. As a result,
there is a danger of large sections of the rural population to remain outside
the ambit of market driven growth processes. To enable the poorer
sections of the rural population to participate more effectively in the
economic activities has, therefore, remained the prime objective of Indian
planning and the basic underlying theme of rural development
programmes. This unit aims to familiarize you with the various approaches
to rural development in the post-Independence phase. We will cover the
evolution of various programmes and schemes from the 1st Five Year Plan
to the 10th Five Year Plan (1951-2007), in order to understand how these
have been changed/modified over time to respond to the emerging needs
and situations.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe the different approaches to rural development as they have
evolved over time;
 Explain the form, content and important features of the major rural
development schemes introduced during the last 5 decades;
 Critically comment on the rationale for and the context in which
they were formulated;
 Identify the strengths and the weaknesses of each programme; and Self-Instructional Material

289
Rural Development Programmes  Outline the emerging challenges and draw your own conclusions
regarding the possible appropriate approaches
12. 3 RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
NOTES
12.3.1 DROUGHT PRONE AREA PROGRAMME (DADP)
Sizable proportion of the total land area of the country falls under
arid, semi-arid or/and dry sub-humid categories and is either subject to
desertification or identified as drought prone dependent on dry land
agriculture. A drought is a long period of dry weather caused by a shortfall
in the usual rainfall in a given time period of more than a certain
percentage, usually 50% in the sowing season. A drought prone area is
characterized by continuous degradation of land, depleting water resources,
decreasing productivity of crops, livestock and human resources, hunger
and malnutrition and out-migration of both human and cattle populations in
times of distress. Most of our arid land mass falls in the desert category and
due to very low rainfall, low productivity and extreme climatic conditions
is also subject to frequent droughts. For the overall development of land,
water and other natural resources, there are many programmes under
implementation in our country. In this unit, we are going todiscuss two of
these important area development programmes, namely the Drought Prone
Areas Programme (DPAP) and the Desert Development Programme
(DDP).
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF DPAP AND DDP
The DPAP and the DDP aim at restoring the ecological balance
through soil and moisture conservation measures on watershed basis. In the
present framework, these ‗area development programmes‘ aim at involving
village communities more meaningfully in planning, implementation and
the management of the economic development activities within watershed
projects in rural areas through the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).
The objectives of DPAP and DDP are:
i) Developing wastelands/degraded lands, drought-prone and desert areas
on watershed basis, keeping in view the capability of land, site-conditions
and local needs.
ii) Promoting the overall economic development and improving the socio-
economic conditions of the resource poor and disadvantaged sections of
the society.
iii) Mitigating the adverse effects of extreme climatic conditions such as
drought and desertification on crops and human and livestock populations
for the overall improvement.
iv) Restoring ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing
natural resource base, i.e. land, water and vegetative cover.
v) Encouraging village the community for active participation in the
planning and implementation of developmental projects and the sustainable
maintenance of the assets created through their collective wisdom and
indigenous technology.
NEED FOR DPAP
The first systematic effort to tackle the problem of drought and
desertification started during the Second and the Third Five Year Plans.
The problem of drought-affected areas was mainly addressed through Dry
Farming projects, spread over a few areas, with emphasis on moisture and
water conservation measures.
Self-Instructional Material

290
 The origin of DPAP may be traced to the Rural Works Programme Rural Development Programmes

(RWP) that was launched in 1970-71 to create assets designed to reduce

the severity of drought in the affected areas. For this, the programme
NOTES
entailed long-term strategy in the context of conditions and the potential
of the drought prone districts. RWP identified 54 districts, along with parts
of another 18 districts contiguous thereto, as drought prone for its
purposes. The programme initiated labour-intensive schemes, viz. medium
and minor irrigation, road construction, soil conservation, and afforestation
measures, which then covered 12% of the country‘s population and about
20% of geographical area.
The mid-term appraisal of the Fourth Five Year Plan re-designated
the RWP as the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) launched in
1973-74 to tackle the special problems faced by those areas that were
constantly affected by severe drought conditions.
12.3.2 HILL AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (HADP)

The mountain ranges and hill areas of India have a crucial role to
play in determining the climate and physiography of the country and are
prime determinants of socio-economic development of plain areas as the
rivers have their genesis here and the protection and climatic control they
provide have enabled India to sustain its position as an economic power.
Keeping in view the increasing population pressure in the hill areas and the
need to preserve their fragile ecology, the Central Government has been
allocating Special Central Assistance to these areas through the Hill Areas
Development Programme/Western Ghats Development Programme which
have been in operation from the Fifth Five Year Plan in designated hill
areas. Under these programmes, Special Central Assistance is given to
designated hill areas in order to supplement the efforts of the State
Governments in the development of these ecologically fragile areas. Areas
under HADP were identified in 1965 by a Committee of the National
Development Council (NDC) while WGDP areas were recommended in
1972 by the High Level Committee set up for the purpose.
Designated Hill areas included:
a) Two hill districts of Assam-North Cachar and Karbi Anglong.
b) Eight hill districts of Uttar Pradesh – Dehradun, Pauri Garhwal,
Tehri
c) Garwhal, Chamoli, Uttar Kashi, Nainital, Almora and Pithoragarh
d) Major part of Darjeeling District of West Bengal.
e) Nilgiris District of Tamil Nadu.
f) One hundred and thirty two talukas of WGDP comprising of
Western
g) Ghats in Maharashtra (51 talukas), Karnataka (28 talukas) Tamil
Nadu (23 talukas), Kerala (27 talukas) and Goa (3 talukas).
Consequent on the creation of the State of Uttaranchal and its
categorization as a Special Category State, the Hill Areas Development
Programme is no longer in operation in the erstwhile hill districts of Uttar
Pradesh Further, the Western Ghats Development Programme is currently
being implemented in 171 talukas of Western Ghats viz. Maharashtra (63
taluka), Karnataka (40 talukas), Kerala (32 talukas), Tamil Nadu (33
talukas) and Goa (3 talukas) as some of the original talukas have been sub-
divided.
Self-Instructional Material

291
Rural Development Programmes The approach and strategy of the programme have evolved through
the Plans. The programmes implemented during the Fifth Plan period were
mainly beneficiary oriented. During the Sixth Plan, though the emphasis
NOTES shifted to ecodevelopment, the general tenor of HADP remained
substantially the same as that of normal State Plan following the same
sectoral approach. The Seventh Plan laid particular emphasis on the
development of ecology and environment, namely eco-restoration, eco-
preservation and eco-development. The aim was to evolve plans and
programmes which would stimulate socio-economic growth, development
of infrastructure and promotion of ecology of the areas covered by HADP.
During the Eighth Plan, the approach was substantially the same as that in
the Seventh Plan with special focus on involvement of the people and
meeting their basic needs through improved management of their land and
water resources. The measures outlined towards this end include (i) an
energy policy which would reduce pressure on forests and provide
alternate sources of energy, (ii) afforestation of denuded forest land with
species which can provide both fuel and fodder, (iii) provision of adequate
and safe drinking water by development of gravitational sources of water,
(iv) emphasis on improvement of health facilities including infrastructural
facilities in primary health institutions, (v) development of skilled
manpower, (vi) evolving a proper land use pattern keeping the socio-
economic and ecological parameters in view, (vii) development of
horticulture and plantation crops, (viii) improvement of livestock, (ix)
development of industries such as electronics which do not pollute the
atmosphere and lead to high value addition, (x) development of network of
transport and communication facilities with emphasis on feeder paths and
roads; 3 and (xi) evolution of appropriate technology and scientific inputs
which would suit local conditions and harness local resources. In the Ninth
Plan, the main objectives of the Programme were ecopreservation and eco-
restoration. All development schemes were to be planned within this
framework with emphasis on preservation of bio-diversity and rejuvenation
of the hill ecology. Traditional practices were to be dovetailed with
appropriate technology to serve the needs of the people of these areas.
Traditional knowledge was to be used as the starting point for introduction
of modern science and technology. Schemes were to be rooted in the
existing cultural system so that they were easily acceptable and would
provide maximum benefit to the people. The strategy for the programme
has been centred on the sub-plan approach under which a separate Sub-
plan for the hill areas in the concerned State was prepared indicating the
flow of funds from the State Plan and Special Central Assistance (SCA) so
that convergence could be achieved and duplication avoided. Thus the
State Governments prepare a sub-plan showing the flow of funds from
different sources. Funding under HADP is used somewhat on the lines of a
mini State Plan i.e. the Special Central Assistance is used to fund critical
gaps in diverse sectors. During the Tenth Plan, for the hill areas of Assam
and West Bengal the multi- sectoral approach followed in the previous
plans has continued but with increasing emphasis on watershed
development and ecological restoration/preservation.
Issues and Recommendations
These programmes were initiated during the Fifth Five Year Plan
and therefore a fresh look is required into the need for further continuation
Self-Instructional Material

292
of these programmes. The Task Group came to the conclusion that the Rural Development Programmes

programme needs to be continued with renewed vigour backed by a

substantial increase in the allocation based on the following: (i) The need
NOTES
for preserving the fragile ecology of the hill areas has to be underlined so
that not only do the people of the hills benefit, the detrimental impact of
unsustainable use of resources of the hills particularly land and forests, is
mitigated. Traditionally, people living in the hill areas adapted themselves
to the physiographic and climatic conditions through responses such as
terracing, etc. However, in recent years the intensification of resource use
and weakening of traditional adaptations have led to unsustainable use of
local resources. One of the ways to reverse this process is to have a special
programme which not only provides additional resources but also sends a
signal that the people of hill areas need special treatment as they are
responsible for conserving and preserving the hill areas for posterity. (ii)
The evaluation studies which have been carried out to assess the efficacy
of these programmes have shown that while it is not possible to isolate the
impact of this programme, the outcomes of these programmes are visible in
the form of increase in the level of the water table, preservation of forest
area, increase in income, etc. An evaluation of the Western Ghats
Development.
12.3.3 TRIBAL AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (TADP)
Tribal communities have been geographically, ecologically and culturally
linked to forest habitats. In India, there are several local communities who
depend on forest for primary or supplementary nutrition, ethno medical
practices, energy and various other life supporting needs. Communities
have been affected by restrictions to forest access under protection laws.
Most often, these laws draw their validation from a western perception of
nature, very unlike the reciprocal relationship perceived by these
communities. Most forest-dependent local communities in India are either
marginally settled cultivators or shifting cultivators supplement their
nutritional sources with some hunting and gathering. A few communities
depend almost exclusively on hunting and gathering from forests. Large
tracts of forest are essential to their survival strategies.
Programmes for Tribal Development
The tribal majority areas in the country are broadly divided into three
categories, viz.
1. Predominantly tribal states / union territories,
2. Scheduled area, and
3. Non-Schedule areas in the states.
All the tribal-majority States and Union Territories are placed in a
special category for availing funds. Tine development and administration
of tribal areas is accepted as a special responsibility of the central
government even though they are integral parts of the concerned states.
Several programmes and schemes have been divided into two categories,
viz.
a) Central sector programmes which are fully financed by the central
government, and
b) The centrally sponsored programs which are partly financed by the
central government and rest of the expenditure meted out by the
concerned State government.
Self-Instructional Material

293
Rural Development Programmes The statuses of tribal‘s, special programmes were launched, during 1980‘s
mainly:
a) The Asset Programme, and
NOTES b) The Employment Programme.
The Asset Programme aims at the overall integrated development of
rural life through the removal of poverty and unemployment in rural areas.
In this programme, productive assets are directly given to the poor. It is
believed that income generated front these productive assets would not
only be sufficient to repay the bank loans but will help the assisted families
to cross the 'poverty line'. This programme is popularly known as
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP).
The Employment Generation Programmes, on the other hand, aim at
providing employment through public works during the adverse
agricultural season. The employment progmmme asserts that poverty
persists because of the lack of employment opportunities. The earlier
employment schemes were ad hoc in nature but the employment
programme launched from 1980 onwards became popularly known as
National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and considered as
permanent plan programme.
A number of employment-oriented and developmental programmes
for tribals have been introduced by the government of India. In all the
major programmes of country emphasis has always been laid on tribals
among other weaker and backward sections of the society. These include
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Jawahar Rosgar
Yojana (.TRY), Prime Ministers Rosgar Yojana (PMRY) and Training of
RuralYouth For Self -Employment (TRYSEM). IRDP scheme is
absolutely for rural people those belonging to below poverty line and other
programmes are for both rural as well as urban youth. All these schemes
are implemented in the state by District Rural Development Agencies
(DRDA's) in collaboration with Commercial and Co-operative Banks.

12.3.4 COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

(CADP)

The low productivity of canal imaged lands has been traditionally

ascribed to poor water management in command areas. Among the more
important factors that have been held responsible .are inadequacies in
water delivery and drainage systems at the micro level, the failure of level
and reshape all the fields situated within the command of an individual
outlet in conformity with the demands of flow irrigation and, above all,
unreliable supplies of water at times and in the quantities required by the
crops. Although these deficiencies are sought to he removed by the
Command Area Development Programme. Yet this has still to get off the
ground. In this unit, we to introduce you to the genesis of CAD, and its
functions, state and central government contribution, achievements made,
weaknesses, CAD Programmes in India, and Future strategy adopted
improvement, and training needs of beneficiaries i.e. fanners and engineers.

FUNCTIONS
The programme envisages execution of 'on-farm' development works.
Warabandi or rotational system of water distribution is undertaken with a view to
Self-Instructional Material

294
ensuring equitable and timely supply of irrigation water. However, one of the Rural Development Programmes
main objectives under CAD Programme is to raise irrigation utilization to the
level of created potential. The main functions of the Command Area Development
Programme in the Irrigation Projects are: NOTES
1. Modernization and efficient operation of the irrigation system as
well as development of main drainage system,
2. Construction of field channels and field drains,
3. Land shaping and land leveling along with consolidation of
holdings,
4. Lining of field channels water courses,
5. Exploitation of ground-water, installation of tube wells etc.,
6. Adoption and enforcement of a suitable cropping paten,
7. Enforcement of an appropriate roistering system on irrigation,
8. Making timely and adequate supply of inputs like fertilizers,
pesticides, improved seeds, credit etc., and
9. Strengthening of existing extension training.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. Write the Objectives of DPAP and DDP?

2. What are the objectives and Functions of TADP?

STATE AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT CONTRIBUTION
It now includes around 155 irrigation projects covering a culturable
command area of about 19 m.ha. In 20 States and 2 Union Territories
implemented through 54 CADAs. A massive investment in the Central and
State Sectors have been made amounting to around Rs. 2600 crores from,
inception to the end of Seventh Plan, in which the contribution of
Government of India alone is around Rs. 900 crores. In addition,
investments through Institutional finance have also contributed
significantly towards taking up various activities under this programme.
From a capacity utilization of around 70% at the end of the Fifth Plan, it
has risen to a maximum of around 77% in 1986-87 and came down to 73%
in 1987-88 which was, however, a severe drought year. The productivity
though has shown considerable improvement in selected projects such as
Girna in Maharashtra, Sharda S.ahayak in U.P. Lower Bhawani
Tamilnadu, 13VC in West Bengal etc. in terms of improvement in .annual
average growth rate for crops such as paddy, wheat, sugarcane etc.
Nevertheless the increase has been far from satisfactory.
12.3.5 DESERT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (DDP)
The desert areas of the country had remained backward in many
respects due to difficult physiography varying agro-climatic conditions and
distinct socio cultural features. Since the people living in these areas were
facing hardships owing to geo-climatic conditions, the desert development
programme was introduced as a centrally sponsored scheme in 1977-78.
This is a special programme for the hot desert areas; the Desert
Development Programme (DDP) was launched by the Ministry of Rural
Development, Government of India during the year 1977-78. In Haryana,
this programme has been launched by the Ministry of Rural Development, Self-Instructional Material

295
Rural Development Programmes Government of India during the year 1995-96. The Centre share under the
funding pattern under DDP is 75 per cent and State share is 25 per cent (till
1998-99 100 per cent share of Centre for hot arid sandy areas). This
NOTES programme is implemented in 45 blocks of the 7 districts that are Bhiwani,
Hisar, Fatehabad, Sirsa, Rewari, Jhajjar and Mahendergarh. Now this
scheme is completed in Haryana 31 Dec, 2012 (HRDD, 2014). and
watershed development projects going under the Integrated Watershed
Management Programme (IWMP). The activities being taken up for the
districts are need based keeping in the view of the conditions of the area to
be covered. Generally water conservation work, stock ponds, water
channels, gully plugging, percolation embankment, field bunding,
afforestation, check dams, pasture development, land levelling, piped water
supply for irrigation etc. The main objectives of watershed development
projects are developing wasteland/degraded lands, drought prone and
desert areas; promoting overall economic development and improving
socio-economic condition of the resource poor and disadvantage sections;
mitigate the adverse affects of the extreme climate conditions such as
drought and desertification of crops; harvesting every drop of rain water
for the purpose of irrigation, plantations, fisheries, pasture development
etc; resorting ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing
natural resources i.e. land, water, vegetative cover; encouraging village
community toward sustained community action for operation and
maintenance of the assets created and further development of the potential
of the natural resources in the Watershed.
The recommendations of the National Commission on Agriculture,
in its Interim Report (1974), the hot desert areas were identified for the
implementation of a programme comprising afforestation and livestock
development. As for the cold desert areas of Jammu & Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh, the National Commission (in its Final Report, 976)
recommended that their specific problems of should be studied in depth.
The above recommendations lead to the Desert Development Programme
(DDP) in the year 1977-78. DDP programme was implemented on sectoral
basis to develop poor areas in the long-term. It was launched in both the
hot-desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana, and the cold-desert
areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Till 1994-95, DPAP
and DDP were implemented in the programme states in a segmented and
isolated manner and watershed as a unit of area development was
completely lost sight of. The sectoral autonomy leading to over-
centralization of the process of making decisions, giving sanctions and
administrative control completely diluted the Integrated Watershed
Development as the key to the restoration of ecological balance.
Investments under these programmes as well as those for other drought-
desert mitigation measures were liberally used for sectoral activities, such
as soil conservation, minor irrigation, ground water exploitation, social
forestry, sericulture, horticulture, etc. without paying any attention to the
integration and comprehensive development of land and water resources.
Within each sector, separate allocations were made for each activity to be
undertaken in the programme area. Isolated implementation of wide
ranging sectoral activities over widely disjointed areas of very small sizes
failed to bring about any noticeable impact and the programme objectives
were remained unfulfilled.
Self-Instructional Material

