ATDC

B.Voc
Fashion Design & Retail
And
Apparel Manufacturing &
Entrepreneurship

Fabric Science
Semester I

Prepared by :-
Ms. Sukhvinder kaur
Vice Principal
ATD Jaipur
 Course Content : Fabric Science – I

 Profile of the Indian Textile Industry

 Major Production Segments of the Textile supply Chain

 Indian Textile Industry Overview
 The Textile Pipeline: From Fiber to Consumer Assignments

 Fundamentals of Textiles – Fiber to Fashion

 Fiber definition & classification

 Fiber properties & End Use- Natural & Man-made
 Fiber Identification

 Fabric (Overview of methods of production and identification of structure – woven,

knitted, non woven)

 Overview of different fabrics and their manufacturing- Woven, Knitted & Non-Woven
 Introduction to woven fabrics
Weaves: Basic & Novelty weaves
 Textile Properties and applications (related to weight, strength and appearance,
flammability, water repellency) etc.

Project 1: Fiber Identification – Burning test & microscopic test file

Natural fiber – Cellulosic- Cotton , Linen, Protein - Wool & Silk
Re-generated fibers – Rayon, Modal , Acetate
Manmade fiber – Polyester , Nylon , Acrylic

Project 2: Base qualities

Arrange below mentioned fabric swatches in project file -

 100% Cotton and its verities – 80’s , 90’s & 100’s Voile , 60’s cambric , 40’s
poplin , 30’s sheeting and mercerized cotton
 100% linen and its verities - light weight & heavy weight linen .
 100% Silk and its verities – Taffeta, Dupion, Mulberry , 2 tone Silk ,
Georgette , Chiffone , Crepe
 100% Wool and its verities- Woollen & Worsted.

Project 3: Fabric /Weaving

Arrange below mentioned fabric swatches in project file and write fabric detail like
Construction, Weave, and GSM.
Ggeorgette , Chambray , Chiffon , Jacquard , Brocade etc. as well different weaves like –
Plain , Twill , satin , Sateen , Jacquard , leno etc.

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 Chapter 1 : Profile of the Indian Textile Industry

 MAJOR PRODUCTION SEGMENTS OF THE TEXTILE SUPPLY CHAIN

Fibre/filament

Yarn

Fabric (Woven/ knitted)

Readymade garments

Fiber

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Fibers are flexible and may be spun into yarn and made into fabrics. Are the smallest part of the fabric
or cloth. These are hair like substances, category as either Fibers can be natural or manmade too.
Fiber is the basic unit of textiles; it is a hair like strand of material. A fiber is the smallest visible unit of
any textile product.

Yarn
Yarn is a continuous strand of textile fibers, filament, suitable for knitting, weaving to form textile
fabric. Yarns are made by twisting the fibers together. Some are nonwoven which are not weaved or
knitted, they are made directly from fibers but contain no yarn.

Fabrics
Fabric can be either knitted or woven. The knitting or weaving is done with the yarn to form fabric/
cloth. Fabric / Cloth is the finished product. It's sold on rolls, cut and sewn into articles of wearing
apparel, curtains and bedding, etc. Companies that made cloths are called Mills. Fabric refers to any
material made through weaving, knitting, crocheting, or bonding. A fabric has sufficient length and
width.

Primary sources of Fabric-

 Mills- Mill is a company that owns textile machinery and makes fabric.
Converters- The converters is an individual or organization that buys greige (pronounced gray -
Perhaps influenced by grey and beige of French grège, unbleached, raw goods ( un finished fabric)
usually from mills, has the fabric dyed or printed and finished fabric.
 Importers- Textile importing companies are two types. The direct importer buys fabric or
manufactured textile products from other mills or other suppliers brings it into the country

Dyeing and Printing

Color is usually applied on to the fabric by dyeing and printing to make fabric appealing. Dyeing can be
done on fibers. Dye can be done on fibers, yarn, threads, knitted, woven fabrics whereas printing is
been done on ready fabric. Dyeing is being done in DYE mills so as printing procedure takes place in
printing mills / House

Finishing
Most fabric need additional treatments called finishes before they can be used.
Special chemical are used to make a water repellent fabric suitable for raincoat. Some of the finishes
are like- calendaring, crease resistant, water repellent, shrinkage, brushing, peached and heat set
pleating.

Threads
Sewing threads are made for efficient, smooth stitching that will not break or become distorted for the
life of the sewn product. Its main function is to hold together parts that could be of textile, leather etc
to form garments or other end products. Sewing machines are used to join the parts with the sewing
thread in a process called Sewing.

Readymade garments / Retail

 Selling of merchandise directly to consumer.
 Consumers are at the end of the soft goods chain.
 Consumers decide which fashions will succeed and which will fail.

After finished fabric have been produced, it is usually used by manufacturers to make such items as
blouses , shirts, trousers, drapes, tents, or automobile tyres. A particular fabric might be used for
several different articles. Frequently the same fabric that is shipped to the apparel or interior
furnishings manufacturer is also sold to a retail store for direct sale to home sewers.

INDIAN TEXTILE INDUSTRY- AN OVERVIEW

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India is the second largest producer of textiles in the world. This industry accounts for almost 24% of
the world’s spindle capacity and 8% of global rotor capacity. Abundant availability of raw materials
such as cotton, wool, silk and jute as well as skilled workforce have made the country a sourcing hub.

 Cotton – Second largest cotton and cellulosic fibres producing country in the world.
 Silk – India is the second largest producer of silk and contributes about 18% to the total world raw
silk production.
 Wool –India has 3rd largest sheep population in the world, having 6.15 crores sheep, producing 45
million kg of raw wool, and accounting for 3.1% of total world wool production. India ranks 6th
amongst clean wool producer countries and 9th amongst greasy wool producers.
 Man-Made Fibres- the fourth largest in synthetic fibres/yarns globally.
 Jute – India is the largest producer and second largest exporter of the jute goods.

Textiles History:
 The history of textile is almost as old as that of human civilization.
 The textile industry was at the centre of Britain's industrial expansion in the Victorian period.
 Technological advances meant that cottons, wools, silks and dyestuffs could be produced at
unprecedented rates, and the results were exported around the Empire.
 This advertisement from 1880 shows the range of fabrics that were available for clothing.
 Cottons and wools could be woven in many weights, from the hard-wearing corduroys of the
working man, to the fine gauze of the fashionable lady.
 And for the first time, ordinary clothes could be washed – an immense advance.
 Textile spinning and weaving had been mechanized since the 1790s, using water power.
 By 1870 steam power was general. Factory conditions were harsh.
 Moving machinery was tightly packed, and mechanized belts could catch a woman’s hair and scalp
her. Children were employed to fix machinery and clear accumulated dust from underneath the
machines.
 They often lost concentration, or fell asleep, with terrible results.

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 Modern textile industry took birth in India in the early nineteenth century
 The first cotton textile mill of Bombay was established in1854
 during the year 1900 the cotton textile industry was in bad state
 After independence, the cotton textile industry made rapid strides under the Plans

Strengths of Indian Textile Industry -

 Indian Textile Industry is an Independent & Self-Reliant industry.
 Availability of Low Cost and Skilled Manpower provides competitive advantage to industry.
 Availability of large varieties of cotton fiber and has a fast growing synthetic fiber industry.
 India has great advantage in Spinning Sector and has a presence in all process of operation
and value chain.
 Very low import content
 Huge textile production capacity
 Efficient multi-fiber raw material manufacturing capacity
 Large domestic market
 Huge export potential
 Large pool of skilled and cheap work force
 Entrepreneurial skills

Weaknesses of Indian Textile Industry -

 Increased global competition in the post 2005 trade regime under WTO
 Huge unorganized and decentralized sector
 Imports of cheap textiles from other Asian neighbors
 Use of outdated manufacturing technology
 Poor supply chain management
 High production cost with respect to other Asian competitors

Challenges -
 Geographical Disadvantages.
 To balance the demand and supply.
 Competition from other developing countries, especially China.
 International labor and Environmental Laws.
 Threat for Traditional Market for Power loom and Handloom Products and forcing them for
product diversification.
 To make balance between price and quality.

GARMENT EXPORTS IN INDIA OVER THE YEAR

India is the second largest producer of textiles and garments in the world. The Indian textiles and
apparel industry is expected to grow to a size of US$ 223 billion by 2021, according to a report by
Technopak Advisors. This industry accounts for almost 24% of the world’s spindle capacity and 8% of
global rotor capacity. Abundant availability of raw materials such as cotton, wool, silk and jute as well
as skilled workforce have made the country a sourcing hub.

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THE TEXTILE PIPELINE – FROM FIBRE TO CONSUMER ASSIGNMENTS

PURPOSE OF CLOTHING:

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 Clothing is used to cover the body, to make you feel more attractive, and to communicate with
others. People wear clothes for many different reasons. Some of these reasons are physical. You wear
clothes for comfort and protection.

All people have basic human needs. Meeting these needs provides satisfaction and enjoyment
in life. Clothing helps to meet some of these needs. Knowing something about the role of clothing
helps you to understand yourself and others better. Clothing is a complex but fascinating part of
everyone’s life. Therefore clothes are worn for:

Protection :
Our skin is uncovered and exposed. We can be easily affected by the elements-rain, snow,
wind, cold, and heat. We can be harmed or injured on the job or while
participating in sports. In some cases, we need to protect us with our
clothing. Clothing aids to your comfort. It absorbs perspiration, prevents
sudden chills, and acts as a buffer between your body and accidental burns,
scratches, and rough surfaces. People who live in severely cold climates,
such as the Eskimos, keep warm by wearing pants and parkas with fur
linings. The fur traps the warm air from their bodies and creates a life-saving
insulating layer of Protection warmth. Desert nomads keep the harmful hot
sun from dehydrating their bodies by covering up with long flowing robes
and headdresses. Their clothing actually keeps them cooler.

Safety :
Clothing also serves to protect your skin from harm or injury. Some sports
and occupations require protective clothing for safety reasons. Football players
wear helmets and protective padding to help prevent injury during rough
play.Some people’s work requires them to be in dangerous or hazardous
conditions. Clothing can offer protection. Some items are even labeled with the
term “safety” to identify them From regular day-to-day clothes and accessories.
Fire-fighters wear asbestos clothing in hazardous situations. Police officers wear
bulletproof vests. Road workers wear florescent orange vests so that drivers can see them easily and
prevent accidents.

Sanitation :
Special clothing and accessories are often worn for sanitation reasons.
People who work in factories that produce food and medical products wear
sanitary clothing, face masks, and hair covering. This precaution prevents
contamination of the products by germs. In operating rooms, doctors and
nurses wear special disposable sanitary uniforms, gloves, and face masks.

Modesty :
Modesty refers to what people feel is the proper way for clothing to cover the body.
Different groups of people may have different standards of modesty. For example Clothes
that a woman might wear to a fancy party would probably be unacceptable at work the
next.

Identification :
Clothing can also identify people as members of a group. Certain types of clothing,
colors, and accessories have become representative of certain groups,
activities, and occupations. Or by simply dressing alike, people can show that they belong
to the same group. E.g. Air Crews, Air hostess, Doctors, Pilots, etc.
Uniforms :
A uniform is one of the easiest ways to identify group members.
Uniforms can provide instant recognition or create a special image for the

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group. Members of the police force, fire department, and military wear uniforms so that they can be
recognized quickly and easily for public safety. Athletic teams wear different colors to identify their
team and to tell them apart from their opponents.

People who work in service occupations, such as restaurant workers, airline

personnel, and hotel staff also wear special uniform. These uniforms help to identify
the worker to their customers, as well as Uniforms create an image for the
company.

Styles and Colors :

Some occupations require a unique style of dress. Judges wear the traditional black robe.
Ministers, priests, and other clergy members may wear special clothing for conducting religious
services. The style of the clothing often dates back many centuries to show visually that what they are
doing is linked to the past. Many people wear special styles and colors of clothing for special occasions
in their lives. Graduates may wear ling robes and mortarboard hats with tassels.

Insignias :
Insignias are badges or emblems that show membership in a group. Patches
or emblems can be worn on jackets or blazer pockets. A school letter with a sports
pin can be worn on a jacket or sweater to indicate participation in athletics.

Status :
Kings and queens wear crowns to set them apart from the rest of their
subjects. Their crowns indicate their status, or position or rank within a group.
Clothes and other accessories are used by people to show their level of importance.
They may also be used to give the wearer a sense of feeling important. Status
symbols are clothes or other items that offer a sense of status for the ordinary
person. Usually these items are more expensive or the latest in design. For some
people, status symbols can be fur coats, expensive jewelry, or designer clothes.

Decoration :
People decorate themselves to enhance their appearance. They wear clothes, jewelry, and cosmetics
in hopes of improving their looks and attracting favorable attention. Adornment, or decoration, also
helps people to express their uniqueness and creativity. Clothing and accessories can be used to
improve appearance in different ways. Clothing can also be decorated to make it special and unique.

Chapter -2 : FUNDAMENTALS OF TEXTILES- FIBER TO FASHION

FIBER DEFINATION -
 Fiber is the smallest unit of a fabric/ cloth.
 Some fibers are short, others are very long

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  Fibre is the French spelling of the word from which the English word is derived, so it was
promoted as the standard spelling despite its being none phonetic.
Fibers Classification based on size

Staple Fiber Filament Fiber

Short (- ¾” – 18”) Long (Yard/ Meter)
SIZES OF FIBERS
STAPLE
Fibers with limited with short length are called staple fibre.
Staple fibers have to be twisted together to make a continuous (length of yarn).
Range: 1 c.m to many meters in length.

