+1 PHYSICS

LAWS

1. State Newton’s first law of motion.

The law states that every object continues to be in the state of rest or uniform motion unless there is external
force acting on it.

2. State law of conservation of total linear momentum.

The law states that if there are no external forces acting on the system, then the total linear momentum of the
system is always a constant vector.

3. State Newton‟s second law ofmotion.

The law states that the force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of its momentum.

4. State Newton‟s third law of motion.

The law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

5. State the empirical laws of static andkinetic friction.

a. Empirical relation for staticfriction: 0 ≤ 𝑓𝑠 ≤ 𝜇 𝑠 𝑁
b. Empirical relation for kineticfriction: 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
6. State the law of conservation of energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. It may be transformed from one form to another but the total energy of an isolated
system remains constant.

7. State law of conservation of angular momentum.

 When no external torque acts on the body, the net angular momentum of a rotating rigid body remains
constant.
 𝑖𝑓 𝜏 = 0 then 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

8. State s'relpeK laws of planetary motion

Kepler First Law – Law of orbts :
Each planet moves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit with the Sun at one of the foci
Kepler Second Law – Law of area :
The radial vector (line joining the Sun to a planet) sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time.
Kepler Third Law – Law of period :
The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the Sun in its elliptical orbit is directly proportional
to the cube of the semi-major axis of the ellipse.

9. State Newton‟s Universal law of gravitation.

 Newton’s law of gravitation states that the gravitational force between two masses is directly proportional to
product of masses and inversely proportional to square of the distance between the masses.
𝑚 𝑚
 In vector form 𝐹 = −𝐺 𝑟1 2 2 𝑟

10. State Hooke‟s law in elasticity.

Hooke‟s law states that for a small deformation within the elastic limit, the strain produced in a body is directly
proportional to the stress that produces it.

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11. State Pascal‟s law in fluids
Pascal‟s law states that if the pressure in a liquid is changed at a particular point, the change is transmitted to the
entire liquid without being diminished in magnitude.

12. State Archimedes principle.

It states that when a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward thrust equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by it and its upthrust acts through the centre of gravity of the liquid displaced.

13. State the law of floatation.

The law of floatation states that a body will float in a liquid if the weight of the liquid displaced by the
immersed part of the body equals the weight of the body.
14. State Bernoulli‟s theorem.
According to Bernoulli‟s theorem, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy per unit
mass of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined flow remains a constant.
15. State the principle and usage of Venturimeter.
Principle of Venturimeter: It works on the principle of Bernoulli‟s theorem.
Uses: This device is used to measure the rate of flow (or say flow speed) of the incompressible fluid flowing
through a pipe.

16. Obtain an ideal gas law from Boyle‟s and Charles law.
 Boyle‟s law: When the gas is kept at constant temperature, the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to
1
the volume. 𝑃 ∝ 𝑉
 Charles‟ law: When the gas is kept at constant pressure, the volume of the gas is directly proportional to
absolute temperature. 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
 By combining these two equations we have PV = CT.
 Here C is a positive constant.
 we can write the constant C as k times the number of particles N.
 Here k is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23 JK−1) and it is found to be a universal constant.
 So the ideal gas law can be stated as follows PV = NkT

17. State Newton‟s law of cooling.

 Newton‟s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of heat of a object is directly proportional to the difference
in the temperature between that object and its surroundings.
𝑑𝑄
 ∝ − 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑡

18. State Stefan – Boltzmann‟s law.

 Stefan Boltzmann law states that, the total amount of heat radiated per second per unit area of a black body is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature..
 E ∝ T4 or E = σ T4
 Where, σ is known as Stefan‟s constant. Its value is 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4

19. State Wien‟s law.

 Wien‟s law states that, the wavelength of maximum intensity of emission of a black body radiation is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of the black body.
1 𝑏
 𝜆𝑚 ∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝜆𝑚 =
𝑇 𝑇
 Where, b is known as Wien‟s constant. Its value is 2.898× 10-3 m K

20. State Zeroth law of thermodynamics.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two systems, A and B, are in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

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21. State the first law of thermodynamics.
 This law states that „Change in internal energy (ΔU) of the system is equal to heat supplied to the system (Q)
minus the work done by the system (W) on the surroundings‟..
 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

22. State Clausius form of the second law of thermodynamics.

“Heat always flows from hotter object to colder object spontaneously”. This is known as the Clausius form of
second law of thermodynamics..

23. State Kelvin – Planck statement of second law of thermodynamics.

It is impossible to construct a heat engine that operates in a cycle, whose sole effect is to convert the heat
completely into work. This implies that no heat engine in the universe can have 100% efficiency.

24. State the law o equipartition of energy.

According to kinetic theory, the average kinetic energy of system of molecules in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T is uniformly distributed to all degrees of freedom (x or y or z directions of motion) so that each
1
degree of freedom will get kT of energy. This is called law of equipartition of energy.
2

25. What are the factors affecting the Brownian motion?

1. Brownian motion increases with increasing temperature.
2. Brownian motion decreases with bigger particle size, high viscosity and density of the liquid (or) gas.

26. State the laws of simple pendulum.

Law of length:
 For a given value of acceleration due to gravity, the time period of a simple pendulum is directly proportional
to the square root of the length of the pendulum. 𝑇 ∝ 𝑙
Law of acceleration:
 For a fixed length, the time period of a simple pendulum is inversely proportional to square root of
1
acceleration due to gravity. 𝑇 ∝ 𝑔

Define questions

1. Define – one radian

 One radian is the anglesubtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length tothe radius of the circle.
 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 57.27°

2. Define – steradian
One steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere, by that surface of the sphere, which is equal
in area, to the square of radius of the sphere.

3. Define –vector.
 It is a quantity which is described by both magnitude anddirection.
 Ex: force, velocity.
4. Define – scalar.
 It is a property which can bedescribed only by magnitude.
 Ex: distance, mass.