296
Objectives Rural Development Programmes

The basic object of the programme is to minimize the adverse effect

of drought and control desertification through rejuvenation of natural
NOTES
resource base of the identified desert areas. The programme strives to
achieve ecological balance in the long run. The programme also aims at
promoting overall economic development and improving the socio-
economic conditions of the resource poor and disadvantaged sections
inhabiting the programme areas.
Coverage
Upto 1994-95, Desert Development Programme was under
implementation in 131 blocks of 21 districts in 5 States. The Hanumantha
Rao Committee recommended:-
- Inclusion of 32 new blocks; and
- Transfer of 64 blocks from DPAP to DDP.
Inclusion of new blocks and transfer of blocks from DPAP to DDP
was agreed to. Thus, from 1995-96 total blocks covered under DDP
became 227 in 40 districts of 7 States. Subsequently, with the re-
organization of Districts and Blocks, the programme is now covered in 235
blocks of 40 districts in 7 States. The corresponding physical area under
the programme is about 4.57 lakh sq. kms.
12.3.6 WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (WDP)

Watershed is a geo-hydrological unit of an area draining to a

common outlet point. It is recognized as an ideal unit for planning &
development of land water and vegetation resources. According to 1999-
2000 statistics a net sown area of 141.23 million hectare is under
cultivation, out of which 84.58 million hectare is rainfed area.
Watershed Development as a means for increasing agricultural
production in rainfed, semi-arid areas. There are nearly 85 million hectares
of land as rainfed area in the country. These areas were bypassed by the
Green Revolution and so experienced little or no growth in agricultural
production for several decades. By capturing the Water Resources
Management and improving the management of soil and vegetation,
Watershed Development aims to create conditions conducive to higher
agricultural productivity while conserving natural resources.
Objectives
a) To mitigate the adverse effects of drought on crops and livestock.
b) To control desertification.
c) To encourage restoration of ecological balance and
d) To promote economic development of village community.
Water shed development originally managed by national wasteland
development board under Ministry of Environment and forest .It is now
placed under Ministry of Rural Development and Department of Land
Resources. The main objective of this programme for development of
waste lands in non-forest areas, checking of land degradation, putting such
waste land into sustainable use and increasing bio mass, availability of fuel
wood, fodder and restoration ecology etc. .Thus concept of watershed
development is a integrated nurture with multi disciplinary activities in the
area. At present Ministry of Rural Development and Department of Land
Resources, Government of India funding watershed development
programmes under D.P.A.P., D.D.P., and Integrated Wasteland
Self-Instructional Material

297
Rural Development Programmes Development Plan (I.W.D.P.) etc. This programme is intended to be taken
up in rain-fed and drought-prone areas especially predominated by SC/ST
population and preponderance of wasteland. There are six major
NOTES projects/programmes in watershed development programme namely,
 National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas
(NWDPRA)
 Watershed Development in Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDSCA)
 Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP)
 Desert Development Programme (DDP)
 Integrated Wasteland Development Project (IWDP)
 Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)
These six projects/ programmes also account for about 70 percent of
funds and area under watershed programmes in the country.
Through various watershed development programmes, about 30 million ha.
of land has so far been developed at an expenditure of Rs.9343 crores,
including external funding upto the end of IX Five Year Plan. During X
Five Year Plan about 11.4 million ha. is proposed to be developed at an
outlay of Rs.7440 crore. Besides, an area of 1.24 million ha. is likely to be
treated under watershed programmes at a cost of Rs.1872 crore through
ongoing externally aided projects.
Implementing Agency
The watershed programme is being carried out in desert, drought
prone and rain fed areas. DRDA/Zilla Parishad selects the villages for
development of watershed projects. Project implementation agency is also
selected by DRDA / Zilla Parishad. Besides, DRDA / Zilla Parishad, there
are other institutions through which this programme is being implemented
like agricultural universities, research institutions, government under-
takings, non-governmental organizations etc.
Beneficiaries
i) Local resident inside the of the watershed area.
ii) Poor families specially SC/ST persons in rain-fed areas where economic
condition of the people is relatively less due to problems of less
production, scanty rain and degradation of land.
iii) Members of SHG and UGs.
iv) Usufruct right given to landless persons out of common resource
management.
watershed development programme is peoples centered programme
and peoples participation in the programme has been made mandatory. The
people have to form a watershed association and watershed committee for
each watershed project. Watershed association, comprising all adults
residing within a watershed project area. The committee is responsible for
planning and development of watershed project for its area while
developing the plan for the area, the committee has to take technical
assistance from project implementation agency. Besides, the beneficiaries
of the programme have to give voluntary donations / provide contribution
in terms of labour, raw material, cash etc. for development activities and
for operation and maintenance of assets created.
Information available
About this programme, the detailed information is available with DRDA /
Zilla Parishad and Agricultural Department at District level and Panchayat
Samiti at block level.
Self-Instructional Material

298
Funding Agency Rural Development Programmes

The Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment, Government of

India, funds watershed development schemes under Drought Prone Area
NOTES
Programme (DPAP), Desert Development Programme (DDP) and
Integrated Watershed Development Programme (IWDP). 50 per cent of
funds under the intensified Jowhar Rozgar Yojana (IJRY) and 50 per cent
of Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) are given for watershed
development projects. Adding the state governments contribution under
these centrally sponsored schemes it is expected that substantial funds
would be available for watershed development projects. The funds are
being made available at the rate of 4000 per hectare for the development of
the area.
Activities Undertaken
The activities undertaken in these programmes include soil and
moisture conservation measures like construction of check dams, water
harvesting structures, desilting of village ponds, treatment of drainage
lines/ gullies, land levelling, bunding of farms, treatment of problem soils,
agro-forestry, agri-horticulture, silvi-pasture, organic farming, use of bio-
fertilizers, value addition and marketing of produce through farmers
groups, training & Capacity Building of stakeholders.
Land Treatment
(a) Soil and Moisture Conservation:
Land leveling, graded binding, contour bonding, vegetative bonding,
contour cultivation, drainage line treatment, gullies stabilization, gully
plugging, percolation tanks and farm ponds.
(b) Afforestation:
Tree plantation in degraded forests, Panchayat lands, community lands,
private lands etc.
(c) Pasture Development:
In village community lands, pasture lands with suitable grass and fodder
species.
Production Activities
Cropping Pattern
 Introduction of suitable crops, improved crop varieties, inter-
cropping, contour cultivation and crop management practices;
 Sericulture;
 Horticulture;
 Live stock development fodder cultivation, milch cattle
distribution, establishment of milk co-operatives
 Integration of other activities such as sheep rearing, fisheries,
piggery, poultry, bee-keeping etc.
Employment Generation Activities
 Creating more employment through land based and productive
activities;
 Raising backyard nurseries;
 Wage earning through community assets creation such as
community buildings, village roads etc.
 Cottage industries based on bamboo, wood craft, cane craft etc.
Role of Panchayats
Planning: The Panchayats can extend their organizational help in
providing adequate information about the local resources and the
Self-Instructional Material

299
Rural Development Programmes requirement of the people of proper planning of watershed programme for
the area to project implementing agency.
Implementation: With practical solutions and helping the agency in
NOTES smooth implementation of the project in the area, Panchayats can put their
influence over beneficiaries to remain present in their respective fields at
the time of land treatment activities. This will help the beneficiaries in the
follow- up activity in maintaining the assets created and developing their
lands with future prospects.
Local Panchayats, as per the terms and conditions should transfer the land
and other common properties resources to the agency in advance for timely
implementation of the conceived development programme. With regard to
afforestation and pasture development activity in community lands,
Panchayats can help the agency in selecting the species, of their choice for
plantation and pasture development.
Formation of Watershed Committee: Panchayat should take the
responsibility for assisting in constituting user / beneficiary committee in
the watershed for their direct participation in the execution of the project.
Maintenance and Protection of Assets Created: the Panchayat should
shoulder the responsibility of the assets created in the watershed area, such
as gully structures, check dams, community forestry and pasture lands,
Panchayat can adapt a well defined system on lines of Joint Forest
Management.
Watershed Programmes
Ministry of Agriculture
National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA)
was launched during 1990-91 (VII Five Year Plan) on pilot basis. In the
VIII Five Year Plan, the NWDPRA was extended to 25 States and 2 Union
Territories (Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Dadar & Nagar Haveli). Up
to the end of the X Plan, an area of nearly 9 m ha was expected to be
treated under NWDPRA. Keeping in view, the importance and the urgency
of development of rainfed areas, the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India
has set a target of nearly 45 m ha under watershed related programmes
over a period of 10 years starting from the first year of the XI Plan as
against the initial target of XI Plan was 30 m ha. The average unit cost of
watershed treatment for less than 8% slope is Rs. 4,500 per ha and for
higher than 8% slope is Rs. 6,000 per ha
A "Common Approach for Watershed Development" was jointly
formulated and adopted by the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and the
Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), Government of India,
incorporating the strength of their earlier first generation-based watershed
programmes. These guidelines have been developed for implementing the
NWDPRA of the Ministry of Agriculture. The restructured NWDPRA
provides for decentralization of procedures, flexibility in choice of
technology and activeinvolvement of the watershedcommunity in planning,
execution and evaluation of sustainable watershed programmes.
Externally Aided Projects for Watershed Based Development
The Ministry of Agriculture is also undertaking the externally aided
watershed development projects for the development of degraded and
rainfed areas with special emphasis on components like natural resource
management, livestock, infrastructure and institutional development etc.
Self-Instructional Material

300
Under the externally aided projects, an area of 1.81 m ha was covered till Rural Development Programmes

the end of the X Plan.

Ministry of Rural Development
NOTES
Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) funded by the Central Govt. was
launched in 1973-74 to tackle the special problems of areas affected by
severe drought conditions. At present, the programme is being
implemented in 972 blocks of 182 districts in 16 states. At the end of 2005-
06, 12.3 m ha rainfed area has been treated (5.7 m ha since inception to
1995-2006 and 6.6 m ha between 1995-96 and 2005-06).
The Ministry of Rural Development is also servicing externally aided
watershed projects for the development of degraded and wasteland areas.
These programmes' lay special emphasis on components like natural
resource management, livestock development, infrastructure and
institutional development etc. Under the above projects, an area of 0.50 m
ha was proposed to be covered till the end of the X Plan.
Watershed Based Programmes with Planning Commission
The Planning Commission of India has taken the Hill Areas Development
Programme (HADP) and Western Ghats Development Programme
(WGDP) from the V Plan onwards.
Watershed Programmes Implemented by NABARD
Watershed Development Fund (WDF) has been established at NABARD
with a total corpus of Rs.200 crore which included Rs.100 crore by
NABARD and a matching contribution of Rs.1 00 crore by the Department
of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India.

12.3.7 INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE AREA PROGRAMME (IAAP)

Even with the short coming of IADP, the spectacular results in improved
crop yield obtained in IADP, prompted the Government to think of
extending the benefits of improved technology in agriculture in large areas
over the country at less cost and with reduced staff strength. This resulted
in launching of the INTENSIVE AGRICULTURAL AREA
PROGRAMMES (IAAP) in 1964. This was similar to but a less intensive
extension programme in comparison to that of the IADP. 114 districts were
selected in the year 1964 and later extended to 150 districts.
Achievements
 Achieved increased production by exploiting the land resources.
 Package approach were covered in 1410 communities blocks
spread over 114 districts in India. In Karnataka 57 C.D. Blocks
spread over 14 districts were covered.
 Increased production by 20-25 per cent of the cultivated area was
achieved.
 Effective coordination between officials and nonofficial was
achieved.
 Multiplication of improved seeds and its distribution to all
cultivated areas was possible.
Objectives

 The objective of the IAAP was to extend the concept of IADP to

other potential areas to cover at least 20-25% of the cultivated area
in the country.
Self-Instructional Material

301
Rural Development Programmes  This programme was recommended by the third Five Year Plan
midterm appraisal committee.
 The main criteria for selection of districts was based on areas
NOTES having predominant crops and well developed infrastructure
facilities
 One hundred and fifty districts including fourteen districts of
Karnataka were covered under these programmes.

12.4. HIGH YIELD VARIETY PROGRAMME

The Green Revolution in India refers to a period when Indian agriculture
was converted into an industrial system due to the adoption of modern
methods and technology such as the use of high yielding variety (HYV)
seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and fertilizers. It was mainly
found by M.S. Swaminathan. This was part of the larger Green revolution
endeavor initiated by Norman Borlaug, which leveraged agricultural
research and technology to increase agricultural productivity in the
developing world.
The Green Revolution within India commenced in the early 1960s
that led to an increase in food grain production, especially in Punjab,
Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. Major milestones in this undertaking were the
development of high-yielding varieties of wheat, and rust resistant strains
of wheat.However, agricultural scientists like M.S.Swaminathan and social
scientists like Vandana Shiva are of the opinion that it caused greater long
term sociological and financial problems for the people of Punjab and
Haryana.
The main development was higher-yielding varieties of wheat, for
developing rust resistant strains of wheat. The introduction of high-
yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds and the increased quality of fertilizers
and irrigation technique led to the increase in production to make the
country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India.
The methods adopted included the use of high-yielding varieties (HYVs)
of seeds with modern farming methods.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. Write the Objectives of DDP?

4. What are the objectives and Functions of WDP?

The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self-
sufficiency of India. Along with high-yielding seeds and irrigation
facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilized the idea of agricultural
revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers,
there was a negative effect on the soil and the land (e.g., land degradation).
Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get finance and credit at
economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy
prey to the money lenders. They took loans from landlords, who charged
Self-Instructional Material

302
high rates of interests and also exploited the farmers later on to work in Rural Development Programmes

their fields to repay the loans (farm labourers). Proper financing was not
given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems
NOTES
and sufferings to the farmers of India. Government also helped those under
loans.
Due to traditional agricultural practices, low productivity, and a
growing population, often food grains were imported — draining scarce
foreign reserves. It was thought that with the increased production due to
the Green Revolution, the government could maintain buffer stock and
India could achieve self-sufficiency and self-reliability.
Agriculture was basically for subsistence and, therefore, less
agricultural product was offered for sale in the market. Hence, the need
was felt to encourage the farmers to increase their production and offer a
greater portion of their products for sale in the market. The new methods in
agriculture increased the yield of rice and wheat, which reduced India's
dependence on food imports.
Impact of the Green Revolution
 Increase in Agricultural Production: Food grains in India saw a
great rise in output. It was a remarkable increase. The biggest
beneficiary of the plan was the Wheat Grain. The production of
wheat increased to 55 million tonnes in 1990 from just 11 million
tonnes in 1960.
 Increase in per Acre Yield: Not only did the Green Revolution
increase the total agricultural output, it also increased the per
hectare yield. In case of wheat, the per hectare yield increased from
850 kg/hectare to an incredible 2281 kg/hectare by 1990.

