ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION 31

pressure chamber chamber

P,rtle nozzle closed Pmtle nozzle open Multthotenozzla open

Nozzle-holder assembly with nozzle

to nozzle Helm Vertlcal proove

Marmum dellvery Partial dellvery Zero delwery

Port BDC Port BDC
opening openmg

F-el delivery control (lower helix)

FIGURE 1-18
Details of fuel-injection nozzles, nozzle holder assembly and fueldelivery contr01.'~(Courtesy Robert
Bosch GmbH.)

Distributor pumps can operate at higher speed and take up less space than
in-line pumps. They are normally used on smaller diesel engines. In-line pumps
are used in the mid-engine-size range. In the larger diesels, individual single-
barrel injection pumps, close mounted to each cylinder with an external drive as
shown in Fig. 1-5, are normally used.

1.8 EXAMPLES OF DIESEL ENGINES

A large number of diesel engine configurations and designs are in common use.
The very large marine and stationary power-generating diesels are two-stroke
32 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

Overflow valve I Control lever Govern& ~ l i d i n g s l r e v t~l ~ S z e v e r //I

-
s u p p l y &mpl) Drive Governor Cam
hub drive
\ hiaximumeffectke stroke, start
plate T ~ m i n gdevice')
1
-
1) Shown additionally turned
through 90'
Presupply pump ') S h o w n turned t h r o u g h 90-

FIGURE 1-19
Diesel fuel system with distributor-type fuel-injection pump with mechanical govern~r.'~
(Courtesy
Robert Boxh GmbH.)

cycle engines. Small- and medium-size engines use the four-stroke cycle. Because
air capacity is an important constraint on the amount of fuel that can be burned
in the diesel engine, and therefore on the engine's power, turbocharging is used
extensively. All large engines are turbocharged. The majority of smaller diesels
are not turbocharged, though they can be turbocharged and many are. The
details of the engine design also vary significantly over the diesel size range. In
particular, different combustion chamber geometries and fuel-injection character-
istics are required to deal effectively with a major diesel engine design problem-
achieving suffciently rapid fuel-air mixing rates to complete the fuel-burning
process in the time available. A wide variety of inlet port geometries, cylinder
head and piston shapes, and fuel-injection patterns are used to accomplish this
over the diesel size range.
Figure 1-20 shows a diesel engine typical of the medium-duty truck applica-
tion. The design shown is a six-cylinder in-line engine. The drawing indicates that
diesel engines are generally substantially heavier than spark-ignition engines
because stress levels are higher due to the significantly higher pressure levels of
the diesel cycle. The engine shown has a displacement of 10 liters, a compression
ratio of 16.3, and is usually turbocharged. The engine has pressed-in cylinder
liners to achieve better cylinder wear characteristics. This type of diesel is called a
direct-injection diesel. The fuel is injected into a combustion chamber directly
above the piston crown. The combustion chamber shown is a " bowl-in-pistonn
design, which puts most of the clearance volume into a compact shape. With this
 ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION 33

of diesel engine, it is often necessary to use a swirling air flow rotating about
the cylinder axis, which is created by suitable design of the inlet port and valve,
to achieve adequate fuel-air mixing and fuel burning rates. The fuel injector,
shown left-of-center in the drawing, has a multihole nozzle, typically with three to
five holes. The fuel jets move out radially from the center of the piston bowl into
the (swirling) air flow. The in-line fuel-injection pump is normally used with this
type of diesel engine.
Figure 1-21 shows a four-cylinder in-line overhead-valve-cam design auto-
mobile diesel engine. The smallest diesels such as this operate at higher engine
speed than larger engines; hence the time available for burning the fuel is less and
the fuel-injection and combustion system must achieve faster fuel-air mixing
rates. This is accomplished by using an indirect-injection type of diesel. Fuel is
injected into an auxiliary combustion chamber which is separated from the main
combustion chamber above the piston by a flow restriction or nozzle. During the
latter stages of the compression process, air is forced through this nozzle from the

FIGURE 1-20
,Direct-injection four-stroke cycle six-cylinder turbocharged Cummins diesel engine. Displaced volume
10 liters, bore 125 mm, stroke 136 mm, compression ratio 16.3, maximum power 168 to 246 kW at
rated speed of 2100 rev/min. (Courtesy Cwnmins Engine Company, Inc.)
34 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE F W A M E N T A L S

