Design Guide

Portal Frame Steel Sheds and Garages

compiled by

Australian Steel Institute

Steel Shed Group Committee

Second edition - June 2014

This Guide applies to steel framed and predominantly steel clad sheds and
garages designed and constructed in accordance with the National Construction
Code using materials certified or tested to conform to Australian Standards
 AUSTRALIAN STEEL INSTITUTE
(ABN)/ACN (94) 000 973 839

Design Guide
Portal frame steel sheds and garages

Copyright © 2014 by AUSTRALIAN STEEL INSTITUTE

Published by: AUSTRALIAN STEEL INSTITUTE

All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written
permission of Australian Steel Institute.
Note to commercial software developers: Copyright of the information contained within this publication is held by Australian
Steel Institute (ASI). Written permission must be obtained from ASI for the use of any information contained herein which is
subsequently used in any commercially available software package.
FIRST EDITION 2014
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:
Design Guide: Portal frame steel sheds and garages.
Bibliography
ISBN 978 1 921476 38 9 (pbk.).
1. Building Iron and Steel, Structural—Design and Construction.
2. Steel, Structural-Standards.
I. Australian Steel Institute Steel Shed Group.

624.1821

Disclaimer: The information presented by the Australian Steel Institute in this publication has been prepared for general
information only and does not in any way constitute recommendations or professional advice. While every effort has been
made and all reasonable care taken to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this publication, this information
should not be used or relied upon for any specific application without investigation and verification as to its accuracy,
suitability and applicability by a competent professional person in this regard. The Australian Steel Institute, its officers and
employees and the authors and editors of this publication do not give any warranties or make any representations in relation
to the information provided herein and to the extent permitted by law (a) will not be held liable or responsible in any way; and
(b) expressly disclaim any liability or responsibility for any loss or damage costs or expenses incurred in connection with this
publication by any person, whether that person is the purchaser of this publication or not. Without limitation, this includes
loss, damage, costs and expenses incurred as a result of the negligence of the authors, editors or publishers.
The information in this publication should not be relied upon as a substitute for independent due diligence,
professional or legal advice and in this regards the services of a competent professional person or persons should
be sought.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Steel Shed Group would like to extend special thanks to the Design Guide Technical Committee members
for their contributions towards the compiling of this Guide.
Alex Filonov
Travis Griffin (Chairperson)
Stephen Healey
Jeremy Hunter
Trevor John
Michael Kelly (Technical Editor)
Mario Springolo

The Steel Shed Group also wishes to acknowledge the support provided by BlueScope Steel in the production
of this Guide.

Neil Creek
National Manager – Steel Shed Group
Australian Steel Institute

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FOREWORD

The Steel Shed Group has produced this Guide to promote excellence in the design of steel sheds and
garages, based on building regulations and Australian and New Zealand standards, and to encourage uniformity
across all shed designers and manufacturers. NCC Classification and importance levels, design actions,
analysis, design, testing, as well as other considerations such as good detailing, durability and corrosion are all
covered.

The Cyclone Testing Station has a strong interest in encouraging a consistent and knowledgeable standard of
design and construction of sheds to resist wind loads as part of an ongoing commitment to improve the
resilience of low-rise buildings to severe winds. Therefore the use of this Guide is a perfect fit with the Station’s
mission to reduce and mitigate the risk and costs to communities from wind damage.

As Manager of the Cyclone Testing Station, my congratulations to the Steel Shed Group for producing this
Guide. I also commend the use of this Guide to all those involved in the shed and garage industry, as doing so
will reduce the risk of wind damage to these buildings and their contents and also lead to safer and more
resilient communities.

Cam Leitch
Manager Cyclone Testing Station
James Cook University, Queensland

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 CONTENTS
TITLE SUB-SECTION PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
FOREWORD 4

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 7
SHED BASICS WHAT IS A SHED 7
NCC CLASSIFICATIONS 8
IMPORTANCE LEVELS 9
SCOPE 11
MATERIALS AND PROCESSES 12
STANDARDS AND REFERENCES 12
DEFINITIONS 13

CHAPTER 2 WIND ACTIONS 14

ACTIONS SNOW ACTIONS 21
PERMANENT AND IMPOSED ACTIONS 24
LIQUID PRESSURE ACTIONS 25
ACTION COMBINATIONS 25

CHAPTER 3 3D ANALYSIS 27
ANALYSIS TENSION ONLY 27
PLASTIC ANALYSIS 27
COLUMN BASE FIXITY 27
TYPE OF ANALYSIS 27

CHAPTER 4 PRINCIPLES 29
DESIGN SECTION AND MEMBER DESIGN 29
DESIGN OFPURLIN AND GIRT SYSTEMS 34
BRACING SYSTEMS 35
SLABS AND FOOTINGS 38
CLADDING 39
DOORS, WINDOWS AND OPENINGS 40
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SERVICEABILITY 40

CHAPTER 5 GENERAL 42
CONNECTIONS DESIGN BASIS 42

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TITLE SUB-SECTION PAGE

TYPICAL PRIMARY CONNECTIONS 42

BOLTED CONNECTIONS 43
SCREWS 44
WELDING 44
OTHER CONNECTION METHODS 44

CHAPTER 6 GENERAL 45
TESTING PROOF TESTING 45
PROTOTYPE TESTING 45
TESTS RESULTS EVALUATION 46
PRODUCT SUBSTITUTION 46
CONNECTORS AND CONNECTIONS 46

CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS SOFTWARE AND DESIGN AIDS 48

OTHER GOOD DETAILING PRACTICE 48
CONSIDERATIONS
DURABILITY AND CORROSION 50
FIRE 53

APPENDICES
1 BUILDING CLASSIFICATIONS 55
2 IMPORTANCE LEVEL AND PRESSURE 56
COEFFICIENT EXAMPLES
3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN CHECKLIST 57
4 PRO FORMA CERTIFICATE 63
5 WORKED EXAMPLES – DESIGN WIND SPEED 64

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 CHAPTER 1: SHED BASICS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE
This Guide outlines the principles for the design of freestanding steel sheds, garages and similar buildings for
construction in Australia. It explains how structural designers should apply existing design criteria and concepts
to the design of steel sheds falling within a defined scope. It applies to buildings with structural frames made
predominantly from cold-formed steel and clad predominantly with steel wall and roof sheeting. It promotes
consistent interpretation of critical requirements for the structural performance of steel sheds. It does not
replace the National Construction Code (NCC), its referenced standards and other guidance publications but
should be read in conjunction with them.
The Building Code of Australia (BCA) comprises Volumes 1 and 2 of the National Construction Code (NCC)
published by the Australian Building Codes Board. The NCC is enabled in each state and territory by relevant
local legislation. References to the BCA and NCC in this edition are to NCC 2014.

LIMITATIONS
This Guide is not appropriate for the design of:
 Habitable buildings of any kind, and any structures attached to them.
 Silos and similar produce stores where stored contents apply vertical or lateral wall loads.
 Buildings larger or smaller than the dimensions described in the Scope (see Section 1.5).
The design principles and guidance may be applicable to a wider range of buildings, at the designer’s
discretion. For habitable buildings, the NASH Standard – Residential and low-rise steel framing, Part 1: Design
criteria and related publications should be consulted. For low-rise commercial buildings, refer to either the
NASH Standard or other relevant standards and publications.
This Design Guide focuses on structural design requirements. Depending on their use and NCC classification,
complete buildings will require additional design considerations as specified in the NCC.

ABOUT THE STEEL SHED GROUP

The Australian Steel Institute Steel Shed Group is a special interest group formed and funded by industry
members. The Steel Shed Group promotes compliance for engineering, documentation, supply and
construction standards for the steel shed industry via technical publications, education and awareness
programs.

1.2 WHAT IS A SHED?

’Shed’ is a very common term in the community. Buildings fitting the general description of ’shed’ may be used
for a wide range of purposes. According to the Macquarie Dictionary, a shed is:
1. A slight or rough structure built for shelter, storage, etc.
2. A large, strongly built structure, often open at the sides or end.
Whilst ‘private garage’ is a defined term in the NCC, shed, carport, workshop and farm building are not.
Structural designers cannot rely solely on a proposed building’s description. They must consider whether the
building will be accessible to the public, used as a factory or workplace, as an assembly point or even as an
emergency refuge.
For the purposes of this Design Guide:
 A shed is any freestanding non-habitable general purpose building used for domestic, commercial,
industrial or agricultural purposes. A residential shed is one constructed on a residential allotment and
used predominantly for private, domestic purposes.

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 A garage is a special-purpose freestanding building designed to shelter vehicles and with at least
one vehicle-sized door. Garages may be residential or non-residential. All other vehicle shelters,
including those attached to buildings, are carports and are not covered by this Guide.
Buildings supplied by Australian shed manufacturers are frequently used as NCC Class 10a buildings.
However, many may be used or adapted as Class 6, 7, 8 or 9b buildings, provided they are designed or
modified accordingly. The actual use of a building – not its physical appearance or commercial description -
determines its classification.
Whilst the majority of ’sheds’ will be easy to classify based on intended actual use, importance level is an even
more significant consideration. Importance level is a function of the potential human hazard and public impact
of building failure. Most ’sheds’ will have Importance Level (IL) 1 or 2, but two specific examples illustrate
common exceptions:
 An open or partially open shed used as a shade shelter in a large school: IL = 3.
 A garage used for a bush fire service vehicle: IL = 4.
The classification and importance level of a specific building are regulatory matters for the relevant Building
Authority. Depending on the building classification and importance level, the designer will make design
decisions taking into account the performance requirements or building solutions of the NCC.
 All sheds should be designed, supplied and constructed in accordance with the NCC and any specific local
regulations.
 Regardless of their importance level or classification, buildings should not fail when subjected to
the ultimate loading events for which they are certified to be designed.
 Each building and its location are unique. The designer must ascertain the appropriate classification and
importance level to determine the design actions on the structure.
 ’Generic’ designs should take into account and clearly disclose in documentation and literature, the most
adverse use for which a building may be sold or recommended, or is reasonably likely to be used.
The next two sections discuss building classifications and importance levels in more detail.

1.3 NCC CLASSIFICATION OF SHED USES

The actual use of a building – not its physical appearance or commercial description - determines its
classification.
The following table examples illustrate typical building uses and classifications. See Appendix 1 for a summary
of all Building Classifications.

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION USES AND CLASSIFICATIONS

 Where used only for storage purposes, farm

sheds are usually Class 10a.
 Where selling to the public takes place, Class 6
would apply and for wholesaling, Class 7. If
used for manufacturing, Class 8.

Rural shed

 Domestic garages are Class 10a, even if used

for hobbies and other domestic purposes.

Domestic garage

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 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION USES AND CLASSIFICATIONS

 Same as farm shed: where used only for

storage purposes, Class 10a applies.
 Where a home industry is involved, Class 6 or 7
would apply. If used for manufacturing, Class
8.

Domestic shed

 Where selling to the public takes place, Class 6

would apply and for wholesaling, Class 7. If
used for manufacturing, Class 8

Commercial shed

 Generally people shelters are Class 9b.

School shelter

1.4 IMPORTANCE LEVELS

Building authorities, on behalf of the community, regulate how strongly buildings are constructed to resist the
loads they are expected to experience and what risk of structural failure is acceptable for various types and
uses of building. The national regulator, the Australian Building Codes Board, expresses this community
interest via the Importance Level in the NCC.
The selection of structural design actions based on Importance Level is a regulatory obligation, not a
discretionary engineering choice. The community expects, and designers and suppliers should strive for,
uniform risk of failure for buildings of equal importance. The NCC defines four importance levels:
TABLE 1 NCC IMPORTANCE LEVEL DEFINITIONS
Buildings or structures presenting a low degree of hazard to life and other property in the case of
Level 1
failure
Level 2 Buildings or structures not included in importance levels 1, 3 or 4
Level 3 Buildings or structures that are designed to contain a large number of people
Buildings or structures that are essential to post-disaster recovery or associated with hazardous
Level 4
facilities
Source: NCC 2014, Part B1.2

The NCC Guide explains that importance levels:

 Apply to structural safety only, not to serviceability or functionality.
 Are a function of both hazard to human life and public impact of building failure.
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  Must be assigned on a case by case basis.
This last point is particularly important in the shed industry, where supply of standard or generic buildings is
common. Terms such as shed, garage and workshop mean different things in different contexts, but it is the
specific use to which the building will be put and its physical location in relation to other development that
determine the community consequences of building failure. Once assigned, the importance level determines
the magnitude of the design actions that must be applied in assessing structural resistance in the strength limit
state.
In addition to these basic principles, the NCC offers further guidance to building authorities and designers in
assigning importance levels. There is no prescriptive list of all possible building uses, just general guidance on
applying the principles. The following table appears in the Guide to the NCC:

TABLE 2 IMPORTANCE LEVEL MATRIX

BUILDING IMPORTANCE LEVEL
IMPACT ON THE PUBLIC
LOW MODERATE SUBSTANTIAL EXTREME
Low 1 2 2 3
Hazard to Moderate 2 2 3 3
human life Substantial 2 3 3 4
Extreme 3 3 4 4
Source: Guide to the NCC Part B1.2
The most obvious conclusion from the table is that only buildings involving both low human hazard and low
public impact may be assigned the least severe Importance Level 1. The Guide gives examples of Importance
Level 1 as farm buildings, isolated minor storage facilities and minor temporary facilities. All forms of low-rise
residential construction, including both dwellings and outbuildings such as garages and sheds, should
be assigned Importance Level 2.
One complication in assigning importance levels is worth a particular mention: what happens when a building
use changes, or when through subdivision a previously isolated building is brought closer to adjoining allotments
or to other buildings? This is fundamentally a planning matter for building authorities, rather than a commercial
or technical matter for shed designers and manufacturers. Planning schemes may identify rural lands which will
be subject to development in the near future and on which it may be a requirement to apply Importance Level 2
(or higher) from the outset. It reinforces that the assignment of importance levels by the designer must always
be specific to the use and location of the building, and should not rely solely on generic descriptions or
classification.

TABLE 3 IMPORTANCE LEVEL EXAMPLES

FAILURE
BUILDING NCC CONSEQUENCES IMPORTANCE
DESCRIPTION CLASS HUMAN PUBLIC LEVEL
HAZARD IMPACT
Farm building 10a Low Low 1
Residential shed/garage 10a Mod Mod 2
Small school shade structure 9b Mod Mod 2
Produce sales building 6 Mod Mod 2
Shearing shed 8 Mod Low 2
Large commercial storage warehouse 7 Mod Sub 3
Large (250+) school assembly shelter 9b Sub Sub 3
Shed housing hospital emergency
10a Sub Ext 4
generator
Emergency vehicle garage 10a Sub Ext 4

See NCC Table B1.2a and Guide to the NCC Part B1.2 for more detailed guidance on importance levels.

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 Importance Level 2 is the default level. It applies unless a lower level is
justified, or a higher level is required, according to NCC risk assessment
guidelines.

1.5 SCOPE OF THIS GUIDE

General
This Design Guide applies to steel portal framed and predominantly steel clad sheds and garages made from
materials certified or tested for compliance with Australian Standards.

Primary materials
 Cold formed steel sections of thickness and grade falling within AS/NZS 4600
 Steel claddings designed and installed in accordance with AS 1562.1

Other members and components

 RHS sections of thickness and grade falling within the scope of AS 1163
 Secondary hot rolled steel components falling within the scope of AS 4100

Situations
 Regions A, B, C and D
 NCC Class 6, 7, 8, 9b and 10a buildings
 Terrain Categories 1, 2 and 3
 Importance levels 1, 2, 3 and 4

Dimensions and configuration

 Rectangular, L-shaped or T-shaped buildings
 Single portal frame spans 3 to 36 metres
 Minimum area 10 square metres
 Maximum height 10 metres
 Multi-level roofs

Specific exclusions
 Corrosive environments (see also Section 7.3 on durability)
 Bulk storage of solids, grains or liquids (where stored material applies loads on cladding or structure)
 Buildings with pre-tensioned elements
 Buildings with crane loads
 Buildings with brittle walls (masonry)
 Buildings with mezzanine floors and/or partitions
 Buildings where dynamic wind response is a consideration
 Ice actions
 Liquid pressure actions

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1.6 MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

The NCC requires that “every part of a building must be constructed in an appropriate manner to achieve the
requirements of the BCA, using materials that are fit for the purpose for which they are intended” [NCC Volume
1 Clause A2.1 and Volume 2 Clause 1.2.1].
The two most common steels used for steel shed structures are cold rolled metallic coated steel strip to AS
1397 and steel hollow sections to AS 1163. Other steels may be used provided they meet the requirements of
AS 4100 or AS/NZS 4600.
Both AS 4100 and AS/NZS 4600 significantly down-rate the design values of unidentified steels and place
limitations on their use. These limitations should be considered where the source or quality of steel is unknown.