 Less Dependence on Imports: After the green revolution, India

was finally on its way to self-sufficiency. There was now enough
production for the population and to build a stock in case of
emergencies. We did not need to import grains or depend on other
countries for our food supply. In fact, India was able to start
exporting its agricultural produce.
 Employment: It was feared that commercial farming would leave a
lot of the labour force jobless. But on the other hand, we saw a rise
in rural employment. This is because the supporting industries
created employment opportunities. Irrigation, transportation, food
processing, marketing all created new jobs for the workforce.
 A Benefit to the Farmers: The Green Revolution majorly
benefited the farmers. Their income saw a significant raise. Not
only were they surviving, they were prospering. It enabled them to
shift to commercial farming from only sustenance farming.
Features of the Green Revolution
 The introduction of the HYV seeds for the first time in Indian
agriculture. These seeds had more success with the wheat crop and
were highly effective in regions that had proper irrigation. So the
first stage of the Green Revolution was focused on states with
better infra – like Punjab and Tamil Nadu.
 During the second phase, the HYV seeds were given to several
other states. And other crops than wheat were also included into the
plan
Self-Instructional Material

303
Rural Development Programmes  One basic requirement for the HYV seeds is proper irrigation.
Crops from HYV seeds need alternating amounts of water supply
during its growth. So the farms cannot depend on monsoons. The
NOTES Green Revolution vastly improved the inland irrigation systems
around farms in India.
 The emphasis of the plan was mostly on food grains such as wheat
and rice. Cash crops and commercial crops like cotton, jute,
oilseeds etc were not a part of the plan
 Increased availability and use of fertilizers to enhance the
productivity of the farms
 Use of pesticides and weedicides to reduce any loss or damage to
the crops
 And finally the introduction of technology and machinery like
tractors, harvesters, drills etc. This helped immensely to promote
commercial farming in the country.
Yellow Revolution
India‘s oilseeds output in 2008-09 were estimated to be 28.16
million tonnes, which is quite deficient as the demand stood at 45.46
million tonnes. The output in 2009-10 is projected to fall due to deficient
monsoon this year. It has stood at 25 million tonnes since 1998-99.
Oilseeds production accounts for 7.4 per cent of the global production and
is considered as the fourth-largest edible oil country in the world.
The earlier policy allowing free import of oilseeds was detrimental
to the interests of oilseeds growing farmers and a set-back on development
of oilseeds for achieving self-sufficiency. As a result, the country remained
dependent on imported edible oils. There has been a significant increase in
imports of crude palm oil from Malaysia and Indonesia.
The ‗yellow revolution‘ in oilseeds owes its earlier success to a
spectacular increase in output to 24.75 million tonnes in 1998-99 from
10.83 million tonnes in 1985-86. But thereafter, we have not been able to
achieve self-sufficiency in oilseeds. Current production is not enough to
meet the needs of cooking oils of our growing population.
The annual demand has risen to over 125 lac tonnes whereas,
production is hardly around 75 lac tonnes. The shortage is met by imports
every year from Argentina, Brazil, Malaysia and Indonesia. Annual
oilseeds imports, which account for about five million tonnes, cost Rs.
15,873.6 crores in 2008-09 from Rs. 10,942.54 crores in 2007-08. It is
estimated that the demand in 2020 may touch 20.8 million tonnes,
requiring a production of 60 million tonnes of oilseeds, and that the per
capita oil consumption may rise to 16 kg annually.
Consumption of Yellow Revolution
Edible oil is an important constituent of the Indian diet. Besides
being a source of energy, they add a special flavour and palatability to
food. The annual per capita consumption is 11.1 kg against the world
average of 14.5 kg and the average of 26 kg in developed countries. Edible
oil consumption is likely to increase with rising of per capita income.
However, the daily in-take of fat should not contribute more than
15-20 per cent calories. There is potential to produce about 25 lac tonnes of
oil from non-conventional sources, but hardly about eight lac tonnes are
being utilized. It is important to work out a strategy to exploit maximum
potential from these sources.
Self-Instructional Material

304
 Rural Development Programmes

12.5 HARIYALI
The Ministry of Rural Development has issued this scheme for NOTES
Watershed Projects. We know many times rain water and other water
resources get wasted without its proper use. Therefore Haiyali sceme is
initiated to make proper use of these resources in rural areas. To make
livelihood better and to promote irrigation, fishiculture and other farming
activities.
Objective:
1. Harvesting every drop of rainwater for purposes of irrigation,
plantations including horticulture and floriculture, pasture
development, fisheries etc.
2. Overall development of rural areas through the Gram Panchayats
and creating regular sources of income for the Panchayats from
rainwater harvesting and management.
3. Employment generation, poverty alleviation, community
empowerment and development of human and other economic
resources of the rural areas.
4. Mitigating the adverse effects of extreme climatic conditions such
as drought and desertification on crops, human and livestock
population for the overall improvement of rural areas.
5. Restoring ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and
developing natural resources i.e. land, water, vegetative cover
especially plantations.
6. Encouraging village community towards sustained community
action for the operation.
7. Promoting use of simple, easy and affordable technological
solutions and institutional arrangements.
Eligibility:
 All states in India
 Criteria for selection of watershed projects-
 Watershed areas having acute shortage of drinking water.
 Watersheds having large population of scheduled castes/scheduled
tribes dependent on it.
 Watershed having a preponderance of non-forest
wastelands/degraded lands.
Benefits:
 The Central Government will provide funds to concerned
department for sanction of project.
 The funding pattern will be Rs.6000 per hectare.
 Fisheries Development in village ponds/tanks, farm ponds etc.
 Afforestation including block plantations, agro-forestry and
horticultural development, shelterbelt plantations, sand dune
stabilization etc.
 Promotion and propagation of non-conventional energy saving
devices, energy conservation measures, bio fuel plantations etc.

Self-Instructional Material

305
Rural Development Programmes 12.6 MP’S AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme

NOTES (MPLADS) is a scheme formulated by Government of India on 23
December 1993 that enables the members of parliaments (MP) to
recommend developmental work in their constituencies with an emphasis
on creating durable community assets based on locally felt needs. Initially,
this scheme was administered by Ministry of Rural Development. Later, in
October 1994, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
(MOSPI) has been looking into its working. Elected Members of Rajya
Sabha representing the whole of the State as they do may select works for
implementation in one or more district(s) as they may choose. Nominated
Members of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha may also select works for
implementation in one or more districts, anywhere in the country. MPs can
also recommend work of upto Rs. 25 lakhs per year outside their
constituency or state of election to promote national unity, harmony and
fraternity. MPs can recommend work of upto 25 lakh for Natural Calamity
in the state and upto Rs. 1 crore in the country in case of Calamity of
Severe Nature (e.g. Tsunami, major cyclones and earthquakes). A State
level nodal department is chosen, which is responsible for supervision and
monitoring and maintaining coordination with line departments. District
authorities (DAs) sanction the work recommended by MPs; sanction funds;
identify implementation agency and user agency, implement the work on
ground, transfer assets to user agency, and report back to ministry about
status of MPLADS in the district.
Each MP is allocated Rs. 15 crore per year since 2011-12 which has
been increased from Rs. 5 lakh in 1993-94 and Rs. 2 crore in 1998-99.
MoSPI disburses funds to district authorities, not directly to MPs. This
annual entitlement is released conditionally in two instalments of Rs. 2.5
crore each. Funds are non-lapsable in nature i.e. in case of non-release of
fund in a particular year it is carried forward to the next year. MPs need to
recommend work worth at least 15% and 7.5% of their funds to create
assets in areas inhabited by Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes
(STs) respectively. Funds for MPLADS can be converged with Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) for
creating more durable assets and with National Program for Development
of Sports (Khelo India).
Infrastructure development on land belonging to registered
societies/ trusts is permissible, provided the society/trust is engaged in
social welfare activity, and is in existence for three years. No more than
Rs. 50 lakh for one or more works in the lifetime of the society/trust can be
spent. MPLADS funding is not permissible for those societies where the
concerned MP and his/ her family members are office bearers. For
societies or charitable homes which look after deprived segments of the
society, the relaxed grant is Rs. 1 crore.
"As on 2nd July 2018, 47572.75 crores have been released by
G.O.I. since 1993 of which 94.99% have been utilized under the scheme.
Presently close to 4,000 crores are disbursed annually for MPLADS
scheme".
Top-5 states with highest utilisation-to-released fund ratio are
Telangana (101.42%), Sikkim (100.89%), Chhattisgarh (99.6%), Kerala
Self-Instructional Material

306
(99.3%) and West Bengal (98.65%). The Bottom-5 states are Uttarakhand Rural Development Programmes

(87.22%), Tripura (88.46%), Jharkhand (88.93%), Rajasthan (90.16%) and

Odisha (90.54%). Top Union Territories (UT) with highest utilisation-to -
NOTES
released fund ratio are Lakshadweep (111.68%), Andaman & Nicobar
Islands (105.68%) and Delhi (104.1%).
For the current year 2017-2018, majority spending of MPLADS
funds happened in two sectors: ‗railways, roads, pathways and bridges‘
(43%) and ‗Other public activities‘ (23%). Education, health, water and
sanitation sectors received less funding.
Type of recommended work:
Works which will serve greater public purpose and not purpose of
few individuals need to be recommended. MPs can only recommend, but
District Authorities have the ultimate power to sanction it.
Key priority sectors:
Drinking water facility, education, electricity facility, non-conventional
energy resources, healthcare and sanitation, irrigation facilities, railways,
roads, pathways and bridges, sports, agriculture and allied activities, self-
help group development, urban development.
Works not permitted:
construction of office and residential buildings for public and
private agencies, land acquisition or paying compensation, naming assets
after individuals, grants or loans to state/central relief fund, assets for
individual benefits, works on lands belonging to religious groups,
execution of works in unauthorized colonies.
Other works permitted:
construction of railway halt station, providing CCTV camera in
strategic locations, installation of bio-digesters at stations, schools,
hospitals, provision for fixed weighing scale machines for farmers,
installation of rainwater harvesting systems in public spaces, construction
of shelters for skill development.
Since start there have been reports of malpractices in running the
scheme and there have been demands to scrap it. In 2006, a scandal was
exposed by a TV Channel that showed MPs taking bribe for handing over
project work under the MPLADS. A seven - member committee was set up
to probe the matter.

Some new guidelines for MPLADS were announced by MOSPI :-

Projects implemented by government agencies would now be provided 75

per cent of the project cost as the first instalment, while those implemented
by non-governmental agencies would be provided 60 per cent.
For smaller projects costing less than ₹2 lakh (US$2,900), the entire
amount would be released at one go.
No project costing less than ₹1 lakh (US$1,400) would be
sanctioned with exception in the case of essential projects, such as
installation of hand pumps, and purchase of computers and their
accessories, solar electric lamps, chaupals and equipments .
The basket of works that could be taken up under the scheme had been
widened to include projects such as the purchase of books for libraries, and
ambulances and hearse vans that would be owned and controlled by district
authorities.
Self-Instructional Material

307
Rural Development Programmes The purchase of Microsoft Office software along with the training
of two teachers per school would be now allowed as part of an effort to
promote computer literacy in the country.
NOTES Guidelines are given to maintain transparency of work done:
1. A plaque should be permanently erected at the work place
mentioning MP‘s name, year, cost involved etc.
2. List of complete and ongoing works under MPLADS should be
displayed at District Authority office and MPLADS website
(www.mplads.gov.in).
3. Citizens can file RTI to know about the status of funds and work.
4. Funds utilised should be audited by chartered accountants, local
fund auditors, or any statutory auditors as per state/UT Govt.
procedure.
5. Review meetings should be held by MoSPI in states and centre
regarding fund utilization under MPLADS scheme.
6. Respective district authorities should also review work
implementation with the implementation agency every month, or at
least once in a quarter.

12.7 MLA’s Area Development Programme

The MLACDS is fully funded by the State Government and each MLA
identifies and proposes the works to be executed in his Constituency. The
Scheme is implemented both in rural and urban areas. The main objective
of the Scheme is to identify and implement the essential works to bridge
the critical infrastructure gaps in the Assembly Constituencies. The
allocation of funds under the Scheme had been increased from Rs.1.75
crore to Rs.2.00 crore per Constituency per annum from 2011-2012
onwards.
The District Collector will accord administrative sanction for
the chosen works and will also identify the implementing agency. An
amount of Rs.1.125 crore shall be earmarked for priority works,
exclusively fixed by the Government and out of the remaining Rs.0.875
crore, the MLAs can choose works of their choice in tune with the
guidelines of the scheme.
Salient Features

A sum of Rs.1.125 crore shall be earmarked for works prescribed

under ―Tied Component‖. In order to provide infrastructure facilities to
schools, a sum of Rs.25 lakh per MLA has been earmarked for provision of
infrastructure facilities like toilet, water supply, etc., to schools and kitchen
sheds which are in dilapidated conditions both in rural and urban areas.
Further, each MLA should allot Rs.20 lakh for construction of Anganwadi
Buildings, Noon Meal Centres and kitchen sheds in rural as well as urban
areas from MLACDS funds. The MLAs should also allot Rs.5 lakh each
for aids & appliances for differently abled persons. Out of Rs. 5.00 lakh, a
sum of Rs. 2.00 lakh has been allocated for the purchase of scooters with
side wheels attached, modernized prosthetic device and behind-the-ear
hearing aid. Apart from this, a sum of Rs.10 lakh shall be earmarked for
modernization of Anganwadi Kitchen Centres with Gas connection etc., at
the rate of Rs.6,050/- per Anganwadi centre as one time expenditure. After
Self-Instructional Material
taking all the eligible Anganwadi Kitchen Centres in the Constituency, the
308
remaining funds shall be utilized for modernization of School Kitchen Rural Development Programmes

Centres at the rate of Rs. 22,000/- per Centre as one time expenditure as
per G.O.(Ms).No. 294 Social Welfare and Nutritious Meal Programme
(SW.7) Department dated 11.12.2012. Further, the Hon‘ble Finance NOTES

Minister has announced during his budget speech for the year 2013-14 that
the existing Government buildings will be provided with solar installations
at a cost of Rs.11.70 crore by earmarking Rs.5.00 lakh out of MLACDS
funds for each assembly constituency.
From the remaining amount of Rs.47.50 lakh under Tied
Component, the MLA can choose one or more of the following works for
any amount according to his or her choice, subject to the overall ceiling of
Rs. 47.50 lakh.
In Rural Areas
 Installation of Solar Street Lights
 Upgradation of Gravel / WBM Roads to BT standard
 Renewal of badly worn-out BT roads (laying of BT layer only with
filling up of potholes, if necessary)
 Laying of Cement Concrete Roads
 Provision of buildings and/or compound walls for Government and
Local Body Hospitals, Primary Health Centres, Government
Veterinary Hospitals and also for Government Schools, Panchayat
Union Schools, Adi Dravidar Schools, Kallar Reclamation Schools,
Government Colleges and Government Hostels
 Provision of infrastructural facilities to Government Special
Schools for the differently abled and Government Orphanages
 Construction of Bridges
 Provision of additional Burial Grounds / Cremation Grounds to the
Village Panchayats not having such facilities.
 Provision of compound wall / fencing in the burial grounds
belonging to public Wakfs registered with Wakf Board. Since the
Wakf Board does not have any Engineering wing, this work may be
entrusted with the Local Bodies concerned.
In Urban Areas
 Installation of Solar Street Lights
 Upgradation of Gravel / WBM Roads to BT standard
 Renewal of badly worn-out BT roads (laying of BT layer only with
filling up of potholes, if necessary)
 Laying of Cement Concrete Roads
 Provision of buildings and/or compound walls for Government and
Local Body Hospitals, Primary Health Centres, Government
Veterinary Hospitals and also for Government Schools, Panchayat
Union Schools, Adi Dravidar Schools, Kallar Reclamation Schools,
Government Colleges and Government Hostels.
 Provision of infrastructural facilities to Government Special schools
for the differently abled and Government Orphanages
 Construction of Bridges
 Provision of infrastructure facilities to Burial Grounds / Cremation
Grounds
 Provision of Concrete Pavements with storm water drains, if so
required
 Formation of new Public Parks
Self-Instructional Material

309
Rural Development Programmes  Construction of Public Toilets
 Purchase of Jetrodding Machines and hydraulically operated
sewerage machines
NOTES  Provision of compound wall/fencing in the burial grounds
belonging to public Wakfs registered with Wakf Board. Since the
Wakf Board does not have any Engineering wing, this work may be
entrusted with the Local Bodies concerned.

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
5. Write the meaning of Yellow revolution?

6. What are the objectives MP Areas Development programme ?

12.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed rural Development programme in
detail manner. This unit also documented Drought prone Area Programme
(DPAP) and Hilla Area Development Programme (HADP ), Tribal Area
Development Programme and also Comman Ara Development Programme
(CADP). This unit also aimed to analyse Wasteland Development
programme, Desert Development Programme (DDP) and also documented
all the Development Programmes very detailed manner.
12.9 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write the Objectives of DPAP?
2. Write the meaning of TADP?
3. What are the objectives and Functions of DDP?
4. What are the objectives and Functions of WAD?
5. Write the meaning of Yellow revolution?
6. What are the objectives MP Areas Development programme?
12.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The DPAP and the DDP aim at restoring the ecological balance
through soil and moisture conservation measures on watershed
basis. In the present framework, these ‗area development
programmes‘ aim at involving village communities more
meaningfully in planning, implementation and the management of
the economic development activities within watershed projects in
rural areas through the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).

2. Tribal communities have been geographically, ecologically and

culturally linked to forest habitats. In India, there are several local
communities who depend on forest for primary or supplementary
nutrition, ethno medical practices, energy and various other life
supporting needs. Communities have been affected by restrictions
to forest access under protection laws. Most often, these laws draw
their validation from a western perception of nature, very unlike the
reciprocal relationship perceived by these communities. Most
Self-Instructional Material

310
 forest-dependent local communities in India are either marginally Rural Development Programmes

settled cultivators or shifting cultivators supplement their

nutritional sources with some hunting and gathering. A few
NOTES
communities depend almost exclusively on hunting and gathering
from forests. Large tracts of forest are essential to their survival
strategies.
3. i) Developing wastelands/degraded lands, drought-prone and desert
areas on watershed basis, keeping in view the capability of land,
site-conditions and local needs. ii) Promoting the overall economic
development and improving the socio-economic conditions of the
resource poor and disadvantaged sections of the society.