FIGURE 1-21
Four-cylinder naturally aspirated indirect-injection automobile Volkswagen diesel engine.14 Dis-
placed volume 1.47 liters, bore 76.5 mm, stroke 80 mm, maximum power 37 kW at 5000 rev/min.

cylinder into the prechamber at high velocity. Fuel is injected into this highly
turbulent and often rapidly swirling flow in this auxiliary or prechamber, and
very high mixing rates are achieved. Combustion starts in the prechamber, and
the resulting pressure rise in the prechamber forces burning gases, fuel, and air
into the main chamber. Since this outflow is also extremely vigorous, rapid
mixing then occurs in the main chamber as the burning jet mixes with the
remaining air and combustion is completed. A distributor-type fuel pump, which
is normally used in this engine size range, driven off the camshaft at half the
crankshaft speed by a toothed belt, is shown on the right of the figure. It supplies
high-pressure fuel pulses to the pintle-type injector nozzles in turn. A glow plug is
also shown in the auxiliary chamber; this plug is electrically heated prior to and
during cold engine start-up to raise the temperature of the air charge and the fuel
sufficiently to achieve autoignition. The compression ratio of this engine is 23.
Indirect-injection diesel engines require higher compression ratios than direct-
injection engines to start adequately when cold.
 ENGINE N P E S AND THEIR OPERATION 35

Diesel engines are turbocharged to achieve higher powerlweight ratios. By

increasing the density of the inlet air, a given displaced volume can induct more
air. Hence more fuel can be injected and burned, and more power delivered, while
avoiding excessive black smoke in the exhaust. All the larger diesels are turbo-
charged; smaller diesels can be and often are. Figure 1-22 shows how a turbo-
charger connects to a direct-injection diesel.
All the above diesels are water cooled; some production diesels are air
cooled. Figure 1-23 shows a V-8 air-cooled direct-injection naturally aspirated

FIGURE 1-22
Turbocharged aftercooled direct-injection four-stroke cycle Caterpillar six-cylinder in-line heavy-duty
truck diesel engine. Bore 137.2 mm, stroke 165.1 mm, rated power 200-300 kW and rated speed of
1600-2100 revlmin depending on application. (Courtesy Caterpillar Tractor Company.)
36 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

FIGURE 1-23
V-8 air-cooled direct-injection naturally aspirated diesel engine. Displacement 13.4 liter, bore 128 mm,
stroke 130 mm, compression ratio 17, maximum rated power 188 kW at rated speed of 2300 rev/min.
(Courtesy Kliieker-Humboldt-Deutz AG.")

diesel. The primary advantage compared to the water-cooled engines is lower

engine weight. The fins on the cylinder block and head are necessary to increase
the external heat-transfer surface area to achieve the required heat rejection. An
air blower, shown on the right of the cutaway drawing, provides forced air con-
vection over the block. The blower is driven off the injection pump shaft, which
in turn is driven off the camshaft. The in-line injection pump is placed between
the two banks of cylinders. The injection nozzles are located at an angle to the
cylinder axis. The combustion chamber and fuel-injection characteristics are
similar to those of the engine in Fig. 1-22. The nozzle shown injects four fuel
sprays into a reentrant bowl-in-piston combustion chamber.
Diesels are also made in very large engine sizes. These large engines are
used for marine propulsion and electrical power generation and operate on the
two-stroke cycle in contrast to the small- and medium-size diesels illustrated
above. Figure 1-24 shows such a two-stroke cycle marine engine, available with
from 4 to 12 cylinders, with a maximum bore of 0.6-0.9 m and stroke of 2-3 m,
which operates at speeds of about 100 revlmin. These engines are normally of the
crosshead type to reduce side forces on the cylinder. The gas exchange between
cycles is controlled by first opening the exhaust valves, and then the piston
uncovering inlet ports in the cylinder liner. Expanding exhaust gases leave the
cylinder via the exhaust valves and manifold and pass through the turbocharger
 ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION 37

FIGURE 1-24
Large Sulzer two-stroke turbocharged marine
diesel engine. Bore 840 mm, stroke 2900 mm,
rated power 1.9 MW per cylinder at 78 revlmin, 4
to 12 cylinders. (CourtesySulzer Brothers Ltd.)

turbine. Compressed air enters via the inlet ports and induces forced scavenging;
air is supplied from the turbocharger and cooler. At part load electrically driven
blowers cut in to compress the scavenge air. Because these large engines operate
at low speed, the motion induced by the centrally injected fuel jets is sufficient to
mix the fuel with air and bum it in the time available. A simple open combustion
chamber shape can be used, therefore, which achieves efficient combustion even
with the low-quality heavy fuels used with these types of engines. The pistons are
water cooled in these very large engines. The splash oil piston cooling used in
medium- and small-size diesels is not adequate.