1.7 STANDARDS AND OTHER REFERENCES

1. AS/NZS 4600 Cold-formed steel structures

2. AS/NZS 1170.0 Structural design actions - General principles
3. AS/NZS 1170.1 Structural design actions - Permanent, imposed and other actions
4. AS/NZS 1170.2 Structural design actions - Wind actions
5. AS/NZS 1170.3 Structural design actions - Snow and ice actions
6. AS 1170.4 Structural design actions - Earthquake actions in Australia
7. AS/NZS 1170.0 Supp 1 Structural design actions - General principles - Commentary (Supplement to
AS/NZS 1170.0:2002)
8. AS/NZS 1170.1 Supp 1 Structural design actions - Permanent, imposed and other actions -
Commentary (Supplement to AS/NZS 1170.1)
9. AS/NZS 1170.2 Supp 1 Structural design actions - Wind actions - Commentary (Supplement to
AS/NZS 1170.2)
10. AS/NZS 1170.3 Supp 1 Structural design actions - Snow and ice actions - Commentary (Supplement to
AS/NZS 1170.3)
11. AS 1170.4 Supp 13 Minimum design loads on structures (known as the SAA Loading Code) -
Earthquake loads - Commentary (Supplement to AS 1170.4)
12. AS 2870 Residential slabs and footings
13. AS 4100 Steel structures
14. AS/NZS 1163 Cold-formed structural steel hollow sections
15. AS 1111.1 ISO metric hexagon bolts
16. AS 1252 High strength steel bolts
17. AS 3600 Concrete structures
18. AS 1562.1 Design and installation of sheet roof and wall cladding - Metal
19. G. J. Hancock: Design of cold-formed steel structures
20. Hogan, T.J. and Munter, S.A.: Design guide 1: Bolting in structural steel connections
21. NASH Handbook – Residential and low-rise steel framing

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1.8 DEFINITIONS

Action – the cause of stress, dimensional change, or displacement in a structure or a component of a structure
Action effect or load effect – the internal force, moment, deformation, crack, or like effect caused by one or
more actions
Bend – portion adjacent to flat elements and having maximum inside radius-to-thickness ratio (ri/t) of 8
Braced member – one for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is
effectively prevented
Capacity (Strength reduction) factor – a factor used to multiply the nominal capacity to obtain the design
capacity
Design action effect or design load effect – the action effect or load effect calculated from the design actions
or design loads
Design action or design loads – the combination of the nominal actions or loads and the load factors, as
specified in the relevant loading Standard
Design capacity – the product of the nominal capacity and the capacity (strength reduction) factor
Distortional buckling – a mode of buckling involving change in cross-sectional shape, excluding local buckling
Generic – a building or range of buildings designed to withstand specific actions but without reference to a
specific site
High–tensile steel - steel with a yield stress of 450 MPa or higher
Limit state – any limiting condition beyond which the structure ceases to fulfil its intended function
Nominal capacity – the capacity of a member or connection calculated using the parameters specified in the
appropriate standard
Serviceability limit state – a limited state of an acceptable in service condition
Strength limit state – a limit state of collapse or loss of structural integrity
Tensile strength – the minimum ultimate strength in tension specified for the grade of steel in the appropriate
Standard
Thickness – the base steel thickness, exclusive of coatings
Yield stress - the minimum yield stress in tension specified for the grade of steel in the appropriate Standard

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 CHAPTER 2: DESIGN ACTIONS

2.1 WIND ACTIONS

GENERAL
Ignoring the special cases of earthquakes and crane loads, most actions on structures are due to gravity and
wind. Estimating wind actions is all about probability, not certainty. The speed of the strongest wind that can
ever blow is not known, but the longer the time interval, the higher the chance of a stronger wind. By taking
measurements over many decades in many places, there is now reasonable scientific agreement as to the
probability of a particular wind speed occurring in defined geographic regions.

REGULATORY MATTERS
The NCC requires that regional wind speeds of specific probability be used for building design. The more
important the building, the less the allowable risk that the design wind speed will be exceeded in any one year
and therefore the higher the wind speed required in design. Regardless of their importance level or
classification, buildings should not fail when subjected to the wind event for which they are certified to
be designed.

DESIGN STANDARDS FOR WIND ACTIONS

For determination of wind actions, AS/NZS 1170.2 is referenced in both Volume 1 and 2 of the NCC. AS/NZS
1170.2 may be used to determine wind actions in virtually all situations for all building classes and all
importance levels.
AS 4055 Wind loads for housing is referenced only in Volume 2 and is limited by its scope (housing) and
geometry (length, width, height and roof pitch). AS 4055 is only applicable for structures with an Importance
Level of 2. In non-cyclonic regions, AS 4055 assumes that openings in the building that may affect its structural
design are typical of dwellings and are not “dominant openings”.
If a building is not a house or is larger than the AS 4055 geometric limitations, or has an importance level higher
than 2, or has actual or potential openings larger than a dwelling, AS 4055 cannot be used for determining wind
actions and AS/NZS 1170.2 must be used.
The system of wind speed classes (e.g. N2, C1) is defined only in AS 4055 and is not used or referred to in
AS/NZS 1170.2. Designs developed using AS/NZS 1170.2 are appropriate for Class10a sheds and garages
used in residential areas and should not be required to be referenced to an AS 4055 wind class. Shed and
garage designs referencing an AS 4055 wind class may be suitable for the associated design wind speeds in
AS 4055 Tables 2.1A and 2.1B provided the correct pressure coefficient assumptions have been adopted.
Steel Shed Group recommends that structural designers of sheds, garages and similar buildings should
use AS/NZS 1170.2 for all wind action computations, taking into account all relevant factors and
applying, in an informed and fully transparent way, any simplifications or concessions appropriate to an
individual building design.

OBSELETE STANDARDS

Early editions of AS 4055 defined the “W” wind classification system, e.g. “W41”. This system is based on the
“permissible stress” design methodology, as described in AS 1170 – 1989. The “W” classification is obsolete
and should not be used to describe the suitability of buildings for specific wind conditions.
With the implementation of the AS/NZS 1170 series of new standards in 2002, the previous wind load code AS
1170.2 - 1989 was superseded. The farm structures code AS 2867 was withdrawn from the BCA in 2007 and
its requirements incorporated in other standards.
Steel Shed Group recommends, and requires of its members, that all shed and garage designs be
prepared and certified to current NCC provisions and limit state design standards.

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COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS REGARDING WIND ACTIONS

Sheds and garages are not automatically Importance Level 1.

The importance of a building should be correctly assessed in all cases according to the BCA and its
guidelines. Domestic sheds, garages and outbuildings are always Importance Level 2, which is the
default level.

Three-sided sheds are not enclosed buildings.

These sheds should always be designed for the appropriate dominant opening internal pressure.

A topography multiplier of 1.0 is not conservative and should not be the default value.
This could be a very unsafe assumption. Topography should be properly assessed in all cases and
design assumptions clearly stated in documentation.

Trees and other vegetation do not provide shielding.

Only buildings provide shielding, and only when located in the upwind zone specified in AS/NZS 1170.2
on ground of less than 0.2 gradient. Except in fully developed suburban areas where a value of 0.85
may be used, the shielding multiplier should be 1.0 unless proven otherwise.

PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN WIND ACTIONS TO AS/NZS 1170.2

The design wind speed that applies on a particular site is determined from the regional wind speed with
adjustments for directionality, terrain and height, shielding and topography. The following pages explain how
this process is worked through by the designer to arrive at the appropriate design wind speed. This speed,
together with correctly selected pressure coefficients, then determines the design wind forces applied to the
building structure.

REGIONAL WIND SPEED

Selection of exceedance risk based on importance level
The annual probability of exceedance for wind action should be determined from Table 4 for the selected
importance level (see Section 1.4) and region type (non-cyclonic or cyclonic).

TABLE 4 ANNUAL PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDANCE FOR WIND

ANNUAL PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDANCE
IMPORTANCE FOR WIND SPEED
LEVEL
NON-CYCLONIC CYCLONIC
1 1:100 1:200
2 1:500 1:500
3 1:1000 1:1000
4 1:2000 1:2000
Source: NCC Table B1.2b

Selection of regional wind speed VR based on exceedance probability

The regional wind speed should be determined from Table 5 for the appropriate annual probability of
exceedance and region (see Figure 1).

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 TABLE 5 REGIONAL WIND SPEEDS
ANNUAL PROBABILITY REGIONAL WIND SPEED VR
OF EXCEEDANCE R Region A (2) Region B (2) Region C Region D
1:20 (1) (2) 37 38 45 51
1:50 39 44 55 (3) 66 (4)
1:100 41 48 59 (3) 73 (4)
1:200 43 52 64 (3) 79 (4)
1:500 45 57 69 (3) 88 (4)
1:1000 46 60 74 (3) 94 (4)
1:2000 48 63 77 (3) 99 (4)
Source: AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 3.1 and Clause 3.4
Notes
1. V20 is used for serviceability limit state. Refer AS/NZS 1170.0 Appendix C.
2. FC = FD = 1.0 for the V20 wind speeds.
3. FC = 1.05 has been applied to Region C velocities V50 – V2000
4. FD = 1.10 has been applied to Region D velocities V50 – V2000

FIGURE 1 AUSTRALIAN WIND REGIONS

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REGIONAL FACTORS

Selection of wind direction multiplier Md

In limited situations, it is acceptable to take into account the directionality of maximum wind speed.
The wind direction multiplier (Md) should be determined as follows:
 For buildings in Region A:
o Where the final orientation of the building is unknown, Md = 1.00.
o Where the final orientation of the building is specified in design documentation, Md may be
determined from AS/NZS 1170.2 Table 3.2.
 For buildings in Regions B, C and D:
o For forces on complete buildings and major structural elements resisting collapse, Md = 0.95.
o For wind actions on all other components, Md = 1.0.

Selection of terrain/height multiplier Mz,cat

Close to ground level, the wind speed is reduced by its interaction with surface roughness. This effect reduces
with height above the ground and disappears almost completely above about 25 metres. Note that this is not
the same as shielding (see Site factors).
Because of this effect, wind speed measurements are standardised to a height of 10 metres in Terrain Category
2. The terrain/height multiplier ( Mz,cat) is then applied to adjust the wind speed to alternative terrains and
heights.
The multiplier varies with region, terrain category and building height, as defined in AS/NZS 1170.2 and shown
in Table 6.

TABLE 6 TERRAIN/HEIGHT MULTIPLIERS

BUILDING
TERRAIN/HEIGHT MULTIPLIER - ALL REGIONS
HEIGHT
(m)
TC 1 TC 2 TC 3
<= 3 0.99
0.91
5 1.05 0.83
10 1.12 1.00
Source: AS/NZS 1170.2 Table 4.1. Linear interpolation may be used for intermediate values of height and
terrain category, e.g. for TC 1.5 and TC 2.5. Building Height is defined in AS/NZS 1170.2 Fig 2.1.

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 TABLE 7 TERRAIN CATEGORIES

TC Description
Very exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions and enclosed, limited-sized water surfaces.
1
Examples are flat treeless plains, rivers and lakes and enclosed bays.
Open water surfaces subject to shoaling waves.
1.5
Examples are near shore ocean water, large lakes and unenclosed bays.
Open terrain including grassland with well-scattered obstructions having heights generally from 1.5 m to
2 5 m with no more than 2 obstructions per hectare.
Examples are farmland and cleared subdivisions with isolated trees.
Terrain with a few trees or isolated obstructions, or fewer than 10 buildings per hectare.
2.5
Examples are developing outer urban areas or large acreage developments.
Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions 3 m to 10 m high, not less than 10 per hectare.
3
Examples are areas of suburban housing and light industrial estates.

Note: Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2 (Amendment 2) for more detailed descriptions and guidance. Generic shed documentation
should include the terrain descriptions to clarify the conditions for which designs are suitable. Terrain Category 4 (large
urban and industrial areas) has been omitted.
Terrain Category 4 is the urban and heavy industrial category. In most cases of generic steel shed designs
within the scope of this guide, there would be little advantage in designing specifically for TC 4.

Averaging of terrain variables

The terrain in each direction from a site may vary. In this situation, averaging is permitted for the terrain
category and associated terrain/height multiplier. For structures less than 10 m average height, the relevant
averaging distance is 500 m. The terrain/height multipliers are adjusted by using the weighted average of
terrain areas falling within a 45º sector centred on the wind direction. This procedure is explained more fully in
AS/NZS 1170.2 (Amendment 2).

SITE FACTORS
Selection of shielding multiplier Ms (simplified method)
The shielding multiplier is a local development effect. It reduces the design wind speed by taking into account
the protection afforded by upwind local buildings. A shielding multiplier of 1.0 should be applied outside
suburban areas unless a lower value is justifiable and supported by a competent site survey.
On suburban sites where all adjoining allotments are fully developed and the average upwind gradient is less
than 0.2, a shielding multiplier of 0.85 may be applied as suggested in AS/NZS 1170.2 Supplement 1.

TABLE 8 SHIELDING MULTIPLIER

SHIELDING DESCRIPTION OF WINDWARD OBSTRUCTIONS SHIELDING

CASE MULTIPLIER (Ms)
Suburban Garage or shed on suburban allotment with all adjoining 0.85
shielding allotments fully developed.
No shielding All other cases including generic building designs. 1.00
Source: AS/NZS 1170.2 and Supplement 1

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A more economical design for a specific building and location may be possible using AS/NZS 1170.2 Section
4.3, taking into account wind directionality (in Region A) and shielding in specific directions. An assessment
should be made by a suitably qualified person to determine the applicable shielding multiplier.
Structures providing shielding in a particular direction are required to be upwind within a 45º sector of radius 20
times the average height of the shielded structure and be of comparable or greater height.
The role of trees and other vegetation in providing shielding is problematical. Whilst trees of significant size will
provide some shielding effect, they are not subject to the same development controls as building structures.
AS/NZS 1170.2 disallows the consideration of trees as shielding, while AS 4055 allows trees to be considered
as similar to “house sized obstructions”. ASI Steel Shed Group recommends that trees and vegetation be
disregarded in determining shielding on all sites.

Selection of topographic multiplier Mt

The topographic multiplier is a local geographic effect. It increases the design wind speed based on the
gradient upwind of the site. The increase in wind pressure on an exposed building could be as much as 2.9
times the pressure it would otherwise experience. Any site on or near a hill, ridge or escarpment of any size
must be properly evaluated to determine the topographic multiplier.
The only correct way to determine the topographic multiplier is to carry out an accurate topographic survey and
apply the survey data to the formulae contained in AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 4.4. Whatever value is calculated or
selected by the designer, the value and its corresponding site description should be clearly stated on all
documentation.
To determine whether the site of a proposed building is “at risk” of a topographic wind effect, the following
guidelines may be applied:
1. Measure or estimate the height (H) of the hill, ridge or escarpment.
2. Locate a point upwind from the crest which has a height of H/2 (i.e. half the height of the crest).
3. Measure or estimate the horizontal upwind distance (L) between the crest and the half-height point.
4. Calculate the value of H/(2L).
a. If this value is less than 0.05, the hill, ridge or escarpment will have negligible effect on wind
speed and may be ignored regardless of shed location.
b. If this value is greater than 0.05, any building on the hill or ridge, on the upward slope of an
escarpment or for some distance on the plateau beyond the escarpment will experience
increased wind speed and will need to be designed accordingly, using the procedure in AS/NZS
1170.2.

DESIGN WIND SPEED

The site wind speed Vsit in each of the 8 cardinal directions is determined from the regional wind speed and the
multipliers determined from the preceding sections:

Vsit = VR x Md x Mz,cat x Ms x Mt

The design wind speed Vdes is the maximum cardinal direction site wind speed, and must not be less than 30
m/s.

WIND PRESSURES
Calculation of reference pressure qu for strength limit state
qu = 0.6(Vdes)2/1000

Calculation of reference pressure qs for serviceability limit state

qs = 0.6(Md x V20 x Mz,cat x Ms x Mt)2/1000

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PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
Internal
The internal pressure coefficients selected by the designer depend mainly on the size, shape and orientation of
the building and on the size and configuration of its openings. They also depend, in part, on the wind region in
which the building is located.
AS/NZS 1170.2 Supplement 1 explains that in all regions “in determining the most critical loading condition, the
designer may use his discretion as to which opening can be relied upon to be closed, with closures capable of
withstanding peak wind forces, at the critical loading conditions”. The designer may opt for some doors and
windows being open during wind storms, resulting in full internal pressure applied to the building envelope. Full
internal pressure would normally be an option to consider for IL3 and 4 buildings, provided this assumption is
consistent with the use and classification of the building. In cyclonic wind regions however it is an industry
practice to design for full internal pressure regardless of whether doors, windows are closed or not during wind
storms.
In some situations, it may be practical to improve the capacity of doors and windows with ‘wind locks’ or other
permanent strengthening devices. These locks may have secondary structural effects by changing the way
wind force on the door curtain or window panel is transferred to the jambs.
In cyclonic regions C and D, a further design consideration applies. In determining the internal pressure
coefficients, designers must consider the resistance of the entire building envelope – windows, doors, roof and
wall cladding – to impact by flying debris. AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 5.3.2 requires that “internal pressure resulting
from the dominant opening shall be applied, unless the entire building envelope (windows, doors and cladding
at heights up to 25 m) can be shown to be capable of resisting impact loading from windborne debris
determined in accordance with Clause 2.5.7”. Evidence of successful testing, including any conditions or
restrictions on product suitability, should be obtained from the manufacturer of each element of the building
envelope.