FILAMENT:
It is a name given to a fiber of continuous length i.e. long enough to be used in making yarn to weave
the fabric.

FIBER CLASSIFICATION

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 FIBER CLASSIFICATION
Natural fibers are those fibers which are available from natural sources. E.g. plants, animals &
minerals etc.

Artificial / Manmade fibers are those fibers which are developed by man. Man possesses a
natural instinct of imitating natural & its product.
Polymer is a fiber forming substance combining CHON (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen)
elements in to large molecular chain.

Regenerated Cellulosic Manmade Fibers are obtained from natural cellulosic base material
and are chemically shaped to form filament / fiber. E.g. viscose/rayon, modal / lyocell / cupro, acetate
rayon.

Regenerated Protein Manmade Fibers are obtained from soybean, milk, corn, peanuts base
material and are chemically shaped to form filament.

Synthetic Manmade fibers / Non-cellulosic Manmade fiber If manufactured from the

petroleum product only chemicals are used to manufacture of such fibers.
Nylon - hexamethylene diamine + Adipic acid.
Polyester – dimethye terephthalate + ethyleneglycol.
The chemicals are converted in to materials capable of forming fibers & then these substances are
manipulated into fibrous form.
Inorganic fibers are those fibers which are made from substances such as metal & glass.

Generic & Trade names of fibers

Generic Names are important in the world of manufactured textiles, & fixed by FTC (Federal Trade
Commission) – With the introduction of many manufactured fibers it became important to classify
those manufactured fibers that have similar characteristics. Denotes Family of fibers with a similar
chemical composition
Generic name can include many trade names and marketed under a specific brand name of a trade
name.

Trade names are registered fiber names owned by the fiber mill that developed the mand are often
marketed to a specific end-use.
Example:– Generic name – spandex– Trade name –Lycra spandex– Trade names are always upper
case, generic names are always lower case

The generic names - the Federal Trade Commission

Genric
Genric name Trade name name Trade name
Acetate Acele®, Aviscon®, Celanese (Nylon) 6 Caprolan®,Enka®, Perlon®
Acrylic Acrilan®, Dralon®, Orlon® (Nylon) 6, 6 Antron®, Blue C®, Cantrece®
Cuprammonium Bemberg® Olefin Durel®, Herculon®,
Fluorocarbon Teflon® Polyester Avlin®, Beaunit®, Blue C®,
Dacron®
Glass Fiberglas®, Garan® Rayon Fibro®, Nupron®, Rayflex®,
Lyocell Tencel® Spandex Glospun®, Lycra®, Numa®
Modacrylic Dynel®, Kanecaron® Triacetate Arnel®
(Nylon) 6 Caprolan®,Enka®, Perlon® Vinyon Avisco®, Clevyl®, Rhovyl®

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 FIBER PROPERTIES & END USES

Textile Fiber properties are essential thing to know for various end uses and the products
made from it qualify on the basis of certain parameters.

Basic Textile Fiber Properties

Primary Properties of Textile Fibers:

1. High length to width ratio

2. Tenacity
3. Flexibility
4. Spinning quality (Cohesiveness)
5. Uniformity

Secondary Properties of Textile Fibres:

1. Physical Shape (cross-section, surface contour, etc.)

2. Density / specific gravity: (influence weight, cover, etc.)
3. Lustre
4. Absorption/absorbency and Moisture regain
5. Extensibility / Elongation
6. Abrasion
7. Loft and Resiliency:
8. Flammability
9. Static Electricity:
10. Electrical conductivity(Electrostatic charge)
11. Thermal insulation softening point and heat-set character)
12. Felt- ability:
13. Durability
14. Hand
15. Pilling
16. Wicking
17. Drape
18. Weight
19. Texture

OTHER PROPERTIES

Chemical Properties

Biological Properties
1. Ageing resistance
2. Sunlight resistance
3. Resistance to moth
4. Mildew resistance

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 Primary Properties of Textile Fibers
1. High Length to Width Ratio:
1. Textile fibres can be classified into coarse, fine and microfibers
2. The length is a very important fiber property , as Finer fibres make for softer, denser and
more comfortable fabrics with better drape.
3. Natural fibers, except for silk, are mostly some millimeter up to several centimeters long.
4. Synthetic fibers are actually filaments (in definite length) or are chopped into (shorter) staple
fibers, which can, in their turn, be spun.

2. Tenacity / Strength
1. Tenacity :force per unit linear density
2. Tenacity is, directly related to the length of the polymers, degree of polymerization, strength
in dry and wet conditions, and types of inter-polymer forces of attraction formed between
the polymers.
3. Tenacity is the customary measure of strength of a fiber or yarn
4. Strength of any material is determined by the breaking strength (that is tenacity strength)
which express as force per unit cross-sectional area.
3. Flexibility / Pliability:
1. Flexibility is the property of bending without breaking that is the third
necessary characteristic of textile fiber, It Influences the hand feel.
2. Fibers should be flexible or pliable in order to be made into yarns and thereafter into fabrics
that permit freedom of movement. Certain end uses require greater flexibility, e.g.,
automobile seat belts.
3. Ability to Bend Repeatedly without breaking related to Abrasion It is one of the essential
properties of textile fiber.

4. Spinning Quality (Cohesiveness)

1. Cohesiveness indicates that fibers tend to hold together during yarn manufacturing as a result
of the longitudinal contour of the fiber or the cross-section shape that enables the fiber to fit
together and entangle sufficiently to adhere to one another.
2. In case of synthetics, filament lengths aid in yarn formation. Texturing introduces coils,
crimps, curls or loops in the structure of an otherwise smooth filament. It is used to impart
cohesiveness.

5. Uniformity
1. To convert fiber into yarn, a fiber must possess similar length and width, cohesiveness,
strength and flexibility.
2. To minimize the irregularity in the final yarn, it is important that the fibers be somewhat
similar in length and width i.e. be uniform. The inherent variability in the natural fibre can be
averaged out by blending natural fibers from many different batches in order to produce yarn
that is uniform.

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 Secondary Properties of Textile Fibers:
1. Physical Shape:
1. In addition to the high length-to-breadth ratio, the shape of a fiber includes such factors as
average length, surface contour, surface irregularities and cross section. They are
responsible for certain differences in yarn and fabric properties.
2. It includes the surface contour (smooth, rough, serrated), the shape of the cross section and
the width and length of the fibre.
3. The shape of the cross section influences certain factors such as luster, body and hand.
4. The cross sectional shape can be changed for all artificial fibres unlike natural fibres as the
fibres are molded though spinnerets.

2. Density / specific gravity:

1. Density is the mass of a unit volume of material. It is expressed as gms/cubic cm or pounds
per cubic foot.
2. The specific gravity of a fibre indicates the density relative to that of water at 4oC.
3. Only these fibres float on water. Cotton, wool fibres are heavy and nylon is comparatively
lighter.
4. The lower the density the more the covering power.
5. A pound of wool and a pound of nylon weigh the same but the fibres are more in nylon than
in wool. High density results in heavy fabrics, low density results in light weight fabrics.

3. Lustre:
1. Luster refers to the gloss or shine that a fiber possesses.
2. SHINY- BRIGHT reflects fair amount of light than DULL -MATTE surface.
3. Light Reflected by the surface
4. Among the natural fibers, silk or the queen of fibers has a high luster, and cotton has low.
5. This in turn is affected by their cross section shape.

Cross sectional shape Degree of luster

Round High
Irregular Low
Kidney shaped Low
Oval High
Trilobal High
octagonal Low

4. Absorption/absorbency and Moisture regain:

 Hydrophilic- Absorbs Moisture readily
 Hydrophobic- Have Little or No Absorbency
 Hydroscopic- Absorbs Moisture without Feeling Wet.

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 1. It means the fibre can readily soak up/absorb water/moisture. The absorbency of a fibre is
measured as its SMR% (standard moisture regain).
2. The fibres are termed hydrophilic, water loving. For example, cotton and viscose. In contrast,
some fibres are naturally water repellent. These fibres are termed hydrophobic, water hating.
For example, polyester, nylon and acrylic.
3. Polyester is so hydrophobic that it attracts and absorbs fats, oils and greases. It is termed
olephilic, oil loving. This can make it difficult to remove grease stains.

5. Extensibility / Elongation and Elastic Recovery:

1. Elongation- Degree to which Fiber may be Stretched without breaking. Related to Elasticity
2. Elasticity is the property which allows a fibre to recover to its length after it has been
extended.Elastic recovery is the percent to return from elongation towards its original length.
3. If a fiber returns to its original length from a specified amount of attenuation, it is said to have
100% elastic recovery at x-percent elongation.
4. Very good – wool due to natural crimp in the fibre; silk; polyester; polyamide; elastane (lycra);
acrylic and Poor – cotton (creases easily); linen (creases badly); viscose (creases easily)

6. Abrasion :
1. Abrasion Resistance- Ability of the Textile to With-Stand the Rubbing during Use .
2. The wearing a way of a material by rubbing against another surface is called abrasion.
Different kinds of abrasion are identified, these are-
3. Flat or plane abrasion: when a flat surface rubs against another surface e.g. on thigh area of a
pair of jeans.
4. synthetic fibres generally have an electrostatic charge due to their low moisture absorption.

7. Loft and Resiliency:

1. Resiliency- Ability of textile to RETURN to its Shape
2. Resiliency refers to the ability of a fiber to come back to its original position after being
creased or folded.
3. Resilient fibers recover quickly from wrinkling or creasing. Good elastic recovery usually
indicates good resiliency.
4. Excellent resiliency is exhibited by polyester, wool and nylon fibers. Flax, rayon and cotton, on
the other hand, have a low resiliency.

8. Flammability:
1. Burning characteristics of fiber groups vary from each other and can, thus be used as an
authentic identification method.
2. Very flammable and ignite with a naked flame– cotton, linen, viscose
3. A blend of cotton/polyester burns dangerously as the cotton ignites and the polyester melts
creating a “scaffold” effect”

Heat Retention- Ability to Hold HEAT.

Low in Summers & High in winters
Affected by - Fiber, yarn, Fabric structure, Layering,
Heat sensitive- Reaction to Heat-
Soften , Melts, Resistant . (Identify Safe Pressing temperature

9. Static Electricity:
1. This is the electricity produced by the friction of a fabric against itself or some other object.
2. If a fabric is better conductor of electricity, it conducts away the electricity that is produced.
But if the material is not a good conductor, the electricity produced cannot be conducted
away, but it tends to pile up on the surface of the fabric.
3. It the material comes in contact with a good conductor, a shock or transfer occurs.
4. After wearing synthetics for few hours, it is better to wipe the garments with a wet towel.
5. It carries away the electricity produced. Static electricity makes the fabric to cling to the body
of the wearer.

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10. Electrical conductivity(Electrostatic charge):
1. It is the ability of a fiber to transfer or carry electrical charges.
2. Poor or low conductivity results in building up of static charges.
3. This leads to the clinging of clothing and in extreme cases can produce electrical shocks,
which produce crackling sound or even a tiny spark.
4. Water is an excellent conductor of electricity and fibers with high moisture regains will never
face the problem of static build-up.

11. Thermal insulation:

 Fibres trap air, preventing passage of heat away from body.
 Heat transfer by conduction depends on the materials’ heat conductivity, i.e. their capacity
for transferring heat from a warmer medium to a cooler one.
 Warmth/thermal insulation like Warm to wear – wool, acrylic,
 Low warmth - viscose, acetate, polyester unless tartarised yarns, polyamide unless tartarised
yarns, elastane (but also used in blends)
 Thermal protective clothing usually is a multilayer construction. Winter outdoor clothing is
aimed at protecting a human being against harsh environmental conditions, especially against
cold. It has a multilayer structure in order to ensure a thermal comfort in winter outdoor
climatic conditions

12. Felt- ability:

1. It is the ability of fibre to mat together. The matting together of fibres during processing or
use.
2. The degree to which fibers will consolidate by felting at certain level.
3. These are termed as non - woven felted materials. Some rug materials, carpet materials and
apparels are produced by felting.
4. The ability of wool to coil together, interlock & shrink when subjected to heat, moisture and
pressure is responsible for felting of wool fibres.

13. Durability :
1. DURABLE- SHOULD LAST FOR ADEQUATE TIME
2. It is resistant to abrasion, rubbing and friction.
3. Chemicals in detergents and anti-perspirants may reduce durability.
4. Ultra-violet light may break it down.

14. Hand:
1. Hand is the way a fiber ( yarn or fabric) feels when handled .
2. Term such as soft , crisp, silky , dry or harsh are used to describe the hand of textile material.
3. Handling means how a fabric feels to the touch and is subjective. Fabric can be described as
having a crisp hand, firm hand, soft hand, slippery hand, silky hand etc .

15. Pilling :
1. It is the balling up of fibers ends on the surface of a fabric.
2. These pills are formed when the ends of a fabric breaks from the fabric surface.
3. In general longer fibers pill less than short ones because there are fewer ends of fibers
4. Techniques used by the textile industry to avoid pilling include singeing the loose fibers
protruding on the surface of textile

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16. Wicking:
1. It has the ability of a fiber to transfer moisture from one another .
2. Wicking is a capillary effect dependent on the surface character eg. chemical- absorbency &
physical- by contacting surface.

17. Drape:
1. This means how a fabric falls, hangs or drapes. Drape can be recorded in laboratory tests.
Drape-Way the Fabric Falls over a Body. or a Table…
2. FINE fabrics have better drape than COARSE .
3. Yarn & Fabric structure more Important in determining the Drape...