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5. Define distance and displacement.
Distance Displacement
It is theactual pathlength travelled by an It is the difference between the final and initial
object inthe giveninterval oftime during the positions of theobject in a giveninterval of time.
motion
It is apositive scalar quantity It is a vector quantity.

6. Define velocity and speed.

Velocity Speed
Rate of change of velocity with respect to time is The magnitude ofvelocity is called speed
called velocity
It is a vector quantity It is a scalar quantity.

7. Define acceleration.
Rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration.Its unit is m s-2.

8. Define angular acceleration.

Rate of change of angular acceleration with respect to time is called angular acceleration. It is a vector quantity.
9. Define one Newton.
One Newton is defined as the force which acts on 1 kg of mass to give an acceleration 1𝑚 𝑠−2 in the direction
of the force.

10. Define – coefficient of restitution

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
 coefficient of restitution, 𝑒 =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐 𝑕 ( 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

11. Define unit of power or one watt.

One watt is defined as the power when one joule of work is done in one second.

12. Define center of mass.

The center of mass of a body is defined as a point where the entire mass of the body appears to be concentrated.

13. Define torque. Give its unit.

 Torque is defined as the moment of the external applied force about a point or axis of rotation.
 Its unit is N m.

14. Define couple.

A couple is defined as a pair of forces which are equal and opposite and separated by a perpendicular distance
causes a turning effect.

15. Define center of gravity.

The center of gravity of a body isthe point at which the entire weightof the body acts irrespective of the position
and orientation of the body.

16. Define the gravitational field. Give its unit.

 Gravity Field - Force experienced by unit mass.
𝐺𝑚
 𝐸 = − 𝑟2 𝑟
 Unit : Newton / Kilogram (N/kg).

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17. Define gravitational potential energy .
 The gravitational poetential energy of a system of two masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r as the
amount of work done to take the mass m2 from a distance r to inifinity assuming m1 to be fixed in its position
and is written as
𝑚 1𝑚 2
 𝑈(𝑟) = −𝐺 𝑟

18. Define - weight.

 The weight of an object is defined as the downward force whose magnitude W is equal to that of upward force
that must be applied to the object to hold it at rest or at constant velocity relative to the Earth.
19. Define stress and strain.
Stress Strain
The force per unit area is called as stress Strain measures how much an object is stretched or deformed
when a force is applied.
-2
The SI unit is N m or Pascal (Pa) No unit
Its Dimension [ML -1 T -2 ] Dimension No

20. Define - Poison‟s ratio.

 It is defined as the ration of relative contraction (lateral strain) to relative expansion (longitudinal strain).
 It is denoted by the symbol of μ.

21. Define pressure of a fluid.

 If F is the magnitude of the normal force acting on the surface area A, then the pressure is defined as „force
acting per unit area‟.
𝐹
 𝑃=𝐴
 Pressure is a scalar quantity.
 Its SI unit and Dimensions: N m -2 or Pascal (Pa) and [ML-1 T-2 ].

22. Define density of a fluid.

 The desnity of a fluid is defined as the mass per unit volume.
 For a fluid of mass m occupying volume V, the density ρ = m/V .
 Its SI unit and Dimension: kg m-3 and [ML-3 ]
 It is a positive scalar quantity.

23. Define relative density or specific gravity.

 The relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the density of substance to the density of water at
4 0C.
 It is a dimensionless positive scalar quantity.

24. Define viscosity.

Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid to oppose the relative motion between its layers

25. Defne coefficient of viscosity of a liquid.

 Coefficient of viscosity of liquid is the viscous force acting tangentially per unit area of a liquid layer having a
unit velocity gradient in a direction perpendicular to the direction of flow of the liquid.
 Its SI unit is Ns m-2 . Its Dimension is [ML-1 T-1 ]

26. Define terminal velocity.

The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling freely through a viscous medium is called
terminal velocity ( v t ).

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27. Define surface tension of a liquid. Mention its S.I. unit and dimension.
 The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length of the liquid or the energy per unit area of
the surface of a liquid.
 Its S.I. unit : N m-1
 Its dimension : [MT-2 ]

28. Define surface energy.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
 Unit : J m-2 or N m-1

29. Define the term degrees of freedom.

The minimum number of independent coordinates needed to specify the position and configuration of a thermo-
dynamical system inspace is called the degree of freedom of the system.

30. Define time period of simple harmonic motion.

 The time period is defined as the time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation.
2𝜋
 𝑇= 𝜔

31. Define frequency of simple harmonic motion.

 The number of oscillations produced by the particle per second is called frequency.
 It is denoted by f .
 Its SI unit is s –1 or Hertz (Hz).

32. Define - wavelength.

 The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs is known as wavelength.

33. Define - beats.

 When two or more waves superimpose each other with slightly different frequencies, then a sound of
periodically varying amplitude at a point is observed.
 This phenomenon is known as beats.

What is ? and What are ? questions.

1. What is absolute error?

The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is called absolute error.

2. What is mean absolute error?

The arithmetic mean of the magnitude of absolute errors in allthe measurements is called the mean absolute
error.

3. What is relative error?

The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value is called relative error.

4. What is percentage error?

The relative error expressed aspercentage is called percentage error.
5. What are dimensional variables?
 Physical quantities, which possesdimensions and have variable values are called dimensionalvariables.
 Example: length, velocity.

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6. What are dimensional constants?
 Physical quantities whichpossess dimensions and haveconstant values are calleddimensional constants.
 Example: Planck‟s constant.

7. What is Cartesian coordinate system?

At any given instant of time, the frame of reference with respect to which the position of the object is
described in terms of positioncoordinates is called Cartesian coordinates system.

8. What is non-uniform circular motion?

If the speed of the object in circular motion is not constant, then the motion is called non-uniform circular motion.