4. Watershed Development as a means for increasing agricultural

production in rain fed, semi-arid areas. There are nearly 85 million
hectares of land as rain fed area in the country. These areas were
bypassed by the Green Revolution and so experienced little or no
growth in agricultural production for several decades. By capturing
the Water Resources Management and improving the management
of soil and vegetation, Watershed Development aims to create
conditions conducive to higher agricultural productivity while
conserving natural resources. Objectives :
a. To mitigate the adverse effects of drought on crops and
livestock.
b. To control desertification.
5. Yellow Revolution: India‘s oilseeds output in 2008-09 were
estimated to be 28.16 million tones, which is quite deficient as the
demand stood at 45.46 million tones. The output in 2009-10 is
projected to fall due to deficient monsoon this year. It has stood at
25 million tons since 1998-99. Oilseeds production accounts for
7.4 per cent of the global production and is considered as the
fourth-largest edible oil country in the world.
6. Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme
(MPLADS) is a scheme formulated by Government of India on 23
December 1993 that enables the members of parliaments (MP) to
recommend developmental work in their constituencies with an
emphasis on creating durable community assets based on locally
felt needs. Initially, this scheme was administered by Ministry of
Rural Development. To encourage restoration of ecological balance
and to promote economic development of village community
12.11 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Government of India, 2003-2004, Guidelines Regarding
Transferred Schemes captioned, ‗National Social Assistance
Programme and Annapurna Scheme to the States/UTs‘, Ministry of
Rural Development, New Delhi.
2. Government of India, 2001-2002, Annual Report, Ministry of Rural
Development, New Delhi.
3. Government of India, 1995, NSAP: Guidelines, Ministry of Rural
Development, New Delhi.
4. Government of India, 1995-96, Activities and Achievements,
Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment, New Delhi.
Self-Instructional Material

311
Rural Development Programmes 5. National Institute of Rural Development 1995, Panchayati Raj and
Rural Development, NIRD, Hyderabad.
6. National Institute of Rural Development, 1995, Panchayati Raj
NOTES Institutions in India:An Appraisal, NIRD, Hyderabad.
7. Government of India, 2002, Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07),
Planning Commission, New Delhi.
8. Government of India, 2001, Report of the Working Group on
Public Distribution System and Food Security, Planning
Commission, New Delhi.
9. Government of India, 2003, Annual Report 2002-03, Department of
Food and Public Distribution, New Delhi.
10. Government of India, 2003, Agricultural Statistics at a Glance,
Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi.
11. Rajeev, P.V., 1999, Planning For Social Reforms, Deep and Deep
Publications, New Delhi.
12. Tata Economic Consultancy Services, 1998, Study to Identify
Diversion of PDS Commodities from Fair Price Shops, New Delhi.

Self-Instructional Material

312
 Target Based Programmes
UNIT-XIII TARGET BASED NOTES
PROGRAMMES
Structure
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Objectives
13.3. Target Programmes
13.3.1 IRDP
13.3.2 TRYSEM
13.3.3 NREP
13.3.4 RLEGP
13.3.5 JRY
13.3.6 Indira Awaas Yozana
13.3.7 Millions wells scheme
13.3.8 Swarna Jayanthi Grama Swarajgar Yojana (SJGSY)
13.3.9 Employment Assurance Scheme
13.4. Employment guaranty legislation
1.4.1 Salient features
13.5 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme.
13.6 Let Us Sum Up
13.7 Unit- End- Exercises
13.8 Answer to check your Progress
13.9 Suggested Readings
13.1 INTRODUCTION

Rural Development in India is one of the most important factors for

the growth of the Indian economy. India is primarily an agriculture-based
country. Agriculture contributes nearly one-fifth of the gross domestic
product in India. In order to increase the growth of agriculture, the
Government has planned several programmes pertaining to Rural
Development in India. Rural development can be richer and more
meaningful only through effective participation of the target-groups of
development. People's participation is one of the foremost pre-requisites of
development process both from philosophical and procedural perspectives.
Therefore, for the rural development it is important that the planners and
administration sincerely solicit the participation of different groups of rural
people to make the plans truly participatory. People's participation is
essential because the policies and programmes have been designed with the
aim of alleviation of rural poverty, which has been one of the vital
objectives of planned development in India. It has been realized that a
sustainable strategy of poverty alleviation has to be based on increasing the
productive employment opportunities of the deprived and the marginalized
in their growth process itself. In fact, it is elimination of their poverty,
ignorance, diseases and inequality of opportunities and providing a better
and higher quality of life that formed the basic premise upon which all the
plans, strategies and programmed schemes have been prepared. Rural
development, thus, aims at improving rural people's livelihoods both
socially and environmentally, through better access to assets (natural,
physical, human, technological and social capital) and services, and control
over productive capital (in its financial or economic and political forms) Self-Instructional Material

313
Target Based Programmes that enable them to improve their livelihoods on a sustainable and equitable
basis.
NOTES
13.2 OBJECTIVES

Rural development aims at both the economic betterment of people

as well as greater social transformation through formulation, development
and implementation of programmes relating to various spheres of rural life
and activities ranging from income generation to environmental
replenishment. In this Unit, we will, therefore, focus on such diverse
programmes that have relevance to promotion of rural development.A fter
going through various programmes presented in this Unit, we expect you to
be able to:
 Identify and describe different programmes of rural development;
 Analyse the possible effects of these programmes on the rural
people;
 Discuss the implications of the programmes for the economic
development and quality of life of rural population; and
 Explore the possibilities for people's participation in advancement
of the programmes as well as the target-groups concerned.

13.3 TARGETED PROGRAMMES

Role and Functions of the Government in Rural Development
We know that the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) in India
is the apex body for formulating policies. regulations and Acts pertaining
to the development of the rural sector. Agriculture, handicrafts, fisheries,
poultry and diary are the primary contributors to the rural business and
economy. While there have been many programmes and schemes since
independence, recent introduction of Bharat Nirman project by the
Government of India in collaboration with the State Government and the
Panchayat Raj Institutions is a major step towards the improvement of the
rural sector. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 was
introduced by the MoRD for improving the living conditions and its
sustenance in the rural sector (http://www.nistads.res.in/
indiasnt20081t6ruraVt6rur3.htm). As mentioned above, the MoRD is
engaged in legislations for the social and economic improvements of the
rural populace. Initially the Ministry consisted of three departments, viz. i)
Department of Rural Development, ii) Department of Land Resources and
iii) department of Drinking Water Supply. Presently there are two
departments, viz. Department of Rural Development and Department of
Land Resources, as the Department of Drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation has been formed into a separate Ministry of Drinking Water and
Rural Sanitation on 13.07.20 1 1.
Under the Department of Rural Development, there are three
autonomous bodies, viz. Council for Advancement of People's Action and
Rural Technology (CAPART), National Institute of Rural Development
(NIRD) and National Rural Road Development Agency (NRRDA).
Broadly, the objectives of the Ministry are (Chattopadhyay and Baghel,
2009):
 to encourage, promote and assist voluntary action in
implementation of the projects for enhancement of the rural
Self-Instructional Material
prosperity;
314
  to strengthen and promote voluntary efforts in rural development Target Based Programmes

with focus on injecting new technological inputs; NOTES

 to act as the national nodal pint for co-ordination of all eff0r.s at
generation and dissemination of technologies relevant to rural
development its wide sense; and
 to assist and promote programmes aimed at conservation cil LIC
environment and natural resource.
However, various Ministries such as the Ministries of Agriculture
Health and Family Welfare, New and Renewable Energy, Science and
Technology Women and Child Development, and Tribal Affairs, etc in the
central government at engaged directly or indirectly in implementation of
many programmes and schemes for the development of rural areas. In
addition, to strengthen the grassroots level democracy, the Government is
constantly endeavoring to empower Panchayat Raj Institutions in terms of
their functions, powers and finance. Gram Sabha, NGOs, Self-Help Groups
and PIUS have been accorded adequate roles to make participatory-
democracy meaningful and effective.
Strategies and Programmes for Rural development: An Overview
In this section, we present a brief overview of the strategies and
programmes of rural development as we know, the rural economy is an
integral part of the overall Indian economy. As majority of the poor reside
in the rural areas, the prime goal of rural development is to improve the
quality of life of the rural people by alleviating poverty through the
instrument of self-employment and wage-employment programmes, by
providing community infrastructure facilities such as drinking water,
electricity, road connectivity, health facilities, rural housing and education,
and by promoting decentralization of powers to strengthen the Panchayat
Raj institutions, among others. The various strategies and programmes of
the Government for rural development are summed up below.
13.3.1 IRDP (INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMME)
Integrated Rural Development Programme was first introduced in
1978-79, beginning with 2300 administrative blocks. IRDP has provided
assurance to the rural poor in the form of subsidy and bank credit for
productive employment opportunities through successive plan periods. The
target group under IRDP consists of small and marginal fanners,
agricultural labourers, rural artisans, the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes and socially and economically backward classes having
annual income below Rs.l1,000 (re-defined as poverty-line for the Eighth
Plan). Since the inception of the programme till 1996-97,50.99 million
families have been covered under IRDP at an expenditure of Rs. 1 1,434.27
crore. The total investment during this period has been Rs.28,047.65 crore
which includes a subsidy component of Rs.9,669.97 crore and a credit
disbursement of Rs. 18,377.68 crore. Of the total families assisted under
this programme, 44.75 per cent were Scheduled Castes / Scheduled Tribes
and 27.07 per cent were women.
In quantitative numbers, 10.82 million families were covered under
IRDP against the initial target of 12.6 million families fixed for the entire
Eighth Plan period. However, from 1995-96 physical targeting under the
programme was abolished with the focus shifting to financial targets and
qualitative parameters. Of the families covered during this Plan, 50.06per
Self-Instructional Material

315
Target Based Programmes cent were Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes and 33.59 per cent women.
The coverage of women was still lower than the target of 40 per cent
IRDP is a centrally-sponsored scheme with funds shared on 5050
NOTES
bases between the Centre and the States. In case of union territories, cent
per cent funds are provided by the Central Government. The IRDP has
been successful in providing incremental income to the poor families, but
in most cases the incremental income has not been adequate to enable the
beneficiaries to cross the poverty line on a sustained basis mainly because
of a low per family investment. As per the results of the Concurrent
Evaluation (September 1992 -August 1993), of the total beneficiaries
assisted under the programme, 15.96 per cent of the old beneficiary
families could cross the revised poverty line of Rs. 11,000 (at 1991-92
prices), while 54.4 per cent of the families were able to cross the old
poverty line of Rs. 6,400 per annum.
But, the analysis by income group of families revealed that in case
of those within initial income of Rs.8501-11,000,48.22% of beneficiary
families could cioss the poverty line of Rs. 1 1,000, which is quite
encouraging. The analysis of the family income of the beneficiaries reveals
that a large percentage (57.34%) of the families had annual family income
from assets of more than Rs.2,000. The annual income from the assets was
more than Rs.6,000 in 29% cases (Bid).
Subsequently, the following programmes were introduced as sub-
programmes of IRDP to take care of the specific needs of the rural
population.
 Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM),
 Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWACRA),
 Supply of Improved Tool-kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA), and
 Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY).
 We describe these programmes in brief below.
13.3.2 TRYSEM (TRAINING OF RURAL YOUTH FOR SELF-
EMPLOYMENT)
TRYSEM was launched as centrally-sponsors schemes on 15
August 1979. It aims at providing basic technical and managerial skills to
rural youth in the age-group of 18- 35 years from families below the
poverty-line to enable them to acquire skills and technology to take up
vocations of self-employment in agriculture and allied activities including
industry, services and business. Training is imparted in 30 different trades.
Liberalization of norms for expenditure under recurring assistance,
greater emphasis on systematic marketing, and exploring possibility of
setting up of groups for manufacture / assembly of non-traditional items for
which there is good demand in the market are some of the steps taken to
improve the implementation of the scheme (http:l/
www.preservearticles.com/20 12020322532lshort-notes-on-integrated-
rural- development-programme-in-india.html).
After the training, the TRYSEM beneficiaries are assisted under the IRDP.
Between 1980-98 a total of 41,48,425 rural youths were trained of which
17,74,395 be-longed to SCs/STs and 19,12,5 14 to women categories and
among these trained youths 23, 32,274 are now employed .

Self-Instructional Material

316
 Target Based Programmes
Check your progress - 1
NOTES
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What are role and functions of the Government in RD?
2. Write the meaning of TRYSEM?

13.3.3 NREP (NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT

PROGRAMME)
The NREP initiated in 1980 to replace the food-for-works
programmes, aimed to “generate additional gainful employment for the
unemployed and underemployed persons in rural areas, to create
productive community assets for direct and continuing benefits to poverty
groups and to strengthen the rural, economic and social infrastructure to
bring about a general improvement in the overall quality of life in rural
areas. It also aims to improve the nutritional standards of rural poor
through the supply of food grains as part of wages” (GOI Seventh Plan
Mid-Term Appraisal, 1988).
The percent distribution of employment under the NREP closely
parallels the state-wise percent distribution of the „ultra-poor‟ (see Figure
13). Kakwani & Subbarao (1990) calculate a rank correlation of r = +0.74
(significant at p < 0.01) between the distribution of the ultra poor and the
man-days of employment generated. Nonetheless, the states of Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh (as well as Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Kerala &
Karnataka) seem to have received a greater share of NREP employment
than would be justified by the percent of the „ultra poor‟. The eastern states
of West Bengal, Assam and Bihar (the more needy) have received less than
their fair share.
13.3.4 RLEGP (RURAL LABOUR EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE
PROGRAMME)
The RLEGP was launched in 1983-84 to provide an employment
guarantee to at least one member of every landless labour household up to
100 days in a year and create durable assets for strengthening rural
infrastructure. Programme design and implementation is almost identical to
the NREP, and most of the issues discussed above are relevant here as
well. Employment targets have been overshot as in NREP, but the
„guarantee‟ has not been implemented, because of non-feasibility in small
trials. The RLEGP was merged with the NREP in the 1989-90 annual plan.
According to recent press reports, the 1992-93 annual plan has dropped all
employment guarantee schemes from the Central Planning Budget.
However, Tamil Nadu has announced an employment guarantee scheme
similar to the widely acclaimed Maharashtra Employment Guarantee
Scheme. A sum of Rs 100 million has been allocated for this scheme which
is to be initiated in four districts i.e. Dharamapuri, Puddukottai, Pasumpon
and Ramanathapuram (The Times of India, Feb 8 1992). The scheme also
envisages payment of a small dole (Rs 2/day) to each registered person for
whom employment cannot be provided.
13.3.5 JAWAHAR ROZGAR YOJNA
Jawahar RozgarYojna (JRY) is one of the major wage-employment
programmes of the Government of India, taken up in April 1989 after Self-Instructional Material

317
Target Based Programmes merging the earlier wage-employment programmes, namely, National
Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and Rural Landless Employment
Guarantee Programme (RLEGP). The main objective of the programme
NOTES
(JRY) is to generate additional gainful employment for the unemployed
and under-employed men and women in the rural areas as well as creation
of community assets (Meenu Jail;, 201 I).
The expenditure of the programme is shared in the ratio of 80:20
between the Centre and the States. 22.5 per cent funds are earmarked for
SC/STs at all levels of Panchayat Raj Institutions. Preference to parents of
child-labour withdrawn from hazardous and non- hazardous occupation
who are below the poverty line, to persons with disabilities and to
distribution of food-grains as part of wages are other typical features of the
Yojna (http:/l www.preservearticles.coml2012020322532/short-notes-on-
integrated-rural- development-programme-in-indiahtm)
13.3.6 INDIRA AWAAS YOZANA
This Yojana aims at providing dwelling-units free of cost to the
members of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and freed bonded-
labourers living below the poverty line in rural areas. In June 1985, the
Union Finance Minister made an announcement in the Parliament
earmarking apportion of the RLEGP funds for the construction of houses
for SC/ST people and freed bonded-labour. The IAY was a result of that
announcement. Considering the magnitude of the problem, the central
government announced in 1988 a National Housing and Habitat Policy
(NHHP) which aims at providing 'Housing for dl'. The government had set
the goal of ending all shelterlessness by the end of the Tenth Five Year
Plan.
The IAY kame part of JRY when it came into being after the
merger of NREP and RLEGP in April, 1989. According to the 1991 census
around 3.1 million households were without shelter and another 10.3
1 million households resided in unserviceable kutcha houses. Until 1992-
93, the scheme had provided housing to SC/ST persons and freed bonded-
labourers living below the poverty line in rural areas. In 1993-94, the scope
of the scheme was broadened to cover non-SC/ST rural poor and in 1995-
96 families of servicemen of the armed and paramilitary forces killed in
action were also brought under its fold.
The Central and State Governments fund IAY in the ratio of 75:25
respectively. In the case of UTs cent per cent fund is provided by GOI.
Funds of the IAY are allocated to the districts in proportion to the SCIST
population in the district. IAY funds are operated by the District Rural
Development Agencies (DRDAs) / Zilla Parishads (ZPs) at the district
level. (http://www.prese~earticles.com/2012020322~32/short-notes-on-
integratecl-mral-deve1opment-programme-in-india.h). At least 60 per cent
of the total IAY allocations should be earmarked for construction / up-
gradation of dwelling units for SCIST families living below poverty line. A
maximum of 40 per cent of IAY allocations should be earmarked for non-
SWT families of BPL category. All the rural BPL families living in kutcha
/ semi-pucca houses and also the families living in unserviceable old IAY
dwelling units are eligible for upgradation of unserviceable dwelling
Rural Development Programmes units under IAY.
All rural families with annual income of Rs.32,000 or less are
eligible for construction of new dwelling units under credit-cum-subsidy
Self-Instructional Material