18. Weight:
1. This is the weight of the fabric usually measured as gm2, but sometimes measured in linear
metres.
2. Denim is traditionally weighed in oz, such as a 12oz denim for jeans, a 8oz denim for shirting.
19. Texture
1. Texture- is Textiles Surface.
2. This refers to the surface texture of a fabric. Fabric such as knitted fleece can have a wool
fleece like texture. Brocade and jacquards have their texture woven into the fabric as their
design or pattern.
3. NATURAL Fibers has more texture than MAN-MADE.

OTHER PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- The fibres react differently to various chemicals and these are explained under each fibre.
- The dye ability of fibres comes under chemical properties and it is also discussed under each
fibre.
- It is the effect of acids , alkalis or solvents on a fiber.

Textile chemicals (basic chemicals such as acids, bases and salts/ solvents) Colorants, such as:
o Dyes and Dye-protective agents
o Fixing agents
o Leveling agents
o pH regulators
o Carriers
o UV absorbers

Following steps shows the different stages of textile manufacturing process where chemicals are
applied
 Washing and scouring of fibers and yarn
 Bleaching of yarn and cloth
 Mercerizing of yarn and cloth
 Dyeing of yarn and cloth
 Printing of cloth and garment
 Finishing of cloth and garment
 Washing of treated yarn, cloth and garment

Chemical reactivity and resistance-

- Chemical reactivity plays a key role in manufacture, application of finishes and care of
fabrics.

~ 17 ~
 - Resistance to acids, alkalis and organic solvents in similar for fibers of one chemical
composition. Thus, cellulosic's are fairly resistant to alkalis but get harmed by acids and
the reverse is true for protein fiber.

Biological Properties

1. Ageing resistance

 As defined by DIN 50035, ageing refers to all the chemical and physical processes to a
material that irreversibly occur over time. Polymeric materials can age for a variety of
reasons, such as heat, UV radiation and media, and ageing is highly dependent on operating
and environmental conditions, e.g. the service temperature.
 The ageing of polymeric materials largely depends on the operating and ambient conditions.

2. Sunlight resistance- is the ability to withstand degradation from sunlight.

3. Resistance to moth

 Moth is a small insect that feeds on substances like keratin and fibroin and so animal fibres
are more susceptible to the attack of moth
 It is mainly carried out on wool fabrics as the keratin molecules are consumed by moths as
food.
Since woolen fabrics are costlier, they have to be protected from moth.
 “Moth proofing is a finishing which is given to prevent the growth of moth.” It is one kind of
special finishing process of textile. It is a chemical and property giving finish.

4. Mildew resistance – to development of unsightly fungal growth and un-pleasant , musty

adores on cloth.

NATURAL FIBERS- cellulosic

1. Cotton

Cotton is a popular fiber obtained form the cotton plant. It is a seed fiber obtained from the seed pod
of the cotton plant .It is one of the oldest known fibers. It is grown in hot climates in many parts of the
world, making it widely available and inexpensive. Earliest use of cotton has been estimated between
3,000 BC to 5,000 BC. .

COTTON PRODUCRES
The major producers of cotton are United States, Soviet States, China and India. The other producers
include Pakistan, Brazil, Turkey, Egypt, Mexico Iran and Sudan.

COTTON- Chemical composition:

Cotton when picked is 94% cellulose &
When in finished fabrics it is 99% cellulose

~ 18 ~
With reactive hydroxyl groups
Average no. of glucose monomers contributes to fibre strength.

COTTON: Physical structure

PARAMETER EFFECT
½- 2” Depending upon genetic
LENGTH variety Long staples are of higher quality
Long staple cottons: Pima, Supima-
U.S.
Egyptian cotton, Suvin – Southern Used to produce softer, smoother,
India stronger and more lustrous fabrics
Ribbon like twists that characterise
cotton; increases
• spin ability,
• cohesiveness of the fibres
• May trap soil, requires vigorous
CONVOLUTIONS Long staple cotton has 300 cpi cleaning to remove it

Types of cotton :

Quality of cotton varies by factors like soil, climate, fertilizers pest. Quality of cotton fibre is based on
its colour (degree of whiteness), length, fineness & strength. Longer fibres are fine & stronger.

Upland : 22– 32 mm. - white, strong, dull.

American Pima: 35 – 38 mm. - fine, strong, lustrous, and silky.
Egyptian - Giza: 68/45 - fine fabric (sewing thread),
Creamy-brown-white. L > 32 – 38 mm. - light brown, fine, strong
Asiatic - Coarse fibre - less than 25 mm. – used in surgical supplies.

COTTON ORIGIN AND GROWTH

- Cotton is a fibre that grown from the surface of seeds in the pods or bolls of a bushing mallow
plant, its basically composed of cellulose.
- Cotton plant during Planting & Growth needs lot of water and for Ripening needs lot of heat.
- Mainly Grown in TROPICAL & Sub-TROPICAL Belt.
- After flowering …Fruit Nodes Grow into CAPSULE , which Cracks open to reveal Seed HAIRS
- Each Ball has 30 Seeds.
- A seed fibre; fibres develop in the seedpod of the plant
- Cotton requires a long growing season
- Climate should be hot temperature with adequate rainfall & irrigation
- Each cotton seed may have 20,000 fibres growing from its surface.

~ 19 ~
COTTON PRODUCTION

Harvesting : (Hand pick/machine pick) March – April - Seed is sowed.

June – July - Flowering
September - Cotton is ready.

Picking : Cotton fibres are picked from the boll either by hand picking or machine picking method.
Drying - Newly harvested seed is wet. Dry by Warm Air
Ginning : It is removing cotton fiber from seeds by machines but traditionally women used small
hand of foot gins. ( Cotton fibres are separated from seeds by ginning.)

A bale plucker- A bale plucker feeds fibre to the spinning mill from an assemblage of individual
cotton bales (a lay down). This step is considered part of the opening process. The plucker takes a
small layer of fibre from the top of all the bales on each pass. Fibre is then transferred to the cleaning
line. The inset shows how the plucker head removes a small layer of fibre from each bale as it travels
back and forth along the lay down.

~ 20 ~
 8’wide 30’ tall 32’ long

Baling : Fibres are packed into rectangle bales. Fibre as seed coat, leaves or stem & also dirt, 500
pounds (225 k.g.)
Blending- Blending brings together fibre tufts from many bales to form a consistent, homogenous mix.
Cleaning- Cleaning removes extraneous matter from desirable fibre. There are four basic principles
of cleaning:
 Beating action
 Density differences
 Centrifugal and inertial forces
 Air flow
 Carding

Carding Process :- The initial process of arranging the fibres in a parallel fashion is known as
carding.
Carding aligns, parallels, cleans and condenses fibre into other important capabilities of carding are:
 Nep reduction
 Short fibre reduction
 Dust removal
 Leveling

~ 21 ~
 Diagram of a carding

Combing- It is used when finer yarns are to be prepared. Sliver is put through additional
straightening, where fibres are straightened & short fibers called noils are combed out & separated.
Combed sliver has long fibres, which give more even yarn.

Combing removes short fibres, straightens and blends. Combing is done according to the requirement
of the fabric to be made .

Carded yarn Combed yarn

Drawing

Several slivers are combined for drawing or drafting process to remove the irregularity. Sets of rollers
draw the sliver to give more longer & thinner sliver. Slub is formed which is given slight twist & wound
on the bobbin. Drawing blends, straightens, and levels //

~ 22 ~
 Diagram of drawing sliver

Drawing is the process where the fibers are blended, straightened and the number of fibers in the
sliver reduced in order to achieve the desired linear density in the spinning process.

 The drawing process also improves the uniformity or evenness of the sliver.
 The number of drawing passages utilized depends on the spinning system used and the end
products.

Roving The bobbins are placed on roving frame where further drawing out & twisting take place
giving the final product for producing yarn.

Ring Spinning Roving on ring frame passes through several rollers which give the final size of yarn
by drawing out roving, inserting twist & winding the yarn on bobbin.

Spinning - The insertion of twist into the fibre strand is necessary to give integrity and strength to
the fibre bundle. The methods employed for inserting this twisting action are distinctly different
depending on the spinning technology used. Because the methods for inserting twist are different, the
resulting yarn structures also display their own unique forms.

Winding – The yarn is wound into various packages according to the weight or length of the yarn
and its end use. Some of the common yarn packages for fabric construction are ball ( yarns for hand
knitting ).

~ 23 ~
 PROPERTIES OF COTTON:
1. Physical Properties

1. Structure: The cotton fiber is short (1/2 inch -2 long inch) and cylindrical or tubular as it grows.
The cotton fiber is essentially cellulose consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Bleached cotton is
almost pure cellulose raw cotton
Contains about 5% of impurities.

2. Strength: Cotton is a medium strength fibre. Its dry breaking tenacity is 3.5 ~4.0 g/d. 30%
stronger when wet
Cotton fiber is relatively strong which is due to the intricate structure and 70% crystalline.

3. Elasticity/ Elongation- Fibre elongation is low 3% and Low elasticity. Cotton is relatively inelastic
because of its crystalline polymer system and for this reason cotton textile wrinkle and crease readily.

4. Hygroscopic moisture: Cotton does not hold moisture so well as wool or silk but absorbs it and
so feels damp much more quickly. It also rapidly spreads throughout the material.

5. Electrical property: The hygroscopic nature ordinarily prevents cotton textile materials from
developing static electricity.

6. Absorbency: As cotton has good absorbency. Good for heavy fabric structures than thinner
structures

7. Thermal properties Cotton fibers have the ability to conduct heat energy, minimizing any
destructive heat accumulation thus they can withstand hot ironing temperature.
IRONING- Cotton is not thermoplastic & hence can be ironed at high temperatures; however it burns
readily.

8. Drap ability: Cotton does not have good body to drape well in shape. The type of construction of
the fabric may improve this property.

9. Resilience: Cotton wrinkles easily some wrinkle resistant finishes may reduce this property.

10. Cleanliness and wash ability: Though cotton absorbs dust due to its rough nature. It can be
washed easily in the hot water and strong soaps without damaging the fiber.

11. Shrinkage: The fiber itself does not shrink but cotton fiber which has been stretched in the
finishing process tends to relax back creating shrinkage.

12. Heat conductivity: Cotton is the better conductor of heat than wool or silk but not as good as
rayon.

13. Crease Resist / easy Care finish

 The elasticity of cotton, and hence its resistance to creasing can be improved by cross linking
the cellulose chain, using synthetic resins. This helps retain the appearance.

~ 24 ~
14. Luster: The natural cotton has no pronounced luster. This can be improved by the mercerization
finish of the cotton (that is sodium hydroxide treatment).

Mercerization of Cotton:

 Cotton fibre becomes like a flat ribbon with many twists after desiccation.
 Cotton is treated with caustic soda to improve its luster, dye ability & strength.
 During the mercerization, swell and de-swelling of cotton fibre takes place which resulted in
the cylindrical form of the fibre.
 There are many more other reagents, which can be used for mercerization.
 Mercerization initiates from disruption of crystalline area cotton fibre.

Raw Cotton Mercerized Cotton

2. Chemical properties

1. Action of acids and alkalis Strong acids will destroy the fibers immediately. Dilute inorganic acids
will weaken the fibre and if left dry will rot it. Therefore after treatment with acidic solutions cotton
articles should be thoroughly rinsed in water. They are affected very little by organic acids. They are
also quite resistant to alkalis even to strong caustic alkalis at high temperature and pressure.

2. Effect of bleaching: These have no effects until used in uncontrolled conditions and with heat.

Effect of sunlight and weather: Ultraviolet rays of sunlight affect the strength of fiber and change
the color to yellow when exposed to prolonged period. Pollution also effect fiber. Concentrated and
diluted mineral acids like sulphuric acids will discolor fiber . Cotton oxidises & degrades in sunlight,
turns yellow.

3. Color Grade Color grade is determined by the degree of reflectance (Rd) and yellowness (+b) as
established by official standards and measured by the high volume instrument. Reflectance indicates
how bright or dull a sample is, and yellowness indicates the degree of pigmentation.

4. Affinity to dyes: Cotton takes in dyes better than linen but not as readily as silk and wool. If a
mordant is used cotton is easy enough to dye mordant colors, direct or substantive dyes should be
applied to the cotton.

5. Effect of perspiration: Both acidic and alkaline perspiration discolors the fiber.
WASH- Can be washed with strong detergents and requires no special care during washing & drying
BLEACH- Chlorine bleach is appropriate just for spot removal; on regular basis may weaken cellulosic
fibres.

Biological properties
~ 25 ~
1. Mildew resistance- (Resistance to microorganisms) the mildew and bacteria damages cotton.
Resistance to insects: Moths and beetles will not affect or damage the cotton. But the sliver fish eats
the cotton cellulose.
Cotton should be stored in clean & dry as mildew develops in damp weather & digests cellulose
leaving behind holes in the fabric

COTTON SEAL

 Introduced in 1973, the Seal of Cotton trademark was created to provide a visual reference
for consumers to identify products made of cotton.
 This is a logo for Cotton Incorporated.
 The entire logo is used to convey the meaning intended and avoid
tarnishing or misrepresenting the intended image.

2. LINEN
- It is natural vegetable Bast fiber
- Flax is one of the oldest documented textile fibers.
- Linen is a fiber with an ancient history.
- The recorded usage of Flax can be dated back to 5000 BC and it is
considered to be the oldest natural textile fiber.
- It was probably first textile fibre used. Bodies of kings in Egypt were used
for burial. Liner has always been considered the fabric of luxury.
- It gives cool, crisp, clean & attractive look.
- The term Linen refers to the fabric made from Flax
- Today, Flax is a prestige fibre as a result of limited production & high fibre
cost
- The unique and desirable characteristics of Flax are its body, strength, durability, low pilling &
thick & thin structures.