9. Write down the kinematic equations for angular motion.

 𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡
1
 𝜃 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 2 𝛼𝑡 2
 𝜔2 = 𝜔02 + 2𝛼𝜃
𝜔 0 +𝜔 𝑡
 𝜃=
2

10. What is frame of reference?

If we imgine a coordinate systemand the position of an object is described relative to it, then such a coordinate
system is called frame of reference.

11. What is pseudo force?

a. Centrifugal force is called aspseudo force.
b. Pseudo force has no origin.
It arises due to the non inertialnature of the frame considered.

12. What are inertial frames?

The frames which are in the state of rest or in uniform motion until external force is acting on them are called as
inertial frames.

13. Under what condition will a car skidon a level circular road?
𝑚 𝑣2
 𝑟
> 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔
𝑣2
 𝜇𝑠 < 𝑟𝑔
 𝜇𝑠 𝑟𝑔 < 𝑣

14. Give the types of potential energy.

 Gravitational potential energy
 Elastic potential energy
 Electrostatic potential energy

15. What is conservative force?

A force is said to be aconservative force if the work done by or against the force in moving the the body
depends only on the initial and final positions of the body and not on the nature of the path followed between the
initial and finalpositions.

16. What is non-conservative force?

A force is said to by non-conservative if the work done by or against the force in moving a body depends upon
the path between the initial and final positions.

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17. What are the conditions in which force does not produce torque?
a. 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
b. 𝐼𝑓 𝜃 = 0° 𝑡h𝑒𝑛 𝜏 = 0
c. 𝐼𝑓 𝜃 = 180° 𝑡h𝑒𝑛 𝜏 = 0
d. 𝐼𝑓 𝑟 = 0 𝑡h𝑒𝑛 𝜏 = 0

18. Give any two examples of torque in day – to – day life.

 Opening a cap of a pen
 Opening a water tap

19. What is the relation between torque and anglular momentum?

𝑑𝐿
 𝜏= 𝑑𝑡
 𝜏 – torque
 𝐿 – angular momentum

20. What is equilibrium?

A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when both its linear momentum and angular momentum
remain constant.
21. How do you distinguish between stable and unstable equilibrium.
Stable equilibrium Unstable equilibrium

1. The body returns toequilibrium The body doesnot returns toequilibrium after
after disturbance disturbance
2. The center of mass shifts higher during The center ofmass shifts lower during
disturbance disturbance
3. Potential energy is minimum and increased Potential energy ismaximum and
during disturbance decreased during disturbance

22. Mention any two physicalsignificance of moment of inertia.

 Lesser the moment of inertia, greater the speed of rotation.
 Greater the mass concentrated away from the axis of rotation, greater the moment of inertia.
23. What is radius of gyration? Give its unit.
The radius of gyration of an object is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to anequivalent point mass,
which has same mass and moment of inertia of the object. Its unit is metre.

24. What are the rotational equivalentsfor the physical quantities (i) mass (ii) force?
Physical quantities Rotational equivalents
mass, 𝑚 Moment of Inertia, 𝐼
Force, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Torque,𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
25. What is the condition for pure rolling?
In pure rolling, the total kinetic energy is the sum of kinetic energies of translational and rotational motions.

26. What is the difference between sliding and slipping?

Sliding Slipping
Sliding occurs when 𝑉𝐶𝑀 > 𝑅𝐶𝑀 Slipping occurs 𝑉𝐶𝑀 < 𝑅𝐶𝑀
Translation is more than rotation Rotation is more than translation

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27. What is meant by escape speed in the case of the Earth?
Escape speed is defined as the minimum speed required for a body to escape from the Earth‟s gravitational pull.

28. What is elasticity?

 If a body regains its original shape and size after the removal of deforming force, it is said to be elastic and the
property is called elasticiy.
 Example: Rubber, metals, steel ropes.

29. What is plasticity?

 If a body does not regain its original shape and size after removal of the deforming force, it is said to be a
plastic body and the property is called plasticity.
 Example : Glass

30. Which one of these is more elastic, steel or rubber? Why?

 Steel is more elastic than rubber.
 If an equal stress is applied to both steel and rubber, the steel produces less strain.
 So the Young‟s modulus is higher for steel than rubber.
 The object which has higher Young‟s modulus is more elastic.

31. Give the examples for floating objects.

 A person can swim in sea water more easily than in river water.
 Ice floats on water.
 The ship is made of steel but its interior is made hollow by giving it a concave shape.

32. What is Reynold‟s number? Give its significance.

𝜌𝑣𝐷
 𝑅𝑐 = 𝜂
 𝑅𝑐 - Reynold‟s Number
 It is used to find out the nature of the flow of fluid, whether it is streamlined or turbulent.

33. Write down the expression for the Stoke‟s force and explain the symbols involved in it .
 𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂 𝑟𝑣
 𝜂– coefficient of viscocity of the liquid
 𝑟– radius of the sphere
 𝑣– velocity of the sphere

34. Give the practical applications of Stoke‟s law.

 Floatation of clouds
 Larger raindrops hurt us more than the smaller ones
 A man coming down with the help of a parachute acquires constant terminal velocity.

35. What do you mean by capillarity or capillary action?

The rise or fall of a liquid in a narrow tube is called capillarity or capillary action.

3 MARK QUESTIONS Moon

1. How will you measure the diameter of the Moon using parallax method?
 Let AB = d be the diameter of the Moon
 Let OA = OB = D D be the distance between the Earth and the Moon
 Parallax angle : ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 𝜃
𝐴𝐵 𝑑
 𝜃 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝐷
 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛, 𝑑 = 𝐷𝜃
Earth

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2. Explain the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. Give example.
Principle of homogeneity of dimensions
 The principle of homogeneity of dimensions states that the dimensions of all the terms in a physical
expression should be the same.
This method is used to
(i) Convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another.
(ii) Check the dimensional correctness of a given physical equation.
(iii) Establish relations among various physical quantities
 Let us take the equation of motion 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
 Apply dimensional formula on both sides 𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 + 𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑇
 𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 + 𝐿𝑇 −1
 (Quantities of same dimension only can be added)
 We see that the dimensions of both sides are same.
 Hence the equation is dimensionally correct.