318
scheme. The allotment of the house is done in the name of the female Target Based Programmes

member of the beneficiary household. As far as possible, houses are built NOTES
in clusters in order to provide common facilities.
The cost norms under LAY have been changed from time to time.
With effect from 1 August, 1996, the ceiling of assistance for house
construction under IAY is Rs.20,000 per unit in the plains and Rs.22,000
per unit in hilly and other difficult areas. The construction of the house is
the responsibility of the beneficiary. As per the information received from
the state governments, 9.39 lakh houses had been constructed up to
November 2007 (GOI, 2008).
13.3.7 MILLIONS WELLS SCHEME
In India, though the small and marginal farmers, with holdings of
less than 2 hectares, account for about 78 per cent of the total operational
holdings, they only cultivate about 32.2 per cent of the cropped area
(Agricultural Census 1990-91). To increase the productivity of these
holdings they must be ensured an assured source of water supply. Ground
water made available through wells is an important source specially in the
remote areas of the countryside, where canal or tank irrigation is not
feasible. Though the fixed capital investment in well irrigation is fairly
high, it has many advantages such as flexibility in operation, dependability
of source, timing of water deliveries and low conveyance losses.
The Million Wells Scheme (MWS) was launched as a sub-scheme
of the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and the Rural
Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) during the year
1988-89. After the merger of the two programmes in April 1989 into the
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY), the MWS continued as a sub-scheme of
JRY till December 1995. The MWS was delinked from JRY and made into
an independent scheme with effect from 1.1.1996.
The scheme was primarily intended to provide open irrigation
wells, free of cost, to individual, poor, small and marginal farmers
belonging to Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes and freed bonded
labourers with a 20 per cent earmarking of JRY funds. Tube wells and bore
wells are not permitted under the Scheme. Where wells are not feasible due
to geological factors, other minor irrigation works can be undertaken such
as irrigation tanks, water harvesting structures as also development of land
belonging to small and marginal farmers. From the year 1993-94 the scope
of the MWS has been enlarged to cover non-Scheduled Castes/non-
Scheduled Tribes small and marginal farmers who are below the poverty
line and are listed in the IRDP register of the village. The sectoral
earmarking which was 20 per cent up to 1992-93 had also been raised to 30
per cent from 1993-94 with the stipulation that the benefits to non-
Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes would not exceed one third of the total
funds utilized during the year.
The MWS is also a Centrally Sponsored Scheme. The cost/area
norms in regard to works under MWS are decided upon by a Committee
comprising of Chief Secretary, Secretary (RD), Secretary (Planning),
Secretary (Irrigation) and Chief Engineer (Minor Irrigation) of the State.
The beneficiaries themselves are asked to undertake construction of their
wells through their own labour and local labour for which they are paid.
Contractors are banned under this programme. The wage to material ratio
is required to be maintained at 60:40. Supplementary material costs, if any,
Self-Instructional Material

319
Target Based Programmes can be met from other private/public sources. Though lifting devices are
not provided under the scheme, the beneficiaries who intend to install a
lifting device, are given the preference under IRDP and other relevant
NOTES
programmes.
The MWS is being implemented throughout the country.
Allocations are made to the States/UTs on the basis of the proportion of
rural poor in the State/UTs to the total rural poor in the country. The
District-wise allocations are made by the States from their allocation in
relation to the unirrigated land held by the target group with a potential for
well irrigation.
13.3.8 SWARNA JAYANTHI GRAMA SWARAJGAR YOJANA
(SJGSY)
SwarnaJayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana has been launched during
the year 1999- 2000. This Yojana is a holistic package covering all aspects
of self-employment such as organization of the poor into Self-Help
Groups, Training, Credit, Technology, Infrastructure and Marketing. The
beneficiaries under this scheme are called 'Swarozgaries'. The objective of
SGSY is to bring the assisted poor families above the poverty line, by
providing them income-generating assets. This scheme is a credit-cum-
subsidy programme. Subsidy under SGSY is uniform at 30 percent of the
project cost subject to a maximum limit of Rs.7500. In respect of SCs/STs
and disabled persons the maximum limit is 50 percent and Rs. 10,000
respectively. For groups of Swarozgaries (SHGs), the subsidy is 50 per
cent of the project cost, to per capita subsidy of Rs. 10,000 or Rs. 1.25 lakh
whichever is less. Accordingly, the SCs 1 STs account for the 50 per cent
of swarozgaries, women for 40 per cent and the disabled for 3 per cent.
The scheme is being implemented on 7525 cost sharing-basis between the
Centre and the State.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. Write the Meaning of RLEGP?

4. Write the objectives of Indira Awas Yojana ?

13.3.9 EMPLOYMENT ASSURANCE SCHEME

Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was launched on 2nd
October, 1993, covering all the 1778 blocks under RPDS. These blocks
were identified mainly in DPAP, DDP, Hill and Tribal areas.
The main objective of the EAS was also on the lines of JRY, i.e. to
provide gainful employment during lean agriculture season in the form of
manual works to all able bodied adults who were in need and desirous of
working, but unable to find anything to do. The secondary objective was to
develop economic infrastructure and community assets and resources for
sustained employment and development.
Important Features of EAS
In order to operationalize the programme to achieve its objectives,
Self-Instructional Material
initially the main features of the programme design were as follows:

320
  The scheme was operative in 1778 blocks of the country. Target Based Programmes

 The funding of the scheme was on an 80:20 basis between the NOTES
Centre and States.
 The Central share of funding was directly released blockwise to the
ZP/DRDAs based on the demand for wage employment and
expenditure.
 The scheme was demand driven and therefore there was no fixed
budgetary provision for the scheme.
 A maximum of two adults per family were to be provided the wage
employment up to 100 days in a year. New works were not to be
started if the employment potential was available through plan and
non-plan works already in progress in a particular area and the
assurance could be fulfilled by utilizing the same.
 The work should be labour intensive as well as result in the creation
of durable and productive assets.
 An individual beneficiary project based on the lands of BPL
families was allowed for horticulture development.
 The persons who desire for wage employment should get registered
with the Village Development Officer or Gram Panchayat which
would issue a family card for the purpose.
 When more than 10 workers demand work, new projects could be
started.
 The scheme is implemented by the DRDA and other District
Officers of various departments, Block Development Officers and
the Panchayats at all the three levels, i.e., Zilla Panchayat,
Panchayat Samiti and Gram Panchayats.
 The state level Coordination Committee for the Rural Development
Programme has the responsibility for overall supervision, guidance
and monitoring of EAS.
13.4 EMPLOYMENT GUARANTY LEGISLATION
The prevailing daily wage rate for manual labour in 2004-05, it was
necessary for at least three members of an agricultural labour household to
get employment for more than 200 days in a year in order to maintain itself
above the poverty level. We also noted that since in reality it is difficult
for many households to get this much employment, the poverty level in
rural households is still high. The ground reality continues to reveal
disturbing trends. while the availability of food grains has come down in
general (i.e. rural + urban) from about 510 grams in 1990-91 to about 444
grams in 2009, the per capita consumption of foodgrains in rural
households has declined relatively more from 373 grams in 1987-88 to 313
grams in 2009-10. Further, besides a continued increase in the proportion
of marginal farmers over time, among all the three classes of agricultural
households (viz. landless, marginal and small farmers), there is a
significant income deficit (to a tune of 20 to 40 percent) to meet their
minimum consumption needs. As a result, the rural households are
indebted with the landless/marginal/small farmers segment being more
dependent on informal lending sources to meet their minimum
consumption needs. More specifically, while in the aggregate close to 50
percent of rural households are indebted, more than 60 percent of landless
labour incur debt for meeting their consumption expenditure. The wages
paid to rural labour are often far below the statutory minimum wage and Self-Instructional Material

321
Target Based Programmes are differentiated by gender, location and nature of work/activity. Due to
these disturbing trends, the government in its midterm appraisal of the
Tenth Plan (2002-07) raised serious concern on the „distress‟ experienced
NOTES
by agricultural labourers and marginal/small farmers. Following this, as
noted in unit 22, the government has since taken many steps to mitigate
their hardship experienced. One of the notable initiatives of the
government in the direction of providing guaranteed wage employment
opportunities for rural unskilled manual labour was to enact a legislation
(viz. the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, NREGA) in 2005.
The Act guarantees employment at statutory minimum wages for all those
persons who sought manual unskilled labour for at least up to 100 days in a
year. Subsequent to this, a National Policy for Farmers was announced in
2007 stressing the need for focusing on the „economic well-being of the
farmers, rather than just on production‟. An assessment of the
implementation of NREGA for its initial years of performance revealed
that while there are critical lapses in its implementation, there are also
signs of the programme catching up on many fronts. With these insights,
the scheme has since been reoriented with many „new initiatives‟
introduced to improve its effectiveness. Against this background, the
present unit apprises you with the specific features of NREGA, 2005 and
the modifications introduced into its rechristened version in 2009 viz. the
MGNREGA. Towards which the efforts of the government in the
MGNREGA has since been sought to be dovetailed with those of many
other efforts initiated by the government.
13.5 MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT
GUARANTEE SCHEME
The earlier experience of implementing poverty alleviation
programmes like IRDP, RLEGP, DPAP, EGS, SGSY, SGRY, etc. had two
objectives, one regarded as primary and the other regarded as secondary.
The primary objective was to generate wage employment opportunities for
the unskilled manual labour and the secondary objective was to generate
productive/durable assets as an outcome of works undertaken in those
programmes/schemes. While the degree to which the two objectives were
achieved have varied, one of the most disconcerting findings of many
evaluation studies of such programmes was that due to leakages in the
system (e.g. expenditure on administrative machinery, presence of
intermediaries and the consequent low wages paid to labourers,
engagement of contractors for works, etc.), the actual benefit of increased
income from wages received by the beneficiaries was very low. In the
light of this experience, one of the priority objectives of NREGA was to
institute mechanisms by which not on such leakages was minimized but the
effective payment of wages paid to the workers was the highest. In order
to achieve this, two of the specific objectives stated by the Act were to: (i)
strengthen the grassroots processes of democracy by infusing transparency
and accountability in governance; and (ii) adopt a decentralized approach
by according a pivotal role to the PRIs (panchayati raj institutions) in
planning, monitoring and implementation. The other objectives of the
Act are to: (i) improve the livelihood status of rural poor by strengthening
the natural resources management through works that address the causes of
chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil erosion, and thereby,
Self-Instructional Material (iv) encourage the adoption of sustainable development practices through
322
the works undertaken. Thus, what is particularly significant about this Act Target Based Programmes

is that: (i) it is a first programme/Act which is based on the „right to work‟ NOTES
approach; and (ii) it makes significant contribution to the social security of
the unorganized workers in the rural areas.
Key Processes in Implementation
The process of implementation of the Act/scheme works in stages as
follows.
1) Submission of Names and Issuing of Job Card: Adult members of
rural household can submit details of their name, age, address and photo to
the Gram Panchayat (GP). The particulars of job seekers in the
applications made are verified by reliable local sources in order that job
cards are not issued wrongly. After due enquiry, the GP registers and issue
a job card containing the details and the photograph of the member.
2) Eligibility for Applying for Work: A registered person becomes
eligible to apply for work. Applicants are required to apply for at least 14
continuous days of work. The Panchayat or the Programme Officer
accepts valid applications and issue a receipt. Letter of providing work
would be sent to the applicant and also displayed at the Panchayat Office.
3) Offer of Employment or Unemployment Allowance: Employment
would be provided within a radius of 5 km within 15 days of receipt of
application. While the wage rates may be different for different regions,
the per day wage for work provided shall not be less than Rs. 60 per day.
The employment provided would be at least 100 days of employment per
household per year. If work is not provided within this time limit, daily
unemployment allowance will be paid to the applicant. If the distance for
work offered is more than 5 km, extra wage is paid. The rate of
unemployment allowance paid is to be notified by the state government
and shall not be less than 25 percent of wages fixed by the state for the first
30 days during a financial year and not less than 50 percent of the wages
during the remaining part of the financial year. Further, in the event of
inability to disburse the unemployment allowance in time, the programme
officer shall report the matter to the district programme coordinator with
reasons for the non-payment duly specified.
4) Cost Sharing: The central and the state governments would share the
cost of works initiated under the Act in the ratio of 3:1 i.e. 75 percent by
central government and 25 percent by state government.

Check your progress – 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
5. What are the features of Employment Assurance Scheme?

6. Write briefly about the MGNREGA?

13.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed about the Target based Programmes like
Integrated rural Development Agency, TRYSEM, NREP, RLEGP, JRY,
Indira Awas Yojana, Millions Wells Scheme and also documented the Self-Instructional Material

323
Target Based Programmes programmes like WJGSY, employment assurance scheme and also
highlighted salient features employment guarantee scheme. Also focuses
on Mahatma Gandhi National rural Employment Guarantee Scheme.
NOTES
13.7 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. What are role and functions of the Government in RD ?
2. Write the meaning of TRYSEM?
3. Write the Meaning of RLEGP?
4. Write the objectives of Indira Awas Yojana ?
5. What are the features of Employment Assurance Scheme?
6. Write briefly about the MGNREGA?
13.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. We know that the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) in India
is the apex body for formulating policies. regulations and Acts
pertaining to the development of the rural sector. Agriculture,
handicrafts, fisheries, poultry and diary are the primary contributors
to the rural business and economy. While there have been many
programmes and schemes since independence, recent introduction
of Bharat Nirman project by the Government of India in
collaboration with the State Government and the Panchayat Raj
Institutions is a major step towards the improvement of the rural
sector.
2. TRYSEM was launched as centrally-sponsors schemes on 15
August 1979. It aims at providing basic technical and managerial
skills to rural youth in the age-group of 18- 35 years from families
below the poverty-line to enable them to acquire skills and
technology to take up vocations of self-employment in agriculture
and allied activities including industry, services and business.
3. The RLEGP was launched in 1983-84 to provide an employment
guarantee to at least one member of every landless labour
household up to 100 days in a year and create durable assets for
strengthening rural infrastructure. Programme design and
implementation is almost identical to the NREP, and most of the
issues discussed above are relevant here as well. Employment
targets have been overshot as in NREP, but the „guarantee‟ has not
been implemented, because of non-feasibility in small trials.
4. This Yojana aims at providing dwelling-units free of cost to the
members of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and freed bonded-
labourers living below the poverty line in rural areas. In June 1985,
the Union Finance Minister made an announcement in the
Parliament earmarking apportion of the RLEGP funds for the
construction of houses for SCIST people and freed bonded-labour.
The IAY was a result of that announcement.
5. The main objective of the EAS was also on the lines of JRY, i.e. to
provide gainful employment during lean agriculture season in the
form of manual works to all able bodied adults who were in need
and desirous of working, but unable to find anything to do. The
secondary objective was to develop economic infrastructure and
community assets and resources for sustained employment and
development.
6. The earlier experience of implementing poverty alleviation
Self-Instructional Material
programmes like IRDP, RLEGP, DPAP, EGS, SGSY, SGRY, etc.
324
 had two objectives, one regarded as primary and the other regarded Target Based Programmes

as secondary. The primary objective was to generate wage NOTES

employment opportunities for the unskilled manual labour and the
secondary objective was to generate productive/durable assets as an
outcome of works undertaken in those programmes/schemes.
While the degree to which the two objectives were achieved have
varied, one of the most disconcerting findings of many evaluation
studies of such programmes was that due to leakages in the system
(e.g. expenditure on administrative machinery, presence of
intermediaries and the consequent low wages paid to labourers,
engagement of contractors for works, etc.), the actual benefit of
increased income from wages received by the beneficiaries was
very low.
13.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Verma, S. C., 1980, Direct Attack on Rural Poverty, Ministry of
Rural Development, Delhi,.
2. Fifty Years of Rural Development in India, 1998, NIRD,
Hyderabad, .
3. Bandyopadhyay, D., 1986, A Study on Poverty Alleviation in Rural
India Through Special Employment Generation Programmes, Asia
Employment Programme, ILOARTEP, New Delhi.
4. Chakravarthy, Sukhamoy, 1987, Development Planning: The
Indian Experience, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
5. Draft Sixth & Seventh Five Year Plans, 1978, Planning
Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.
6. NREP/RLEGP: Manual, 1987, Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India, New Delhi.
7. Rural Statistics ,1990/1995/1998/2001, NIRD, Hyderabad.
8. Jain, L.C. 1989. “Integration Eludes IRDP” in Kurukshetra, Vol.
XXXVIII, No. 2, November.
9. Subbarao, K., 1985, “Regional Variations in Impact of Anti Poverty
Programmes – A Review of Evidence” in Economic and Political
Weekly, October 26, Vol. XXI.Cox, F. M. , J. L. Elrich, J. Rothman
and J. E. Tropman (1977), Tactics and Techniques of Community
Practice, F.E. Peacock Publishers : Illinois.
10. Handley, R.M., M. Cooper, P. Dale and G. Stacy (1987), A
Community Social Worker‟s Handbook, Tavistock Publications,
London.