Flax Origin
- Linen is a bast fiber as it comes from the stems of flax plants , and produces a strong, lustrous
yarn.
- Bast fibers are composed of cellulose (71%)
- Medium weight fiber and Natural to light tan color.
- Spun fiber but with
- Flax is a self-pollinating crop.
- Common flax is the national flower of Belarus.

Seed of flax plant- The seeds produce flaxseed oil. After processing by solvent extraction, flaxseed
oil is called linseed oil, which is one of the oldest commercial oils and has been used for centuries as a
drying oil in painting and varnishing. The use of flax seed and flaxseed oil (which is the most
concentrated source of the omega-3 alpha - linolenic acid) as a nutritional supplement is increasing.

Flax Producers
- Flax plant is grown in countries where cheap labour & also during fabric manufacturing
unusual care has to be taken to keep its strength & beauty.
- Soviet States, Poland, Germany, Belgium ,France & one of the key exporters are Northern
Ireland and Belgium.
- Belgium produces best quality linen & Ireland for best workmanship (white colour &
strength). Scottish linen is lighter used for canvases for tarpaulins. (European)

Types of Flax

~ 26 ~
 - Courtrai Flax
- Irish linen
- Scottish Linen
- French Linen
- Russian Flex
- German Linen
FLAX : STRUCTURE

- Flax fibres can be identified microscopically by crosswise markings called nodes or joints that
contributes to its flexibility. The fibres have a small central canal similar to cotton.
- The primary fibre of Flax averages 5.0 to 21.5 inches in length and 12 ~ 16 microns in
diameter
- Flax has more highly oriented molecular structure than cotton , it is stronger than cotton
- Flax is similar to cotton in its chemical composition (71% cellulose)
- Flax has a longer polymer(a higher degree of polymerisation) & greater orientation and
crystallinity.

From field to Mill:

USES

~ 27 ~
APPAREL FABRICS:
Shirts, blouses, underwear, night wear, outwear, trousers, leisure wear, professional clothing.

HOUSEHOLD TEXTILES:
Bed clothes, table and kitchen cloth, decorative fabrics, hand and bath towels.

PROPERTIES OF LINEN FIBER

Strength:
Two to three times stronger than cotton

Elasticity:
Linen is the least elastic natural fabric.
Elasticity is the extent to which a fibre can be elongated or stretched and the then returned to its
normal condition and size.
Flax has very low elongation of approx. 7%
Elasticity is poor with a 65% recovery at only 2% elongation

Resilience:
Linen is quite stiff and wrinkles easily
Resilience refers to the extent to which a fabric can be deformed by crushing or compressing it, and
finally returning it to its original condition
It has poor resiliency thus wrinkles easily and very badly

Absorbency:
fiber absorbs moisture and dries more quickly
Flax has a high Moisture regain of 12%.
It has excellent strength, its dry strength is better than the dry strength of cotton and its strength
increases when wet.

Abrasion :
Good abrasion resistance because of crystallinity.

Heat Conductivity:
Heat conductivity of linen is five times as high as that of wool and 19 times as that of silk
It is most suitable for use in summers, as the fibre allows the heat to escape, leaving a cool effect.

Crisp
The linen fabric has a crisp feel with a distinctive outlook and feel
Good Abrasion Resistant
it also has good abrasion resistance

No static electricity
Another property of linen is that it does not accumulate static electricity

Aesthetics
Flax has high natural lustre that is softened by its irregular fibre bundles
Linen fabrics are stiffer in drape as of higher DP & larger fibre diameter
It is attacked by mildew and silverfish. New developments in antimicrobial finishes can overcome this
disadvantage.

NATURAL FIBERS- Protein

~ 28 ~
3. WOOL

 Wool is a natural protein fiber, which can be converted into textile material.
 It is a staple fibre.
 Wool is obtained from wild species of sheep as a short fluffy undercoat concealed by hair.
 It provides warmth and physical comfort, better than cotton or linen.
 The quality of wool fiber is determined by the climate, food, general care, breed and health of
the sheep.
 There are nearly 40 breeds and 200 distinct grades of sheep.

They are classified into 4 groups:

S.No Name Size Description

1 Merino Wool 1-5 inches Obtained from merino sheep. Is strong, fine, and elastic and has
maximum crimp.
2 Class-Two 2-8 inches Obtained from sheep of England, Scotland, Ireland & Wales.
wool Wool is fine with large no. of scales, good crimp, strong, fine &
elastic.
3 Class-Three 4-18 inches Obtained from sheep of UK. Wool is coarse, has few scales, less
wool crimp, less elastic, resilient but lustrous.
4 Class-Four 1-16 inches Obtained from half-bred Mongrel Sheep. Fibers are coarse, hair
wool like having few scales, little crimp, is smooth & lustrous.

Wool Producers
Australia 1/3 of wool produced in world fine wool.
USSR & USA Produce fine & medium wool.
UK, Argentina Produce medium & coarse wool.
India, Pakistan Produce coarse wool.
Average yield of raw wool per year per sheep in most of the countries is about 2.5 k.g.

Structure of Wool
Wool fiber has a scaly longitudinal structure and cross sectional structure.
Wool, felts when the scales of the fiber entangles with one another in the presence of heat, moisture
& friction.

Fleece:

~ 29 ~
It’s the wooly coat of a sheep. Sheep are shorn off their fleece in spring. There are various types of
fleece
TYPES OF FLEECE

S.No. Name Description

1 Lamb’s Wool The First fleece sheared from a lab 6-8 month old. It’s Very Fine & Soft.

2 Hogget Wool It is obtained from sheep 12 to 14 months old shorn for the first time. It
contains more of soil and dirt.
3 Pulled wool Obtained from sheep that are slaughtered for meat. It is not a good
quality wool and its roots might get damaged due to chemicals.
4 Dead wool Obtained from accidently Killed sheep. It is of inferior grade.
5 Cotty wool Sheep exposed to harsh climatic condition. It’s felted, hard & Brittle. Of
very poor grade.
6 Tag locks Torn, ragged or discolored fleece. Inferior grade wool.

WOOL LABELING

Wool can be used in pure form or as a blend. Being difficult to identify the products are labeled with
the following marks.

QUALITIES OF WOOL

From a single fleece we can obtain 14 different varieties of wool.

The best quality of wool is obtained from Shoulder – part no. 1 being least exposed to the
environment. Wool is long & fine.
One fleece produces various qualities of wool fiber ( 1- 14 on the diagram given below) with number 1
giving the softest, finest and longest fibers.

MANUFACTURING OF WOOL

~ 30 ~
SHEARING
The sheep is shorn using electric shears the layer comes off from sheep/Animal is called FLEECE.

Wool fibre sheared from live sheep is called clipped wool or fleece wool.
Wool removed from dead sheep is called pulled wool (which is not as good as clipped wool).

GRADING / SORTING
After shearing wool is Sorted & Graded according to the fineness, crimp, length , impurities and color.

SCOURING
Wool which has been shorn is known as greasy wool, which not only contains grease, the basis of
which is lanolin, but also other contaminants including suint ( a natural greasy substance in sheep's
wool) , dirt, dust and sand.
A un scoured wool fleece weight 1 and 6 kgs. About 40% of this weight is Grease ( Lanolin), crimp,
length , impurities.
Scouring is the process of washing wool in hot water and detergent to remove the non-wool
contaminants and then drying it. It has always been an important step in the wool processing train. A
growing concern for the environment has led to increased demands on the scouring process.

CARBONIZNG
Carbonizing is done to remove the cellulosic impurities from wool by treatment with acid or acid
producing salts. Carbonizing may be carried out in loose wool or on piece goods after scouring.
Carbonizing is a continuous process which combines scouring to remove the wool grease and a
chemical process which removes vegetable matter such as seeds, burs and grass. Carbonizing occurs if
the greasy wool contains a high percentage of vegetable matter (%VM), typically in excess of 2% to 3%.

CARDING
Wool fibers are cleaned and separated to uniform and flat loose sheet to form sliver form to convert
into yarn.

SPINNING

~ 31 ~
 Wool fibers are spun into- Fine, smooth yarns by the worsted process and Bulky yarns by the woolen
process
So 2 types of wools are spun after cleaning process –

Woolen System & Worsted System

In both the systems, fleece is sorted & grades, Scoured and carbonized.
Woolens: In woolen system the fleece is further carded and directly spun into yarns.
It is a general term describing various fabrics woven from woolen yarn. Woolen yarn is spun from the
shorter wool fibers. These fabrics have a soft surface. Common woolen fabrics include tweeds, fleeces
and melons.

Worsteds: In worsted system the fleece is further carded, combed, drawn, roved and finally spun into
yarns.
It is a general term describing various fabrics woven from worsted yarns containing the longer fibers
spun from combed wool. Worsted wool fabrics have tightly woven, smooth, clear finished goods e.g.
Gents woolen suit length

PROPERTIES OF WOOL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EFFECT

FIBER LENGTH 1 to 16 inches Depends on the variety of wool
FIBER STRUCTURE Scaly, uneven with striations Less lustrous, has an uneven and crimpy texture
FINENESS Usually crimpy Produce Rough & dull Fabrics with elastic property
LONGITUDINAL Overlapping Scales Provides elasticity, resiliency, warmth and felting
SECTIONAL SHAPE properties to wool.

DURABILITY
Abrasion resistance Is quiet low.
Tenacity It is the weakest natural fiber and hence has to be tightly plied together to
make it strength & abrasion resistant.
Elongation Due to crimps, it can elongate.

AESTHETIC PROPERTIES

~ 32 ~
 Luster Poor, Dull due to uneven and scaly surface
Drape Has an excellent drape, is pliable and elastic too.
Texture Depends upon the type of wool
Hand Depends upon the type of wool

COMFORT
Absorbency Initially it tends to repel water.
Once moisture seeps in, the fiber absorbs 20 % moisture OWF.
Comfortable to be worn
Can hence be easily Dyed & Printed
Dries slowly
Thermal retention Non-Conductor of heat
Prevents body heat to radiate outwards
Is comfortable to be worn in winters.

APPEARANCE RETENTION
Resiliency It has high degree of resiliency
It wrinkles very less
Dimensional stability Becomes dimensionally unstable if not taken care of properly
Elastic recovery It has elastic properties but looses little of its elasticity with time. Hence having
low elastic recovery.

RECOMMENDED CARE
Washing & Laundry It attracts dirt
Hence has to be frequently washed & Dry cleaned.
Always wash in Cold using mild soap.
Avoid agitation when wet. (Wet Strength)
Reaction to bleaches Strong Bleaches deteriorate wool
Use mild bleaches like hydrogen Peroxide or sodium per borate.
Effect of heat It is heat sensitive and decomposes at 100 degree centigrade.
Effect of light Prolonged exposure to sunlight weakens wool fibers.

Category of Qualities of Wool

(i) Fine wool (4c.m. – 12c.m. / 24 microns)
(ii) Medium wool (5 – 10c.m. / 24 – 32.5 microns)
(iii) Coarse wool according to fineness of fibre. (6c.m – 5c.m(carpets) / more than 32.5 micron).

USES
 APPAREL FABRICS:
Shirts, Blouses, Underwear, Night Wear, Outwear, Trousers, Gloves, Caps and other winter wears.
 HOUSEHOLD TEXTILES:
Blankets, Rugs, Carpets, Bed clothes, Furniture coverings etc .

FEW BREEDS WHICH PRODUCING WOOL-

~ 33 ~
1. QIVUIT

 Rare, luxurious fiber,

 The musk ox has a two-layered coat Under wool of domesticated
musk ox—6 lbs. of wool per year
 Can be used just as it comes from animal
 Resembles cashmere in hand & texture—much warmer.
 Shed naturally

2. MOHAIR

 Angora goat
 Major producers: south Africa, U.S., Turkey
 Sheared twice a year—fall & spring
 Adult goat yields about 5 lbs. of fiber
 Fiber length 4-6 inches/8-12 inches
 Used in hand-knitting yarns, pile fabrics &suiting.

3. CAMEL HAIR

 Obtained from two-humped, Bactrian camel

 Major producers: China, Mongolia, Iran, Afghanistan, Russia, New
Zealand, Tibet, Australia
 Collected as shed or sheared—about 5 lbs./year
 Often blended with sheep’s wool
 Used in coats, jackets,
 Scarves & sweaters.

4. CASHMERE

 Small cashmere goat

 Raised in China, Mongolia, Tibet, Afghanistan, Iran
 Vary in color from white to gray to brownish gray
 Used for sweaters, coats, suits, jackets, loungewear & blankets
 Fabrics are warm, buttery in hand,
 And have beautiful draping

5. ANGORA

 Hair of angora rabbit

 Produced in Europe, Chile, China, & U.S.
 Harvested up to 4 times/year—plucking or shearing
 Fiber yield varies with rabbit, health, breed 8-30 oz.
Two most common breeds— English—fine, silky fiber & French—
coarser

6. LLAMA & ALPACA

~ 34 ~
  Domesticated animals of south American camel family branch
 Fiber 8-12 inches long
 Noted for softness, fineness, & luster—appreciated by fashion designers
 Natural colors range from white-light fawn, light brown, dark brown, gray & black
 Used for apparel, handcrafts & rugs
 More difficult to dye than other wools
 Llama is coarser and most often used for coats, suiting’s, ponchos & shawls

7. VICUNA & GUANACO

 Rare wild animals of south American camel family

 Were killed for fiber, now sheared similar to sheep
 Vicuna is one of softest, finest, rarest and most expensive
of all textile fibers
 Short, very lustrous fiber; light cinnamon in color

8. YAK

 Produced by large ox found in Tibet& central Asia

 Collected by combing out during spring molt
 Fiber is smooth & lustrous
 Often used natively in apparel, rope, tent covers
 Coarser than cashmere
 Dark brown or black.