3. What are the limitations of dimensional analysis?

 It gives no information about the dimensionless constants like numbers, , e, etc., in the formula.
 It cannot decide whether the given quantity is a scalar or vector.
 It is not suitable to derive relations involving trigonometry, exponential and logarithmic functions.
 It cannot be applied to an equation involvingmore than three physical quantities.
 It can only check dimensional correctness of an equation but not the correctness of the equation.

4. Explain the use of screw gauge and vernier caliper in measuring smaller distances.
Screw gauge:
 The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring accurately the dimensions of objects up to a maximum
of about 50 mm.
 The principle of the instrument is the magnification of linear motion using the circular motion of a screw.
 The least count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm
Vernier caliper:
 A vernier caliper is a versatile instrument for measuring the dimensions of an object namely diameter of a
hole, or a depth of a hole.
 The least count of the vernier caliper is 0.01 cm

5. Explain the concept of inertia. Write two examples each for inertia of motion, inertia of rest and inertia of
direction.
 Inertia - The inability of objects to move on its own or change its state of motion is called inertia.
 Inertia of rest - The inability of an object to change its state of rest is called inertia of rest.
 Inertia of motion - The inability of an object to change its state of uniform speed on its own is called inertia
of motion.
 Inertia of direction - The inability of an object to change its direction of motion on its own is called inertia of
direction.

6. Show that impulse is the change of momentum..

 If a very large force act on an object for a very short duration then the force is called impulsive force or
impulse
 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑝
f tf
 i
dp = ti
Fdt
t
 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = t f Fdt
i
 𝑝𝑖 is the initial momentum at time ti

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  𝑝𝑓 is the final momentum at time tf
 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = ∆𝑝
tf
 ti
Fdt = J, impulse
 This equals to change in momentum.
 J = ∆𝑝 = 𝐹∆𝑡

7. Compare static friction and kinetic friction.

Static friction Kinetic friction

It opposes the starting ofmotion It opposes the relative
motion of the object withrespect to the surface.
Independent of surface Independent of surface
of contact of contact
𝜇𝑠depends on the nature of materials in mutual 𝜇𝑘 depends on nature ofmaterials and
contact temperature of thesurface

Depends on themagnitude of the Independent ofmagnitude of applied

applied force force.
It can take values from zero to 𝜇𝑠𝑁 It can never be zero and always equals to 𝜇𝑘 𝑁

𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 > 𝜇𝑘 𝜇𝑘 < 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜇𝑠 > 𝜇𝑘 𝜇𝑘 < 𝜇𝑠

8. Using free body diagram, show that it is easy to pull an object than to push it.
Pushing of an object at angle 𝜃 Pulling of an object at angle 𝜃

𝑁𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹 cos 𝜃
𝑁𝑝𝑢𝑠 ℎ = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝐹 cos 𝜃

𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 < 𝑁𝑝𝑢𝑠 ℎ , 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑖𝑡

Page 11
 9. Explain the similarities and differences of centripetal and centrifugal forces.
Centripetal force Centrifugal force

It is a real force It is a pseudo force

It arises from gravitational force, It is not arises fromgravitational force,

tension in the string,normal force tension in the string,normal force
Acts in both inertial and Acts only in rotating
non – inertial frames frames
It acts towards the axis of rotation It acts outwards from the axis of rotation

Real force and has realeffects Pseudo force but has realeffects

Origin of centripetal force is interactionbetween Origin of centrifugalforce is inertia.

two objects

10. What are concurrent forces? State Lami‟s theorem.

concurrent forces
A collection of forces is said to be concurrent, if the lines of forces act at a common point.
Lami‟s theorem
Lami‟s theorem states that the magnitude of each force of the system is proportional to sine of the angle
between the other two forces.

11. Write the diferences between conservatinve force and non conservative force and Give two examples for each.
Conservative forces Non conservative forces
Work done is independent of path Work done depends
upon the path
Work done in round trip is zero Work done in a round trip is not zero

Total energy remains constant Energy is dissipated as heat energy

Work done is completely recoverable Work done is not

recoverable
Examples: Electrostatic Frictional forces,
force, Gravitational force viscous forces

12. Explain the characteristics of elastic and inelastic collision.

Elastic collision Inelastic collision

Total momentum isconserved Total momentum isconserved

Total kinetic energy isconserved Total kinetic energy isnot conserved

Forces involved are conservative forces Forces involved are non-conservative forces

Mechanical energy is not dissipated Mechanical energy isdissipated into heat, sound,
light etc.

Page 12
13. How do you distinguish between stable and unstable equilibrium.
Stable equilibrium Unstable equilibrium

1. The body returns to The body doesnot returns toequilibrium after

equilibrium after disturbance disturbance
2. The center of mass shifts higher during The center ofmass shifts lower during
disturbance disturbance
3. Potential energy is minimum and increased Potential energy ismaximum anddecreased
during disturbance during disturbance

14. What is the difference between sliding and slipping?

Sliding Slipping
Sliding occurs when 𝑉𝐶𝑀 > 𝑅𝐶𝑀 Slipping occurs 𝑉𝐶𝑀 < 𝑅𝐶𝑀
Translation is more than rotation Rotation is more than translation

15. Explain the variation of g with altitude

 Consider an object of mass m at a height h from the surface of the Earth.
 Acceleration experienced by the object due to Earth is
𝐺𝑀
 𝑔′ =
𝑅𝑒 +𝑕 2

𝐺𝑀
 𝑔′ = 𝑕 2
2
𝑅𝑒 1+
𝑅𝑒

𝐺𝑀 𝑕 −2
 𝑔′ = 𝑅 2 1+𝑅
𝑒 𝑒

 𝑕 ≪ 𝑅𝑒
𝐺𝑀 𝑕
 𝑔′ = 𝑅 2 1 − 2𝑅
𝑒 𝑒

𝑕
 𝑔′ = 𝑔 1 − 2
𝑅𝑒
′
 𝑔 <𝑔
 As altitude h increases, the acceleration due to gravity g decreases.