External
Coefficients for walls vary with height (for side walls), depth-to-breadth ratio (for leeward walls), roof pitch (for
leeward walls) and distance from the windward edge (for side walls, as a function of average building height).
Coefficients for roofs vary with the type, direction and pitch of each roof plane, distance from the windward edge
and height-to-depth ratio.
A statistical combination factor may apply where wind pressures act simultaneously on two or more surfaces to
produce action effects in a major structural member.
External pressure coefficients for all buildings in all situations should be selected from the appropriate tables in
AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 5.4.

PRESSURE FACTORS
Designers should take into account the following pressure factors where they apply to a particular design case.

Area reduction factor Ka

Concessional factor
Applies to calculation of actions due to tributary areas on roofs and side walls.

Combination factor Kc
Concessional factor
Can be considered when wind pressures contribute simultaneously, on two or more surfaces, to the action
effects in a major structural member.
Recognises the very low probability that wind pressures on separate surfaces will peak simultaneously.
Must not be applied to cladding, battens, purlins, girts or similar secondary elements.

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Local pressure factor Kl
Amplification factor
Applies only to claddings, their directly supporting members and the immediate fixings of claddings and
supporting members. This would include door and window framing when these members support cladding.

Permeable cladding factor Kp

Concessional factor.
Applies to very specific cladding types not normally used in shed design.

Frictional drag force F

An additional wind-related action effect to be considered.
Applies to buildings of particular geometry.

2.2 SNOW ACTIONS (Fsn)

The majority of steel sheds and garages constructed in Australia will have their ultimate limit state governed by
wind actions. However, in certain alpine and sub-alpine areas it is just as important to consider the effects of
snow actions. To account for these actions in such areas is critical, especially considering that all of these
areas are located in wind region A (resulting in the lowest wind pressures in Australia and hence the most
lightweight and efficient designs if only wind actions are checked). Buildings should not fail when subjected
to the snow event for which they are certified to be designed.
As with estimating wind loads, the estimation of future snow actions is based on probability. The maximum
snow action to ever be experienced in any specific area cannot be known, but through the use of data collected
over time the probability of a certain snow loading event occurring or being exceeded, during a set period of
time, can be calculated. Consequently, the magnitude of a snow loading event associated with a required
probability of being exceeded can also be calculated.
The NCC requires that the annual probability of exceedance, used to determine the snow actions, be taken from
the below table based on the importance level of the building.

TABLE 9 SELECTION OF EXCEEDANCE RISK BASED ON IMPORTANCE LEVEL FOR SNOW EVENTS

ANNUAL PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDANCE FOR

IMPORTANCE LEVEL
SNOW ACTION
1 1:100
2 1:150
3 1:200
4 1:250
Source: NCC Table B1.2b

The NCC further requires that snow actions required to be resisted by a specific building be determined in
accordance with AS/NZS 1170.3. AS/NZS 1170.3 defines snow action (Fsn) as “the sum of the forces resulting
from the accumulation of snow determined by applying the snow load(s) to appropriate areas of the structure.”
The following sections of this design guide deal with the calculation of these snow loads.

Designers should be aware that compliance with this Design Guide does not ensure compliance with AS/NZS
1170.3. This Guide contains no guidance on ice actions, which is included in AS/NZS 1170.3.

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Snow regions
Within Australia there are four regions where sub-alpine or alpine conditions need to be considered for any
building design. Within these regions, the altitude of the site is the dominant factor in assessing snow actions
and must be known.
The four alpine and sub-alpine regions are defined in Table 10.

TABLE 10 ALPINE AND SUB-ALPINE REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA

ALPINE SUB ALPINE
CLASSIFICATION DESCRIPTION
ALTITUDES ALTITUDES
Northern Tablelands
AN NA >600m
(Guyra area)
Central Tablelands
AC NA >600m
(Blue Mountains area)
Southern Tablelands, NSW and
AS h0≥1200m 1200m>h0>600m
Victoria (Snowy Mountains area)
AT Tasmania (Central Highlands) h0≥900m 900m>h0>300m
Source: AS/NZS 1170.3 Clause 2.2

Where h0 = altitude above Australian Height Datum in metres.

Further clarification on the approximate locations of these snow regions can be found in AS/NZS 1170.3 Figure
2.1. For exact location of snow region boundaries, altitude above the Australian Height Datum must be used.

Determination of ground snow load (sg)

The ground snow load must first be calculated before the determination of snow actions. Table 5.2 of AS/NZS
1170.3 provides values for specific locations and probability factors, for other locations the ground snow load
values can be calculated as shown below.
The first requirement is to determine the probability factor (kp).

TABLE 11 PROBABILITY FACTORS)

ANNUAL PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDANCE (P) PROBABILITY FACTOR (kp)

1:100 1.4
1:150 1.5
1:200 1.6
1:250 1.7
Source: Adapted from AS/NZS 1170.3 Section 5, Table 5.1
The calculation of ground snow load differs in alpine and sub-alpine regions.

TABLE 12 GROUND SNOW LOAD CALCULATIONS

GROUND SNOW LOAD CALCULATION

CLASSIFICATION ALPINE SUB-ALPINE kl

AN NA sg=kpkl[2.8h0/1000-1.2] 0.2

AC NA sg=kpkl[2.8h0/1000-1.2] 0.7

AS sg=kpkt(h0/1000) 4.4
sg=kpkl[2.8h0/1000-1.2] 1.0

AT sg=kpkt[(h0+300)/1000]4.4 sg=kpkl[2.8(h0+300)/1000-1.2] 1.6

 4.3kN/m3 2.9kN/m3 NA
Source: Adapted from AS/NZS 1170.3 Section 5

Where kl = multiplying factor for latitude.

kt = multiplying factor for terrain Classification.
= 0.7 for area in terrain classification 1 (net removal of ground snow depth).
= 1.0 for area in terrain classification 2 (no removal or increase of ground snow depth).
= 1.3 for areas in terrain classification 3 (net increase of ground snow depth).

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Determination of shape coefficients (µ)
AS 1170.3 includes shape coefficients for a broad range of structural configurations. Only four of these shape
coefficients relevant to the steel sheds and garages industry are considered here. For further information refer
to AS/NZS 1170.3.

None of the below include obstructed (either from external parapets, saw-tooth roofs, etc) roof cases; if these
are to be included in the design, refer to AS/NZS 1170.3.

TABLE 13 SHAPE COEFFICIENTS

LC1- Balanced snow load

Load applied equally on both sides of the roof.
µ1 = 0.7(60-α)/50, but in the range 0.7 ≥ µ1 ≥ 0
Symmetric duo pitched
roofs
LC2- Unbalanced load on worst case side of roof
Load applied to the worst case side of the roof only.
µ2 = 0.56(60-α)/50, but in the range 0.56 ≥ µ2 ≥ 0,Ce ≥ 0.95

LC1- Snow load on both sides

Load applied to both sides of the roof in ratio to roof pitch.
µ1a = 0.7(60-α1)/50, but in the range 0.7 ≥ µ1 ≥ 0
µ1b = 0.7(60-α1)/50, but in the range 0.7 ≥ µ1 ≥ 0

Non-symmetric duo LC2- Unbalanced load on worst case side 1

pitched roofs Load applied to side 1 of the roof only.
µ2 = 0.56(60-α1)/50, but in the range 0.56 ≥ µ2 ≥ 0,Ce ≥ 0.95

LC3- Unbalanced load on worst case side 2

Load applied to side 2 of the roof only.
µ2 = 0.56(60-α2)/50, but in the range 0.56 ≥ µ2 ≥ 0,Ce ≥ 0.95

LC1- Snow load over entire roof

Load applied equally over entire roof.
µ1 = 0.7(60-α)/50, but in the range 0.7 ≥ µ1 ≥ 0
Mono pitched roofs
LC2- Unbalanced load on worst case half of roof
Load applied to the worst case half of the roof only.
µ2 = 0.5 µ1,

AS/NZS 1170.3 requires that alpine and sub-alpine cases be treated

separately for this case.
Lean-to arrangements

Source: Adapted from AS/NZS 1170.3 Sections 6 & 7

In Table 13:
µx = Shape coefficient for load case x.
α = Roof pitch on symmetric duo pitched roof.
α1 = Roof pitch on side 1 of a non-symmetric duo pitched roof.
α2 = Roof pitch on side 2 of a non-symmetric duo pitched roof.
Ce = Exposure reduction coefficient
= 1.0 for sub-alpine regions
= 1.0 for sheltered roofs
= 0.75 for semi–sheltered roofs
= 0.6 for windswept roofs

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Design snow loads (s)
Design snow loads on steel sheds and garages can be broken down into two of the sub-categories covered by
AS/NZS 1170.3, roof snow load and snow overhanging the edge of a roof.

AS/NZS 1170.3 states that the “loads shall be assumed to act vertically and refer to the horizontal projection of
the area of the roof”.

TABLE 14 DESIGN SNOW LOADS

Using the sections above for the respective load cases.

s = sg Ce µx
Roof snow load
Note that for all ground snow load less than 0.75kPa in sub-alpine areas, one load
case of a balanced distributed load of only 0.4 kPa needs to be applied.
This sub-category applies only to sections where the roof cantilevers out beyond
the wall, such as an eave overhang system. Should be considered in addition to
the roof snow load for that section of roof.
Snow overhanging
the edge of a roof se = k(sg Ce µx)2/
where,
k = 0.5, coefficient to take account of irregular shape of snow at roof edges.
Source: Adapted from AS1170.3 Section 4

2.3 PERMANENT and IMPOSED ACTIONS

PERMANENT ACTIONS (G)

Permanent actions shall be determined in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.1 including the self-weight of the
structure, all attached materials, permanent equipment and fittings.
Some permanent types of equipment and fittings incorporated in a building may be removable, but should still
be considered as permanent actions. Where such items are not an essential part of the structure, and their
removal could create an adverse load case, this should be considered in the ultimate limit state design.

IMPOSED ACTIONS (Q)

Uniformly distributed and concentrated actions shall be considered separately, as required by AS/NZS 1170.1.

Floors
Mezzanine floors should be designed for an imposed uniformly distributed action Q1 appropriate to the building
classification and intended use or a concentrated action Q2 in accordance with Table 3.1 of AS/NZS 1170.1. A
reduction factor as noted in Clause 3.4.2 of AS/NZS 1170.1 may also be applied.
Imposed actions for earthen floors and slabs for farm structures should be determined in accordance with
AS/NZS 1170.1 Appendix B.

Roofs
Most roofs of steel sheds will be R2 roofs as defined in AS/NZS 1170.1. R2 roofs are not accessible from
adjoining structures, windows, awnings, balconies, etc.
As specified in AS/NZS 1170.1, an imposed uniformly distributed action Q1 of (1.8/A + 0.12) kPa but not less
than 0.25 kPa shall be applied vertically downwards to all R2 roof planes. The area ’A’ is the plan projection of
the surface area supported by the member under analysis, in square metres.

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Designers should note particularly the application of Q1 where a structural element of an R2 roof supports more
than 200 square metres of roof area.
As specified in AS/NZS 1170.1, roof cladding should be designed to resist a concentrated action Q2 of 1.1 kN.
A concentrated action shall also be applied to structural elements, including roof purlins or battens, of R2 roofs.
The value of Q2 selected by the designer for structural elements may vary between 0.5 kN and 1.4 kN
depending on the accessibility of the particular member and on the building classification.

2.4 LIQUID PRESSURE ACTIONS

The NCC requires that resistance to liquid pressure actions be considered in the structural design of buildings.
Such actions may arise from:
 Static or moving floodwater, or from water-borne debris or contaminants;
 Contained liquids (e.g. storage vessels or silos); or
 Hydraulic ground water pressure.
In designated flood hazard areas, the NCC requires that certain building classes be designed to conform to the
ABCB Standard for construction of buildings in flood hazard areas. This applies to buildings of NCC Class 2, 3,
9a (health care), 9c (aged care) and any Class 4 part of a building.
This Guide does not include specific recommendations for the design of buildings that may be subject to liquid
pressure actions. AS/NZS 1170.1 contains limited information on determining actions for static liquids and
ground water.
It is recommended that generic designs should contain an appropriate general exclusion for the effects of these
actions. Generic buildings should not be recommended or sold for construction on sites where liquid pressure
may act on the building.
Where resistance to liquid pressure actions is a specific design requirement, or the Building Authority rejects the
exclusion, designers should exercise judgement and seek appropriate specialist advice.
Some guidance on flood resistant design and construction can be found in ASCE 24-05 (2006).

2.5 ACTION COMBINATIONS

TABLE 15 BASIC COMBINATIONS FOR STABILITY

STRUCTURAL SITUATION ACTION COMBINATIONS

Net stabilising effects 0.9G

1.35G
1.2G + 1.5Q1
Net destabilising effects 1.2G + 1.5Q2
1.2G + Wu
1.2 G + Fsn

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 TABLE 16 BASIC COMBINATIONS FOR STRENGTH

STRUCTURAL COMPONENT ACTION COMBINATIONS

1.2G + 1.5Q1
1.2G + 1.5Q2
Cladding
0.9G + Wu
1.2G + Wu
1.2G + 1.5Q1
1.2G + 1.5Q2
Battens, purlins, girts
0.9G + Wu
1.2G + Wu
1.35G
1.2G + 1.5Q1
Rafters and
1.2G + 1.5Q2
columns
0.9G + Wu
1.2G + Wu
0.9G + Wu
Foundation anchors/footings
1.2G + W reversal
Notes:
G = permanent (gravity) actions
Q1 = imposed actions, distributed
Q2 = imposed actions, concentrated
W = wind actions
Fsn = snow actions

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 CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS

3.1 3D ANALYSIS (OPTIONAL)

The analysis technique should be capable of performing 3D analysis of a whole building:

- Internal frames - Portal columns, rafters, knee and apex braces
- End frames – Columns, rafters, mullion columns, door framing
- Purlins and girts
- Cross bracing including compression struts
- Roof and wall panels (diaphragm action) converted to equivalent cross bracing in addition to true
cross bracing
- Other major structural elements, when applicable – roof beams, mezzanine floors beams, columns
and joists, etc.

3.2 ANALYSIS WITH TENSION ONLY MEMBERS

This functionality is required when flexible elements such as rods or strap braces are used in cross bracing and
when roof and wall cladding is designed as a stressed skin diaphragm.

Tension only members, in particular cross bracing equivalents of a stressed skin diaphragm, may be designed
as plastic fuse elements with limited maximum tension force. Analysis should perform redistribution of axial
forces, shear forces and bending moments in cases where tension forces exceed the maximum tension
capacity of plastic fuse elements. Alternatively, plastic fuse elements are not considered in the analysis
whenever tension forces exceed the maximum tension capacity of plastic fuse elements.

3.3 PLASTIC ANALYSIS

Plastic analysis can be used with plastic hinges formed at different locations such as column bases and
connections.

Plastic analysis can only be used only if research shows sufficient ductility and rotational capacity at locations of
potential plastic hinges. In particular, plastic hinges at column bases may be formed due to various reasons:
- Limited capacity of footings
- Limited bolt slip capacity
- Limited base steel connections capacity

3.4 COLUMN BASE FIXITY

Fixed rotational supports at column bases should not be used except where it can be demonstrated that full
fixity can be achieved such as in a case of cast in place columns. Partial rotational stiffness (spring supports)
should be used instead with corresponding parameters based on research data.

3.5 TYPE OF ANALYSIS

First order analysis is considered sufficient for almost all buildings within the scope of this Design Guide.
Second order analysis is recommended for unusually slender structures with significant P-delta effect resulting
in more than 10% difference in bending moments as compared to first order analysis. The engineer should use
good engineering practice to determine if a second order analysis is required, taking into account the member
configurations and restraint conditions.

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Notes:
1. Secondary framing elements may not be necessary to consider in 3D analysis –bridging, window
framing, local framing for roof ventilation units and similar, fly bracing.
2. Some structural elements such as bridging and fly braces may be pre-engineered and should be
considered in the design of other elements. However it is not necessary to consider them in
analysis.
3. Pre-tensioned elements, in particular cross bracing, should not be used within the scope of this
Design Guide.