NATURAL FIBERS- Protein

~ 35 ~
4. SILK
Silk is a natural protein fiber, which can be converted into textile material.
It is the only natural filament fibre.
It is a product of a life cycle of a silk cocoon.
Silk culture began in China in 2640 B.C.—later spread to Korea & Japan, westward to India & Persia,
then to Spain, France & Italy

Silk is produced in China, India, South Korea & Brazil.

Silk Composition
It’s a continuous strand of two filaments:
Sericin : Sericin is gumming matter which is removed by dipping the cocoons in hot water bath.

Fibroin: is main protein.

Cemented together to form a cocoon. The two together make a filament named SILK

Although cocoon contain 2700 Mt. of continuous filament, only about 900 Mt. is suitable for filament
silk. First & last part is of poor quality hence cut.

Production of Silk
- Silk worms eat leaves of mulberry tree.
- They mate and lay eggs (approx. 500 no.)
- The eggs hatch and Larva start to feed on Mulberry Leaves.
- They eat the leaves and molt 3 times.
- After nearly 4 weeks they start cocooning.
- They make 1-2 inch long cocoons and get trapped inside it.
- After a few days the pupa emerges out tearing off the cocoon.

Sericulture

~ 36 ~
 - It is the production of cocoons for their filaments.
- Within 3 days after emerging from the cocoon, the moths mate
- They lay nearly 350 to 400 eggs and then die.
- They are bred in neat and clean environment and given healthy feed to yield good quality
lustrous silk.
- This silk is known as cultivated variety.
- The usable length of yarn obtained is nearly 1000-1200 yards.
- Some cocoons are subjected to head for reeling while some are allowed to break out of
cocoon to produce eggs for next crop of silk.

Eg. for 5 m.t. silk saree 6000 silk worms have to be stifled & they need to be feed 150 k.g. of mulberry
leaves. Twice the no. of silk worms are need to be reared due to 50% mortality rate.

Additional finishing processes

~ 37 ~
The purpose of these processes is to restore the fabric’s natural brilliance, softness, and characteristic
hand, counteracting the drying effects of previous treatments.

Calendering: Steel rotary cylinders press the fabric as it passes between them. By varying the speed
of rotation and the heat or pressure, various degrees of glossiness and softness can be
achieved.

Breaking: A breaking machine, or breaker, is used to lend a particularly soft hand and brilliance to the
surface of the fabric. Two types of machine can be used. The first is known as the
“button,” because the fabric is passed rapidly back and forth over small rollers with brass buttons. The
alternative machine has slanted knives, and the fabric is similarly passed rapidly back and forth over
them.

Steaming: This is applied to pile weaves to encourage them to fluff out and appear more voluminous.

Pressing and lustering: The fabric is passed through heated rollers and then soaked in dilute acid to
bring out the luster. This process removes wrinkles from the finished fabric.

MICROSCOPIC VIEW:

Cross Section: TriangularLongitudinal Section: Even with sericin spots

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF SILK:

PARAMETER EFFECT
LENGTH OF 1600 yards Long filament , Luxurious hand ,
THE FIBER Shiny
FIBER Wild Variety: Flat, Non uniform and not proper Less lustrous, flat and rough.
STRUCTURE triangular.
Cultivated Variety: Round, uniform and More lustrous and smooth.
triangular
FINENESS Wild Variety: May vary from 28~30 microns in Produce Rough & Comparatively
diameter dull Fabrics
Cultivated Variety: May vary from 10~13 Produce smoother softer &
microns in diameter lustrous fabrics
CROSS – Wild Variety: Not proper triangular Dull look
SECTIONAL
SHAPE
Cultivated Variety: Uniform and triangular Very shiny

VARIETIES OF SILK
Type of silk Name of silkworm Feeds on Characteristic Uses

~ 38 ~
Mulberry ( Bombyxmori Leaves of Mostly cultivated, soft High end
Cultvated mulberry plant & has high luster.The garments
silk) fibre is flat, non-
uniform, thicker & less
lustrous than the
triangular, thin,
cultivated silk fibre.
Tussar Antheraeamylitta Food plants asan Lustrous than Used for
and arjun mulberry silk, has its Furnishings
own feel and appeal. and interiors
Tussah silk is flat,
uneven, rough and
less lustrous.
Oak tussar Antheraeaproyeli J Natural food Less lustrous Furnishings
(Wild Silk) plants of oak. Oak and interiors
Tussah is the wild
variety of silk
obtained only
naturally.
Eri Philosamiaricini Castor leaves The eri cocoons are Preparation
open-mouthed and of chaddars (
are spun. wraps) for
own use.
Muga Antheraeaassamensi Aromatic leaves of Soft smooth less High value
s som and soalu lustrous than products like
plants mulberry silk sarees,
mekhalas,
chaddars etc.
Dupion Silk
This kind of silk is obtained when two silk worms nest together in one cocoon. It is
characterized by slubs or thick n thin filaments
Spun Silk It is made by spinning short lengths of inferior quality silk filaments.

PROPERTIES OF SILK FIBER

AESTHETIC PROPERTIES
Luster 1. Wild Variety: Dull but has inherent shine due to the triangular structure.
2. Cultivated Variety: High Shine due to even triangular structure.
Drape Silk is both pliable and supple, helps it give an excellent drape.
Texture 1. Wild Variety: Flat, Rough and uneven
2. Cultivated Variety: Smooth and silky
Hand 1. Wild Variety: Feels a little Rough
2. Cultivated Variety: Very soft

DURABILITY
Abrasion It is the strongest natural fiber.
resistance Smoothness help reduce abrasion

~ 39 ~
Tenacity High strength due to even diameter
Its molecular layout & construction helps make its strength.
th th
Elongation It has elastic properties -Can elongate to 1/7 to 1/5 of its original length.

COMFORT
Absorbency Good absorptive property
Comfortable to be worn
Can hence be easily Dyed & Printed
Thermal Non-Conductor of heat
retention Prevents body heat to radiate outwards
Is comfortable to be worn in winters.

APPEARANCE RETENTION
Resiliency Can retain its shape and resist wrinkling
Spun silk has less resiliency.
Dimensional Has excellent dimensional stability
stability Unwashed silk chiffon may shrink up to 8% due to a relaxation of the fibre
macrostructure
Elastic recovery It has elastic properties but loses little of its elasticity with time. Hence having
low elastic recovery.

Recommended Care
Washing & Being smooth, does not attract dirt
Laundry Hence easy to Wash & Dry clean.
Always wash in mild soap.
Avoid agitation when wet. (Wet Strength)
Reaction to Strong Bleaches deteriorate silk
bleaches Use mild bleaches like hydrogen Peroxide or sodium perborate.
Effect of heat It is heat sensitive and decomposes at 165 degree centigrade.
Effect of light Continuous exposure to sunlight weakens silk faster than other fibers.

FEW PICTURES OF SILK WARM / COCOON / SILK PROCESSING

~ 40 ~
 OTHER NATURAL FIBERS
CELLULOSIC
~ 41 ~
 Vegetable (cellulose)
Seed kapok
Bast Jute
Hemp
Ramie
Leaf Sisal ( Manila)
Abaca
Fruit Pina fiber
coconut/ Coir.

1. KAPOK ( SEED)
Kapok fiber is the seed pod fluff of a rain forest tree called the Ceiba tree or the silk cotton tree. The
pods are harvested in the East and the trees are left standing. The fluff is actually buoyant; it was used
in the designs for the first life jackets, that is, until synthetic foams came on the market. Its feel is
similar to the light weight feeling of down, but without the allergies and the loss of loft that go with
feathers. The silk is luxurious to the touch and a medium firm support.

Pillows stuffed with kapok act most like standard pillows. They have loft, can be fluffed, do not need to
be punched in the middle of the night and retain their shape well. Kapok makes a great decorative
pillow as overstuffing a pillow case with it highlights the pillow’s shape and fabric well.

PROPERTIES-
The fibre can be 2–4 cm long
The fibres contains approx. 80% air, it have thin walls of cellulose with many cavities.
The fibres are fragile and break easily; therefore they are not suitable for weaving or spinning to textile
fabric
it is also lightweight, non-allergic, non-toxic, resistant to rot and odorless.
since it is inelastic and too fragile, itcan't be spun.
However, it is possible to weave kapok when it is mixed in small percentages of other fibres
Kapok fibre is 8 times lighter than cotton
Kapok fibre is hydrophobic (water-repellent) because the fibres are coated with a thin layer of wax
It can support as much as 30times its own weight in water and loses only 10 percent of buoyancy over
a 30-day period.
It is eight times lighter than cotton

2. JUTE (BAST)
Jute is one of the cheapest natural fibres and is second only to cotton in amount produced and variety
fibres are composed primarily of the plant cellulose and lignin
nd
Jute is a major commercial natural fibre of cellulosic origin, bast fibre. 2 most widely used after
cotton, oldest fibres used by man.

Quality of Jute fibre :

colour-yellow-brown, natural silky luster gray.

~ 42 ~
coarse & harsh to feel.
good quality is smooth & soft.
more durable to deterioration by bacterial attach under damp conditions than cotton / flax.
not strong as flax or hemp. Jute is an annual plant. 5 to 10 feet (stalk of finger)

CULTIVATION OF JUTE

Once our economy was largely dependent to jute and it was our main crop to earn the highest amount
of foreign currency. Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) has developed. The cultivation of jute
follows the steps Below:--
- Land preparation
- Use of pesticides
- Sowing the seed in time at proper distance
- Irrigation
- Cutting the jute plant
- Jute rotting- Method of removing fibre is to steep in the streams or ponds known as retting.
- Fiber collection
- Washing and dyeing Drying /Scutching (mechanical beating) (For removing fibre from stalk).
- Fiber processing

Properties
Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong
It is a lingo -cellulosic fibre that is partially a textile fibre and partially wood.
The plant grows up to a height of 2.5m and its fibre length is about 2m.
it has a good resistance to microorganisms and insects.
it has low wet strength, low elongation and inexpensive to reduce

Use : Sack & packing clothes, storage of products, as furnishing cloth, packing of tufted carpet.
Very high resistance to stretching.
3. HEMP (BAST)

Bast Fibres of ancient Asian. grown in Philippines, China, Mexico, India, Maharashtra, TamilNadu &
North Gujrat.

~ 43 ~
Depending on the processing used to remove the fiber from the stem, the hemp naturally maybe
creamy white, brown, gray, black or green. Production is same as flax fibre

Hemp fibre is a lustrous fibre. Stronger than linen & jute fibre. Hence, ideal for making twine, ropes,
cables, carpets, sail cloth etc.

Properties
it is yellowish brown fibre
Hemp fibers can be 3 to 15 feet long, running the length of the plant.
Characteristics of hemp fibre are its superior strength and durability, resistance to ultraviolet light and
mold, comfort and good absorbency

4. RAMIE (BAST)
Vegetable origin, bast fibres grown chiefly variety is called china grass or Rbea. Ramie is one of
the oldest fibre crops, having been used for.

~ 44 ~
Manufacture is same as Linen fibre process.
Finished fibre is fine, silky & strong.
Used for table linen like tray clothes, table clothes & napkins.
Gum in fibre makes fabric to remain stiff when pressed damp so no need to starch.
Ramie is more absorbent than cottons. Its wet strength 30 – 60 % more than dry.
Used by the countries as a substitute to cotton because of quota policy.
Ramie additional advantage is being unshrinkable & high resistance to biological attack.

Properties
Ramie requires chemical processing to de-gum the fibre.
it is fine absorbent ,quick drying fibre, is slightly stiff and possesses high natural lustre.
its plant height is 2.5m and its strength is eight times more than cotton.
Ramie is one of the strongest natural fibers.
It is better strength when wet.
It is similar to linen.
It is not durable as other fibers, and so is usually used as a blend with other fibers such as cotton or
wool.
It is known especially for its ability to hold shape, reduce wrinkling, and introduce a silky lustre to the
fabric appearance

5. Abaca Fibre

Banana fibre called abaca & it is a Leaf Fibre.

Abaca is extracted from the leaf sheath around the trunk of the abaca plant (Musa textilis), a close
relative of the banana, native to the Philippines and widely distributed in the humid tropics. Harvesting
abaca is labour intensive as each stalk must be cut into strips which are scraped to remove the pulp.
The fibres are then washed and dried.

Banana fibre produced today is mainly used for ropes & cordage, ship cables, wet –drilling cables,
fishing net. Also used in manufacture of strong high-grade paper, hand bags. Also used for making
rope, cords, mats, and hat.

~ 45 ~
6. SISAL ( MANILA)
Leaf grows from the base of the plant & each leaf is cut by hand close to the ground roots in the salt
water. (East India)
Sisal fibre is fairly coarse and inflexible. It is valued for cordage use because of its strength, durability,
ability to stretch, affinity for certain dyestuffs, and resistance to deterioration in saltwater. Sisal is used
by industry in three grades:
The higher-grade fibre after treatment is converted into yarns and used by the carpet industry.
The fibre is also used for non-woven matting, brushing and roving.