16. What are the applications of viscosity?

 The importance of viscosity can be understood from the following examples.
 The oil used as a lubricant for heavy machinery parts should have a high viscous coefficient.
 To select a suitable lubricant, we should know its viscosity and how it varies with temperature [Note: As
temperature increases, the viscosity of the liquid decreases].
 Also, it helps to choose oils with low viscosity used in car engines (light machinery).
 The highly viscous liquid is used to damp the motion of some instruments and is used as brake oil in hydraulic
brakes.
 Blood circulation through arteries and veins depends upon the viscosity of fluids.
 Millikan conducted the oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an electron.
 He used the knowledge of viscosity to determine the charge.

17. What are the factors affecting the surface tension of a liquid?
(1) The presence of any contamination or impurities considerably affects the force of surface tension depending
upon the degree of contamination.
(2) The presence of dissolved substances can also affect the value of surface tension. For example, a highly soluble

Page 13
 substance like sodium chloride (NaCl) when dissolved in water (H20) increases the surface tension of water. But
the sparingly soluble substance like phenol or soap solution when mixed in water decreases the surface tension of
water.
(3) Electrification affects the surface tension. When a liquid is electrified, surface tension decreases.
(4) Temperature plays a very crucial role in altering the surface tension of a liquid. Obviously, the surface tension
decreases linearly with the rise of temperature.

18. What are the practical applications of capillarity?

 Due to capillary action, oil rises in the cotton within an earthen lamp.
 Likewise, sap rises from the roots of a plant to its leaves and branches.
 Absorption of ink by a blotting paper
 Capillary action is also essential for the tear fluid from the eye to drain constantly.
 Cotton dresses are preferred in summer because cotton dresses have fine pores which act as capillaries for
sweat.

19. What are the applications of surface tension?

 Mosquitoes lay their eggs on the surface of water.
 To reduce the surface tension of water, a small amount of oil is poured.
 This breaks the elastic film of water surface and eggs are killed by drowning.
 Chemical engineers must finely adjust the surface tension of the liquid, so it forms droplets of designed size and
so it adheres to the surface without smearing.
 This is used in desktop printing, to paint automobiles and decorative items.
 Specks of dirt get removed when detergents are added to hot water while washing clothes because surface
tension is reduced.
 A fabric can be made waterproof, by adding suitable waterproof material (wax) to the fabric. This increases the
angle of contact.

20. What is meant by a reversible and irreversible processes ?

Reversible process Reversible process
A thermodynamic process can be considered All natural processes are irreversible. Irreversible
reversible only if it possible to retrace the path in the process cannot be plotted in a PV diagram, because
opposite direction in such a way that the system and these processes cannot have unique values of
surroundings pass through the same states as in the pressure, temperature at every stage of the process.
initial, direct process.

21. Write down the postulates of kinetic theory of gases.

1. All the molecules of a gas are identical, elastic spheres.
2. The molecules of different gases are different.
3. The number of molecules in a gas is very large and the average separation between them is larger than size of
the gas molecules.
4. The molecules of a gas are in a state of continuous random motion.
5. The molecules collide with one another and also with the walls of the container.
6. These collisions are perfectly elastic so that there is no loss of kinetic energy during collisions.
7. Between two successive collisions, a molecule moves with uniform velocity.
8. The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or repulsion on each other except during collision.
9. The molecules do not possess any potential energy and the energy is wholly kinetic.
10. The collisions are instantaneous.
11. The time spent by a molecule in each collision is very small compared to the time elapsed between two
consecutive collisions.
12. These molecules obey Newton‟s laws of motion even though they move randomly.

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22. Write down the difference simple harmonic motion and angular harmonic motion.
Simple harmonic motion Angular harmonic motion
The displacement of the particle is measured in terms The displacement of the particle is measured in terms
of linear displacement r of angular displacement θ
2
Acceleration of the particle, α = −ω r Angular acceleration of the particle, α = −ω2 θ
Force, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Torque, τ = Iα
Restoring force, 𝐹 = −𝑘 𝑟 Restoring couple, τ = −kθ
k k
Angular frequency, ω = m
rad s −1 Angular frequency, ω = rad s −1
I

23. Compare transverse waves and longitudinal waves

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
The direction of vibration of particles of the medium The direction of vibration of particles of the medium
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of is parallel to the direction of propagation of waves
waves
The disturbances are in the form of crests and The disturbances are in the form of compressions
troughs. and rarefactions
Transverse waves are possible in elastic medium Longitudinal waves are possible in all types of
media.

24. Compare progressive waves and stationary waves

Progressive waves Stationary waves
Crests and troughs are formed in transverse Crests and troughs are formed in transverse
progressive waves. stationary waves.
Compression and rarefaction are formed in Compression and rarefaction are formed in
longitudinal progressive waves longitudinal stationary waves
These waves move forward or backward in a medium These waves neither move forward nor backward in
a medium
All the particles in the medium vibrate such that the Except at nodes, all other particles of the medium
amplitude of the vibration for all particles is same. vibrate such that amplitude of vibration is different
for different particles.
These wave carry energy while propagating. These waves do not transport energy.