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 CHAPTER 4: DESIGN

4.1 DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The design process is guided by the following general principles:

 Steel sheds and garages should be designed by competent engineering practitioners to current
Australian codes and standards using limit states design principles.
 Actions and action combinations should be in accordance with AS/NZS 1170 series.
 Design of cold formed steel components should be in accordance with AS/NZS 4600.
 Design of other steel components should be in accordance with AS 4100 or AS 1163.
 Sheds and garages should always be fit for the stated purpose(s) for which they are designed or offered
for sale and be constructed from materials that are fit for the purpose for which they are intended as
required by the NCC.
 Design details should be documented to a level that can reasonably ensure satisfactory construction to
meet structural design objectives.
 Design assumptions and limitations such as site conditions, soil types, drainage, flood datum level, etc
should be clearly explained in documentation.
 Any restrictions on future building use or alteration should be communicated in design documentation
and reiterated in sales literature and training.
 The design process assumes the selection, installation and maintenance of appropriately durable
materials for all buildings designed using this Design Guide.

4.2 SECTION AND MEMBER DESIGN

STRUCTURAL MEMBER DESIGN

Section properties
Member design relies heavily on the correct use of section properties and these values must be determined
accurately before member design can be completed correctly. Steel building products suppliers can provide a
detailed list of full section properties for their available sections. The designer needs to have good reason to
vary from using these published section properties. The section properties from one manufacturer to another
will vary for seemingly similar sections. These variances can be significant and designers should be careful to
ensure equivalence when using section properties from one manufacturer when the end product is being
purchased from another – especially when differences in section stiffeners are present.
Section properties should be calculated in accordance with AS/NZS 4600 Section 2 or AS 4100 as appropriate.
The conventional method is to split the section into smaller simpler elements and sum the properties of each of
these elements together in the appropriate manner. This method is known as the ’linear’ or ’midline’ method.
The most important consideration when using section properties in cold formed steel design is the appropriate
use of either effective section properties or full section properties (gross section properties). Full section
properties are those properties of the full unreduced section with no allowance made for localised buckling once
the member is subjected to stresses due to design forces. The full section properties are greater than the
effective section properties.
Full section properties are used for the determination of buckling moments or stresses. Effective section
properties are used for the determination of section and member capacities, as specified in AS/NZS 4600.
When determining the deflections in order to perform serviceability checks, it is recommended that a closer
approximation to the actual effective section properties be used. This could be completed through using an
iterative process. Alternatively, it is considered acceptable to use the average between the full and effective
section properties to derive these deflections. This is recommended as the difference in the deflections when

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using the full and effective section properties can possibly be significant, whereas the difference in the bending
moments and stresses is unlikely to be as this is more related to the relative stiffness of individual members.
Accurate effective section properties are required for a number of checks on member and section capacity.
Effective section properties are the properties of a section under certain levels of stress. When a section is
stressed certain elements in the section can suffer localised buckling and hence become ineffective in
supporting the desired stresses. This does not constitute section failure but simply indicates that this part of the
section is no longer effective in resisting loads and needs to be taken out of the full section properties creating
the effective section properties. At a level of zero stress the effective section properties are equal to the full
section properties.
It is common industry practice to use the effective section properties of the section at yield stress in the outer
fibre of the section, but it is allowable to increase the effective section properties used if this is not the actual
level of stress. These increased effective section properties would need to be calculated on an individual basis
as interpolation between zero stress and yield stress in the outer fibre of the section is a very inaccurate method
of determining effective section properties at varying stress levels. Calculation of effective section properties is
complex and should be completed in accordance with AS/NZS 4600 Section 2 taking into account the effective
widths of each element in the section. A good reference for this design procedure is the Design of cold formed
steel structures by G.J. Hancock 4th edition, Australian Steel Institute, 2007.
There are a number of commercially available software packages that can be used to calculate section
properties. However the user should ensure that they have adequate knowledge and understanding of the
process used by the software, underlying assumptions and the results produced before using relying on such
systems.
It is common industry practice to combine two C sections in a web to web (back to back) configuration in order
to produce a single stronger I type section. In this case it is not acceptable to simply multiply the section
properties of the single section by two, but instead the section properties should be recalculated as this is now a
doubly symmetric section. The method of fixing the sections together will affect the section properties, and it
should also be noted that the l/t ratio of the web does not increase. Hence an increase in the effective section
properties cannot be attained through this method because both webs can still independently suffer localised
buckling. It is also a requirement of AS/NZS 4600 that such built up structural assemblies comply with Section
4. This includes cover sheets and stiffeners used to increase section capacity.

Effective lengths of members

The design of structural members, for various forms of buckling, requires the determination of accurate effective
length values for the members in question – the design of cold formed steel sections used in steel shed design
is no different.
The determination of effective lengths normally involves the use of an effective length factor (k). This factor
takes into account the influence of the end restraints of the member (or sections of the member) against rotation
and translation. Information regarding the idealised theoretical k values can be found in Section C3.4E (Table
C3.4) of the commentary of AS/NZS 4600.
The designer must adequately assess each member to determine the appropriate value of the effective length
factor (k) and the resulting effective length of the member, for all three axes x, y and z (or the rotational/twisting
axis). The designer should be able to justify the values used for each of these separate axes.
The determination of the effective lengths in a standard shed portal frame incorporating knee and apex braces
can be quite complex and onerous. One method is the completion of an elastic buckling analysis.
The forces present within members also need to be considered when calculating the effective lengths of certain
sections of the particular members. Hence effective lengths of members can vary depending on the member
design check being performed and the load case applicable on the frame. It may not be appropriate to set the
effective length values and use them for the entire member design for a range of applicable load cases. An
example of this is the compressive load check performed on the column in a standard shed portal frame. Under
uplift loading, the compressive section of the column is generally the short length from the knee brace
connection point to the haunch point, hence the effective length for the compression check is this length
multiplied by an appropriate value for k. A different situation applies when the lower section of the column is in
compression, when the base fixity is an important consideration in determining the value of k.
As a guide, appropriate values for effective lengths are shown in Table 17.

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 TABLE 17 - EFFECTIVE LENGTH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STANDARD SHED DESIGNS

EFFECTIVE LENGTH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STANDARD SHED DESIGNS

ADJACENT BRACING POINTS
MEMBER EFFECTIVE LENGTH
DEFINITIONS*
Column As per AS4100 NA
lex
Recommendations.
1. Fly bracing point.
Maximum length between adjacent 2. Girt connection.
ley 3. Column to rafter connection.
bracing points.
4. Column to base connection.

1. Fly bracing point.

2. Girt connection. (If connected directly
Maximum length between adjacent to the web of the column.)
lez
bracing points. 3. Column to rafter connection.
4. Column to base connection.

Rafter NA
lex As per AS 4100 recommendations.

1. Fly bracing point.

Maximum length between adjacent 2. Purlin connection.
ley 3. Column to rafter connection.
bracing points.
4. Column to base connection.

Rafter 1. Fly bracing point.

2. Purlin connection. (If connected
Maximum length between adjacent directly to the web of the rafter.)
lez
bracing points. 3. Column to rafter connection.
4. Rafter to rafter connection.

Apex brace lex Length of apex brace. NA

ley 0.8 x length of apex brace. NA

lez 0.8 x length of apex brace. NA

Knee brace lex Length of knee brace. NA

ley 0.8 x length of knee brace. NA

lez 0.8 x length of knee brace. NA

Gable end wall lex Length of gable end wall mullion. NA

mullion 1. Fly bracing point.
Maximum length between adjacent 2. Girt connection.
ley 3. Column to rafter connection.
bracing points.
4. Column to base connection.

1. Fly bracing point.

2. Girt connection. (If connected directly
Maximum length between adjacent to the web of the column.)
lez
bracing points. 3. Column to rafter connection.
4. Column to base connection.

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 EFFECTIVE LENGTH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STANDARD SHED DESIGNS
ADJACENT BRACING POINTS
MEMBER EFFECTIVE LENGTH
DEFINITIONS*
Purlins and girts The length of purlin or girt between
lex NA
supports.

2 x distance between adjacent

ley screw fixings (applies only to NA
piercing type cladding fixings).

lez Bridging spacing. NA

* NOTE: It must be shown that the bracing point is capable of acting as the restraint necessary to restrict the effective length.
An example of this would be the necessity to ensure that fly brace is capable of resisting rotation of the section around the z
axis. The same applies to the purlin or girt connection as a translational support for buckling in the y axis.
It should also be noted that the knee and apex brace connections to the main frame are not considered to provide
translational support in the y axis or rotational support in the z axis to the column or rafter, unless it can be proven by
calculation or test that this resistance is being provided.
Member capacity checks
Member capacity checks cannot be completed without accurate effective and full section properties. The
designer should ensure that bolt holes are taken into consideration when determining both full and effective
section properties where this is appropriate.
The following member capacity checks must be made in accordance with AS/NZS 4600 Section 3. It should be
noted that the use of AS/NZS 4600 Section 3 to determine member capacities is only acceptable for typical
sections such as C and Z sections, singly-, doubly- and point-symmetric sections, closed box sections etc. If it
is found that the code does not adequately cover the specific member design then another method will be
required to determine the capacity – one option would be testing or use of manufacturers published data. If
using manufacturers published data, care should be taken to ensure that the same assumptions and limitations
are applicable. This is particularly relevant to sheeting and purlin and girt checks.
AS/NZS 4600 Section 3 requires the designer to perform the following limit state checks where appropriate to
the member design. Each of these checks includes a capacity reduction factor available from AS/NZS 4600
Table 1.6.
List of required member checks:
a) Axial tension. Section 3.2
With this check care should be taken to apply the appropriate value for kt (the correction factor for
distribution of forces).
b) Bending moment. Section 3.3
Each of the following two design checks must be performed in their entirety.
1. Nominal section moment capacity Section 3.3.2
This check deals with ensuring that the section, which the member is constructed, is capable of
resisting the stresses induced in the section by the bending moment applied.
2. Nominal member moment capacity Section 3.3.3
This involves checking that the member as a whole is capable of resisting buckling due to
induced bending moments. This section requires the designer to check both lateral and
distortional buckling, taking into account the correct member effective lengths.
c) Shear capacity. Section 3.3.4
The shear force at any cross section of the member should not exceed the member shear capacity.
d) Bearing capacity. Section 3.3.6

Attention to bearing capacity should be considered at the connection of main frame elements;
particularly knee and apex brace connections.

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 e) Stiffener capacity. Section 3.3.8

Checks are required for increasing the bearing capacity of members through the use of stiffeners to
transfer loads more effectively to the web of the section.
f) Compressive capacity. Section 3.4
This section outlines a number of checks for the section under compressive stress.
1. Nominal Section Compressive Capacity Section 3.4.1
This check deals with ensuring that the section of which the member constructed is capable of
resisting the stresses induced in the section by the compressive force applied.
2. Nominal Member Compressive Capacity Section 3.4.1
This involves checking that the member as a whole is capable of resisting buckling due to
induced compressive forces. This section requires the designer to check torsional, flexural
torsional and distortional buckling, taking into account the correct member effective lengths.
Important note: The above compressive checks as set out in AS/NZS 4600 apply when the
resultant compressive load is applied directly to the centroid of the effective section at the
calculated critical stress. If this condition does not apply (as is generally the case) then the
designer must ensure that any eccentricity in the loading condition is considered by allowing for
secondary bending moments.
The above member checks apply for the situation where the member is only subject to a single resultant action
at any one time. For example, the member is subject to only bending with the exclusion of shear, axial or
torsional forces. However, this is very rarely the case in the design of portal framed buildings, and it is likely that
the limiting design check will actually be one of the following combined action checks. Therefore, performing
the following checks accurately is extremely important. Generally the member checks must be performed prior
to completing the combined checks as certain inputs into the combined checks are created during the member
check process.
List of required combined action member checks:
a) Combined bending and shear Section 3.3.5
This is an important check on members at the haunch connection of buildings where knee braces are
not provided as this can be a location of high combined bending and shear actions. This check can
also be significant for the main frame at the connection of the knee braces and apex braces.
b) Combined bending and bearing Section 3.3.7
This is an important check on the column or rafter at the knee brace and main column and rafter
connection under different load combinations, as a high bearing load and bending moment reaction can
occur at this point (dependent upon the connection type). If attaching the knee braces to flanges of the
column and rafter this check may be critical, whereas if connecting the knee brace to the centroid of the
column and rafter this check is not required. The axial force in the knee brace (when adjusted for the
appropriate knee brace angle) is the bearing force that needs to be considered at this point.
c) Combined bending and axial compression or tension Section 3.5
This check is most likely to be the limiting check on the structure’s main frame. That said it should not
be considered to the exclusion of the other checks.
Once again this is an important check on the column or rafter at the knee brace and main column and
rafter connection under different load combinations, as a high axial load and bending moment reaction
can occur at this point.
Also, this check is extremely important at the base of building utilising partially or fully fixed base
connections as a high combination of bending and axial forces under different loadings can occur at this
point.
NOTE: As per AS/NZS 4600 Section 7 it is also allowable to determine member capacities in accordance with
the Direct Strength Method.
Steel shed design also quite often utilises SHS and CHS members that will need to be checked in accordance
with AS 4100. Designers should be careful to ensure that they are applying the correct standard for the relevant
member design.

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It is common practice for the webs of door jambs and end columns adjacent to door openings to be oriented in
the same direction as girts. Girts and roller doors support reactions due to wind pressure acting normal to walls
will be resisted then by jams and columns bending in the weak axis. In these instances, door jams and end
columns shall be proportioned to resist applied wind loads. Design of additional members to resist wind forces
may be necessary.

4.3 DESIGN OF PURLIN AND GIRT SYSTEMS

As structural members within the building envelope, purlins and girts must be designed, as any other
component in the building is required to be designed, in accordance with the appropriate member capacity
checks. The designer should take the following points into account:
1. Design must incorporate local pressure factors.
2. Design must incorporate internal pressures.
3. Design must incorporate the connections at the purlin and girt support.
4. Design may be based on manufacturer’s literature if the following points are complied with:
a. All design assumptions in the manufacturer’s literature are adhered to in the building design, for
example the end and lap fixing assumptions, along with bridging.
b. If any deviations from the design assumptions in the manufacturer’s literature are made, the
designer must adequately justify why the manufacturer’s literature still applies to the design.
This could be provided in the form of a letter from the manufacturer, testing or if possible
through calculations.
5. Design can be carried out from first principles without reference to manufacturer’s literature. Such
designs must include:
a. Calculation of effective lengths.
b. Inclusion of buckling checks in accordance with AS/NZS 4600 Section 3.
c. Continuous design of purlins and girts will need various segments of individual purlins and girts
to be considered.
d. Calculation of effective section properties.
6. If continuous purlin and/or girt design are being used then adequate moment transfer must be shown to
be occurring over supports.
7. If continuous purlin and/or girt design are being used, the design documentation should warn that the
addition of any opening that removes the continuity of the purlin and/or girt is not allowable.
8. The designer must ensure adequate care is taken if using manufacturer’s data in the design process but
the purlins and girts are being supplied by a different manufacturer. This is due to subtle differences in
section geometry, material selection, tolerances and testing regimes that may adversely affect the
performance of the system.
9. Bridging must be shown to adequately resist the translation and rotation of the compression flange of
the purlin or girt in order to be used to reduce the ley and lez effective lengths.
10. Any additional loads added to the purlins or girt (i.e. door jamb or window connections) need to be
considered and allowed for.
11. Proper detailing of all connections, laps and spacings must be shown on documentation (see Good
detailing practice section).
12. It is common practice for purlins and girts to be used as compression struts as part of the longitudinal
bracing system. They should be designed as compression struts if being used in this capacity.
13. Loads should not be applied to purlin lips unless the section has been designed to resist these loads.
This includes attaching services to the purlin lips – including but not limited to sprinkler systems and
heating / cooling ducts.
14. It is not appropriate to rely on catenary action of purlins and girts to resist applied loading.

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The design of purlins and girts can have an effect on other structural elements throughout the frame of the
structure. For example, if a continuous purlin and girt system is being used then the effect on the first
intermediate portal from the gable end wall needs to be considered. Generally the loads on this frame (and
reaction loads) will be increased under certain load cases if the portal frame design is being completed as a 2D
design, due to the increased first purlin support reaction in a continuous system. If an overall 3D design is
completed incorporating purlins and girts then this effect will need to be included in the modelling.