7. COCONUT /Coir (Fruit Fibre)

Coir Fibre is extracted from the fibrous outer cover of the fruit of the Coconut palm, with or without
retting. Coir Fibre is graded based on its nature of extraction, colour, presence of long and short fibres,
impurities etc.
Fibre mechanically extracted from dry mature coconut husk after soaking.
Coconut husks are softened by steeping in sea-water, wood is separated by pounding & dried. 25c.m.
long.

Shell of the coconut, it is a natural cellulosic base, vegetable origin fruit fibre.
It is long, hard and strong fib rebut with lower softness, lower water absorption capacity, and shorter
life than long retted fibre.

Coir is also widely used in Coir mats, Coir mattress.

8. PINA FIBER
It is the ingenious fabric derived from the leaves of the Spanish Red Pineapple. and is the finest of all
Philippine hand-woven fabrics.
Pineapple fibers are an ivory-white color and naturally glossy. This delicate and dreamy cloth is
translucent, soft and fine with a high luster.

~ 46 ~
Since piña fabric is hand loomed by only a few weavers, it is very precious and scarce, which also
makes it expensive.
The major end use of Pina fiber is the Barong Tagalong, wedding dresses and other traditional
Philippine formal dress. It is also used for table linens, mats, bags and other clothing items.

Fabric Benefits
- Regal and timeless are the two words that come to mind. In fact, piña is often traditionally
used for wedding attire.
- beautifully elegant appearance
- lightweight
- blends well with other fibers
- similar in appearance to linen
- softer than hemp
- more texture than silk
- washable and easy care
- no dry cleaning

Fabric Care
Dissolve a small amount of mild detergent in warm water.
Soak to free dirt and stains, then gently hand wash. If the fabric has yellowed, add vinegar to the water
and soak overnight.
Use a soft toothbrush to scrub off stubborn dirt (don’t scrub embroidery)
Rinse in an up/down dipping motion. Do not twist or wring.
Hang (on plastic hanger) and shape to drip dry or lay flat to dry.
Iron on low to medium setting while still damp.
never pull fabric to straighten
if desired, you can apply spray starch
iron the back side where embroidered
hang carefully
Store hanging and coved with a dark, breathable cloth to prevent discoloration.

MANMADE FIBERS
 Artificial / Manmade fibers are those fibers which are developed by man. Man possesses a
natural instinct of imitating natural & its product. So, for fibers it either uses some natural
resources and/or chemicals to produce fibers artificially.

 Polymer is a fiber forming substance combining CHON (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and
Nitrogen) elements in to large molecular chain.

 Regenerated Cellulosic Manmade Fibers are obtained from natural cellulosic base
material and are chemically shaped to form filament / fiber. E.g. viscose/rayon, modal /
lyocell / cupro, acetate rayon.

 Regenerated Protein Manmade Fibers are obtained from soybean, milk, corn, peanuts
base material and are chemically shaped to form filament.

~ 47 ~
  Synthetic Manmade fibers / Non-cellulosic Manmade fiber If manufactured from the
petroleum product only chemicals are used to manufacture of such fibers.

Nylon - hexamethylene diamine + Adipic acid.

Polyester – dimethye terephthalate + ethyleneglycol.

The chemicals are converted in to materials capable of forming fibers & then these substances are
manipulated into fibrous form.

 Inorganic fibers are those fibers which are made from substances such as metal & glass.

COMPARISION OF NATURAL & SYNTHETIC FIBERS

ABOUT MAN MADE FIBER

 The era of manmade fibres in early 1900s. as for centuries man dreamed of producing the
natural silk to produce large quantities.
 The delay of synthetic fibre development was mainly due to inability to look into the structure of a
fibre to see how it is constructed.
 With advent of X-ray technology in 1920 – 1982 the obstacle was removed.
 Early man-made fibres included particularly viscose rayon, cuprammonium rayon & acetate rayon
than other varieties came.
 The Federal Trade Commission establishes the generic names & definitions for manufactured
fibres.
 When a fibre producer wants to establish a new generic name for a fibre application is submitted
with the fibre, method of manufacture & possible uses are given.
Advantages of Manmade Fibres :-

~ 48 ~
 - Manmade fibres are produced in factories so need not be too far from textile manufacturing
- areas.
- Filaments can be produced as fine as or as thick as required, staple lengths can be cut as per
the order.
- Like natural fibre manmade fibre do not require cleaning & can be high degree of luster or
dull luster as required also coloured fibre is produced.
- Control of quality & quantity is established in manmade fibre giving steady prices.

Positive qualities like wrinkle resistance, crease recovery, easy care properties have influenced its
wide use. E.g. Shirt of MMF fabric can be washed in evening, hung up to dry & worn without ironing in
the morning. Tourist can take along more clothes because of light weight characteristic.

 These fibres posses high resistance of moth, mildew insects hence simplifies storage problem.
 Permanent pleats can be introduced to most of mammals fibre fabrics because of their
unique
heat setting property.
 Elastomeric fibres (spandex) having greater dyeability & higher elastic power were
discovered.
Vast medical use.
 Japanese experts have developed Chameleon fibres base on photo chromic materials that
change colour & colour intensifies by eight exposures.
 The day is not far off for the introduction of a fabric which changes the colour & colour
intensities.
E.g. Use in collar, cuff & trims attached with Velcro tapes can be quickly removed for
cleaning / changing, save hour of sewing, attach button, hooks & eyes.

Disadvantage of Manmade fibres:-

 In India fabric from manmade fibre is much costlier than natural fibres because of
government
policies & duties.
 Individuals are often prone to skin allergy hence use is restricted.
 Manmade fibres are hydrophobic in nature & hence when used as garments next to skin they
fail to absorb the perspiration so discomfort in hot climate.
 Manmade fibre fabric is little difficult to sew as seams do not hold light as in natural fibre
fabrics.
 They do not provide warmth to the wearer.
General principle of Manufacturing Manmade fibres :-
- The manufacturing process of all Manmade fibre is same.
- Raw materials are treated chemically and in some cases melted by heating to form.

Viscous liquid which is then extruded through very fine holes in a nozzle called Spinneret &
the
filaments produced are solidified in following ways :

(i) Wet spinning Solution spinning

(ii) Dry spinning
(iii) Melt spinning

~ 49 ~
NATURAL POLYMER / Regenerated Manmade Fibres :-

Rayon was the first artificial regenerated fibre made from natural raw material base. It was earlier
known as artificial silk. There are 3 kinds of rayon
(1) Viscose rayon
(2) Acetate rayon
(3) Cuprammonium rayon.

Viscose/Rayon :

 Rayon was the first manufactured fiber. It was developed in France in the 1890s and was
originally also called as artificial silk.
 In 1924, the term rayon was officially adopted by the textile industry as a manmade fiber.
 It is different from most chemical fibers as rayon is not synthetic.
 It is made from wood pulp, a naturally-occurring, cellulose-based raw material.
 As a result, rayon's properties are more similar to those of natural cellulosic fibers, such as
cotton or linen.
 By using two different chemicals and manufacturing techniques, four type of rayons was
developed Regular rayon, High Wet Modulus (HWM) rayon , High Tenacity Rayon,
Cupramonium Rayon. Rayon is manufactured primarily in Europe and Japan.
 It is the modern form of earliest types of artificial silk. The name viscose was derived from the
word viscous (sticky spinning solution ) & rayon was a generic term replaced the word
artificial silk.
 It is cheapest as it is made from cellulose extracted from wood pulp which is a cheap & widely
available (tree).
 Shape & size of filaments depends on size & shape of spinneret.

Rayon Cuprammonium Rayon Viscose

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF RAYON / VISCOSE FIBER
 Fair to good strength but loses 30-50% strength when wet (not suitable to be machine wash)
 Hydrophilicin nature .More absorbent than cotton
 Fair to good abrasion resistance hence it is durable.
 Comfortable against skin.
 No static and pilling problem
 Good static resistance cool hand feel
 Modal has better strength when dry and loses less strength when wet, has better shrinkage.
 Poor elasticity and resiliency therefore wrinkles easily.
 It is easily attacked by mildew and silverfish

~ 50 ~
Rayon Manufacturing

Ageing Tank :- Ripening of alkali cellulose needs ageing to get the best spinning qualities.
(Sodium hydroxide).

Spinning :- Metered pump forces a specific amount of solution through the multi-holed
spinneret arranged in long tank with the coagulating bath.

Spinnerets :- It is a plate with holes of 0.05 – 0.1 m.m size and normally made of noble metals
like gold, platinum, rhodium, stainless steel or nickel alloy.
For filament yarn – from tens to hundred holes.
For staple yarn – from hundreds to thousand holes.

Properties :- Viscose rayon is a hydrophilic (good moisture regain). There is not static or pilling
problem & it inexpensive.
Viscose rayon loses 30 – 50% of its strength. When wet so needs great caution during washing. It has
poor elasticity & it attached by mildew & silverfish.

End uses :- Wide range of products in apparels home furnishing & industrial area.

Cuprammonium Rayon :
Cuprammonium rayon is made similar to that of viscose rayon & much simple. Cotton linters & wood
pulp are bleached & dissolved in a solution of ammonia, copper sulphate & caustic soda.
The resultant liquid is ready to be extruded from the spinneret. It is called cupra rayon & sold
under the trade name Bemberg.

Acetate Rayon :- It was manufactured in Europe is also called secondary acetate.

Acetate is manufactured by treating purified cellulose refined from cotton linters and/or wood pulp
with acetic anhydride in the presence of a catalyst. The resultant product, cellulose acetate flake, is
precipitated, purified, dried, and dissolved in acetone to prepare the spinning solution.

Production:- Wood pulp or cotton linter is mixed with glacial acetic, acetic anhydride & a catalyst. It
is allowed to precipitate as flakes. The flakes are dissolved in acetone and the solution is ready for
extrusion through the spinneret. It is a dry spinning process.

Triacetate :

Triacetate is manufactured from the same raw material as secondary autate but
the spinning solution is made by dissolving the dried flakes in methylene chloride instead of
acetone. It is marketed under the name Arnel.

End Uses :- One of the most important use of acetate is in lining fabrics.
The aesthetics of acetate, its lusture, body & low cost contribute to wide usage.
- Its also used in bed spreads & quilts, ribbons & cigarette filters.
Acetate fabric should not get in contact with acetone in nail polish removers.

~ 51 ~

Lyocell :- In 1990, wood pulp is dissolved in amine-oxide & extruted. It has soft & good flowing
drape with good elastic recovery business wear leotards.

Polynosic / HWM Rayon:

 Several attempts were made to improve the performance behavior of viscose rayon. A
variation “High wet modulus HWM” rayon was developed. It was developed in Japan 1951
and is also referred to as Polynosic rayon.
 It is completely launderable & it does lose strength when wet but its wet strength is higher
than that of regular viscose rayon. It can also be shrink-resistance.
 The hand of HWM rayon is similar to hand of high quality cotton.

~ 52 ~
Manmade Regenerated Fibres : Protein Fibres :-

1. Azlon :- Azlon fibres are manmade protein fibres. The protein is extracted from milk,
soyabeams, corn & peanuts. The extract is processed into a solution which is forced through the
spinnerets. These fibres are having exceptional warmth, softness & moisture regain. A serious
problem is that they emit an unpleasant odour when wet. They are weak and can not compete with
other man-made fibres.

2. SOYBEAN FIBER
Cotton is the worlds most used fiber, though commonly touted as all natural it is the most sprayed
crop on earth! In the United States alone 80 million pounds of chemicals are used each year on
conventional crops. One pound of cotton fiber has been sprayed with 1 1/4 pounds of chemicals by
the time it is done and 7 of the top 15 pesticides used have been labeled a probable carcinogens to
humans by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Glycine max, commonly known as soybean in North America or soya bean, is a species of legume
native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses

- Soy Protein Fiber has antibacterial and UV radiation prevention properties.

- Soy Protein Fibre has great moisture absorption so you always feel dry and fresh.
- Soy Protein Fiber promotes the micro circulation of the blood capillaries and also contains
many amino acids necessary to the human body.
- Soy Protein Fiber has a beautiful silky look and a nice cashmere feel. Nothing feels better than
that .
- Soy Protein Fiber (SPF) is the only protein fiber made from soybean cake.

Physical properties are

 Same as that of synthetic fiber.
 It gives tremendous change in properties like smoothness / luster / comfort / absorbency /
strength / shrinkage when mix with other fibers.
 For example; when soybean fibers mix with cashmere, it gives smooth quality with an
enhancement of easy care properties.
 As a wool/soy protein fiber, it reduces shrinkage and increases ease of care.
 As a silk blend, it improves the properties of silk with the prevention of the fabric from
sticking to the skin when wet.

~ 53 ~
3. MILK FIBER
Milk fiber is a blend of casein protein and the chemical acrylonitrile, which is used to make acrylic. It's
made using a process that is similar to rayon/viscose, but because it's a regenerated protein fiber and
not a regenerated cellulose fiber, it reacts like wool. That means that it dyes like wool and even smells
like wool when burned, according to Kiplinger.

Fashion made from milk – sounds crazy, but we made it possible. However, the newly developed
Qmilk fiber does not only convince by offering a clear environmental advantage, but also outstanding
functional properties for all clothing ranges

Characteristics of Milk Fiber:

1. In milk fibre, the natural protein humectant factor is present, which makes the skin delicate and
smooth.
2. It absorbs moisture very well as it is hygroscopic in nature.
3. It is antibacterial and antifungal as amino acids present in the fibre.
4. It is glossy and luxurious in appearance, feel and comfortability, just like silk..
5. It is very easy to dye and can be dyed under normal temperature.
6. It can be blended well with other different fibers, such as tencel, cotton, bamboo, modal fibre.