25. Write down the characteristics of progressive waves.

1. Particles in the medium vibrate about their mean positions with the same amplitude.
2. The phase of every particle ranges from 0 to 2π.
3. No particle remains at rest permanently. During wave propagation, particles come to the rest position only twice
at the extreme points.
4. Transverse progressive waves are characterized by crests and troughs whereas longitudinal progressive waves
are characterized by compressions and rarefactions.
5. When the particles pass through the mean position they always move with the same maximum velocity.
6. The displacement, velocity and acceleration of particles separated from each other by nλ are the same, where n
is an integer, and λ is the wavelength.
26. Explain the laws of transverse vibrations in stretched strings.
(i) The law of length:
 For a given wire with tension T (which is fixed) and mass per unit length 𝜇(fixed) the frequency varies
inversely with the vibrating length.
1 𝐶
 𝑓∝ ⇒𝑓=
𝑙 𝑙
 𝑙 x 𝑓 = 𝐶 , Where C is a constant

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 (ii) The law of tension:
 For a given vibrating length l (fixed) and mass per unit length μ (fixed) the frequency varies directly with the
square root of the tension T
 𝑓∝ 𝑇
 𝑓 = 𝐴 𝑇, Where A is a constant
(iii) The law of mass:
 For a given vibrating length l (fixed) and tension T (fixed) the frequency varies directly with the square root of
the mass per unit length μ
1
 𝑓∝
𝜇
𝐵
 𝑓= , Where B is a constant
𝜇

27. What are the characteristics of stationary waves?

 (1) Stationary waves are characterized by the confinement of a wave disturbance between two rigid
boundaries. This means, the wave does not move forward or backward in a medium, it remains steady at its
place. Therefore, they are called stationary waves or standing waves.
 (2) Certain points in the region in which the wave exists have maximum amplitude, called as anti – nodes and
at certain points the amplitude is minimum or zero called as node.
𝜆
 (3) The distance between two consecutive nodes or anti – nodes is 2
𝜆
 (4) The distance between a node and its neighbouring anti – node is 4
 (5) The transfer of energy along the standing wave is zero.

5 MARK QUESTIONS

1. Write a note on triangulation method and radar method to measure larger distances.
TRIANGULATION METHOD:
 Let AB = h be the height of the tree or tower to be measured.
 Let C be the point of observation at distance x from B.
 Place a range finder at C and measure the angle of elevation, ∠ACB = θ
as shown in Figure.
𝐴𝐵 𝑕
 From right angled triangle ABC, tan 𝜃 = =
𝐵𝐶 𝑥
 𝑕 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃
RADAR METHOD:
 The word RADAR stands for radio detection and ranging.
 A RADAR can be used to measure accurately the distance of a nearby
planet such as Mars. In this method, radio waves are sent from
transmitters which, after reflection from the planet, are detected by the receiver.
 By measuring, the time interval (t) between the instants the radio waves are sent and received, the distance of
𝑣×𝑡
the planet can be determined as 𝑑 = 2
 where v is the speed of the radio wave.
 As the time taken (t) is for the distance covered during the forward and backward path of the radio waves, it
is divided by 2to get the actual distance of the object.
 This method can also be used to determine the height, at which an aeroplane flies from the ground.

Page 16
2. What do you mean by propagation of errors? Explain the propagation of errors in addition and difference.
Error in the sum of two quantities Error in the difference of two quantities
𝐴 = 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴 𝐴 = 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴
𝐵 = 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵 𝐵 = 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵
𝑍 =𝐴+𝐵 𝑍 =𝐴−𝐵
𝑍 = 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 𝑍 = 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵) 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)
∆𝑍 = (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵) ∆𝑍 = (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)

3. Explain the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. Give example.

Principle of homogeneity of dimensions
 The principle of homogeneity of dimensions states that the dimensions of all the terms in a physical
expression should be the same.
This method is used to
(iv) Convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another.
(v) Check the dimensional correctness of a given physical equation.
(vi) Establish relations among various physical quantities
 Let us take the equation of motion 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
 Apply dimensional formula on both sides 𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 + 𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑇
 𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 + 𝐿𝑇 −1
 (Quantities of same dimension only can be added)
 We see that the dimensions of both sides are same.
 Hence the equation is dimensionally correct.

4. Explain the propagation of errors in the product of two quantities and division of two quantities

Error in the product of two quantities Error in the division of two quantities
𝐴 = 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴 𝐴 = 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴
𝐵 = 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵 𝐵 = 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵
𝐴
𝑍 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑍=
𝐵
𝑍 = 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 𝑍 = 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
= + = +
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝑍 𝐴 𝐵

5. Explain in detail the triangle law of addition.

 Represent the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 by the two adjacent sides of a triangle taken in the same order.
 Then the resultant is given by the third side of the triangle taken in the reverse order.
 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄
Magnitude of resultant vector:
 𝐴𝑁 = 𝐵 cos 𝜃
 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃

Page 17
  ∆ 𝑂𝐵𝑁y;𝑂𝐵2 = 𝑂𝑁 2 + 𝐵𝑁 2
 𝑅 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
Direction of resultant vector:
𝐵 sin 𝜃
 tan 𝛼 = 𝐴+𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝐵 sin 𝜃
 𝛼 = tan−1 𝐴+𝐵 cos 𝜃

6. Derive the kinematic equations of motion for constant acceleration.

Velocity – time relation Displacement – time relation Velocity – Displacement relation

𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 𝑎= 𝑣
𝑑𝑠
1
𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑(𝑣 2 )
2𝑎
𝑠 𝑡 𝑡 𝑠 𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡 1
𝑢 0 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑢𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑(𝑣 2 )
2𝑎
0 0 0 0 𝑢
𝟏
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝟐
𝒖+𝒗 𝒕
𝒔=
𝟐

7. Derive the equation of motion, range and maximum height reached by the particle thrown at an oblique angle 
with respect to the horizontal direction.
Maximum height (h max ):
 The maximum vertical distance travelled by the projectile during its journey is called maximum height.
𝑢 2 sin 2 𝜃
 𝑕𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑔
Hiorizontal range ( R ):
 The maximum horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point on the horizontal plane where
the projectile hits the ground is called horizontal range (R).
 This is found easily since the horizontal component of initial velocity remains the same.
 𝑅 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 x 𝑇𝑓
𝑢 2 sin 2𝜃
 𝑅=
𝑔
 sin 2𝜃 = 1
𝜋
 This implies that 2𝜃 = 2 .
𝜋
 𝜃= 4
 This means that if the particle is projected at 45 degrees with respect to horizontal, it attains maximum range;.
𝑢2
 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔

Page 18
8. Derive the expression for centripetal acceleration.
 The centripetal acceleration is derived from a simple geometrical relationship between position and velocity
vectors.
 Let the directions of position and velocity vectors shift through the same angle  in a small interval of time t.
 r = r1 = r2
 v = v1 = v2
 Δr = r2 − r1
 ;Δv = v2 − v1
Δr Δv
 =− =θ
r v
Δr
 Δv = −v
r
v2
 Centripetal acceleration, 𝑎 = −
r
 v = ωr
 a = −ω2 r

9. Derive the expression for total acceleration in the non uniform circular
motion.
 If the speed of the object in circular motion is not constant, then we
have non-uniform circular motion.
 For example, when the bob attached to a string moves in vertical circle,
the speed of the bob is not the same at all time.
 Whenever the speed is not same in circular motion, the particle will
have both centripetal and tangential acceleration
v2
 Centripetal acceleration, 𝑎 = r
𝑣2 2
 Resultant acceleration, 𝑎𝑅 = 𝑎𝑡2 +
𝑟
𝑎𝑡
 The angle made by resultant vector with the radial vector :tan 𝜃 = 𝑣2
𝑟
10. Explain with graphs the difference between work done by a constant force and by a variable force..
Work done by a constant force Work done by a variable force
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑓

𝑊= 𝑑𝑊 𝑊= 𝑑𝑊
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑓

𝑊 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑊= 𝐹 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑖

The area under the graph refers to the work done by the The area under the graph refers to the work done by the
constant force variable force.

Page 19
11. State and explain work – enegy theorem and also give any three examples for it.
 Work and energy are equivalents.
 This is true in the case of kinetic energy also.
 To prove this, let us consider a body of mass m at rest on a frictionless horizontal surface .
 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠
 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑣 2 −𝑢 2
 𝑎=
2𝑠
𝑣 2 −𝑢 2
 𝐹 = 𝑚 2𝑠
1 1
 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢 2
2 2
1
 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
 Kinetic energy of the body is always positive.
1 1
 ∆𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 − 2 𝑚𝑢 2
 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸
 Work done by the forces on a body is equal tothe change in kinetic energy.
 This is known as work – energy theorem.
Example:
a. If the work done is positive, then the kineticenergy increases.
b. If the work done is negative, then the kineticenergy decreases.
c. If there is no work done on the body, the there isno change in kinetic energy.

12. Arrive at an expression for power and velocity. Give some examples for the same.
 𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑊
 𝑊= 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
 𝑣= 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐹 . 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑊
 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 . 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑊
 − 𝐹 . 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑊
 − 𝐹. 𝑣 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑊
 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐹. 𝑣 = 𝑃

13. Arrive at an expression for elastic collision in one dimension and discuss various cases.
 Consider two elastic bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving in a straight line (along positive x direction) on a
frictionless horizontal
 From the law of conservation of linear momentum,
 Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

Page 20
  𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
 𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑢2
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
1 1 1 1
 𝑚 𝑢2
2 1 1
+ 2 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣22
 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑣1 𝑢1 − 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 − 𝑢2
 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = − 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 + 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
 𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑣1 − 𝑢2
𝑚 1 −𝑚 2 2𝑚 2
 𝑣1 = 𝑚 1 +𝑚 2
𝑢1 + 𝑚 1 +𝑚 2
𝑢2
2𝑚 1 𝑚 2 −𝑚 1
 𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2
𝑚 1 +𝑚 2 𝑚 1 +𝑚 2
 case 1 ;: 𝑖𝑓 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑣1 = 𝑢2 ; 𝑣2 = 𝑢1
 case 2 ;: 𝑖𝑓 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 = 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑣1 = 0; 𝑣2 = 𝑢1
 case 3 : 𝑖𝑓 𝑚1 ≪ 𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 = 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑣1 = −𝑢1 ; 𝑣2 = 0
 case 4 : 𝑖𝑓 𝑚2 ≪ 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 = 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑣1 = 𝑢1 ; 𝑣2 = 2𝑢1

14. What is inelastic collision? In which way it is different from elastic collision. Mention few examples in day to day
life for inelastic collision.
 In a collision, the total initial kinetic energy of the
bodies (before collision) is not equal
 kinetic energy before collision ≠ kinetic energy after
collision
 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 −
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∆𝑄
 Even though kinetic energy is not conserved but the before collision after collision
total energy is conserved.
 This is because the total energy contains the kinetic
energy term and also a term DQ, which includes all the losses that take place during collision.
 Note that loss in kinetic energy during collision is transformed to another form of energy like sound, thermal,
etc.
 Further, if the two colliding bodies stick together after collision such collisions are known as completely
inelastic collision or perfectly inelastic collision.
 Such a collision is found very often.
 For example when a clay putty is thrown on a moving vehicle, the clay putty (or Bubblegum) sticks to the
moving
15. Explain the law of conservation of angular momentum with suitable examples.
 When no external torque acts on the body, the net angular momentum of a rotating rigid body remains constant.
𝑑𝐿
 𝜏=
𝑑𝑡
 𝑖𝑓 𝜏 = 0 then 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
 Initial angular momentum = Final angular momentum
 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓
 𝐼 𝜔 = constant
 The above equations say that if I increases ω will decrease and vice-versa to keep the angular momentum
constant.
 There are several situations where the principle of conservation of angular momentum is applicable
 One striking example is an ice dancer.
 The dancer spins slowly when the hands are stretched out and spins faster when the hands are brought close to
the body.

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  Stretching of hands away from body increases moment of inertia, thus the angular velocity decreases resulting
in slower spin.
 When the hands are brought close to the body, the moment of inertia decreases, and thus the angular velocity
increases resulting in faster spin.
 A diver while in air, curls the body close to decrease the moment of inertia, which in turn helps to increase the
number of somersaults in air.