4.4 BRACING SYSTEMS

BRACING PRINCIPLES
Typically steel sheds and garages have a rectangular floor plan and wind loads are effectively resisted in two
directions: perpendicular to the ridge line of the building and parallel to it. A portal frame is primarily designed to
resist the wall wind loads that are perpendicular to the ridge line along with the majority of roof loads. A bracing
system is employed to resist the wall wind loads parallel to the ridge line. This bracing system is just as
important as the main portal frame of the structure and must be given appropriate attention by the designer.
Several options are available to the designer when developing an appropriate bracing system, including but not
limited to:
 Conventional tension-only cross bracing.
 Moment frames.
 Compression elements.
 Combined compression and tension systems.
 Diaphragm action.
Due to this array of options, a number of general comments regarding bracing system design are outlined as
follows. These comments should be considered by the designer during the development of the bracing system
employed.
 Justification through calculations (if possible) or testing of the bracing system is required.
 The bracing elements are structural members and need to be checked in accordance with the relevant
member checks previously outlined.
 During 3D modelling the designer should be cautious that bracing members do not become
overstressed and thus provide greater stiffness to the model than can be justified by the preliminary
design.
 If a bracing member is only capable of carrying tensile or compressive loads then it is critical that the
modelling of the structure take this restriction on the bracing system’s capabilities into account.
 If tensile-only bracing is employed then it is likely that compression struts are being used to carry the
force to a connection where this load can then be resisted by tensile members. These struts must be
designed to carry these compression loads in combination with any other loads that they are carrying.
This is especially important for purlins and girts used in this way.
 If the main portal frame used to resist wall loads perpendicular to the ridge line is incorporated into the
bracing system design, it is important that all combined checks be appropriately considered for the
main portal frame.
 Adequate connections must be designed for all bracing systems – either through calculations (if
possible) or through testing.
 Gable end wall frames are often not designed to resist in-plane wind forces through portal moment
action and as such may require a bracing system to be employed. The basis of end wall structural
design should be clearly indicated in design documentation.
 Standard additions such as mezzanine floors, lean-tos, open sided walls, etc can all have an impact on
the design of an appropriate bracing system. These building features need to be considered where
appropriate.
 Similarly to main frame base reactions, bracing base reactions must be transferred appropriately to the
foundations which must be designed to resist these loads.
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CONVENTIONAL BRACING
Conventional tension-only cross bracing
This system refers specifically to bracing members that cannot support any compression. Examples include
strap bracing, cable and rod bracing, as these types of members distort and buckle under very small
compression loads. These members are installed in a ’crossed’ configuration where dependent upon the load
case one member will become redundant and the other will provide load support in tension. Given these
members’ tension only capacity, a compression strut is generally required in the design in order to provide a
stable load path. These struts then become an integral part of the bracing system and as such need to be
designed for the applied loads as any other member is designed.

Moment frames
Provide a bracing system that works in a similar way to how the main frame of columns and rafters supports
loads acting perpendicular to the ridge line of the building - through utilising member moment capacity to
provide load support. Moment frames are generally utilised to provide bracing support around an opening of
some type. When utilising this form of bracing, designers should be cautious if utilising the weak axis bending
capacity of the columns in the main frame, and ensure that this extra load is taken into account when
completing the appropriate combined action checks where required.

Combined compression and tension systems

This system is similar to the "conventional tension only cross bracing system". However the members are
capable of providing resistance through compression and generally also through tension under different loading
arrangements. These elements can be utilised by the designer in a ’crossed’ configuration similar to the
Conventional tension-only cross bracing system or as single elements. Examples include angles and round
hollow sections capable of resisting compression loads. As with any compression member, it is important that
the designer considers buckling capacity and assumes the appropriate effective length of the member as these
are likely to be the limiting factors.

DIAPHRAGM BRACING
General
Stressed skin roof and wall diaphragms may significantly stiffen steel sheds, reducing deflections and
redistributing forces from internal frames to end frames. There are no particular limits to building geometry
where stressed skin diaphragms can be utilised. However, larger buildings are affected less by stressed skin
action and its influence can be negligible. Stressed skin diaphragms could be the only bracing system for
relatively small sheds and could be used in combination with cross bracing such as rods or strap bracing for
larger sheds. Where stressed skin diaphragms are used, they must be designed as any other structural
member. An assumption that diaphragm action exists is not acceptable.

Necessary conditions
 Only pierced fixed cladding can form stressed skin diaphragms.
 The diaphragms have longitudinal edge members to carry flange forces arising from diaphragm action.
In cladding with the corrugations oriented in the longitudinal direction of the roof the flange forces due
to diaphragm action may be taken up by the cladding.
 The cladding is treated as a structural component that cannot be removed without proper
consideration. The project specification, including the calculations and drawings, should draw attention
to the fact that the building is designed to utilise stressed skin action.
 Suitable structural connections are used to transmit diaphragm forces to the main steel framework and
to join the edge members acting as flanges.
 The diaphragm forces in the plane of a roof or floor are transmitted to the foundations by means of
braced frames, further stressed-skin diaphragms or other methods of sway resistance.

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  Stressed skin diaphragms may be used predominantly to resist wind loads, snow loads and other loads
that are applied through the sheeting itself but may not be used to resist permanent external loads,
such as those from equipment. (Refer to BS 5950 Part 9:1994).
 The design capacity cannot be based on assumptions about the diaphragm and its components’
stiffness and capacity. All design parameters should be based on tests data or published literature.
Data in published literature should not be used unless its components and configuration are directly
equivalent to those used in the design (e.g. data for valley fixed fasteners should not be used for crest
fixed fasteners).
 Small randomly arranged openings, up to 3% of the relevant area, may be present without special
calculation, provided that the total number of fasteners is not reduced. Openings up to 15% of the
relevant area (the area of the surface of the diaphragm taken into account for the calculations) may be
introduced if justified by detailed calculations. Areas that contain larger openings should be split into
smaller areas, each with full diaphragm action.
 All cladding that also forms part of a stressed-skin diaphragm should first be designed for its primary
purpose in bending. To ensure that any deterioration of the cladding would be apparent in bending
before the resistance to stressed skin is affected, it should then be verified that the shear stress due to
diaphragm action does not exceed 25% of the maximum bending stress. Refer BS 5950: Part 9:1994
Section 4.2.1 b for further explanation.

Design approach
There are two different approaches to the design of diaphragms:
Approach A. The design is entirely based on parametric tests on full scale stressed skin diaphragms, applying
the relevant test principles and procedures of AS/NZS 4600. The design parameters (strength and stiffness)
are directly derived from test data. These parameters would normally be converted to equivalent cross bracing
with tension only members to be used in analysis. The advantage of this approach is that design calculations
are very simple and parametric tests of diaphragm components are not necessary. The disadvantage is that
test results should not be used for dissimilar diaphragms (different screws and their locations, cladding,
geometry, supporting structure, other connectors), and no extrapolation is permitted. Where test-based
diaphragm performance is relied on, the relevant supporting test data should be made available for compliance
verification, on a confidential basis if required.
Approach B. The design is based on calculations, similar to examples as given in BS 5990: Part 9:1994
Annexes. The following steps would normally be necessary:
 Developing a design model (spreadsheet) with parameters of a diaphragm and its components:
geometry, capacity, stiffness.
 Finding data for certain parameters available in published literature. Note that many parameters
available in BS 5990: Part 9:1994 are not applicable to Australian design practice: valley fixed
fasteners, mild steel, stiff frame supports and connections, different screws and washers.
 Parametric tests to obtain data for diaphragm components.
 Proof tests on full scale diaphragms to confirm design model.
 Revision of the design model if necessary.

This approach requires extensive parametric testing of components. However when testing is completed,
accommodation of changes such as changing screw spacing could be easily done using the design model or
require minimum of parametric testing of components without going to full scale test as would be necessary for
Approach A. This approach is also more suitable for software applications.

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4.5 SLABS AND FOOTINGS

GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Footing design is a science that warrants an entire spectrum of publications. Any attempt to cover all of this
information in this Design Guide would be futile. As such this Design Guide focuses only on the core
requirements of a steel shed slab and footing system. These are outlined in the following points:
 All steel shed designs shall include or specifically exclude a slab and footing system design. If the
design excludes a slab and footing design, this should be noted prominently on the design
documentation.
 Reaction forces generated from the modelling and analysis of the structure shall be adequately
resisted including an appropriate safety factor. This not only includes bearing forces, but also uplift
and inward and outwards thrust forces from different loading combinations.
 Designs should include allowances for differing soil conditions and changes in soil conditions over
time. This includes making allowances for differential settlement and the moisture cycle in reactive
clay environments.
 Slab and footing designs stated to comply with AS 2870 on reactive clay material (‘H’ or ‘E’) sites
should give special consideration to clause 3.1.5. This clause for a clad building such as a steel
shed structure allows reducing the site classification by one class of reactivity and selecting the
appropriately sized footing system for the structure from the deemed to comply design provided in
AS 2870 for a clad frame type of construction. Slab stiffening beams are required for Class H and E.
 Designers should ensure good detailing practice when considering the following regarding slab and
footing design:
o Eccentricities
o Crack mitigation
o Moisture and vapour barriers
o Reinforcing layout
 All slab and footing designs need to be adequately justified through the use of good engineering
practice and documentation.

BASE FIXITY
Column base fixity is normally assumed to be fixed or pinned in the design practice. It is acceptable to assume
pinned connection, but fixed connection should not be used in the analysis unless column bases are properly
designed, detailed and tested. It is recommended to model partial fixity at column bases.
Partial fixity at column bases could be due to two different sets of reasons:
A. Formation of plastic hinges. Maximum bending moment capacity is limited by:
 Bolt slip capacity (bolts connecting columns to base brackets through slotted holes)
 Capacity of steel brackets in bending or tension
 Anchors capacity in tension
 Capacity of concrete footings
B. Reduced rotational stiffness (rotational spring supports). Reduced stiffness may be due to:
 Base brackets working in bending
 Concrete footing/soil interaction (rotation of foundations in soil).
All necessary parameters could be found by calculations or from test data.
Contraction and expansion joints may be necessary for slabs and footings in sheds used for non-residential
purposes.

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4.6 CLADDING

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
It is anticipated that sheds and garages designed in accordance with this guide will be clad with steel sheeting
designed and installed in accordance with AS 1562.1. Steel sheeting may be of any thickness provided it meets
all the requirements of AS 1562.1.
The performance of steel sheeting shall be supported by manufacturer’s literature and test data. Design
capacities of cladding based on test results should not be applied to cladding made with steel from other
suppliers, in particular imported steel, unless it is demonstrated such steel has higher yield stress and better
ductility (as tested).
Roofs (including the cladding) required for floor type activities must be designed as floors using the relevant
actions specified in AS/NZS 1170.1 and are not covered by this Design Guide.
Roofs may be designed as either type R1 or R2 as defined in AS/NZS 1170.1. Steel roof cladding must be
capable of resisting the uniformly distributed and concentrated actions specified for each type of roof.
Where type R2 roofs are designed for access using ladders or boards, conspicuous notices should be installed
at access points to the roof warning against walking directly on the roof sheeting.
Roof and wall cladding should be designed to resist wind actions calculated using the guidelines in this Design
Guide and AS/NZS 1170.2. Due consideration should be given to local pressure areas near edges, corners and
apexes.
In relevant localities, roof cladding should be designed to resist:
 Cyclic loading as required by Part B1.2 of the NCC, and/or
 Snow actions calculated in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.3.
Fixing may be crest, valley or concealed fixed as recommended by the sheeting manufacturer for the relevant
design actions and performance requirements of the cladding. In cyclonic regions, particular attention must be
given by all levels in the supply channel to correct cladding fixing specifications.
In cyclonic regions, the designer may need to consider the resistance of the roof and wall cladding, as part of
the building envelope, to impact loading as described in AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 5.3.2. Evidence of successful
impact testing, including any conditions or restrictions on product suitability, should be obtained from the
manufacturer of the cladding. If satisfactory evidence of impact resistance cannot be obtained, appropriate
assumptions will need to be made regarding dominant openings and permeability in establishing the critical
design cases.
All fasteners used in fixing should be physically, chemically and galvanically compatible with the sheeting and its
supporting members. All trimming, flashing and other installation details should be carried out to minimise water
entry to the building and the possibility of debris shedding in severe weather events.
Where the design uses diaphragm action as part of the bracing system, note the requirement to check bending
and shear stress in the cladding. Refer to Diaphragm Bracing section above.
LOW-HIGH-LOW CYCLIC TEST METHOD FOR ROOF CLADDING
During cyclonic events, elements of the building envelope are subjected to highly fluctuating wind loads which
can cause the fatigue of material, reducing its strength. This may lead to failure of components at pressures
lower than the design level. BCA 2009 introduced a requirement that all metal roofing systems used in cyclonic
regions must demonstrate performance to a new standardised cyclic test method. This method is known as
Low-High-Low (LHL) based on the low, then high, then low pressure sequence used to simulate the wind loads
resulting from the passage of tropical cyclones across a building.
The LHL test is applicable to metal roof cladding, its fasteners and immediate supporting members which are
certified as a ‘system’. Using a different roof batten or fastener may not meet the requirements of the NCC. LHL
testing does not apply to wall cladding; however, wall cladding used in cyclonic regions must still comply with
the testing specified in AS 4040.3 as stated in AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 2.5.5.

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4.7 DOORS, WINDOWS AND OPENINGS

The presence of doors, windows, skylights and other features in the building envelope must be carefully
considered in the design. Openings in the structure alter the distribution of forces from actions applied to the
building. Openings may interrupt the continuity of purlins and girts requiring their design as single spans.
Additional loads may be transferred to purlins and girts via heads, sills and trimmers. Openings may also
reduce the capacity of bracing systems or cause them to be installed in less effective configurations. All of
these effects must be considered in the structural design.
AS 2047 Windows in buildings, referenced in the NCC, allows a concession for window performance in Class 10
buildings. These windows do not need to pass the air infiltration and water penetration requirements of the
standard. This concession applies only to Class 10 buildings.
Doors and windows provide essential access, light and ventilation to buildings but, when closed, they form part
of the building envelope to resist wind action. Note also that in cyclonic areas, the designer may need to
consider the resistance of doors and windows, as part of the building envelope, to impact loading as required by
AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 5.3.2, using the impact loading criteria specified in Clause 2.5.7. Permanent screens or
grilles may be designed to provide the required resistance for windows. Evidence of successful impact testing,
including any conditions or restrictions on product suitability, should be obtained from the manufacturer of the
door or window. Example of the use of impact load resistance would be the building envelope enclosing a
shelter room, or a building containing essential post-disaster equipment.
All components of doors (including wind locks, mullions, tracks and guides, if fitted) shall be designed,
constructed and installed to resist pressures corresponding to the ultimate wind pressure rating for all wind
regions A, B, C and D. That requirement applies for all doors regardless if they are assumed opened or closed
during wind storms.
All doors and windows shall have the same wind load rating as the rest of building envelope including, for
Regions C and D only, resistance to flying debris as specified in AS/NZS 1170.2:2011 and AS/NZS 4505-2012.
Supporting documentation including test reports shall be available from doors and windows manufacturers to
confirm load rating and ensure compliance with above mentioned standards and NCC. Doors are also required
to be supplied with a sticker that shows a range of information including the design pressure of the door
according to AS/NZS 4505-2012 requirements.
When the door ultimate wind pressure rating is verified using cyclonic testing, the door is appropriate for use in
both cyclonic and non-cyclonic regions. However, doors verified against non-cyclonic tests only are not rated
for use in cyclonic regions.
In use, doors shall have an ultimate wind pressure rating that is greater than or equal to the design ultimate
wind pressures across the door as determined from AS/NZS 1170.2.
Door supports (mullions) shall be designed to resist forces transferred from doors. It is common practice for
roller type doors to be fitted with ‘wind locks’ to prevent the withdrawal of the curtain from the guide track at high
wind pressures in particular in cyclonic wind regions. In this situation, the catenary action of the door curtain
applies substantial lateral and torsional loads to the door mullion sections which should be taken into account in
the design.
The forces will be both out-of-plane (acting perpendicular to the plane of the door) and in-plane for doors with
wind locks relying on catenary action. Only out-of-plane forces shall be considered for doors without wind locks
and for doors with wind locks but rigid enough to resist the ultimate wind pressure based on beam action.
In-plane forces could be conservatively estimated following approach presented in Sections E4.2 and E4.3 of
AS/NZS 4505:2012. Alternatively less conservative values may be obtained from test data as supplied by door
manufacturers. Reduced forces from test data depend on the width of the door curtain, the amount of float or
initial clearance between the wind locks and the guides and the flexibility of the guide system. Forces values
may be reduced further depending on flexibility of door supports (mullions) and its connections.

4.8 DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR SERVICEABILITY

This section gives guidelines for the serviceability limit states resulting from deformation of sheds and their
elements. Table 18 identifies deflection limits related to actions with annual probability of exceedance of 1/20
(0.05) beyond which serviceability problems have been observed. These limits are imprecise and should be
treated as a guide only. These limits may not be applicable in all situations.
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 TABLE 18: SUGGESTED SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE CRITERIA

Element response
Phenomenon Serviceability Applied
Element Importance Importance level
controlled parameter action
level 1 2 or higher
Residual Span/600 but <
Metal roof cladding Indentation Q = 1 kN N/A
deformation 0.5 mm
Mid-span
Metal roof cladding De-coupling G and sQ Span/100 Span/120
deflections
Mid-span
Roof rafters Sag G Span/250 Span/300
deflection
Columns Side sway Deflection at top Ws Height/80 Height/100
Incremental Spacing
Portal frames Roof damage Ws N/A
deflections at top (bay)/200
Lintel beams Doors/windows Span/240 but Span/240 but
Ws
(vertical sag) jam <12mm <12 mm
Mid-span
Roof purlins Sag G N/A Span/300
deflection

Notes:
1. Masonry and other brittle materials are outside the scope of this Design Guide
1. Other deflection criteria may be specified in the contract documentation
2. Limited bolt-slip capacity at serviceability loads should be taken into account for deflection calculations
3. Buildings designed to be capable of future conversion to Class 1 (habitable) buildings may require tighter serviceability
criteria.