Synthetic Fibres
Fibres are made by chemicals only, chemicals are made into materials capable of forming fibres.
Hence, Synthetic fibres are the fibres manufactured by synthetic of chemicals.

Monomers ----- Polymer monomers (union of) --- macro molecule

Process -------- Polymerization (length of the chain is called degree of polymerization).

Polymerization is a process whereby one compound is transformed into another having same
elements
in the same proportion but different molecular weights & different physical properties.

Condensation Polymerization :- Linking of monomers by chemical action resulting in elimination

of by
products like water, hydrogen, chloride or ammonia is called condensation polymerization.
E.g. Polyamide & polyester.

Additional polymerization :- It is linkage of monomers simply by union of several molecules

without
splitting of water or hydrogen chloride. E.g. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinge chloride.

Substituted polymerization :- It is linkage of monomer molecule by substituted for another group.

E.g. Halogen substituted type polyvinylidene chloride saran.
If substituted by hydroxyl group – polyvinyl alcohol (vinal)
If substituted by nitric group – polyacrylonitrike.
The solid fibre forming material is made into fluid state either by
(1) dissolving the material in a solvent.

~ 54 ~
(2) by heating it until it melts. Then, it is spun into yarns either by solvent spinning or melts spg.
The credit of inventing first synthetic fibre goes to Dr. W.H. Caothers.
Nylon was first synthetic fibre introduced in 1937 by E.I. Dupont, America.

Nylon: (Polyamide Fibres) :

Nylon is generic term representing a family of fibre forming polyamides. Most important types are –
Nylon 6 & Nylon 66.

Nylon 6 :- It is made from caprolactum, which is made by series of reaction using the products from
coal
tar. Caprolactum has 6 carbon atoms (petrochemicals product) [ - OC – (CH2)5 – NH - ]n poly
caprolactum.

Nylon 66 :- [ - OC((H2)4) CONH (CH2)6NH-]n

Nylon 66 is made from 2 components namely, adipic acid + hexamethylene diamine (each of which has
six carbon atoms).

- Nylon 6 & 66 are very similar in properties, only that Nylon 6 & 66 are very similar in
properties, only that nylon 6 is softer in handle & it stays white & does not turn yellow.
- Nylon filaments can be obtained in multifilament or monofilament form.
- Multifilament used for nylon fabric gives good surface textures, softness & drape.
- Monofilament (90% processed) used in car tyre, luggage, ropes, conveyor belt etc. (Pigments
are added to the material for lusture or dull or antistatic).

Important properties of Nylon:

It is Lightweight
Has excellent strength
Has excellent abrasion
It has good Resistance hence it is durable.
It can be Washed and dry-cleaned easily.
It has High elongation
It is Hydraulic fiber (water- hating) hence is quick drying.
It shows Static and pilling problems.
It has Poor resistance to sunlight
It is Thermoplastic (heat sensitive) in nature.
Less absorbent than natural fiber therefore it less comfortable (but better than acrylic,
polyester or olefin)

Uses

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APPAREL FABRICS: Shirts, blouses, night wear, outwear, rain wear (with water repellent finishes),
trousers, leisure wear, professional clothing.
ACCESSORIES: Handkerchiefs, laces, ribbons, trimmings.
HOUSEHOLD TEXTILES: Bed clothes, table cloth, decorative fabrics, furniture coverings.

Polyester Fibre :
Polyester was commercially produced in 1950s. These fibres are produced under different names.
(Terene (CAFI, India), Terylene (ICI, UK), Dacron (USA) etc. PET is a condensation polymer made by
heating

PET (Polyflaylene terepthalate) melts at 260°C & the molten mass is stable as long as not
in contact with
oxygen. Care is taken to avoid air coming into contact with molten mass.
The moment the filaments emerge from spinneret they solidify. Spin finish is given. Then undrawn
yarn
is loomed on cylinder at 1000m.t. Then filament yarn is drawn (4-5 times it length).

Two varieties of polyester filaments are produced: -

1) Normal strength – used for clothing.
2) High tenacity (HT) filaments – very strong for industrial purpose.

Polyester is a medium weight fibre with very good strength, abrasion resistance & resiliency.
- It is completely hydrophobic (0.4 % MR)
- It is difficult to get water & detergent into fibre to remove stains.
- Static & pilling is major problem & is oileophilic (absorbs oil easily).

End uses: Wide range of end uses in apparel, home furnishing & industrial area, dresses, carpels,
cord, pillows & threads).
- Non-woven polyester is used for bandages in medical field.

Structure & Appearance:

Colorless and transparent

Smooth and lustrous
Shape as we require
Shiny glass rod like
Properties of Polyester:
Strong

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Resistant to stretching and shrinking
Resistant to most chemicals
Quick drying
Crisp and resilient when wet or dry
Wrinkle resistant
Mildew resistant
Abrasion resistant
Retains heat-set pleats and crease
Easily washed
Specific weight 1.22-1.38 gm/cm
Tenacity up to 85 cN/tex
Moisture regain 0.2-0.5 %
Heat Resistance 150-200 C
Sunlight Better resistance
Insects No effect

Polyester blends:
Polyester and Cotton - Resist wrinkle, better strength, and cheaper cost
Polyester and Wool - Cheaper cost, better strength, increase durability
Polyester and Rayon - More durable, appearance retention and more resilience

Manufacturing Filament Yarn:

Polymerization
Drying
Melt spinning
Drawing the fiber
Winding

Some Major Polyester Fiber Uses

Apparel: Every form of clothing

Home Furnishings: Carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillow cases, disk liners, and
fiberfill for various products including pillows wall coverings, and upholstery
Other Uses: hoses, power belting, ropes and nets, thread, tire cord, auto upholstery, sails,
floppy and furniture.

ACRYLIC

Acrylic fiber resembles Wool and is very often used as a replacement of it mostly in sweaters and
blankets. Acrylics advantages over wool include being stronger, cheaper and washable. Its
disadvantages over wool are that it is hydrophobic in nature. It is a synthetic fiber formed by any long
chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of acrylonitrile units. Acrylic fibers have a
round shape with a smooth surface.

The youngest of three main synthetic fibres is polyacry lonitrile – Acrylic which has made rapid
progress
in last – 2 decade due to its wool like characteristic Trademark Orlon by Dupont :- 30 different acrylic
fibres exist Acrilan, Dralon, Zefran etc.
Production Acrylic fibre are formed by the addition polymerization of acrylonitrile (Hydrocyanic acid +
ethylene oxide). Solvents dissolve the polymer & spun through spinneret in spinning bath then dried,
stretched; crimped & cut into staple fibre (98% acrylic is staple fibre).

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Some Major Polyester Fiber Uses

Apparel: Every form of clothing

Home Furnishings: Carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillow cases, disk liners, and
fiberfill for various products including pillows wall coverings, and upholstery
Other Uses: hoses, power belting, ropes and nets, thread, tire cord, auto upholstery, sails,
floppy and furniture.

ACRYLIC
Acrylic fiber resembles Wool and is very often used as a replacement of it mostly in sweaters and
blankets. Acrylics advantages over wool include being stronger, cheaper and washable. Its
disadvantages over wool are that it is hydrophobic in nature. It is a synthetic fiber formed by any long
chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of acrylonitrile units. Acrylic fibers have a
round shape with a smooth surface.

The youngest of three main synthetic fibres is polyacry lonitrile – Acrylic which has made rapid
progress in last – 2 decade due to its wool like characteristic Trademark Orlon by Dupont :- 30
different acrylic fibres exist Acrilan, Dralon, Zefran etc.

Production Acrylic fibre are formed by the addition polymerization of acrylonitrile (Hydrocyanic acid +
ethylene oxide). Solvents dissolve the polymer & spun through spinneret in spinning bath then dried,
stretched; crimped & cut into staple fibre (98% acrylic is staple fibre).

Important properties of Acrylic:

- It is a lightweight fiber.
- It has good resiliency and elasticity.
- It has excellent resistance to sunlight and weathering.
- It has a good drape and wool like hand.
- It may be washed or dry-cleaned.
- Acrylic has only fair strength, becoming 20% weaker when wet.
- It is hydrophobic fiber (1 ½ % Moisture regain).
- Static build up and pilling are frequent problems.
- Acrylic fabric woven gives warm wool like handle.
- Of all manmade fibres acrylics have the least tendency to pilling.

End Uses:

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Sweaters, dresses, blankets, carpets, outdoor products such as canopies.

MOD ACRYLIC
 The word Mod acrylic comes from “Modified Acrylic”
 It is a synthetic fiber whose fiber forming substance is poly acrylonitrile. The fiber has a
circular shape with smooth surface.
 They are manufactured fibres in which at least 35% of aaylonitrile monomers & not more
than 65% of co-polymers.
 They are produced under different trade names such as Dynel, Teklan, Verel etc.
 They are the first inherently flame retardant synthetic fibres, they are very difficult to ignite
as they do not support combustion. They are self-extinguishing & do not drip.
 Modacrlic fibres (verel) are produced in peanut shade cross section.

Important properties of Mod acrylic:

- It is a medium weight fiber.
- It has a fair strength and abrasion resistance.
- It has good drape and highly resistant to sunlight.
- It may be washed or dry-cleaned.
- The fiber has an excellent resistance to chemicals and flame.
- It has fair resistance to pilling and there is a little static problem.
- It is hydrophobic in nature ().4 – 3% Moisture regain).
- It can be ironed but at low temperature.
- They are poor conductor of heat. They are soft & warm. They are resistant to acid, sunlight,
mildew & moths.

Uses:
Used in Fur like fabrics, wigs, Children’s sleepwear and industrial fabrics.
Major uses are flame-retardant fabrics, upholstery drapery, and protective clothing for fire fighters.

OLEFIN:

- It is a synthetic fiber in which the fiber forming substance is any long chain synthetic polymer
composed of 85% by weight of ethylene, propylene or other olefin units. It has a rod like
shape with smooth surface.
- Olefin fibres are chemically polypropylene were produced in Italy 1957. Two types of Olefin
are (a)
Polyethylene (b) Polypropylene.
- The raw material is extracted through the spinneret. After the filaments are cooled, they can
be
stretched six times the spun length.

Uses :- These fibres are used for sports apparel like swimwear & ski jackets.
Furnishing industry used for non-woven carpets packing.

- Olefins make ideal geo textiles – textiles that are used in contact with soil.
- It is used to make roadbed support fabrics like petromat & petrotak, provide a water &
particle barrier between road surface & underlying soil foundation.
- Trade name :- Spectra 900 / 1000, polyloom.

Properties of Olefin:
- It is a very lightweight fiber, lightest of all fibers.
- It has very good strength & abrasion resistance.
- It has an excellent sunlight resistance.

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- It is almost completely hydrophobic (Less than 0.1% moisture regain).
- It has an excellent wicking property.
- Spills and staining liquids can be easily wiped off so used for indoor, outdoor carpeting, bathroom
and kitchen mats.
- It can be washed & dry cleaned.
- Ironing, machine laundering and machine drying must be done at low temperatures.

Uses:
- Most significant uses are Nonwoven and carpet face yarns.
- Apparel: athletic clothes, exercise suits, and undergarments as it has an excellent wicking
property.
- Industrial fabrics: Filter cloths, bagging & cords.
- Upholstery and garden umbrellas.

SPANDEX (ELASTANE)

Spandex or elastane is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. It is stronger and more
durable than rubber. Spandex was first commercially produced in 1959 by E.I. DuPont de Nemours and
Company under trademark name LYCRA ®. It is the most complex and expensive of all synthetic fibers.
It is generally used in filament form either in original form or in wrapped core form. It is used in both
woven and knits in different ratios usually ranging from 3-50%. It is one of the most used materials in
lingerie.

Important Properties of Spandex:

- Fabrics with spandex have a better wrinkle recovery.
- It turns yellow and degrades when it comes in contract with chlorine bleach.
- Poor strength but better than rubber
- It is sensitive to heat.
- Experience some degree of degradation through prolonged exposure to sunlight.
- It is a Lightweight fiber and has excellent stretch properties (over 500%) ---Elongation
- It has Good durability
- It can be washed or dry-cleaned
- It shows no static or pilling problems
- It is a fine fibers (common yarn size for spandex is 40D)

Uses
It is basically used in blend with other fibers for all kinds of apparel.

Metallic Fibre :
Aramid :

- It is a nylon variant with exceptional strength & fire resistance.

- They have high tenacity & high resistance to stretch & chemicals.
- It is used for re-enforcement of radial tyres & making bulletproof jackets.
- Nomex aramid is used for making a protective clothing – fire fighters apparel.

Elastomeric Fibres :- Elastomers are elastic, rubber like substances. They are characterized by
extremely high elongation & outstanding elastic recovery.

Glass Fiber
- Glass, with its glossy shine, attracts many. It has been put into many uses from being made
into utensils, mirrors, windows, doors to furniture and artworks.
- Textile Industry too could not resist itself from the fatal attraction of glass.
- Although, hard and rigid by nature, glass can very well be made into fine, shiny and
translucent fibers which more or less look and feel like silk fibers.

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 - These glass fibers are commonly known as
- Fiberglass Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation glass
are extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing

Uses of Glass Yarns

- Glass fiber is manufactured in a wide range of fine diameters. Some of them are so fine that
they can be seen only through a microscope.
- This quality of fineness contributes greatly to the flexibility of glass fibers.
- Various manufacturers produce different types of glass fibers for different end uses.
- Glass fibers them are used for various purpose.
- For making home furnishings fabrics;
- For making apparels and garments; and
- For the purpose tires and reinforced plastics.