Self-Instructional Material

325
 Welfare Programmes

NOTES
UNIT XIV –WELFARE PROGRAMMES
Structure
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Objectives
14.3. Welfare Programmes
14.3.1 Minimum needs programme
14.3.2 Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
14.3.3 Integrated child development scheme (ICDS)
14.3.4 Tamil Nadu integrated nutrition programme (TNINP)
14.3.5 Antyodaya Programme
14.3.6 Annapoorana Scheme
14.3.7 Programme of rural health and total sanitation
14.4. Five year plans and strategies for rural development
14.4.1 Role of social workers
14.4.2 Provision of urban infrastructure in rural areas (PURA)
14.5 Role of voluntary organization in rural community development,
problems and limitations.
14.6 Let Us Sum Up
14.7 Unit- End- Exercises
14.8 Answer to check your Progress
14.9 Suggested Readings
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will look into human aspects of poverty and the
various approaches to and programmes for human development. Poverty in
a broader sense is not merely concerned with food, clothes and shelter, but
it is also related to the living conditions which directly impinge on the
quality of life. Thus, economic and human development are two sides of
the same coin and without developing both the components of poverty
simultaneously, no effort for poverty alleviation can be sustained. It also
takes into account the basic objective of development, i.e. growth with
social justice. To realize this objective various programmatic efforts were
made beginning with the First Five-year Plan. In the initial phase, it was
assumed that accelerated economic growth would automatically flow to all
the sections of the people because of the „trickle-down effect‟. And
Community Development Programmes, Land Reforms, Special
Agricultural Development Programmes, Cooperatives, etc., put together
were thought to be the best way of accelerating economic growth in rural
areas.
A review of these programmes during the Fifth Five-year Plan
revealed that while in the field of agricultural production we were able to
achieve self-sufficiency, there was need to improve social services to
improve living conditions in rural areas. Accordingly, to meet specific
needs of the rural people in general and the poor in particular, the concept
of Minimum Needs was evolved and also the Minimum Needs Programme
(MNP) conceived as an important strategy for rural development. In this
unit you will read about this concept, its components and the related
objectives and targets.
14.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, we should be able to:
Self-Instructional Material

326
  describe the need for and the concepts of minimum needs and basic Welfare Programmes
needs; NOTES
 list out the related policies and strategies;
 explain various components of the MNP;
 explain the objectives and targets of various programmes; and
 assess the progress made in the implementation of MNP.
14.3 WELFARE PROGRAMMES
Welfare is a type of government support for the citizens of that
society. Welfare may be provided to people of any income level, as with
social security (and is then often called a social safety net), but it is usually
intended to ensure that people can meet their basic human needs such as
food and shelter.
14.3.1 MINIMUM NEEDS PROGRAMME
In this section we will explain the concept of minimum needs and
also the approaches adopted by the Government to fulfil them.
The assumption was that with economic growth people would be
able to improve their social consumption, i.e. they would be able to make
use of various social services like better housing, health care, drinking
water, sanitation, education, communication, etc. This, however, did not
happen during the first two decades of planned development . While the
availability of food increased, access to various social services in rural
areas, particularly for the poor, did not improve. Many villages did not
have schools, health facilities, safe drinking water, roads, etc., which are
essential to improve the social consumption of the people.
The concept of Minimum Needs pertained to improving the social
consumption with increased incomes of the poor on the one hand, and
improving the availability and the quality of social services to the people at
affordable costs on the other.
The approach paper for the Fifth Plan (1974-79) stated that the
alleviation of poverty required a multi-pronged attack and suggested a
separate National Programme for developing social services in relation to
basic requirements. It observed “Even with expanded employment
opportunities, the poor will not be able to buy for themselves all the
essential goods and services which should figure in any reasonable concept
of a minimum standard of living. There is a need to supplement the
measures for providing greater employment opportunities and resultant
increase in income of the poorer sections and investment in social sectors
like education, health, nutrition, drinking water, housing, communications
and electricity”.
The first step in the formulation of the Minimum Needs Programme
(MNP) as stated in the Fifth Five-year Plan (draft) was “to identify the
priority areas of social consumption and to lay down for each of these a
minimum norm for attainment by the end of the Fifth Plan Period”. Giving
the rationale for MNP, it observed that social consumption needs had
received low priority particularly in the economically backward states.
There was little integration or convergence of services and facilities and
budgetary constraints affected these programmes rather adversely. The
Fifth Plan therefore proposed MNP “with the objective of establishing a
network of basic services and facilities of social consumption in all areas
up to nationally accepted norms within a specified time frame. The
Self-Instructional Material

327
 Welfare Programmes
programme was designed to assist in raising living standards and reducing
NOTES regional disparities in development”

Basic Concept
Earlier we discussed the concept of Minimum Needs. In this section
we will discuss the Basic Needs concept and compare it with that of
minimum needs.
The ILO document on Employment, Growth and Basic Needs: a
One World Problem (1977) put forward the basic needs concept formally
at the Tripartite World Conference on Employment, Income Distribution
and Social Progress (1976). The document stated that “The definition of a
set of basic needs, constituting a minimum standard of living, identification
of the poorest groups and provide concrete targets to help them and to
measure progress”. The satisfaction of basic needs was defined as
consisting of following two elements:
 Meeting the minimum requirements of a family for private
consumption: food, shelter and clothing are obviously included in
this; also, some household equipment and furniture is included; and
 Access to essential services such as safe drinking water, sanitation,
public transport, health and education, i.e. items of social
consumption. Other elements emphasized in the document as
relevant to the basic needs strategy are:
 Participation of the people in decision making;
 Putting satisfaction of the absolute level of basic needs within the
broader framework of “fulfillment of basic human rights which are
not only ends in themselves but also contribute to the attainment of
other goals”; and
 Fuller employment, rapid rate of economic growth, improvement in
the quality of employment and in conditions of work, and
redistribution on considerations of social justice.
The document also stated that basic needs represent the “minimum
objective of society, not the full range of desirable attributes”. Further, the
basic needs concept is of universal applicability, though the importance
and the relative weight of components will vary with the level of
development, social and cultural values, etc. One of the implications of the
basic needs approach is that a person seeking employment will have an
adequately remunerated job with which he can meet the needs of personal
consumption and have access to and utilize essential social services.
A merit in the basic needs approach is that it gives primacy to the
need for a minimum standard of living for the poor as a central concern of
development planning. It therefore contributes to the formulation of a
development strategy that aims at reducing poverty and inequality, and at
promoting growth of employment (and consequently reduction of
unemployment and under-employment) and distributive justice. By stating
that basic needs have to be put in the broader framework of human rights,
the concept does not confine its scope to material needs only but also
extends to non-material needs which, even though abstract and difficult to
concretize, are nonetheless very important even for the poor.

Self-Instructional Material

328
14.3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN RURAL Welfare Programmes
AREAS (DWCRA) NOTES
In the preceding unit you studied details about IRDP, the main
poverty alleviation programme in the country. As we discussed in that unit,
after the first few years our planners realized that women did not reap as
much benefit out of IRDP as they were expected to. Besides, women have
some unique problems in taking up self-employment activities. These are:
(i) women have the responsibility of managing household chores which
keep them engaged for a considerable time every day, (ii) women with
infants around them find it difficult to leave them unattended and (iii) most
of the poor women being illiterate lack even the minimum
entrepreneurship capabilities and therefore it is necessary to organize them
into groups so that, supported by cooperative group effort, they may
perform better. Hence, it was felt necessary to devise a special programme
which could overcome the above mentioned problems of the poor women
and children in rural areas. Accordingly, DWCRA was introduced in 50
districts on a pilot basis in the year 1983. Steadily, more and more districts
were brought under DWCRA and by 1990-91 its coverage was extended
to all the districts in the country. Initially, it was also a component of
IRDP. In 1990, however, it was made an independent programme by itself.
Objectives and Strategy of DWCRA
The basic objective of DWCRA is to provide rural women with
productive income generating assets and credit, and also enhance their
skills. Further, it seeks to provide an effective organizational support
structure so that, to be more effectively, the women involved may receive
assistance in the production of goods and services. The target group of
DWCRA is the same as that of IRDP and TRYSEM. The basic deviation
from IRDP, however, lies in the fact that under DWCRA, it is not
individual families which receive assistance but the group. The DWCRA
scheme envisages the formation of groups, each consisting of 15 to 20
women. It is expected that the women would come together for activities
which are mutually beneficial to them. The financial assistance which is
available for a group is as follows:
a) Rs. 15,000 in the form of a one-time grant, as a rotating fund contributed
in equal shares by the Government of India, the State Government
concerned and UNICEF, which may be used as: • Working capital to
procure raw materials, and for marketing purposes. • Honorarium to the
group organizer (it should not exceed Rs. 50 per month for a period of one
year).
• Infrastructural support for income generating activities.
• Funding for childcare facilities by establishing Anganwadies in all
the villages where DWCRA groups are organised.
b) Travelling allowance at the rate of Rs. 2000 per year for one year for
the group organizers.
Although DWCRA is basically a programme to generate productive
assets, it is not confined to providing economic benefits. It includes
supportive services like mother and child care, adult education,
immunization, etc. To this end, coordination is maintained with various
other departments such as Education, Health and Family Welfare, and
Women and Child Development.
Administrative and Organizational Aspects of DWCRA
Self-Instructional Material

329
 Welfare Programmes
DWCRA has an administrative structure for carrying out operations
NOTES related to the programme. At the state level, a woman of the rank of
Deputy Secretary to the State Government is in charge of the programme.
At the district level, a woman officer may be appointed as an Assistant
Project Officer (APO, Women‟s Development) to assist the Project Officer
of the District Rural Development Agency (DRDA). You have already
studied the functioning of DRDA in an earlier unit on Rural Administrative
Structure in Block 3, MRD-101. At the block level, on the Community
Development pattern, the norm is to provide a team comprising one
woman BDO (Mukhya Sevika), two women VLWs (Gram Sevikas) and
one Gram Sevika per DWCRA Block. It is to be ensured that the Project
Officer of DRDA remains the coordinating officer at the district level and
the BDO at the block level.
The task of planning, implementing and monitoring of DWCRA
has been entrusted to DRDA, as DWCRA was a part of IRDP. The staff
provided for DWCRA were an APO, a Mukhya Sevika and Gram Sevikas
who were expected to spend adequate time with the target groups, which
you have read about in the previous sub-section. They must explain the
nature and purpose of the group to the women concerned, help them
analyse their situation so that solutions can be considered, give ideas,
information and assistance regarding possible income generating activities
which the group can undertake, and provide encouragement, guidance and
support.
Funding Support System for DWCRA
The main financial assistance is provided by the Central
Government. The Central Government releases the Central share of Rs.
5,000 per group and travelling allowance for the group organizers directly
to the DRDAs. It also releases the share of UNICEF equivalent to Rs.
5,000. Equipment and input costs subject to a ceiling of Rs. 50,000 per
centre and cost of staff are also provided. The State Governments in turn
release their shares in the grant and travelling allowance to groups and
group organizers respectively.
The groups utilize the grants for various purposes. They use it to
build up infrastructural support and marketing facilities, purchase of raw
materials, etc. and the grant by UNICEF is used to purchase training kits,
equipment for childcare facilities, etc. If no childcare programme is
available, some childcare facilities could be provided so that children are
not neglected when their mothers go to work. For the DWCRA groups that
are registered under the Registration of Societies Act, 1860, there is a
provision for a multi-purpose centre in the blocks covered under DWCRA
so that women can use them for training and economic activities.
14.3.3 INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SCHEME (ICDS)
Launched in 1975, Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)
is a unique early childhood development programme, aimed at addressing
malnutrition, health and also development needs of young children,
pregnant and nursing mothers. ICDS consists of 4 different components,
namely:
1. Early Childhood Care Education & Development (ECCED)
2. Care & Nutrition Counselling
3. Health Services
Self-Instructional Material

330
4. Community Mobilization Awareness, Advocacy &Information, Welfare Programmes
Education and Communication NOTES
The ICDS, Centrally Sponsored Scheme, is anchored by Ministry
of Women and Child Development (MoWCD), Government of India
(GoI). The Anganwadi Services (under Umbrella Integrated Child
Development Services) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme and the
Government of India releases grants-in-aid to the States / UTs presently on
the following cost sharing ratio between Centre and States/UTs.
Objectives of the Scheme are broadly classified as follows:
Institutionalize essential services and strengthen structures at all levels:
 Implementing ICDS in Mission mode to prevent under nutrition
 Strengthen ICDS- AWC as the first village post for health, nutrition
and early learning
 Focusing on children under 3 years
 Focusing on early child care and learning environment
 Moving from outlays to child-related outcomes
 Fostering decentralisation and community based locally responsive
childcare approaches
Enhance capacities at all levels:
 Vertical integration of training of all functionaries to strengthen
field based joint action and teamwork to achieve desired results and
objectives
 Establish national training resources centres at Central & State
levels
Ensure appropriate inter-sectoral response at all levels:
 Ensure convergence at the grassroots level by strengthening
partnerships
 with PRIs, Communities, Civil Societies to improve Child
development services
 Coordinate and network with all Government & Non- Government
 Organisations providing services for children
Raise public awareness and participation:
 Strengthen maternal and child care, nutrition and health education
 Raise public awareness at all levels about vulnerabilities of children
 Inform beneficiary group and public about availability of core
services
 Promote social mobilisation and voluntary action
Create database and knowledge base for Child development services:
 Strengthen ICDS Management Information System (MIS)
 Use Information, Communication Technology (ICT) to strengthen
the information base and share & disseminate information
 Undertake Research and Documentation
1.3.4 TAMIL NADU INTEGRATED NUTRITION PROGRAMME
(TNINP)
The Tamil Nadu Integrated Nutrition Program (TINP) has been lauded as
one of the few large-scale "successful" nutrition interventions in the world.
Nevertheless, published data to support this claim have been ambiguous.
This review of the TINP is among the few independent published reviews
of the program. The primary data analyzed in the fourth section, as well as
much of the information about program operation, were collected as part of
a large epidemiological study in forty-two village -based TINP centers in
Self-Instructional Material

331
 Welfare Programmes
the pilot block of TINP. This study, on Positive and Negative Deviance in
NOTES Child Growth (Phase I), was funded by the Thrasher Research Fund.
Additional information on the monitoring and information system were col
1ected during a two-week fol1 ow-up field visit to Tamil Nadu in June
1989. The first draft of this report was prepared in October 1989.
The report has been organized into six sections. The first two sections
detail the background and operational details of TINP. The third section
reviews pub1ished data on TINP, pinpointing the lack of persuasiveness of
this evidence. The fourth section presents results from more rigorous
analyses of primary data to investigate the impact of TINP. Section five
attempts to synthesize the successful design and implementation features of
TINP. The last section focuses specifically on the monitoring and
information system in TINP to ferret out the factors that may have
contributed to the success of the program.
It is hoped that the end product will be useful to the health and
nutrition community, including program managers and designers.
Nutrition Programs in Tamil Nadu
Of the many programs currently operating in Tamil Nadu, only two
need mention here - the national -1evel Integrated Chi1d Development
Services Scheme (ICDS) , and the state-sponsored NMP. Both of these
programs aim at direct nutrition and health intervention and are not
designed to be income-transfer programs 1ike the Integrated Rural
Development Program, the Pub1ic-Distribution System, Employment
Guarantee Program, etc.
The Integrated Child Development Services Scheme
The ICDS, a program sponsored by the central Government of India and
implemented by state governments, has been in operation in all the states in
the country (including Tamil Nadu) in selected blocks since 1975. It aims
at reducing child malnutrition, morbidity, and mortal i ty through a defined
package of services that include supplementary feeding, nutrition and
health education, immunization, and health referral services. In addition, it
a1 so provides preschool education for the 3-5+ age group. While initial
evaluations of the ICDS have claimed a fair degree of success for the
program (Tandon 1983), recent reports even by sympathetic reviewers are
more guarded. Gopal an (1988) writes: '.. it seems doubtful if the AM
(Anganwadi worker of the ICDS) had really succeeded in bringing about
attitudinal changes with respect to habits of personal hygiene, dietary
practices or chi1drearing practices, or in achieving sustained and
substantial improvement in nutritional status of mothers and children in the
villages studied - this despite some significant successes that have been
reported in local situations." However, the ICDS is the major large- scale
national -level endeavor at combating infant and child ma1 nutrition in
India and enjoys strong political and bureaucratic commitment.
Check your progress - 1
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. Write the basic concepts of Welfare Programme?
2. What are the strategy and objectives of DWCRA?
Self-Instructional Material

332
 In March 1990, 1,962 ICDS projects were functioning in the Welfare Programmes
country (out of a total of 2,424 projects sanctioned by the government), NOTES
covering a population of nearly 200 million. In Tamil Nadu, of the 111
central sector ICDS projects sanctioned, 79 were operational in March
1990. There are no state-sponsored ICDS projects in Tamil Nadu unlike in
the states of Haryana, Karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, West
Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh, which
have state-sponsored projects (Central Technical Committee 1986, 1987).
Thus Tami 1 Nadu's commitment to ICDS is 1imi ted to implementing the
centrally-sponsored projects.
14.3.5 ANTYODAYA PROGRAMME
The Antyodaya programme was instituted for the upliftment of the poorest
of the poor in the country. Launched first by the Government of Rajasthan
in 1977, the programme was taken up by the Governments of Himachal
Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Manipur in 1978. The type of
benefit schemes under the programme included land allotment, agriculture
and land development, animal husbandry, village and cottage industries,
wage employment, old age pension and housing subsidy, etc. The criterion
adopted for the selection of beneficiary families was purely economic.
Different norms were fixed by the States for identification of Antyodaya
families. However, priority was given to those families which did not have
any economic assets, nor any source of income. In 1978, the Programme
Evaluation Organisation PEO undertook an evaluation study of the
working of the Antyodaya Programme in Rajasthan. In view of the
widespread attention attracted by the study report, the Estimates
Committee of the Parliament suggested that the P.E.O. should take up a
countrywide evaluation of the Programme. Accordingly, the P.E.O. carried
out an evaluation study of the programme during 1979-81 and published its
report in 1982.
14.3.6 ANNAPOORANA SCHEME
The Ministry of Rural Development launched the scheme in 2000-2001.
Indigent senior citizens of 65 years of age or above who though eligible for
old age pension under the National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS) but
are not getting the pension, are covered and 10 kgs. of food grains per
person per month are supplied free of cost under the scheme.
From 2002-2003 it has been transferred to State Plan along with the
National Social Assistance Programme comprising the National Old Age
Pension Scheme and the National Family Benefit Scheme. The funds for
the transferred scheme are being released by the Ministry of Finance as
Additional Central Assistance (ACA) to the State Plan and the States have
the requisite flexibility in the choice of beneficiaries and implementation.
The food grains are released to the State Governments on the existing
norms at BPL rates.
Under this scheme, 10 Kgs of food grains is distributed per month
free of cost to destitute above the age of 65 years with no or meager
subsistence. The Government of India fixed the target at 52215, being
20% of the number of persons who are eligible for National Old Age
Pension, but not getting the pension for some reasons. The scheme is
implemented in the State with effect from 14-2-2001.
Though the scheme was originally implemented as a Central Sector
Scheme, the pattern of central assistance was changed in 2002-03. Now,
Self-Instructional Material

333
 Welfare Programmes
the scheme is implemented with additional central assistance and the level
NOTES of expenditure reached during the year 2000-01 is treated as the mandatory
commitment of the State Government.