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 CHAPTER 5: CONNECTIONS

5.1 GENERAL

Connection elements consist of members, connection components (cleats, gusset plates, brackets, connection
plates) and connectors (welds, bolts, screws, rivets, clinches, nails, adhesives). The connections in a shed
should be proportioned so as to be consistent with the assumptions made in the analysis of the structure and to
comply with the recommendations in this Design Guide.
It is expected designers will pay particular attention to the design of connections in steel sheds. This requires
an understanding of how cold-formed steel members interact with each other and with the brackets and
connectors that form the connection. Connection adequacy is vital to the structural integrity of the building. It is
the designer’s responsibility to prove that the connections used in the design are adequate.

5.2 DESIGN BASIS

The design of connections in cold formed steel sheds should be in accordance with AS/NZS 4600 Section 5.
Alternatively the design of connections may be based on test data in accordance with Chapter 6 of this Design
Guide. Where components are made from hot rolled steel or are thicker than the scope of AS/NZS 4600,
designers should apply the relevant requirements of AS 4100.
It is particularly important to maintain the stability of connections involving asymmetrical cold-formed steel
members. In an ideal situation, the components forming the connection should remain geometrically stable
throughout the loading cycle. Ensuring that they remain as stable as possible is a design consideration.
Connectors (fasteners) used in connections should have a nominal failure capacity at least 125% of the
connection (or 2.5 times the design capacity). This ensures that connector failure will not initiate connection
failure, thus producing a more ductile connection.

5.3 TYPICAL PRIMARY CONNECTIONS

COLUMN BASE CONNECTION ELEMENTS WITH CAST-IN BRACKETS

These connections are structurally efficient and can develop significant fixity at bases. This is possible due to
brackets being cast into concrete and resisting predominantly axial forces. Column connectors, typically
tensioned bolts or screws, should be located as low as possible to minimise effects of horizontal support
reactions. Brackets should be properly anchored into concrete to avoid pull-out failure. U bars may be used as
suitable anchorage.

COLUMN BASE CONNECTION ELEMENTS WITH HOLD DOWN BOLTS

These connections are typically used for larger sheds. They can resist large bending moments. However
brackets are more flexible than cast-in brackets since they resist predominantly bending moments. As a result
bending moments developed would be significantly lower than corresponding to full fixity. Thicker brackets or
additional bracket stiffeners would be necessary to increase connection stiffness to the required level. Column
connectors would typically be tensioned bolts.

OTHER COLUMN BASE CONNECTION ELEMENTS

Many other options may be used in the design of base connections including the following:
 Chemical anchor bolts and equivalents

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  Bearing type bolts (hole sizes closely matching bolt diameter)
 T base brackets
 Simplified pin base connections

OTHER MAIN FRAMES CONNECTION ELEMENTS

Some connections are inherently more difficult to design efficiently and testing may be the best approach.
Connections in this category include knee, apex, knee brace to column and rafter and ridge ties. Testing should
be carried out for every size member, as extrapolation of results may be invalid. Testing and rating the whole
portal frame can check the effect of connection on the portal frame stability.

5.4 BOLTED CONNECTIONS

BOLT SLIP
Bolt-slip capacity of tensioned bolts should be derived from test results in accordance to recommendations
given in AS/NZS 4600 Suppl: 1998 Section C5.3 (a). It is known that bolt-slip capacity with zinc coated surfaces
is significantly lower than for bare steel. Typical mean bolt-slip capacity of tensioned bolts will not exceed:
 M12 8.8/S bolts with mild washer 7 kN
 M12 8.8/S bolt with integrated washer 15 kN
 M16 8.8/S bolt with mild washer 15 kN
 M16 8.8/TB bolt with structural washer 17 kN
 M16 8.8/TB bolt with integrated washer 23 kN

Bolts with integrated washers are the most efficient connector from a bolt-slip perspective.
Bolt-slip capacity can be affected by:
 Size of holes
 Steel member and washer coating, paint
 Washer size, steel grade and surface quality
 Method of bolt tensioning

SLOTTED HOLES
Slotted holes 18 x 22 mm are suitable for both M12 and M16 bolts, while 22 mm round holes are also used for
M16 bolts in main frame members. Whilst slotted holes do not comply with AS/NZS 4600 rules except for
purlins, these clearances are generally acceptable provided bolt-slip capacity is derived from test results on
specimens with purlin size holes and possible bolt slip is considered in deflection calculations.

PURLIN AND GIRT CONNECTIONS

Slotted holes 18 x 22 mm typically punched in steel purlins and girts allow for +/- 3 mm nominal clearance
transversely and +/- 5 mm longitudinally. These purlins form part of tested proprietary systems and cannot be
designed using AS/NZS 4600 rules. When incorporated in steel shed designs, manufacturers’ instructions
regarding design and installation should be observed.

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5.5 SCREWS

Screw manufacturers’ capacities are sometimes based on average capacity. However, AS/NZS 4600 requires
capacity to be determined from the minimum value from a sample of tests. The purpose of these tests is to
reliably estimate the 5-percentile shear and tensile failure loads as required by the NCC for structural materials
and components. It is recommended that connector nominal capacities (especially screws and rivets) should be
determined from a sample of not less than 10 connectors. Designers should ensure that fastener
manufacturers provide nominal and design capacities determined in a way that is consistent with AS/NZS 4600
requirements. The NASH Handbook – Residential and low-rise steel framing provides extensive data on
screwed and riveted connections in cold-formed steels.

5.6 WELDING

Welding of structural components in steel sheds, whether carried out in a factory or onsite, should comply with
all relevant Australian Standards. Welded connections involving cold-formed steel must be correctly designed,
taking into account a possible reduction in steel strength adjacent to the weld line (annealing).
Where both sections in a welded connection are thicker than 2.5 mm, welding should comply with AS/NZS
1554.1. Unless otherwise specified by the designer, when either section is less than 2.5 mm thick, the weld
should comply with AS/NZS 1554.7. This Standard is applicable for the welding of materials up to 4.8 mm thick
and therefore may be used for materials between 2.5 mm and 4.8 mm thick.
Any metallic coated areas damaged during welding should be touched up with a zinc rich paint to give similar
durability to the original material.
The design of fillet welds when either of the joining components is less than 2.5 mm should be in accordance
with AS/NZS 4600. For thin gauge steel the strength is governed by the tensile strength of the connecting
plates rather than the strength of the weld. Where both of the joining components are greater then 2.5 mm the
design should be in accordance with AS 4100.
The effect of welding on the mechanical properties of the members needs to be taken into account through
testing. However, for all grades conforming to AS 1163 and grades G250, G300, G350 and G450 steel
conforming to AS 1397, the design expressions given in AS/NZS 4600 allow for any change in properties. The
capacity reduction factor has been reduced for longitudinal welds for G450.

5.7 OTHER CONNECTION METHODS

Designers may choose alternative connection methods to those above, applying the appropriate principles and
judgement. As previously stated it is up to the designer to prove the adequacy of every connection on which the
integrity of the structure is dependent.

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 CHAPTER 6: TESTING

6.1 GENERAL

Tests and results evaluations should comply with general requirements of AS/NZS 1170.0 Appendix B. Tests
should be conducted by NATA registered laboratories. Alternatively, test results should be verified by NATA
registered laboratories.
Steel units designed by calculation in accordance with relevant Australian Standards are not required to be
tested. Proof and prototype tests may be accepted as an alternative to calculations or may become necessary
where:
 More accurate information is required for use in structural design.
 Specific design parameters and methods are not included in relevant standards.
 The situation is sufficiently unusual to require that limit states be checked by methods other than
calculation.
 There is a history of structural failures.
 Necessary design data is not available from product manufacturers (connectors, cladding, etc.).
 Designers are looking to support calculations or to provide more efficient designs.
The unit to be tested may be a structure, substructure, member, connection assembly or connection.

6.2 PROOF TESTING

Proof testing should comply with requirements of AS/NZS 1170.0 Appendix B2. This test method establishes
the ability of the particular unit under test to satisfy the limit state that the test is designed to evaluate. Proof
tests can be also used to evaluate structural models such as stressed skin diaphragms.
Additional requirements for time-dependent materials do not apply to steel structures used in sheds.

6.3 PROTOTYPE TESTING

This test method establishes the ability of a population of units to satisfy the limit state that the test is designed
to evaluate. This method is not applicable to the testing of structural models, nor to the establishment of
general design criteria or data.
Prototype testing should comply with requirements of AS/NZS 1170.0 Appendix B2 and AS/NZS 4600 Section
8.2.
Testing of sheet and wall cladding system shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1562.1.
Stressed skin diaphragms could be tested using the test setup and test procedure as given in the following
international Standards:
 BS 5950: Part 9:1994 Section 11
 EN 1993-1-3
 ASTM E455-04
Test results evaluation should be done in accordance with requirements of this Design Guide.

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Test specimens should be arranged as equivalent to diaphragms used in design practice and particular
attention should be paid to constraints on perimeter and supports. Flexibility of connectors and supporting
structures should be correctly modelled.

Prototype testing would normally be required to design components of steel sheds such as:
 Column base connections, strength and stiffness.
 Roof and wall diaphragms, strength and stiffness.
 Knee and apex connection assemblies, strength and stiffness.
 Bolt slip capacity for friction bolts, stiffness.
 Non-symmetric structural elements, strength.
 Built up structural elements, strength and stiffness.
 Cladding strength and stiffness if not supported by manufacturers’ data.
 Multiple screw groups to assess combined capacity.
Tests should be conducted on every size of member used in the design. Full scale testing of a complete portal
frame is useful for determining the effect of the connections on portal frame stability.

6.4 TESTS RESULTS EVALUATION

Test results evaluation should be done in accordance with AS/NZS 4600 Section 8.2 accompanied by test
reports compiled in accordance to AS/NZS 1170.0 Appendix B1.5. Values for coefficients of variation of
structural characteristics (Vsc) should be used as given in AS/NZS 4600 Supplement Section C6.2.2.3. Design
capacities should be determined in accordance with AS/NZS 4600 Section 8.2. In particular minimum or
average test capacity shall not be used as design capacity. The appropriate sampling factor must be applied to
the minimum capacity from a sample of not less than three tests.

6.5 PRODUCT SUBSTITUTION

Design capacities based on tests results are not applicable to structural elements made with the steels or
components from other suppliers, in particular imported steel, unless it is demonstrated such steel has higher
yield stress and better ductility (as tested).

6.6 CONNECTORS AND CONNECTIONS

Testing of connection elements may have the same logic as testing of stressed skin diaphragms given in
Chapter 4 of this Design Guide following design approaches A and B. There could be parametric or proof
testing of connection elements and parametric testing of connectors.
Testing should comply with requirements of AS/NZS 1170.0 Appendix B2 and AS/NZS 4600 Section 8.2.
Design models should be developed by the designer based on first principles and good design practice (refer to
ASI Handbook 1: Design of structural steel connections, 2007 by Tim Hogan and Scott Munter).
For connections, design capacities determined by test may be based on samples of as little as three units. The
minimum value from tests is divided by the appropriate sampling factor to give the design capacity of the
connection. Note that the nominal capacity of the connector (screw, rivet or bolt) in any connection must be at
least 25% greater than the maximum design force (in shear or tension) to which it will be subjected in the
ultimate limit state.

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For screws and rivets, manufacturers’ capacities are sometimes based on average capacity. AS/NZS 4600
currently requires capacity to be determined from the minimum value from a sample of tests. However, NASH
Standard Part 1 Section 7 includes sampling factors for deriving design capacities based on average test
results. The purpose of tests is to reliably estimate the 5-percentile shear and tensile failure loads, as required
by the NCC for structural materials and components. It is recommended that connector nominal capacities
(especially screws and rivets) should be determined from a sample of not less than 10 connectors. Designers
should ensure that manufacturers provide nominal and design capacities determined in a way that is consistent
with these requirements.

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 CHAPTER 7: OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

7.1 ANALYSIS SOFTWARE AND DESIGN AIDS

The NCC has a formal requirement that, for certain building sizes and forms of construction, software used for
design without oversight by a professional engineer must comply with the ABCB Protocol for structural software.
This is currently limited to trussed roof systems with framed walls. The Protocol sets out the minimum
requirements for structural software to ensure that designs correctly apply the seemed-to-satisfy provisions of
the NCC.
The NCC Protocol includes procedures for the architecture, updating and use of software systems including the
following:
 Scope and limitation of application of software (particularly applications that are NOT appropriate for use);
 User qualifications - degree of training/competence required (if any);
 Name and edition of the NCC and its referenced documents that have been incorporated into the software;
 References for general installation instructions and specific recommended installation/transport procedures
which are not part of the “general requirements” or “standard industry practice”;
 Availability of a guide or training program for users, and
 History of revision/upgrading.

7.2 GOOD DETAILING PRACTICE

Good building design includes attention to the details that will produce a structurally sound and serviceable
building. Many of these details are in the form of standard drawing notations applied in the design office of the
shed manufacturer. The following list is not exhaustive, and not all details will apply to all buildings.

PURLINS AND GIRTS

 Clearly distinguish between single and continuous spans, especially where known openings create
single spans.
 Where structural continuity of purlins and girts is assumed in design, detail laps correctly with clear
overlap dimensions.
 Include clear notation on drawings and design certifications that wall openings added later will require
redesign of girt system.
 Ensure loads are not applied to Cee or Zed purlin lips or top hat flanges and include warnings to alert
service installers.
 Where Cee and Zed purlins and girts are used, they should generally be installed with the top flange
directed up the wall or roof slope.
 For Cee purlins, orientate web towards ridge for all pitches 10° and under, otherwise orientate purlin
flanges to ridge line.

SECTION ORIENTATION
 Unless designed otherwise, end wall members should ideally be loaded in their major axis (i.e. with the
plane of the web normal to the plane of the end wall). This requires careful consideration at corners
where the end or side bay is an opening.

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  Where end wall mullions connect to the end frame rafter, the connection detail must avoid rotational
movement in the rafter due to eccentricity of loading.
 Correct door jamb orientation is important, especially where a door fills an entire bay at a corner.
 Transfer of roller door curtain loads to door jambs requires careful attention to resist rotational forces on
the jamb section, especially where wind locks are installed.
 Detailing of door and window openings generally requires care to transfer wind and bracing loads to
locations designed to take them. Supplier drawings and specifications should alert customers to
precautions required where openings are made after construction.
 It is preferable for window or door openings to be located where wall bracing interference will not occur.
 Whenever possible, locate roof and side wall bracing within the same bays.
 If door mullions are to be orientated about the weaker axis, sufficient restraint must be considered to
avoid section failure when under load.

SLAB AND HOLD-DOWN

 Drawings and specifications should clearly identify critical hold-down points where effective hold-down
capacity must be provided.
 Where hold-down bolt edge distances are small, screwbolts or chemical anchors are preferable to
expanding type anchors.
 Chemical anchors may not be suitable where fire resistance is a consideration.
 Beware of green concrete and specify minimum curing times for setting and loading of anchors.
 All concrete specifications must include minimum curing period, method of curing and characteristic
strength at 28 days( f’c Mpa)
 Good construction practice dictates that masonry anchors should not be placed in concrete which has
not reached 50% of its design strength (typically 7 days).
 When specifying cast-in hold-down bolts, ensure that adequate thread is available for the hold-down
bracket and nut(s). For all cast-in members, a distance from above concrete surface penetration must
be specified to ensure all base plate and fasteners have sufficient anchor to fix to.
 Bituminous paint top 150-200 mm of cast-in HD bolts before casting slab to protect thread.
 Expanding type masonry anchors are susceptible to becoming loose due to frame movement and
vibration. They should not be used on main frames due to limited restraint from wind uplift.
 In all cases, a cast-in anchor is preferable to an expanding or chemical anchor.
 If framing members are to be cast into wet concrete, a surface coating (e.g. bitumen) must be
considered to inhibit corrosion from member coating reacting with concrete.

CONNECTIONS AND GENERAL

 Tight hole sizes minimise joint slip, while large hole sizes speed assembly. Maximum hole diameter
should be specified and observed for each bolt size. Generally, cleat hole diameters should be 2 mm
larger than bolt diameter.
 Ensure bolts are detailed to correct length to give adequate but not excessive stick through of threads.
Minimum of three full bolt threads to extruding outer locking nut.
 Hole patterns in brackets and members should ensure minimum edge distances for bolts. Similarly,
where screws are used there must be adequate area for correct placement of the required number of
screws.
 Minimum thicknesses should be adopted for specific components to minimise handling and construction
damage, even if not required for strength or serviceability.
 Brackets should be designed to transfer loads between members with minimum eccentricity. Identify
relevant load paths and detail connections to eliminate distortion.

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  Sufficient edge bearing must be considered when locating holes in brackets or cleats. General rule is
20-25 mm for M12 bolts and 25-30 mm for M16 bolts.