1.9 STRATIFIED-CHARGE ENGINES

Since the 1920s, attempts have been made to develop a hybrid internal com-
bustion engine that combines the best features of the spark-ignition engine and
the diesel. The goals have been to operate such an engine at close to the optimum
compression ratio for efficiency (in the 12 to 15 range) by: (1) injecting the fuel
directly into the combustion chamber during the compression process (and
thereby avoid the knock or spontaneous ignition problem that limits convention-
al spark-ignition engines with their premixed charge); (2) igniting the fuel as it
mixes with air with a spark plug to provide direct control of the ignition process
(and thereby avoid the fuel ignition-quality requirement of the diesel); (3) control-
ling the engine power level by varying the amount of fuel injected per cycle (with
the air flow unthrottled to minimize work done pumping the fresh charge into
the cylinder). Such engines are often called stratified-chargeengines from the need
to produce in the mixing process between the fuel jet and the air in the cylinder a
"stratified" fuel-air mixture, with an easily ignitable composition at the spark
plug at the time of ignition. Because such engines avoid the spark-ignition engine
requirement for fuels with a high antiknock quality and the diesel requirement
for fuels with high ignition quality, they are usually fuel-tolerant and will operate
with a wide range of liquid fuels.
Many different types of stratified-charge engine have been proposed, and
some have been partially or fully developed. A few have even been used in prac-
tice in automotive applications. The operating principles of those that are truly
fuel-tolerant or multifuel engines are illustrated in Fig. 1-25. The combustion
chamber is usually a bowl-in-piston design, and a high degree of air swirl is
created during intake and enhanced in the piston bowl during compression to
achieve rapid fuel-air mixing. Fuel is injected into the cylinder, tangentially into
the bowl, during the latter stages of compression. A long-duration spark dis-
charge ignites the developing fuel-air jet as it passes the spark plug. The flame
spreads downstream, and envelopes and consumes the fuel-air mixture. Mixing
continues, and the final stages of combustion are completed during expansion.
Most successful designs of this type of engine have used the four-stroke cycle.
This concept is usually called a direct-injection stratified-charge engine. The
engine can be turbocharged to increase its power density.

Texaco M.A.N.

Late
injection

FIGURE 1-25
Two multifuel stratified-charge engines which have been used in commercial practice: the Texaco
Controlled Combustion System (TCCS)16and the M.A.N.-FM System.17
 ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION 39

FIGURE 1-26
Sectional drawing of M.A.N. high-speed multifuel four-cylinder direct-injection stratified-charge
engine. Bore 94.5 mm, stroke 100 mm, displacement 2.65 liters, compression ratio 16.5, rated power
52 kW at 3800 rev/min.17

A commercial multifuel engine is shown in Fig. 1-26. In this particular

design, the fuel injector comes diagonally through the cylinder head from the
upper left and injects the fuel onto the hot wall of the deep spherical piston bowl.
The fuel is carried around the wall of the bowl by the swirling flow, evaporated
off the wall, mixed with air, and then ignited by the discharge at the spark plug
which enters the chamber vertically on the right. This particular engine is air
cooled, so the cylinder block and head are finned to increase surface area.
An alternative stratified-charge engine concept, which has also been mass
produced, uses a small prechamber fed during intake with an auxiliary fuel system
to obtain an easily ignitable mixture around the spark plug. This concept, first
Proposed by Ricardo in the 1920s and extensively developed in the Soviet Union
and Japan, is often called a jet-ignition or torch-ignition stratified-charge engine.
Its operating principles are illustrated in Fig. 1-27 which shows a three-valve
 ' IN~AKE CO~.'FRES~W COMBUSTIOF!