14.3.7 PROGRAMME OF RURAL HEALTH AND TOTAL

SANITATION
Individual Health and hygiene is largely dependent on adequate availability
of drinking water and proper sanitation. There is, therefore, a direct
relationship between water, sanitation and health. Consumption of unsafe
drinking water, improper disposal of human excreta, improper
environmental sanitation and lack of personal and food hygiene have been
major causes of many diseases in developing countries. India is no
exception to this. Prevailing High Infant Mortality Rate is also largely
attributed to poor sanitation. It was in this context that the Central Rural
Sanitation Programme (CRSP) was launched in 1986 primarily with the
objective of improving the quality of life of the rural people and also to
provide privacy and dignity to women.
The concept of sanitation was earlier limited to disposal of human
excreta by cesspools, open ditches, pit latrines, bucket system etc. Today it
connotes a comprehensive concept, which includes liquid and solid waste
disposal, food hygiene, and personal, domestic as well as environmental
hygiene. Proper sanitation is important not only from the general health
point of view but it has a vital role to play in our individual and social life
too. Sanitation is one of the basic determinants of quality of life and human
development index. Good sanitary practices prevent contamination of
water and soil and thereby prevent diseases. The concept of sanitation was,
therefore, expanded to include personal hygiene, home sanitation, safe
water, garbage disposal, excreta disposal and waste water disposal.
The components to be undertaken under the TSC are as follows:
A. Start-Up Activities:
The start-up activities includes initial publicity, motivational
campaign, conducting of preliminary surveys to assess the demand and
thereafter preparation of the district TSC project proposals for seeking
Government of India assistance etc.
B. IEC Activities:
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) are the
important components of the Programme so as to create the demand for
sanitary facilities in the rural areas. The activities carried out under this
component should be area specific and should also involve all the
sections of the rural population in a sustained manner so that the
willingness of the people to construct latrines is translated/interpreted as
demand generated. The motivator can be given his/her incentive from the
funds earmarked for IEC. The incentive will be based on his/her
performance i.e. in terms of motivating the people to the extent that they
construct the latrine and soakage pits and also use it subsequently. The IEC
campaign should also include focus on health and hygiene practices as well
as environmental sanitation aspects in holistic manner.
C. Rural Sanitary Marts/Production Centres:
The Rural Sanitary Mart is an outlet dealing with the materials
required for the construction of not only sanitary latrines and other sanitary
Self-Instructional Material
facilities in rural areas but also those items which are required as a part of

334
the sanitation package. It is a commercial enterprise with a social objective. Welfare Programmes
The main aim of having a sanitary mart is to provide materials and NOTES
guidance needed for constructing different types of latrines,
technologically and financially suitable to the areas and other sanitary
facilities. Production Centres are the means to improve the access and
production of cost effective affordable sanitary materials. The Production
Centres/Rural Sanitary Marts could be opened and operated by
NGOs/Panchayats. For this purpose less than 5% (subject to a maximum of
Rs. 35.00 lakh) of the total TSC district project cost has been earmarked.
Moreover Rs. 3.5 lakh per Rural Sanitary Mart/Production Centre can be
provided.
D. Construction of Individual Household Latrines:
As stated earlier, for the purpose of this Programme, a duly
completed household sanitary latrine shall comprise of a Basic Low Cost
Unit (without the super structure). In the first phase, the Programme is
primarily aimed at the Below Poverty Line families.
E. Women Complex:
Village Sanitary Complex for women can be provided under the
Programme. The maintenance of such complexes is very essential and for
this purpose Panchayat should own the responsibility or make alternative
arrangements at the village level. Upto 6% of the total Project Cost can be
used for construction of Sanitary Complex for Women. The beneficiary
contribution can be given by the Panchayat.
F. Total Sanitation of Village
Disposal of liquid and solid wastes and clean surroundings are
important components of sanitation. I village per block of TSC district can
be taken up. The maximum assistance for a Total Sanitation Village is to
be restricted to Rs. 5.00 lakh. Facilities such as drainage, individual
latrines, women complexes, environmental components etc., can be taken
up.
G. School Sanitation:
Children are more receptive to new ideas and, therefore, the school
is the best suitable institution in changing the conditioned habits of people
from open defecation to the use of lavatory through motivation &
education. The experience gained by children through use of toilets in
school and sanitation education imparted by teachers would definitely be
carried home and passed on to parents, who in most cases do not have
formal education. School Sanitation, therefore, forms an integral part of
every TSC. The Central subsidy per unit will be restricted to Rs. 12,000/-
for a unit cost of Rs. 20000/-. Separate toilets for girls and boys are to be
made, which can be treated as two separate units and each unit will be
entitled to Central Subsidy upto Rs. 12000/- each. However, State/UT
Govts and Panchayats are allowed to contribute from their own resources
over and above the prescribed amount.
SPECIAL PROVISIONS
For adequate coverage of the weaker sections of the people, while
selecting the districts, blocks, villages and demand for sanitary latrines,
preference should be given to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Out of the total funds earmarked for construction of individual latrines
under CRSP, a minimum of 25% should be earmarked for the individual
households from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Further, 3%
Self-Instructional Material

335
 Welfare Programmes
reservation for individual toilets to the disabled persons shall be provided.
NOTES It may also be noted that while constructing toilets in the institutions, the
construction should be made in such a way that the facilities can also be
used by the disabled students.
Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. Write the meaning and Objectives of ICDS?
4. What are the basic assumptions of Annapurna Scheme ?

14.4. FIVE YEAR PLANS AND STRATEGIES FOR

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Even before 1947, the Indian National Congress indicated its commitment
to planning and prepared a set of reports, which generated a lot of interest
and discussion. Apart from this, some prominent industrialists published in
1944 the document, A Brief Memorandum Outlining a Plan of Economic
Development for India. Much earlier in 1934, M. Visveswaraya had
published a Ten Year Plan, aimed at doubling the national income.
Jawaharlal Nehru, the nation‟s first Prime Minister, is generally
regarded as the architect of planning in India. He viewed planning as a way
of developing the country avoiding the unnecessary rigours of an industrial
transition in so far as it affected the lives of the masses living in India‟s
villages. Moreover, he recognized that planning was a positive instrument
for resolving imbalances and contradictions in a large and heterogeneous
country, such as India. The first three Five Year Plans are generally
regarded as the liveliest phase in India‟s planning exercise.
Though the First Five Year.
The Early Years of Planning
Plan (1950-55) was basically a simple exercise of putting together
programmes, targets and outlays, it provided the first milestone in rural
development through the launching of the Community Development
Programme and National Extension Service.
India‟s tryst with planning came with the formulation of the Second
Five Year Plan. P.C. Mahalanobis, an eminent statistician, and a man with
a wide range of ideas, is generally credited with preparing the blueprint of
the Second Plan. At that point of time, this plan was the most self-
conscious attempt at planning in any newly independent country in the
Third World. Almost all major contemporary economists, who took an
interest in the study of development economics, interacted with Indian
planners during these years – and so did several of today‟s Nobel
Laureates.
The Second Plan (1955-60) laid a strong emphasis on industry. The
idea was that this strategy will relieve the excess population in rural India.
The strategy sought to increase employment in heavy industry and the
capital goods sector, so that the load on the agricultural sector could be
lightened. It was primarily a strategy of industrialization, which hoped to
succeed by forging strong industry linkages, both forward and backward.
Self-Instructional Material As a result of this emphasis, the performance of India‟ capital goods sector
336
improved substantially during this period. It also laid a solid ground for a Welfare Programmes
vibrant and self-reliant industrial base in India. NOTES
Though the Second Plan is widely regarded as an “industrial plan”,
there were other path-finding formulations made by Indian planners during
this period, as well. For example, the Plan document included a very lucid
chapter titled “Land Reform and Agrarian Reconstruction”. Emphasis and
hopes were placed on cooperative farming practices in Indian agriculture.
The formulation also envisaged a vast network of community development
programmes, national extension services and an irrigation network
financed by public budgets. The concept of democratic decentralization for
assigning development responsibilities to Panchayati Raj institutions was
also advocated (by the Balwantrai Mehta Committee). Thus, while it would
be inaccurate and unfair to say that the Second Plan lacked an agricultural
strategy, it would not be unwarranted to maintain that planners were
grossly over-optimistic as to what traditional Indian agriculture, with its
conventional input-output basis and deepseated social stratification, could
do within the political constraints.
Role of Planning During the Years of Crises Among the priorities
listed in the Third Plan, it was generally recognized that agriculture had the
first place. Thus, in its initial formulation at least, the Third Plan differed
from the Second Plan. It is generally recognized that there was a general
de-emphasis of agriculture in the Second Plan. The Third Plan attempted to
reverse this.
Indian planning suffered two major shocks caused by exogenous
factors in the 1960s. The first came in the shape of the war with China in
1962 and the second in the form of successive harvest failures in 1965 and
1967. The first shock caused a sharp increase in India‟s defence outlays
and a severe curtailment in public investment of the government.
Consequently, the capital goods sector was badly hit. The crises on the
food front was met with wheat import from the USA. This situation, for the
first time, seriously exposed India‟s dependence on international aid.
However, Indian planners woke up to the need to build food self-
sufficiency as a result of these crises. The response of the government to
the crises came in the shape of the abandonment of the Five Year Plans. As
a result, the period between 1966 and 1969 – the Annual Plans Phase – is
often labelled as the „Plan Holiday‟ period.
The Annual Plans were notable for the formulation of a clear-cut
strategy of agricultural development. This strategy carried over into the
Fourth Plan and was notable for its shift in perception of the binding
constraints on Indian agriculture. It had hitherto been maintained that a
conservative rural social and economic structure, coupled with inefficient
agricultural practices, acted as major constraints on the agricultural sector.
Further, land reform had largely been avoided; in practice, however, their
need was felt as vital. On the other hand, the new strategy made a
perceptible shift from this perception of the problem of the agricultural
sector. Instead, technological modernization was felt to be the main
problem. In other words, it called for a strategy that would make it possible
to “bet on the strong”.
Planning and Agricultural Transformation The new strategy came
to be implemented during the course of the Fourth Plan and was more
popularly known as the “Green Revolution” in agriculture.
Self-Instructional Material

337
 Welfare Programmes
Even as the “Green Revolution” in agriculture was ushered, it was realized
NOTES that “distributive justice” still remained a distant dream. Thus arrived the
popular slogan of Garibi Hatao (Remove Poverty) and with it came the
emphasis on poverty.
alleviation as a distinct planning objective in its own right. In fact, a
document prepared by the Planning Commission, though never officially
published, for the first time put the problem of poverty eradication in the
forefront of political and public discussion.
The Approach Paper to the Fifth Plan followed the recommendation
of Working Group in its definition of poverty in terms of nutritional
inadequacy and ventured to put the explicit redistribution of incomes
towards the lowest three deciles as an objective in itself. Thus, the basic
approach of the Fifth Plan was growth with redistribution. However, on
account of the serious harvest failure of 1972-73 and the oil crises of 1973,
inflationary pressure forced Indian planners to seriously curtail the
ambitious programmes they had envisaged. Public investment continued to
be under strain and, as a result, many of the programmes had to be
postponed to the next Five Year Plan. The 1970s are significant because of
the Minimum Needs Programmes, IRDP, Rural Employment Programmes
and some area development programmes about which you have read in the
previous courses.
Poverty Alleviation and Indian Planning
The Sixth Plan, (1980-85) again undertook eradication of poverty
as its primary aim. Consequently, the programmes to eradicate poverty –
NREP, RLEGP (later merged into Jawahar Rozgar Yojana). TRYSEM,
DWCRA Integrated Rural Development Programme – were strongly
emphasized. The IRDP, coupled with rural employment programmes, the
Minimum Needs Programme and the area development programmes,
meant that the Sixth Plan had a strong emphasis on the rural sector.
Poverty alleviation continued to be a central concern in the Seventh
Plan. Growth of employment opportunities, human resource and
infrastructure development, removal of inequalities, an expanded system of
food security, increase in productivity in agriculture and industry,
participation of people in development and substantial improvement in
agricultural and rural development administration, were identified as
priority areas. In the course of the Seventh Plan, the emphasis had shifted
towards the concept of modernization again – this time in industry. With
this came the relative de-emphasis on the public sector as an engine of
growth. Modernization and diversification of industry, adoption of new
technology, a generally satisfactory level of industrial performance (more
so in some sectors), broad based entrepreneurship development and growth
of new industries like petro-chemicals have also been considered as
positive developments.
A number of imbalances cropped up during the Plan Period. First,
the massive inflow of imports under the liberalization regime had meant an
adverse movement in India‟s balance of payment position. During the plan
period, the continuous strain on the fiscal resources of the government was
so severe that it generated inflationary pressure despite the record levels of
agricultural output. The decline in the ability of India‟s economy (the
organised sector) to generate employment out of investments was manifest
Self-Instructional Material
during the Seventh Plan. As the Approach to the Eighth Plan 199095

338
pointed out, “The large reduction in the share of the agricultural sector in Welfare Programmes
GDP has been accompanied by only a marginal reduction in the proportion NOTES
of people dependent on this sector. Consequently, the agriculture non-
agriculture disparities in terms of output (and incomes) per head”.
The Ninth Plan emphasized “priority to agriculture and rural
development with a view to generate adequate productive employment and
eradication of poverty”. The Tenth Plan continued the three programme
strategies of the Ninth Plan to (i) increase farm productivity and growth of
other activities in rural areas, (ii) poverty alleviation progremmes, and (iii)
public distribution system, especially to those below the poverty line.
The Tasks Ahead
It is widely recognized that India‟s planning process has been one
of the most consistent among such efforts undertaken in the Third World.
The Plan efforts have contributed significantly in many fields, most
notably in the increase in food production. However, a number of problems
still remain.
The desire for planning at multiple levels remains largely
unrealized despite the commitment made by successive governments. This
contradiction has seriously undermined the concept of making planning
more democratic and responsive to people‟s aspirations. Further, regional
inequalities and income inequalities persist in India despite planned
economic development. This is a serious problem, which if uncorrected,
can lead to more strain on the political fabric of the Indian state. Centre
state relations, particularly in regard to planning functions and powers to
mobilize financial resources, have been under stress. These issues mean
that decentralization of the planning process has become an issue of top
priority, which if not seriously implemented, may well jeopardize the
concept of planned economic development itself.
The problem of inequalities in the distribution of incomes and assets and
low productivity continuous to be a major problem facing Indian planners.
As you may recollect, we had focused attention on these aspects in the first
Block of course 1. Tardy progress in land reforms and major institutional
rigidities still hamper the development of Indian society. The problem of
the rural poor – particularly, the landless and marginal farmers – still
remains a major issue on the agenda of Indian planning. Social services in
rural areas continue to be at unsatisfactory levels. The development of
women, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes and other backward classes
are other areas of concern.
14.4.1 ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKERS
Social worker plays various types of roles in catering the needs of
his clients. As care giver he counsels and support people with problems in
a therapeutic way to promote change. As a consultant he works with
individual and groups to assist in their problems and programs. As a broker
he helps people to reach services they need and make the system more
useful. As a mobilizer he tries to bring new resources to individual and
groups.
As an evaluator he evaluates the weakness and strengths of
individual and groups, their need and problems. As an advocate he works
for the improvement of policies and laws in order to make system more
effective.
Barker (1987) has described the following roles of social workers:
Self-Instructional Material

339
 Welfare Programmes
Enabler Role
NOTES The enabler role is the responsibility to help the client become
capable of coping with situation of transitional stress. Specific skills used
in achieving this objective include conveying hope, reducing resistance and
ambivalence, recognizing and managing feelings, identifying and
supporting personal strengths and breaking down problems into parts that
can be solved more readily, and maintaining a focus on goals and the
means of achieving them.
Facilitator Role
The facilitator role is the responsibility to expedite the change
effort by bringing together people and lines of communications, channeling
their activities and resources and providing them with access to expertise.
Mobilizer Role
The mobilizer role is the responsibility to help people and
organizations combine their resources to achieve goals of mutual
importance. This is accomplished by bringing clients together, enhancing
lines of communication, clarifying goals and steps to achieve them and
devising plans for gaining greater support.
Educator Role
The educator role includes the responsibility to teach clients
necessary adaptive skills. This is done by providing information in a way
that is understandable to the client, offering advice and suggestions,
identifying alternatives and their probable consequences, modeling
behaviors, teaching problem solving technique and clarifying perceptions.
Activist Role
According to Barker social activists alert the general public about
social problems or injustices and garner support to alleviate these
conditions. Social activists mobilize resources, build coalitions, take legal
actions and lobby for legislation. They create just social policies as well as
initiate new funding or funding reallocations which address there identified
priority issues. Social activist empower community based efforts to resolve
community issues, redress social injustice and generate social reform.
What Does a Social Worker Do?
Social workers help people resolve problems that affect their day-
to-day lives.
People see social workers when they are going through a difficult
period in their personal, family and/or work life.