BRACING
 Attachment of bracing should be detailed to ensure correct load paths into brackets and members.
Where the component configuration requires some eccentricity, this should be adequately designed for.
 Connections to single unsymmetrical sections that may become unstable when loaded should be
carefully detailed.
 Do not specify strap bracing for open bays (safety issue). All bracing to open bays should be robust
and visible and free of hazardous edges.
 Slender bracing elements used horizontally in roofs should be prevented from sagging.
 If using strap bracing, consideration must be given as how to achieve correct tension in setting strap
brace during installation.
 Whenever possible, it is desirable to locate sidewall bracing in same bay as roof bracing for load
transfer.
 A roof purlin should be located at the extent of diagonal roof bracing for load transfer between roof
framing members to vertical members.

CORROSION
 Detail design at the slab/sheeting junction must drain freely and avoid contact between sheeting and
slab. Flashings should be inert, or separated from the slab by a suitable damp course material.
 It is particularly important to keep zinc-aluminium alloy coated steel away from concrete and mortar.
 Ensure adequate drainage from flashings, channels and trims.
 Where masonry anchors are specified, they must be galvanised and not zinc plated.
 Correct material grade and type should be specified for all componentry to be installed in highly
corrosive environments (e.g. within 500 m of ocean).
 Cast in anchors or hold down should be galvanised, stainless steel or bitumen-treated.

BUILDING ENVELOPE INTEGRITY AND ROBUSTNESS

 All products and components forming part of the structure of the building envelope should be clearly
identified by reference to an appropriate Standard or product specification.
 Careful attention is required to connection details for cladding, flashings, trims, doors, windows and
accessories to prevent debris shedding in severe wind loading events.
 Refer manufacturer’s recommendations for correct installation and maintenance of the products they
supply.
 Fixing of cladding in cyclonic areas to have necessary cyclonic cladding fixing screws (generally, roof
fasteners have a cyclonic washer).
 All windows and doors to be suitably wind rated for building compatibility.

7.3 DURABILITY AND CORROSION

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Durability is defined as the capability of a building or its parts to perform a function over a specified period of
time. The NCC does not directly regulate the maintenance or durability of materials of construction. However, it
requires that:

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  A building or structure must resist reasonable actions including “time dependent effects” [NCC 2008
Clause BP1.1]; and
 Every part of a building “must be constructed in an appropriate manner to achieve the requirements of
the NCC, using materials that are fit for the purpose for which they are intended” [NCC 2008 Clause
A2.1].
It is therefore up to the designer to specify, in consultation with the client, materials and construction details that
have reasonable durability, are fit for purpose and meet the client’s durability requirements and expectations.
Where the client’s specific requirements are not known at the time of design, for example in the case of generic
buildings, the NCC provides some guidance through its publication Guideline on durability in buildings [ABCB
2002]. This guideline encourages designers to classify components within buildings on the basis of the design
life of the building and the accessibility and cost of the component for repair or replacement.

TABLE 19 BUILDING AND COMPONENT DESIGN LIFE

DESIGN LIFE OF BUILDING DESIGN LIFE OF COMPONENTS OR SUB-SYSTEMS (dlc)
(dlb) (years) (years)
Category
Moderate ease of
Category No. of years Readily accessible Not accessible or not
access but difficult or
and economical to economical to
costly to replace or
replace or repair replace or repair
repair

Short 1 < dlb < 15 5 or dlb (if dlb<5) dlb dlb

Normal 50 5 15 50
Long 100 or more 10 25 100
Source: ABCB Guideline on durability in buildings 2002

All building practitioners, regardless of their role in the process, should consider the impact of their work on
durability. The ABCB Guideline on durability in buildings notes that:
“Durability is not an inherent property of a material or component. It is the outcome of complex
interactions among service conditions, material characteristics, design and detailing, workmanship and
maintenance. Consideration of all of these should be part of the design process.”
The design life or ’life expectancy’ of a building or any part of it may be defined by state or national regulation. It
may also be implied by relevant standards, or stipulated by the owner. Once the design life is established, the
designer should devise a design specification and associated procedures through which the design life may be
met or exceeded. The selected materials, their stated method of assembly and construction and their
nominated maintenance requirements all form part of the design.
Metallic coated steels and appropriately protected hot- and cold-rolled steels are highly durable, long life
materials. Using common sense and familiar tools, materials and methods, steel framing made from these
steels can be adapted to meet a wide variety of design challenges. In the majority of construction
environments, steel can be expected to perform its structural function almost indefinitely provided it is protected
from specific and well-understood hazards. Sources of potential damage are readily identifiable and guidance is
readily available on how to protect the integrity of the steel frame before, during and after construction.

DISSIMILAR METALS
Designers should identify potential locations in the overall building design where components made from
incompatible materials may be fixed to steel framing members.
The potential for dissimilar metals at fasteners and connections is high. Designers should specify fastening and
connection systems with known durability and warn against any substitutions. The following table will assist in
identifying high-risk interfaces in design and construction.

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 TABLE 20 MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY GUIDE
Material of component, accessory or fastener
Zinc or aluminium/zinc or Aluminium Copper Stainless steel
Material of frame member
aluminium/zinc/magnesium
coated steel
Zinc coated steel Suitable Suitable Not suitable Not suitable
Aluminium/zinc or
aluminium/zinc/magnesium Suitable Suitable Not suitable Not suitable
coated steel
Aluminium Suitable Suitable Not suitable Not suitable

Notes:
1. The above guidelines apply to direct contact between components.
2. Providing physical and electrical isolation between materials will extend the range of suitable applications.
3. The table assumes the individual components are suitable for the service environment.
4. Where possible, flashings should be made from the same material as the surface(s) being flashed.

PROXIMITY TO MARINE ENVIRONMENTS

Metallic coated steel
NCC Volume 2 (Housing Provisions) contains requirements and restrictions on the use of metallic coated steel
products in marine environments. Whilst these requirements do not necessarily apply to sheds and garages,
they may be useful for determining the suitability of metallic coated steels in these buildings.
Steel components with a Z275 or AZ150 coating designation may be used for steel framing outside the building
envelope (the situation with most shed and garage framing):
 Beyond 1 km from calm salt water, such as a lake or estuary, or
 Beyond 10 km from a coastal area with breaking surf.
Where the framing material is fully enclosed within the building envelope, it may be used as close as 300 metres
from breaking surf conditions.
Breaking surf normally occurs in areas exposed to the open sea, with regular breaking of waves about four days
per week, but it does not include choppy, white-capped water.
Unwashed areas subject to condensation may be particularly vulnerable. The terms of any manufacturers’
durability warranties should be considered when building in or near marine environments, and advice obtained
from manufacturers in marginal situations. For further information, BlueScope Steel’s TB 35 bulletin on salt
marine environments provides useful information.

Uncoated steel
There are no explicit requirements for the protection of structural steelwork in NCC Volume 1. Volume 1 calls
up AS 4100 of which Appendix C (informative) covers Corrosion Protection. This references AS 2312 which
includes a classification system for atmospheric exposure of steelwork.
NCC Volume 2 contains a requirement for “protective coatings for steelwork” via multiple alternative solutions.
Currently only two exposure classifications – moderate and severe - are listed. Moderate environments are
more than 1 km from breaking surf or more than 100 m from calm salt water, while sever environments are
within these distances.
Generally, internal structural steel in permanently dry locations requires little or no protection. However, typical
sheds and garages that are neither well sealed against contaminants nor ventilated to reduce damp and
condensation should be regarded as “moderate” environments.

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OTHER CONSIDERATIONS AND PRECAUTIONS
Poor detailing and/or construction may reduce the durability of some building components even if they have
been correctly designed for their service environment. In particular, the following items should be considered
regardless of the environment in which the building is to be constructed:
 Cast–in bolts and brackets should have the top 200 mm coated in bituminous paint before casting the
slab or footing.
 Keep Zincalume steel away from concrete – damp concrete is alkaline and a reaction will commence
even with condensation. Where incidental contact is possible, provide an isolation membrane such as
polythene or bituminous aluminium damp course material.
 Keep corrosive contents such as fertilisers away from steel products, and consider warning signs if such
contact is possible.
 Use hot dipped galvanized bolts and brackets and Class 3 screws wherever possible.
 Where galvanised or paint-protected components are cut or welded on site, ensure the protective
system is restored in the area of damage.

7.4 FIRE DESIGN

Fire safety requirements for all building classes are stipulated in the NCC. In specific situations, designers will
need to consider the effects of fire engineering in the structural design. This could involve the effects of an
internal fire, including relevant fire services, or the effects of an external building fire or bushfire.
Fire design involves complex and sometimes conflicting requirements. Small residential Class 10a buildings
should be straightforward, but appropriate expert advice should be obtained for other buildings. A
predevelopment meeting with the local Council may clarify local requirements, especially in relation to bushfire.

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 APPENDICES

1. BUILDING CLASSIFICATIONS
2. IMPORTANCE LEVEL AND PRESSURE COEFFICIENT EXAMPLES
3. STRUCTURAL DESIGN CHECKLIST
4. PRO FORMA CERTIFICATE
5. WORKED EXAMPLES – DESIGN WIND SPEED

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APPENDIX 1

BUILDING CLASSIFICATIONS
The actual use of a building – not its physical appearance or commercial description - determines its
classification. The following information is based on the Guide to the NCC 2008 Part A3.

NCC principle
The NCC states that “the classification of a building or part of a building is determined by the purpose for which
it is designed, constructed or adapted to be used” [Ref NCC Clause A3.1].

TABLE 21 NCC BUILDING CLASSIFICATIONS

CLASS TYPICAL BUILDINGS DESIGN GUIDANCE

1a Single dwelling-house NASH Standard and Handbook
1b Small guesthouse or boarding house NASH Standard and Handbook
2 Residential flat and apartment NASH Standard and Handbook (up
to two storeys)
3 Motels and hostels (low care) (see also 9c) NASH Standard and Handbook
4 Caretaker’s residences NASH Standard and Handbook
5 Offices
6 Shops
7a Carparks
7b Warehouses or wholesalers SSG Design Guide
8 Factories
9a Health-care buildings (including nursing homes)
9b Assembly buildings SSG Design Guide
9c Aged-care buildings (hostels, low care) (see also 3)
10a Non-habitable buildings: sheds & carports SSG Design Guide
10b Non-habitable structures: pools, fences, signs, towers, etc

Difficult classifications
Buildings from which goods are sold to the public are Class 6, while wholesale buildings are Class 7. If the
general public has access to the building, it is Class 6.
Farm buildings may be Class 6, 7, 8 or 10a. They would only be classed as 10a where Classes 6, 7 or 8 are
inappropriate.
Classifications are important for the orderly regulation of social and economic activities and for public fire safety,
but do not have as great an effect on structural design as Importance Levels.

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APPENDIX 2

IMPORTANCE LEVELS - Examples

Domestic garage
Importance Level 2
Exceedance risk 1:500 in all wind regions

Farm shed
Importance Level 1
Exceedance risk 1:100 in regions A & B
Exceedance risk 1:200 in regions C & D

PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS - Examples

Enclosed shed or garage

Fully enclosed with roller and access doors
Full internal pressure (dominant opening) in Regions
C and D unless doors and cladding are impact
resistant

Open rural machinery shed

Clad three sides
Full internal pressure (dominant opening) in all
regions (typically +0.5 to 0.7 depending on
opening dimensions and permeability)

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APPENDIX 3

STRUCTURAL DESIGN CHECKLIST

References and values

National Construction Code references

NCC version being referenced: Year
BCA classification and importance level
Comments

Design loads
Permanent loads – AS/NZS reference AS/NZS Year
Calculation Sheet No.:
Imposed loads - AS/NZS reference AS/NZS Year
Calculation Sheet No.:
Snow loads
Snow loads – AS/NZS reference AS/NZS Year
Is snow loading required? Yes No
If yes, Calculation Sheet No.:
WS = ARI =
Wind loads
Wind loads – AS/NZS reference AS/NZS Year
Wind region (circle) A B C D
If Region A, specify sub-region:
Average recurrence interval Strength RST =
Service RSV =
Based on RST RSV evaluate regional wind speeds
Ultimate strength case (m/s) VRST =
Serviceability case (m/s) VRSV =

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Multipliers

Multipliers
Is direction multiplier being used? (circle) Yes No
If yes and Region A, then site plan showing building orientation, Site Details Sheet No.:
Terrain category
Definitions in AS4055-2012 and AS/NZS 1170.2.2011
Amendment 2-2012 must be used.
Terrain category selection based on what evidence?

Building reference height (m) Mid roof =

Terrain / height multiplier m3CAT =
Shielding multiplier mS =
If mS is used (i.e. mS ≠1.0) then: Calculation Sheet No.:
Site Details sheet No.:
Topographic multiplier mT =
Topographic multiplier selection based on what evidence?

Site wind speed - VSIT β

Complete table. If adopting max. VSIT β as VDES ,θ, skip this step.

VR VSIT β
DIRECTION mD m3CAT mS mT
(mS -1) (mS -1)
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW

Building design wind speeds (m/s) VDES,0 =

VDES,90 =
VDES,180 =
VDES,270 =
If adopting max. VSIT β as VDES ,θ VDES ,θ =

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Internal pressures
Does shed have windows or PA doors? Yes No
Does shed have roller doors? Yes No
If yes, is there a change of a dominant opening Yes No
forming from roller doors?
If yes, use Table 5.1 (B), either CPL= (min) (max)
or Varies – Calculation Sheet No.:
If no, then provide documentation (including of support structure) that proves adequacy.
Note, in Regions C and D, consider impact loads. Documentation Reference No.:
Comments:

Area reduction factor (ka)

Is area reduction factor being used? Yes No
If yes, calculation sheet number:
Does shed have roller doors? Yes No
Combination factor (kc)
Is Kc reduction being applied? Yes No
If yes, Calculation Sheet No.:
ka x kc check
Are ka and kc being applied within same load case to Yes No
the same elements?
If yes, refer to check: ka x kc ≥ 0.8
Calculation Sheet No.:

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Design phase
If diaphragm bracing used, see ‘Bracing’ also.

Sheeting – General
Does sheeting require Lo-Hi-Lo testing? Yes No
If yes, has this been completed? Yes No
If no, is it used in Region C or D? Yes No
If no, then provide documentation (including of support structure) that proves adequacy.
Note, in Regions C and D, consider impact loads. Documentation Reference No.:
Roof sheeting (ensure local pressure zone is checked)
Roof sheeting specifications Type
Thickness
Fixings
Spans
Refer to drawings where sheeting wall sheeting is Drawing Sheet Reference No.:
specified as designed.
Roof sheeting capacity (kPa)
Maximum pressure (kPa)
Max. pressure based on: cpe =
cpi =
kL =
PDES =
Or, calculation sheet no: Calculation Sheet No.:
Wall sheeting (ensure local pressure zone is checked)
Wall sheeting specifications Type
Thickness
Fixings
Spans
Refer to drawings where wall sheeting is specified as Drawing Sheet Reference No.:
designed.
Wall sheeting capacity (kPa)
Maximum pressure (kPa)
Max. pressure based on: cpe =
cpi =
kL =
PDES =
Or, calculation sheet no: Calculation Sheet No.:

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Design phase (continued)

Purlins
Roof purlins / battens specifications Type
Spacing
Fixings
Support material thickness
Refer to drawings where purlins are specified as designed. Drawing Sheet No.:
Design load – member critical (kNm-1)
Design load – fixing critical (kNm-1)
If using different spacing’s, note max. and refer to Calculation Sheet No.:
Design member capacity (kNm-1)
Design fixing capacity (kNm-1)
Is member critical load ≤ member capacity? Yes No
Is fixing critical load ≤ fixing capacity? Yes No
If no, then how is overload justified? Comment:

Girts
Girt specifications Type
Spacing
Fixings
Support material thickness
Refer to drawings where girts are specified as designed. Drawing Sheet No.:
Design load – member critical (kNm-1)
Design load – fixing critical (kNm-1)
If using different spacing’s, note max. and refer to Calculation Sheet No.:
Design member capacity (kNm-1)
Design fixing capacity (kNm-1)
Is member critical load ≤ member capacity? Yes No
Is fixing critical load ≤ fixing capacity? Yes No
If no, then how is overload justified? Comment:

In areas around doors/openings, have any single span Yes No

girts been checked?
If no, refer to justification, Calculation Sheet No.:

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Portal frames

Analysis and design methodology

How will frames be modeled? 2D 3D
2D modeling will be taken to mean that load sharing does not occur between frames.

3D modeling will be taken to mean that load sharing can occur between frames. Analysis must account for
this.

If 3D, what is the mechanism allowing load Fully braced floor Diaphragm
sharing / transfer?
If battens sheeting are used to transfer load, have Yes No
they been designed to carry their co-existing loads?
Calculation Sheet No.:
How has the sensitivity been investigated?
What is this based on?
How bad is overload is assumptions are wrong?
How is the roof diaphragm stiffness modeled?
Is some degree of base fixity being assumed? Yes No
If yes, what is the stiffness?
How is this value justified? Calculation Sheet No.:
Have both the footing and the column base been Yes No
designed to carry/transfer this load?
If yes, refer to calculations sheet no:
If no, how is this being justified?