FIGURE 1-27
Schematic of three-valve torch-ignition stratified-chargespark-ignitionengine.

carbureted version of the concept.'' A separate carburetor a n d intake manifold

feeds a fuel-ech mixture (which contains fuel beyond the a m o u n t that c a n be
b u r n e d with the available air) through a separate small intake valve i n t o the
prechamber which contains the spark plug. At the same time, a very lean mixture
(which contains excess air beyond t h a t required to burn the fuel completely) is fed
to the m a i n combustion chamber through the main carburetor and intake mani-
fold. D u r i n g intake the rich prechamber flow fully purges the prechamber
volume. After intake valve closing, lean mixture from the main chamber is com-
pressed i n t o the prechamber bringing the mixture a t the spark plug t o a n easily
ignitable, slightly rich, composition. After combustion starts in the prechamber,
rich b u r n i n g mixture issues as a jet through the orifice i n t o the m a i n chamber,
entraining and igniting the lean m a i n chamber charge. Though called a stratified-
charge engine, this engine is really a jet-ignition concept whose primary function
is t o extend the operating limit of conventionally ignited spark-ignition engines
t o mixtures leaner than could normally be burned.

PROBLEMS
1.1. Describe the major functions of the following reciprocating engine components:
piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, cams and camshaft, valves, intake and exhaust
manifolds.
1.2. Indicate on an appropriate sketch the different forces that act on the piston, and the
direction of these forces, during the engine's expansion stroke with the piston, con-
necting rod, and crank in the positions shown in Fig. 1-1.
13. List five important differences between the design and operating characteristics of
spark-ignition and compression-ignition (diesel) engines.
1.4. Indicate the approximate crank angle at which the following events in the four-stroke
and two-stroke internal combustion engine cycles occur on a line representing the full
cycle (720" for the four-stroke cycle; 360' for the two-stroke cycle): bottom- and top-
center crank positions, inlet and exhaust valve or port opening and closing, start of
combustion process, end of combustion process, maximum cylinder pressure.
1J. The two-stroke cycle has twice as many power strokes per crank revolution as the
four-stroke cycle. However, two-stroke cycle engine power outputs per unit displaced
volume are less than twice the power output of an equivalent four-stroke cycle engine
at the same engine speed. Suggest reasons why this potential advantage of the two-
cycle is offset in practice.
1.6. Suggest reasons why multicylinder engines prove more attractive than single-cylinder
once the total engine displaced volume exceeds a few hundred cubic centi-
meters.
1.7. The Wankel rotary spark-ignition engine, while lighter and more compact than a
reciprocating :park-ignition engine of equal maximum power, typically has worse efi-
cisncy due t o significantly higher gas leakage from the combustion chamber and
higher total heat loss from the hot combustion gases to the chamber walls. Based on
the design details in Figs. 1 4 1 - 1 3 , and 1-14 suggest reasons for these higher losses.

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2 Cummins, Jr., C. L.: "Early IC and Automotive Engines," SAE paper 760604 in A History of the
Automotive Internaf Com6ustion Engine, SP-409, SAE Trans., vol. 85,1976.
3. Hempson, J. G. G.: "The Automobile Engine 1920-1950," SAE paper 760605 in A History of the
Automotive Internal Combustion Engine, SP-409, SAE, 1976.
4. Agnew, W. G.: "Fifty Years of Combustion Research at General Motors," Progress in Energy and
Combustion Science, vol. 4, pp. 115-156, 1978.
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Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1968.
10. Rogowski, A. R.: Elements of Internal Combustion Engines, McGraw-Hill, 1953.
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SAE paper 810007,1981.
12. Bosch: Automotive Handbook, 1st English edition, Robert Bosch GmbH, 1976.
13. Martens, D. A.: "The General Motors 2.8 Liter 60" V-6 Engine Designed by Chevrolet," SAE
paper 790697,1979.
14. Hofbauer, P., and Sator, K.: "Advanced Automotive Power Systems-Part 2: A Diesel for a
Subcompact Car," SAE paper 770113, SAE Trans., vol. 86,1977.
15. Garthe, H.: "The Deutz BF8L 513 Aircooled Diesel Engine for Truck and Bus Application," SAE
paper 852321,1985.
16 Alperstein, M., Schafer. G. H., and Villforth, F. J.: "Texaco's Stratified Charge EngineMultifuel,
Efficient,Clean, and Practical," SAE paper 740563.1974.
17. Urlaub, A. G., and Chmela, F. G.: "High-speed, Multifucl Engine: L9204 FMV," SAE paper
740122,1974.
18. Date, T., and Yagi, S.: "Research and Development of the Honda CVCC Engine," SAE paper
740605,1974.