16. State and prove parallel axes theorem.Parallel axes theorem:

The theorem states that the moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of its moment of
inertia about a parallel axis through its center of mass and the product of the mass of the body and square of the
perpendicular distance between the twoaxes.
 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑀𝑑2
 𝐼 = 𝑚 (𝑥 + 𝑑)2
 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑑2 + 2𝑑 𝑚𝑥
 𝐼𝑐 = 𝑚𝑥 2
 𝑚𝑥 = 0
 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑀𝑑2
 Hence parallel axes theorem is proved.

17. State and prove perpendicular axes theorem.Perpendicular axis theorem:

The theorem states that the moment of inertia of a plane laminar body about an axis perpendicular to its plane
is equal to the sum moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the body such that all
the three axes are mutually perpendicular and have a common point.
 𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑋 + 𝐼𝑌
 𝐼𝑍 = 𝑚𝑟 2
 𝑟2 = 𝑋2 + 𝑌2
 𝐼𝑍 = 𝑚 𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2
 𝐼𝑍 = 𝑚𝑋 2 + 𝑚 𝑌 2
 𝐼𝑋 = 𝑚 𝑌 2
 𝐼𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 2
 𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑋 + 𝐼𝑌
 Hence perpendicular axes theorem is proved.

18. Explain rolling on inclined plane and obtain anexpression for its acceleration.
 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
 𝑅𝑓 = 𝐼𝛼
𝑎
 𝛼 = 𝑅 , 𝐼 = 𝑚 𝐾2
𝐾2
 𝑓=𝑚𝑎 𝑅2
𝐾2
 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑚 𝑎 𝑅2
= 𝑚𝑎
𝐾2
 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚 𝑎 𝑅2
𝐾2
 𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑎 1 + 𝑅2
𝑔 sin 𝜃
 𝑎= 𝐾2
1+ 2
𝑅

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19. Derive the expression for moment of inertia of a uniform rod, uniform ring and uniform disc

Moment of inertia of a uniform Moment of inertia of a Moment of inertia of a

rod uniform ring uniform disc

𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑅2 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑟 2
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
𝜆= 𝜆= 𝜍=
𝑙 2𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜍2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑀 𝑀 2𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑚 = 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑙 2𝜋𝑅 𝑅
𝑙
2 2𝜋𝑅 𝑅
𝑀 𝑀 2𝑀
𝐼= 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝐼= 𝑅2 𝑑𝑥 𝐼= 2 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝑙 2𝜋𝑅 𝑅
𝑙 0 0
−
2
1 1
𝐼= 𝑀𝑙 2 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
12 2
20. Derive an expression for escape speed.
.
 Escape speed is defined as the minimum speed required for a body to escape from the Earth‟s gravitational
pull.
1 𝐺𝑀 𝑀𝐸
 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑀𝑣𝑖 2 −
2 𝑅𝐸
 𝐸𝑓 = 0
 From the law of conservation of energy, 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸𝑓
1 𝐺𝑀 𝑀𝐸
 𝑀𝑣𝑖 2 − =0
2 𝑅𝐸
1 𝐺𝑀 𝑀𝐸

2
𝑀𝑣𝑖 2 = 𝑅𝐸
1 𝐺𝑀 𝑀𝐸
 𝑀𝑣𝑒 2 =
2 𝑅𝐸

 𝑣𝑒 = 2𝑔𝑅𝐸

21. Derive the expression for the terminal velocity of a sphere moving in a high viscous fluid using stokes force.
 The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling freely through a viscous medium is
called the terminal velocity vt.
Expression for terminal velocity:
 Gravitational force acting on the sphere, 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔
3
4
 Up thrust, 𝑈 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜍𝑔
 Viscous force, F = 6π η r vt
 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑈 + 𝐹
 𝐹𝐺 − 𝑈 = 𝐹
4
 3
𝜋𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜍)𝑔 = 6πηrvt

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 2 r 2 (𝜌−𝜍)
 vt = 9 x η
g

 vt ∝ r 2
 Here, it should be noted that the terminal speed of the sphere is directly proportional to the square of its radius.

22. Expalin in detail Newton‟s law of cooling.

 Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of heat of a object is directly proportional to the difference
in the temperature between that object and its surroundings .
 .
𝑑𝑄
 ∝ − 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆
𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑄 𝑚𝑠𝑑𝑇

𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
 = −𝑎 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆
𝑑𝑡
𝑎
 ln 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑆 = − 𝑡 + 𝑏1
𝑚𝑠
𝑎
 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑆 + 𝑏2 𝑒 −𝑚𝑠 𝑡
23. Derive Mayer‟s relation for an ideal gas.
 dU = μCvdT (1)
 Q = μCpdT (2)
 W = PdV (3)
 Q = dU + W (4)
 μCpdT = μCv dT + PdV (5)
 PV = μRT ⇒ PdV+VdP = μRdT
 dP = 0, PdV = μRdT
 ∴CpdT = CvdT +RdT

 ∴ CP = Cv +R (or) Cp - Cv = R
24. Discuss the simple pendulum in detail.
 A pendulum is a mechanical system which exhibits periodic motion.
 Two forces act on the bob of the pendulum at any displaced position, as shown in the Figure.
 Normal component : F as = mg cosθ .
 Tangential component : F ps = mg sin θ .
v2
 T − Fas = m
𝑙
v2
 T − mg cosθ = m
𝑙
𝑑2𝑠
 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝐹𝑝𝑠
𝑑2𝑠
 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

 s l
𝑑2𝑠 𝑑2𝜃

𝑑𝑡 2
= 𝑙 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2𝜃
 l = − 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝜃 𝑔
 = − sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑙

𝑔
 𝜔 = rad s −1 ,
𝑙
1 𝑔
 𝑓= 𝐻𝑧,
2𝜋 𝑙
𝑙
 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑠
𝑔

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