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APPENDIX 4
PRO-FORMA CERTIFICATE – Rectangular buildings

DESIGN INFORMATION – Sheds and garages

Pro-forma request for design information by building certifier if design information supplied by shed
supplier is inadequate
LINE ITEM DESIGN VALUE NOTES
Compliance details
1 Shed supplier
2 Structural designer
3 Certifying authority
Building details
4 Building description
5 Specification reference and date
6 Owner’s stated intended use
7 NCC classification
8 Length (m)
9 Width (m)
10 Height – maximum (m)
11 Height to eave (m)
12 Roof pitch (degrees)
13 Internal pressure coefficient
14 Average Cpe roof
15 Average Cpe walls
16 Local pressure effects applied?
Site details
17 Site address
18 Site plan reference and date
19 Wind region
20 Importance level
21 Annual probability of exceedance for wind
22 Cyclonic factor (FC, FD) (if applicable)
23 Regional wind speed (VR)
24 Wind direction multiplier
25 Terrain category
26 Terrain-height multiplier
27 Shielding multiplier
28 Topographic multiplier
29 Site wind speed (Vsit)
30 Design wind speed (Vdes)

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APPENDIX 5
WORKED EXAMPLES – DESIGN WIND SPEED

EXAMPLE 1: REGION A (NON-CYCLONIC)

BUILDING DESCRIPTION
 The project is a 6 m x 6 m x 3.0 m high double garage with twin roller doors, in the vicinity of a house on
a 1000 m2 allotment in outer suburban Melbourne, less than 70 km from Melbourne GPO. The precinct
is fully developed with housing and associated buildings and structures. The building will be used for
garaging private vehicles and other domestic activities such as workshop and storage. As a domestic
building, it is a reasonable assumption that the main roller doors of the building will be closed during
high winds provided this assumption is communicated to and accepted by the owner.
o The building is not a dwelling, but its use is associated with domestic purposes.
o The NCC Classification of the building is 10a, which is appropriate for a non-habitable shed,
garage or carport. There are no structural implications from this classification.
o The building doors will be assumed closed during peak wind events. Internal pressure
consistent with enclosed buildings may be used for structural design.
SITE FACTORS
 Check region with Council.
o The Council has confirmed in writing that the allotment on which the proposed garage will be
built is located in Region A5, as defined in AS/NZS 1170.2.
 The consequences of structural failure are considered to be moderate in terms of human hazard
(because the building is associated with domestic use) and moderate in terms of impact on the public
(because the allotment is in a residential zone).
o Importance Level 2 is assigned – this is consistent with residential outbuildings generally.
Importance Level 1 can only be justified if both hazard and impact of failure are low.
o Importance Level 2 requires an annual probability of exceedance for wind events of 1:500.
 The exact orientation of the building and roller door orientation may be design factors for an enclosed
building in Region A5. However, in this case the design is to be based on ’doors closed’.
o For Region A5, a wind direction multiplier of 1.00 is applied for all design cases. There is no
dominant opening, so no structural design benefit can be gained by wind speed reduction in
specific directions.
 The general terrain of the property precinct is suburban housing in all directions. There is no reason to
believe it would be redeveloped in any direction for non-housing purposes.
o The terrain is Category 3 with no change anticipated. A terrain/height multiplier of 0.83 is
appropriate.
 The proposed garage is well shielded by the house and other dwellings on adjoining blocks, with
typically about 10 buildings in each direction. Effects of shielding should be considered.
o Evaluate shielding parameter(s) from AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 4.3.3:
 Average height of shielding buildings (hs) is about 4 m.
 Average breadth of shielding buildings (bs) is about 9 m.
 Roof height of garage being shielded (h) is 3 m.
 Number of upwind shielding buildings (ns) is about 10.
 Shielding parameter s = (3 x (10/10 + 5))/(4 x 9)^0.5 = 3.0
 Look up shielding multiplier in Table 4.3, Ms = 0.8
 The site and surrounding geography are essentially flat and level.
o There is no reason to apply a topographic factor higher than 1.0.

 The steps in calculating site wind speed are:

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 o Look up regional wind speed for region A5 and 1:500, VR = 45
o Wind directional multiplier for region A5, Md = 1.00
o Look up terrain/height multiplier Mz, cat = 0.83
o Look up shielding multiplier Ms = 0.8
o Look up topography multiplier Mt = 1.0
o Calculate Vsit = VR x Md x Mz, cat x Ms x Mt
o Value for this example, Vsit = 45 x 1.00 x 0.83 x 0.8 x 1.0 = 30 m/s
o In this case, as the building orientation is irrelevant this is also the design wind speed Vdes
 The calculated design wind speed is then used to calculate the design wind pressures acting on various
parts of the structure in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 2.4.

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 DESIGN INFORMATION – Sheds and garages – Example 1
Pro-forma request for design information by building certifier if design information supplied by shed supplier is inadequate

LINE ITEM DESIGN VALUE NOTES

Compliance details
1 Shed supplier
2 Structural designer
3 Certifying authority
Building details
4 Building description Supplied Owner
5 Specification reference and date Supplied Owner
6 Owner’s stated intended use Machinery shed Owner
7 NCC classification 10a NCC
8 Length (m) 6.0 m Owner’s plans
9 Width (m) 6.0 m Owner’s plans
10 Height – maximum (m) 3.0 m Owner’s plans
11 Height to eave (m) 2.4 m Owner’s plans
12 Roof pitch (degrees) 20 deg AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables
5.1A&B & 5.2A&B
13 Internal pressure coefficient + 0.2 AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables 5.3A,
B&C
14 Average Cpe roof - 0.7 AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables 5.2A,
B&C
15 Average Cpe walls + 0.7, - 0.5 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 5.6
16 Local pressure effects applied? Yes
Site details
17 Site address

18 Site plan reference and date Supplied Owner

19 Wind region A5 Council
20 Importance level 2 NCC Guide and Volume 1
21 Annual probability of exceedance for wind 1:500 NCC Volume 1 Table 1.2b
22 Cyclonic factor (FC, FD) (if applicable) N/A AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 3.4
23 Regional wind speed (VR) 45 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 3.1
24 Wind direction multiplier 1.0 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 3.2
25 Terrain category 3 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.2.1
26 Terrain-height multiplier 0.83 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 4.1
27 Shielding multiplier 0.8 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.3
28 Topographic multiplier 1.07 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.4
29 Site wind speed (Vsit) 30 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 2.2
30 Design wind speed (Vdes) 30 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 2.2

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EXAMPLE 2: REGION B (NON-CYCLONIC)

BUILDING DESCRIPTION

 The project is a 6 m x 6 m x 3.0 m high double garage with twin roller doors, in the vicinity of a house on a
1000 m2 allotment in suburban outer Brisbane, less than 100 km from the coast. The precinct is fully
developed with housing and associated buildings and structures. The building will be used for the garaging
of private vehicles and other domestic activities such as workshop and storage. As a domestic building, it is
likely that the main roller doors of the building will be closed during high winds.
o The building is not a dwelling, but its use is associated with domestic purposes.
o The NCC Classification of the building is 10a, which is appropriate for a non-habitable shed,
garage or carport. There are no structural implications of this classification.
o The building doors may be assumed closed during peak wind events. Internal pressure
consistent with dwellings may be used for structural design.

SITE FACTORS

 Check region with Council.

o The Council has confirmed in writing that the allotment on which the proposed garage will be
built is located in Region B, as defined in AS 1170.2.
 The consequences of structural failure are considered to be moderate in terms of human hazard (because
the building is associated with domestic use) and moderate in terms of impact on the public (because the
allotment is in a residential zone).
o Importance Level 2 is assigned – this is consistent with residential outbuildings generally.
Importance Level 1 can only be justified if both hazard and impact of failure are low.
o Importance Level 2 requires an annual probability of exceedance for wind events of 1:500.
 The exact orientation of the building and roller door orientation are not design factors for an enclosed
building in Region B.
o For Region B, a wind direction multiplier of 0.95 is applied.
 The general terrain of the property precinct is suburban housing in all directions. There is no reason to
believe it would be redeveloped in any direction for non-housing purposes.
o The terrain is Category 3 with no change anticipated. A terrain/height multiplier of 0.83 is
appropriate.
 The proposed garage is well shielded by the house and other dwellings on adjoining blocks, with typically
about 10 buildings in each direction. It appears to be worthwhile to consider the effects of shielding.
o Evaluate shielding parameter (s) from AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 4.3.3:
 Average height of shielding buildings (hs) is about 4 m.
 Average breadth of shielding buildings (bs) is about 9 m.
 Roof height of garage being shielded (h) is 3 m.
 Number of upwind shielding buildings (ns) is about 10.
 Shielding parameter s = (3 x (10/10 + 5))/(4 x 9)^0.5 = 3.0
 Look up shielding multiplier in Table 4.3, Ms = 0.8
 The site and surrounding geography are essentially flat and level.
o There is no reason to apply a topographic factor higher than 1.0.
 The steps in calculation of site wind speed are:
o Look up regional wind speed for region B and 1:500, VR = 57

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 o Wind directional multiplier for region B, Md = 0.95
o Look up terrain/height multiplier Mz, cat = 0.83
o Look up shielding multiplier Ms = 0.8
o Look up topography multiplier Mt = 1.0
o Calculate = VR x Md x Mz, cat x Ms x Mt
o Value for this example, Vsit = 57 x 0.95 x 0.83 x 0.8 x 1.0 = 36 m/s
o In this case, as the building orientation is irrelevant this is also the design wind speed Vdes
 The calculated design wind speed is then used to calculate the design wind pressures acting on various
parts of the structure in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 2.4.

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 DESIGN INFORMATION – Sheds and garages – Example 2
Pro-forma request for design information by building certifier if design information supplied by shed
supplier is inadequate
LINE ITEM DESIGN VALUE NOTES
Compliance details
1 Shed supplier
2 Structural designer
3 Certifying authority
Building details
4 Building description Supplied Owner
5 Specification reference and date Supplied Owner
6 Owner’s stated intended use Machinery shed Owner
7 NCC classification 10a NCC
8 Length (m) 6.0 m Owner’s plans
9 Width (m) 6.0 m Owner’s plans
10 Height – maximum (m) 3.0 m Owner’s plans
11 Height to eave (m) 2.4 m Owner’s plans
AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables
12 Roof pitch (degrees) 20 deg
5.1A&B & 5.2A&B
AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables 5.3A,
13 Internal pressure coefficient + 0.2
B&C
AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables 5.2A,
14 Average Cpe roof - 0.7
B&C
15 Average Cpe walls + 0.7, - 0.5 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 5.6
16 Local pressure effects applied? Yes
Site details

17 Site address

18 Site plan reference and date Supplied Owner

19 Wind region B Council
20 Importance level 2 NCC Guide and Volume 1
21 Annual probability of exceedance for wind 1:500 NCC Volume 1 Table 1.2b
22 Cyclonic factor (FC, FD) (if applicable) N/A AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 3.4
23 Regional wind speed (VR) 57 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 3.1
24 Wind direction multiplier 0.95 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 3.2
25 Terrain category 3 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.2.1
26 Terrain-height multiplier 0.83 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 4.1
27 Shielding multiplier 0.8 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.3
28 Topographic multiplier 1.07 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.4
29 Site wind speed (Vsit) 36 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 2.2
30 Design wind speed (Vdes) 36 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 2.2

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EXAMPLE 3: REGION C (CYCLONIC)

BUILDING DESCRIPTION
 The project is a 9 m long x 6 m span x 3.8 m high open-sided machinery shed in a specific location on
an undulating produce farm near Rockhampton, approximately 25 km from the coast. The shed will be
located in a paddock near the dwelling, but remote from any other dwellings or sheds. The building will
be used for the garaging and servicing of farm machinery.
o The building is not a dwelling or associated with any domestic purpose.
o The NCC Classification of the building is 10a, which is appropriate for a non-habitable shed,
garage or carport. There are no structural implications of this classification.

SITE FACTORS
 Check region with Council.
o The Council has confirmed in writing that the allotment on which the proposed shed will be built
is located in Region C, as defined in AS/NZS 1170.2. It is not exempt development under the
Standard Building Regulations.
 The consequences of structural failure are considered to be low in terms of human hazard (because the
shed is not near or associated with a dwelling) and low in terms of impact on the public (because the
shed is on a large allotment remote from unrelated dwellings and other buildings).
o Importance Level 1 can only be justified if both human hazard and impact of failure are low.
Importance Level 1 is justifiable in this case, consistent with remote rural buildings generally.
o Importance Level 1 allows an annual probability of exceedance for wind events of 1:200 in a
cyclonic area.
 The exact orientation of the building is not shown on the site layout drawing, but this is not relevant to
the wind direction multiplier in region C:
o For Region C, a wind direction multiplier of 0.95 is applied for the design of complete buildings
and major structural elements. A multiplier of 1.00 is used for all other design cases.
 The general terrain of the property is observed to be cleared open farming land with relatively few trees
or buildings. There is no indication of future rezoning and redevelopment plans in available Council
documentation.
o The terrain is currently Category 2 and is considered to be ‘fully developed’ in the absence of
confirmed future rezoning proposals.
o The building height of 3.8m requires a terrain/height multiplier Mz,cat = 0.91.
 The shed is in the open, unshielded by other buildings. There are no plans to construct other buildings
in its immediate vicinity.
o The proposed building must be regarded as unshielded. No shielding concession on wind
speed is justified.
 The site and surrounding geography are undulating with the shed located on an extensive flat area
about 50 metres from a gentle downslope, beyond which is a flat plain. The topography should be
checked to see if it falls within the limits for a topographic factor of 1.0:
o Only the hill shape multiplier applies for Australian sites Mt = Mh
o The slope is found to have an overall height (H) of about 12 metres. The height drops to six
metres about 75 metres down from the crest (Lu). Therefore the value H/(2Lu) = 0.08.
o This value is more than 0.05 but less than 0.45. Therefore apply formula 4.4(2) of AS/NZS
1170.2 which gives Mh = 1.07.
 The steps in calculation of site wind speed are:
o Look up regional wind speed for region C and 1:200, VR = 64 m/s
o Select wind directional multiplier Md = 0.95 for region C
o Interpolate terrain/height multiplier Mz, cat = 0.91
o Look up shielding multiplier Ms = 1.0
o Calculate topography multiplier Mt = 1.07
o Calculate Vsit = VR x Md x Mz, cat x Ms x Mt
o Value for this example Vsit = 64 x 0.95 x 0.91 x 1.0 x 1.07 = 59 m/s
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 o In this case, as the building orientation is irrelevant, this is also the design wind speed Vdes
 The calculated design wind speed Vdes is then used to calculate the design wind pressures acting on
various parts of the structure in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 2.4.

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 DESIGN INFORMATION – Sheds and garages – Example 3
Pro-forma request for design information by building certifier if design information supplied by shed
supplier is inadequate
LINE ITEM DESIGN VALUE NOTES
Compliance details
1 Shed supplier
2 Structural designer
3 Certifying authority
Building details
4 Building description Supplied Owner
5 Specification reference and date Supplied Owner
6 Owner’s stated intended use Machinery shed Owner
7 NCC classification 10a NCC
8 Length (m) 9.0 m Owner’s plans
9 Width (m) 6.0 m Owner’s plans
10 Height – maximum (m) 3.8 m Owner’s plans
11 Height to eave (m) 3.0 m Owner’s plans
AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables
12 Roof pitch (degrees) 20 deg
5.1A&B & 5.2A&B
AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables 5.3A,
13 Internal pressure coefficient + 0.7
B&C
AS/NZS 1170.2, Tables 5.2A,
14 Average Cpe roof - 0.7
B&C
15 Average Cpe walls + 0.7, - 0.5 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 5.6
16 Local pressure effects applied? Yes
Site details

17 Site address

18 Site plan reference and date Supplied Owner

19 Wind region C Council
20 Importance level 1 NCC Guide and Volume 1
21 Annual probability of exceedance for wind 1:200 NCC Volume 1 Table 1.2b
22 Cyclonic factor (FC, FD) (if applicable) 1.05 AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 3.4
23 Regional wind speed (VR) 64 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 3.1
24 Wind direction multiplier 0.95 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 3.2
25 Terrain category 2 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.2.1
26 Terrain-height multiplier 0.91 AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 4.1
27 Shielding multiplier 1.0 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.3
28 Topographic multiplier 1.07 AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 4.4
29 Site wind speed (Vsit) 60 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 2.2
30 Design wind speed (Vdes) 60 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2, Clause 2.2

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ShedSafe is the industry benchmark for Australian manufactured steel sheds. It is an
third party accreditation program intended to assist buyers to be able to have
confidence in the engineering, steel products and site specification of the steel shed
they are purchasing.
ShedSafe is managed by the Australian Steel Institute, Australia’s peak steel industry
body. For more information about the Australian Steel Institute, visit http://steel.org.au