Social workers help clients:

 Identify and understand the source of stress or difficulty
 Develop coping skills and find effective solutions to their problems
 Find needed resources
 By providing counselling and psychotherapy.
Specializations
Within the field of social work, there are many different
specializations and industries that professionals can pursue and focus on.
While these different fields all require practitioners to show the
cornerstones of social work: empathy, flexibility, and persistence, and
respect for different circumstances; there are some skill sets and
knowledge that social workers will need to utilize in order to become the as
Self-Instructional Material
effective at their jobs as possible. Social workers can be required to aid

340
with issues directly caused by trauma, disability, poor family Welfare Programmes
circumstances, abuse, mental and emotional problems, addiction, and NOTES
acute, chronic, or terminal illnesses. Some social workers prefer to focus
their skills on one area of expertise by going into specific fields.
Family, child or school social work involves providing assistance
and advocacy to improve social and psychological functioning of children
and their families. These social workers attempt to maximize academic
functioning of children as well as improving the family‟s overall well-
being. These professionals may assist parents, locate foster homes, help to
arrange adoptions, and address abuse. In schools they address problems
such as truancy, bad behavior, teenage pregnancy, drug use, and poor
grades. They also advice teachers and act as liaisons between students,
homes, schools, courts, protective services, and other institutions.
Public health social workers are often responsible for helping
people who have been diagnosed with chronic, life threatening or altering
diseases and disorders, helping connect patients with plans and resources in
order to help them cope. One of the most difficult things a person can go
through is dealing with acute, chronic, and terminal illnesses and these
social workers provide services to ease these patients‟ process. These
services include advising family care givers, providing patient education
and counseling, making referrals to other services, case management
interventions, planning hospital discharge, and organizing support groups.
These social workers are often employed at health care centers, assisted
living homes or in hospitals.
Addictions and mental health social workers offer support and
services to those struggling with unhealthy grounding techniques,
connecting them with facilities that serve to teach healthier behaviors and
get patients back on track. These patients often struggle with mental and
emotional problems as well as addictions and substance abuse problems.
Services that mental health and substance abuse social workers provide
include individual and group counseling, intervening during crises, case
management, client advocacy, prevention, and education. They also focus
on counseling families to assist in understanding and dealing with the
patient‟s problems.
14.4.2 Provision of urban infrastructure in rural areas (PURA)
The speed of urbanization poses an unprecedented policy change –
yet India has barely engaged in a national discussion about how to handle
this seismic shift in the make-up of the nation. The population of India
residing in urban areas will increase from 340 million to 590 million by
2030. Urbanization is expected to speed up across India, impacting almost
every state. As India expands, India‟s economic make-up will also change.
In 1995, India‟s GDP split almost evenly between its rural and urban
economies. In 2008, its urban GDP is accounting for 58% of its overall
GDP and if the current trend continues it is expected that urban India will
generate 70% of India‟s GDP by 2030. The challenge for India will be to
ramp up investment in line with economic growth
Indian cities are failing to provide a basic standard of living to their
urban residents, and life could become tougher as cities expand. As the
urban population and its incomes increase, demand for every key service
will increase five to sevenfold in cities of every size and type. If India
continues to invest in urban infrastructure at its current rate -- very low by
Self-Instructional Material

341
 Welfare Programmes
international comparison -- gridlock and urban decay will result. India
NOTES urgently needs to adopt a new approach to manage urbanization. Urban
India today is distributed in shape with a diverse range of large and small
cities, spread widely around the nation. To address the issue of
urbanization, India should continue to aim at a distributed model of
urbanization because this suits its federal structure and also helps to ensure
that migration flows are not balanced towards any particular city or cities.
To control the migration from rural to urban areas, it is necessary to
provide basic amenities and facilities in rural areas which are similar to
those in urban areas. Schemes like PURA attempt to bridge these gaps in
order to ensure that the rural areas have amenities which are at par with
those in urban India. This would help in whittling down the migration from
rural to urban area.
Objective of the Scheme
The objective of the scheme is to provide urban amenities and
livelihood opportunities in rural areas to bridge the rural-urban divide,
thereby reducing migration from rural to urban areas.
Salient features of the scheme
The key characteristics of the scheme are:
 Simultaneous delivery of key infrastructure in villages leading to
optimal use of resources
 Provision of funds for O&M of assets for 10 years post-
construction, along with capital investment for creation of assets
 Transformation of several schemes into a single project, to be
implemented as per set standards in a defined timeframe, with the
requirements of each scheme being kept intact
 Combining livelihoods creation with infrastructure development
 Enforcement of standards of service delivery in rural areas almost
at par with those
 obtaining in urban areas Enforcement of service standards through
a legally binding arrangement.
14.5 ROLE OF VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATION IN RURAL
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, PROBLEMS AND
LIMITATIONS.
Hear we shall discuss the intervention and implications of voluntary action
by understanding the factors that motivate voluntary action, the present
scenario of voluntary organisations and their objectives, and voluntary
services in the Indian context.

Factors Motivating Voluntary Action

The factors, which motivate people to take voluntary action or the
sources of voluntarism, may be identified as religion, government,
business, philanthropy and mutual aid. The missionary zeal of religious
organisations, the commitment of government of public interest, the profit-
making urge in business, the altruism of the 'social superiors' and the
motive of self-help among fellowmen are all reflected in voluntarism.
Bourdillon and William Beveridge viewed mutual aid and philanthropy as
two main sources from which voluntary social service organisations would
have I developed. They spring from the individual and social conscience
respectively. The other factors may be personal interest, seeking benefit
Self-Instructional Material

342
such as experience, recognition, knowledge and prestige, commitment to Welfare Programmes
certain values, etc. NOTES
Further, a variety of impulses are responsible for the formation of
voluntary associations with the purpose of serving their fellowmen or the
unfortunate lot of society. Voluntary organisations are strong agents of
political socialization in a democracy, and educate their members about
social norms and values and help combat loneliness. Psychological
impulses lead people to join voluntary action for security, self-expression
and for satisfaction of interests. Thus, the psychological joining motivation
for voluntary association is a complex phenomenon. It may vary from one
individual to another and one group of individuals to another depending
upon their culture, social milieu and political environment.
Voluntary Organisations at a Glance.
By and large voluntary action is generated through social, religious
and cultural organisations. This is made possible by organisations
appealing to people for help. But this does not mean that volunteers always
work through or in a particular organisation. With the turn of the century
people are increasing by turning to political solutions to tackle social and
religious reforms and movements.
The sphere of social is still very largely the domain of voluntary
woikerb and voluntary organisations. No complete or reliable data is
available about the total number of voluntary organisations in the country,
as many of them are not receiving ' government aid and are working with
their own resources. Some of these are all- India organisations concerned
with a wide range of activities; others are state or district level
organisations. At present in India quite a large number of non-
governmental organisations (IVGOs) are working for various causes. They
help groups and individuals with diverse political and other interests,
contribute to the strengthening of a feeling of national solidarity and
promote the participative character of democracy. They have a role to play
not only in areas which are accepted as state responsibilities, they can also
venture into new fields, work in new areas, unveil social evils and give
attention to any unattended or unrnet needs. Many of the NGOs act as a
stabilizing force by welding together people into groups that are not
politically moiivated and are not concerned about the fortunes of any
Objectives of Voluntary Organisations
The following are the main objectives for which various organisations are
working:
1. Protection and development of children
2. Welfare of women in the rural areas.
3. Services for youth.
4. Community welfare.
5. Promotion of educational facilities.
6. Pron~otion of public conscience on social problems.
7. Promotion of moral standards and family.welfare.
8. Prevention of disease, health care, etc.
9. Protection and welfare of the handicapped.
10. Eradication of social handicaps for certain groups.
11. Spiritual upliftment
12. Prorogation of international brotherhood.
13. Promotion of natural interests through voluntary effort.
Self-Instructional Material

343
 Welfare Programmes
14. Training of workers for fieldwork.
NOTES 15. Protection of nature, animals, etc.
Role of Voluntary Organisations in Social Welfare
The development of voluntary organisations in India, in its
historical perspective, has been dealt with earlier in this chapter. We will
now focus on the role of voluntary organisations in social welfare and
planned development. In fact, the social and economic development
programme, enunciated in the fourteen point constructive programme of
Gandhiji, was used as a spring-board to accelerate the process of political
struggle for independence and a way to activate the under- privileged and
down-trodden masses to develop themselves economically and socially, on
a "self-help through mutual help" basis. A network of voluntary agencies
was created to promote different constructive programmes like village
industries,
Khadi, Nai Talim, Leprosy Work, Harijan Seva, etc. with the help
of thousands of selfless and dedicated workers. This was the basis of social
welfare programmes by the voluntary organisaticms in the post-
independence period.
The main objective of planned development is to mobilise the
known as well as the hidden, material and human resources in such a way
as to improve the socio- economic living conditions of the people to the
maximum at a given time. In general, voluntary organisations have a
role.to play in the economic and industrial development of the country and
also to motivate people to eliminate the evil influences „of the
industrialization. Though the voluntary organisation do not have much of a
role to play in transport and communication, they did play ai important role
in the construction and maintenance or fielded and village roads.
One of the major problems that faces NGOs is lack of resources, both
financial and human. Since most of the activities under taken by them are
in the nature of extension work, they cannot become selfsupporting. They
are dependent for funds on the government, whose procedures are often
slow and timeconsuming, on foreign donor agencies and industries whose
grants may not be available on regular basis. Often, voluntary agencies do
not have information about the government resources earmarked for
the development of the area in which they operate, nor about the methods
and procedures to be adopted to avail themselves of these resources. It is,
therefore, not unusual to come across a situation where, on the one hand,
the voluntary agency complains of lack of funds and, on the other, the
government provisions lapse for lack of suitable projects to utilise them.
NGOs have also weaknesses that include
(a) limited financial and management expertise,
(b) limited institutional capacity,
(c) low levels of self-sustainability,
(d) lack of inter-organizational coordination,
(e) small scale interventions, and (f) lack of understanding of the broader
socioeconomic context. Professionals from rural development,
management, medicine, and allied disciplines dominate some NGOs. These
professionals have desired knowledge and skills, but their attitudes towards
grassroots are not unquestionable. They have deadened the activist edge of
NGOs and made the NGOs cold, calculating, and 'business-like' in
Self-Instructional Material
approach. Some other NGOs gather funds to implement projects beyond

344
their capacity. Being close to the corridors of power and pampering the Welfare Programmes
officialdom for pushing files, making deals, and failing to achieve project NOTES
objectives in the field, these NGOs are near moral bankruptcy.
Check your progress - 3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
5. Write the concept of Poverty Alleviation Programme?

6. Write about the PURA Scheme?

14.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed Welfare Programmes including – noon meal
scheme – development of Women and Children in rural Areas (DWCRA),
Integrated Child Development Scheme, Tamil nadu Integrated Nutrition
Programme, Antyodya Programme, Annapoorna Scheme, programme of
rural Health and Total Sanitation, five year plans and Stategies for Rural
Development, Role of Social Workers, concepts of Provision of Urban
Infrastructure in Rural Areas, Role of Voluntary organization in rural
Community Development, Problem and Limitations.
14.7 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Write the basic concepts of Welfare Programme?
2. What are the strategy and objectives of DWCRA?
3. Write the meaning and Objectives of ICDS?
4. What are the basic assumptions of Annapoorna Scheme?
5. Write the concept of Poverty Alleviation Programme?
6. Write about the PURA Scheme?
14.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Welfare is a type of government support for the citizens of that
society. Welfare may be provided to people of any income level, as
with social security (and is then often called a social safety net), but
it is usually intended to ensure that people can meet their basic
human needs such as food and shelter.
2. The basic objective of DWCRA is to provide rural women with
productive income generating assets and credit, and also enhance
their skills. Further, it seeks to provide an effective organizational
support structure so that, to be more effectively, the women
involved may receive assistance in the production of goods and
services. The target group of DWCRA is the same as that of IRDP
and TRYSEM. The basic deviation from IRDP, however, lies in the
fact that under DWCRA, it is not individual families which receive
assistance but the group. The DWCRA scheme envisages the
formation of groups, each consisting of 15 to 20 women. It is
expected that the women would come together for activities which
are mutually beneficial to them. Natural Factors, Technological
Factors, Social Factors, Economic Factors, Cultural Factors,
Political Factors
3. Launched in 1975, Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)
is a unique early childhood development programme, aimed at
Self-Instructional Material

345
 Welfare Programmes
addressing malnutrition, health and also development needs of
NOTES young children, pregnant and nursing mothers. ICDS consists of 4
different components, namely:
1. Early Childhood Care Education & Development
2. Care & Nutrition Counseling
3. Health Services
4. Community Mobilization Awareness, Advocacy
&Information, Education and Communication
4. The Ministry of Rural Development launched the scheme in 2000-
2001. Indigent senior citizens of 65 years of age or above who
though eligible for old age pension under the National Old Age
Pension Scheme (NOAPS) but are not getting the pension, are
covered and 10 kgs of food grains per person per month are
supplied free of cost under the scheme.
5. The Sixth Plan, (1980-85) again undertook eradication of poverty
as its primary aim. Consequently, the programmes to eradicate
poverty – NREP, RLEGP (later merged into Jawahar Rozgar
Yojana). TRYSEM, DWCRA Integrated Rural Development
Programme – were strongly emphasized. The IRDP, coupled with
rural employment programmes, the Minimum Needs Programme
and the area development programmes, meant that the Sixth Plan
had a strong emphasis on the rural sector.
6. The speed of urbanization poses an unprecedented policy change –
yet India has barely engaged in a national discussion about how to
handle this seismic shift in the make-up of the nation. The
population of India residing in urban areas will increase from 340
million to 590 million by 2030. Urbanization is expected to speed
up across India, impacting almost every state. As India expands,
India‟s economic make-up will also change. In 1995, India‟s GDP
split almost evenly between its rural and urban economies. In 2008,
its urban GDP is accounting for 58% of its overall GDP and if the
current trend continues it is expected that urban India will generate
70% of India‟s GDP by 2030. The challenge for India will be to
ramp up investment in line with economic growth
14.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Bloch, M., & Parry, J. (1982) Death and regeneration oflife.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2. Goody, J. (1962). Death, property, and the ancestors. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.
3. Newell, W. H. (1976), Ancestors. The Hague, the Netherlands:
Mouton.
4. Hsu, l. k. (1948). Under the ancestors' shadow. newyork: columbia
university press.
5. Desai, AR (1978) Rural Sociology in India. Popular Prakashan,
Bombay.
6. Chitamber, JB (1990) Introduction to Rural Sociology. Wiley
Eastern Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
7. AGGARWAL, PARTAP C. 1971 “Impact of Green Revolution on
Landless Labor: A Note.” Economic and Political Weekly 6
(November 20):
Self-Instructional Material

346
8. DASGUPTA, BIPLAB 1977 “India‟s Green Revolution.” Welfare Programmes
Economic and Political Weekly 12 (February) NOTES
9. Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003). Rural development : principles and
practice (1. publ. ed.). London [u.a.]: SAGE.
10. Van Assche, Kristof. &Hornidge, Anna-Katharina. (2015) Rural
development. Knowledge & expertise in governance. Wageningen
Academic Publishers, Wageningen.

Self-Instructional Material

347