FIBER IDENTIFICATION – (Project 1)

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 Project 1: Fiber Identification – Burning test & microscopic test file
Natural fiber – Cellulosic- Cotton , Linen, Protein - Wool & Silk
Re-generated fibers – Rayon, Modal , Acetate
Manmade fiber – Polyester , Nylon , Acrylic

Objectives of Identification:

 To ascertain proper content labeling on the products.

 To derive proper care labeling details based on its content
 To understand various implication of identification.

Fiber Identification Methods:

1. Hand & Feel

2. Burning Test
3. Microscopic Examination
4. Staining Test
5. Solubility or Chemical Test
6. Fiber Density , Infrared Spectrophotometer , Gas Chromatography
7. Fiber Melting Point

1. Hand & Feel

 Personal experiences like hand & feel and visual inspection of the fabric.
 Skill developed over period of time through handling many types of fibers/ fabrics
 Limitations: not a scientific method depends on experience and perception.

Advantage: can be helpful in initial identification

2. Burning Test:

When ignited it burns with a steady flame and smells like burning leaves. The ash lefties
easily crumbled. Small samples of burning cotton can be blown out as you would a candle.

 Simplest to carry out.

 Useful if only a single type of fiber is present in a yarn simplest to carry out.
 The following points are observed :
- The behavior of the fibers on approaching
- the flame, in the flame, on burning, odor and the residue left after burning.

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3. Microscopic Examination:
- Technical Method
- A lengthwise (longitudinal) view of fibers is easy
- to get and very helpful.
- A cross section of fibers may sometimes be
- Needed for positive identification.
- Fibers reveal most of their significant appearance at a magnification of 100 times (100×) or
even less.

4. Solubility or Chemical Test

- Needed when an unknown fiber is very dark in color.
- When two or more fibers are present in a blend (which makes a burning test inconclusive).
- When fibers have very little visible structure.

5. Fiber Density , Infrared Spectrophotometer , Gas Chromatography

Positive identifying tests, but are very specialized. “fiber profiling”

6. Fiber Melting Point

- Specialized method with significant drawbacks.
- Many synthetic fibers give a range of melting point figures, or may decompose before their melting
point is reached.
IDENTIFICATION OF COTTON FIBER

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BURNING TEST:
- When ignited it burns with a steady flame and smells like burning leaves.
- The ash lefties easily crumbled.
- Small samples of burning cotton can be blown out as you would a candle.

MICROSCOPIC TEST:
- It is a single elongated cell. Under the microscope, it resembles a collapsed, spirally twisted
tube with a rough surface.
- The thin cell wall of the fiber has from 200 to 400convolutions per inch.

IDENTIFICATION OF LINEN FIBER

BURNING TEST:
- Linen takes longer to ignite.
- The fabric closest to the ash is very brittle.
- Linen is easily extinguished by blowing on it as you would a candle.

MICROSCOPIC TEST:
- Under the microscope, the hair like flax fiber shows several sided cylindrical filaments with
fine pointed ends.
- The fiber somewhat resembles a straight, smooth.

IDENTIFICATION OF SILK FIBER

BURNING TEST:
- It is a protein fiber and usually burns readily, not necessarily with a steady flame, and smells
like burning hair.
- The ash is easily crumbled.
- Silk samples are not as easily extinguished as cotton or linen.

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MICROSCOPIC TEST:
- It appears somewhat elliptical and triangular in cross section when we see under the
microscope.
- It is composed of fibroin, consisting of two filaments, called brin which is held together by
sericin.

IDENTIFICATION OF WOOL FIBER

BURNING TEST:
- It is also a protein fiber but is harder to ignite than silk as the individual "hair" fibers are
shorter than silk and the weave of the fabrics is generally looser than with silk.
- The flame is steady but more difficult to keep burning.
- The smell of burning wool is like burning hair.

MICROSCOPIC TEST:
Under the microscope , wool’s cross section shows three layers- epidermis, cortex and the medulla.

IDENTIFICATION OF ACETATE
BURNING TEST:
- Acetate burns readily with a flickering flame that cannot be easily extinguished.
- The burning cellulose drips and leaves a hard ash.
- The smell is similar to burning wood chips.

MICROSCOPIC TEST:

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 - The cross sectional view has a bulbous or multi global appearance with indentations.
- These indentations appear as occasional markings.

IDENTIFICATION OF ACRYLIC FIBER

BURNING TEST:
- Acrylics burn readily due to the fiber content and the lofty, air filled pockets.
- A match dropped on an acrylic blanket can ignite the fabric which will burn rapidly unless
extinguished.
- The ash is hard. The smell is acrid or harsh.

MICROSCOPIC TEST:
 ACRYLICS: The methods of manufacturing of the acrylic fibers differ, the appearances vary
accordingly.
 ACRILAN ACRYLIC: It has a bean-shaped cross section, its longitudinal appearance is straight
and smooth.
 ORLON ACRYLIC: It has a flat, nut-shaped cross section.
 CRESLAN ACRYLIC: It has an almost round cross section.
 MOD ACRYLICS: it is of two types verel mod acrylic and SEF mod acrylic.

IDENTIFICATION OF NYLON FIBER:

BURNING TEST:
- Nylon melts and then burns rapidly if the flame remains on the melted fiber.
- If i can keep the flame on the melting nylon, it smells like burning plastic.

MICROSCOPIC TEST:
- The basic microscopic appearance is generally fine ,round, smooth, and translucent.
- It is also produced in multi cross-sectional types.

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IDENTIFICATION OF RAYON FIBER
BURNING TEST:
- It is a regenerated cellulose fiber which is almost pure cellulose.
- Rayon burns rapidly and leaves only a slight ash.
- The burning smell is close to burning leaves.

MICROSCOPIC TEST:
- Rayon fiber has uniform diameter with glass like shine.
- If de-luster then rayon fiber shows marks similar to pepper, when viewed cross sectional.
- Viscose fiber of rayon looks irregular when viewed cross sectionals.

IDENTIFICATION OF POLYSTER FIBER

BURNING TEST:
- Polyester melts and burns at the same time, the melting, burning ash can bond quickly to any
surface it drips on including skin.
- The smoke from polyester is black with a sweetish smell.
- The extinguished ash is hard.

MICROSCOPIC TEST:
- Generally, polyester fiber is smooth, straight.
- It looks round cross sectionally.
- However, with various finishing processes, its appearance changes in context of texture and
luster.

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Project 2: Base qualities
Testing of materials to determine appropriate properties in relation to
chosen end use.
 In industry testing of materials to determine appropriate properties in relation to chosen end
use is carried out a various stages of the process.

 Raw materials/fibre
 Yarn
 Weaving/knitting/non-woven
 Griege fabric -
 Dyed/Printed/Finished fabric
 Fibre composition
 Fabric performance
 Product performance

 Raw materials/fibre would be tested to ensure that quality standards are met. If you are a
spinner of woollen yarn then you need to know that you have been supplied with 100% wool
fibre from a specific breed of animal
 Yarn will be tested to ensure that quality standards are met. The strength and perhaps
elasticity and extension of the yarn will be tested. The yarn will be checked to see that it has
the correct number of twists per cm etc.
 Weaving/knitting/non-woven. During the fabric manufacturing process that fabric will be
2.
tested to check that it is the correct weight per gm The strength of the fabric might be tested
at this stage. Poor strength could be an indicator that there is a problem with the greige
fabric.
 Fibre composition of a blend, mixture will need to be tested to determine if the fabric meets
the standard. Luxury fibres such as cashmere (Nobel fibres), are also tested to ensure that the
consumer is not deceived with an inferior fibre.
 Dyed/Printed/Finished fabric. The fabric mill will test the performance of the fabric to
determine if it meets the correct quality standards. Common testing at this stage will include
 Strength , Shrinkage/stability , Colourfastness to washing and Colourfastness to rubbing
 Any key promotional claims such as water repellence, waterproof, breathability, crease
resistance, wrinkle free, stretch, Fabric performance. The garment maker might carry out
their own testing to determine if the agreed standard of performance has been met. Failure
for the bought fabric to met the standard can result in orders being cancelled.
 Product performance. Finished products are also tested. By law Children’s nightwear and
upholstery must be tested for flammability. Promotional claims must also be tested, such as a
product being promoted as “waterproof.”

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  Project 2: Base qualities
Now, go home and investigate the labels in the garments in your wardrobe.
How many items are made of natural fibres?
How many items are made of man-made fibres?
How many items are made from a blend of natural and man-made fibres?
What is the most common fibre you wear?
Complete this home learning task in your Textiles project file .

Arrange below mentioned fabric swatches in project file -

- 100% Cotton and its verities – 80’s , 90’s & 100’s Voile , 60’s cambric , 40’s poplin ,
30’s sheeting
- 100% linen and its verities
- 100% Silk and its verities
- 100% Wool and its verities- Woollen & Worsted

~ 69 ~
 FABRIC
Fabric manufacture: An Overview

Fabric Definition: Fabric is a flexible sheet material that is assembled of textile fibers/ or yarns.
Fabric can be woven, knitted, braided, netted, felted or otherwise bonded. The table below outlines
the classification of fabrics.

Word “FABRIC” ORIGIN

FABRIC CONVERTING METHOD TO MAKE FABRIC

WOVEN KNITS BONDED OPEN WORK STITCHED

Woven fabrics are made by interlacing of two sets of yarns, crossing each other at right angles.
By this plan of interlacement, every thread in each series interlaces with every thread in the other
series to the maximum extent, thereby producing a comparatively firm and strong texture of cloth.

Knitted fabrics When a fabric is made by interloping of one set of yarn is called knitted fabric. At
list one or one set of yarn is needed to make a knit fabric.

Open work fabrics such as lace and net can be made by various techniques such as Leno, bobbinet,
and warp knitting.

Non Woven Fabrics are made directly from fibers, with no intermediate yarn stage.

Nonwoven Fabric has gradually gained importance in various industrial applications along with
medicine, personal care, hygiene and household uses. They are used in Interlinings and apparel, Carpet
backing and underlay, Needle punched felt for backing of PVC floor covering, Home furnishing and
household products, Medical, sanitary and surgical applications, Book cloths, Industrial wiping cloths.

Wool felts are made by the entanglement of wool fibers or other animal hair by the felting action of
heat, moisture and agitation.

Stitch Bonding can be used to make fabrics from several types of fiber assembly, including webs,
slivers, roving or yarns

Webs from filament It is possible to tangle filaments together to form a web. Such webs are much
stronger than web made from staple fibres.
End use- strong fabric suitable for curtains & tablecloths. Intimate fabrics Vanity fabrics.

Laminated fabrics are made by the adhesive bonding of two or more fabrics, or by bonding fabrics to
foam, film, or paper.

Braid fabric
At list three group of yarn from one sets is needed to make a braid fabric.

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 nter weaving Inter looping Inter twining Inter Bonding

Fabric Manufacturing: Weaving & Terms

 The art of weaving is actually the technique in which two threads placed are together to form a
fabric.
 Each of the two threads has its own technical name; one is called weft and the other called the
warp.
 The lowering and raising of the warp thread in a diverse sequence will result in variant weaves.
 The fabric is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the ends or warp (vertical Yarns) in
place while picks or filling yarns (horizontal yarns) are woven through them.
 The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the Weave.

End An individual warp yarn. A warp is composed of a number of ends. 2. An individual sliver,
slubbing, roving, yarn, thread, or cord. 3. A short length or remnant of fabric.

Ends per inch(EPI or e.p.i.) is the number of warp threads per inch of woven fabric In general, the
higher the ends per inch, the finer the fabric is. The current fashion is to wear T-shirts with a higher
thread count, such as soft and comfortable "30 single" tee shirt that has 30 threads per inch as
contrasted to the standard T-shirt with an 18 thread count per inch.

Pick In a woven fabric, the yarn running from selvage to selvage at right angles to the warp. Each
crosswise length is called a pick. In the weaving process, the filling yarn is carried by the shuttle or
other type of yarn carrier. The picks interlace with the warp ends to form a woven fabric.

Picks per inch Picks per inch/Inch(or p.p.i.) is the number of weft threads per inch of woven
fabric. A pick is a single weft thread, hence the term. In general, the higher the picks per inch, the finer
the fabric is.

Difference Between Warp and Weft

Warp Weft
1. Most Garments are cut in lengthwise 1. Some garment details such as collars are cut
direction. in this grain for decoration

2. These are parallel to the selvedge 2. Weft are perpendicular to selvedge

3. Yarns are finer in warp-wise direction as they

3. Yarns may be thicker or finer with medium
have higher twist as warps have to go through
twist
lots of processing.
4. Filamentous yarns are preferred as warps 4. Spun yarns are used
5. Yarns are stronger 5. Weaker yarns can also be used
6. Twist is more and yarns per inch is also more 6. Twist and yarns per inch is less.
7. Ply are preferred for warps. 7. Singles can be used.
8. Stretch ability is low 8. Stretch ability is high
9. Novelty yarns and textured yarns can be
9. Plain yarns are more preferred.
used.

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The Weaving Process
 The first step in weaving is to stretch the warp, or longitudinal, yarns, which must be very
strong.
 The weft, woof, or filling crosses the warp, binding the warp threads at either side to form the
selvage.
 The three essential steps after the warp is stretched are: shedding, or raising every alternate
warp yarn or set of yarns to receive the weft; picking, or inserting the weft; and battening, or
pressing home the weft to make the fabric compact.
 In most primitive weaving these operations were performed by the hands alone, as in making
rush mats and baskets.
 Gradually frames for holding the warp evenly stretched and devices for throwing the weft
came into use .

FABRIC TERMS

LOOM PREPARATION TO WEAVE FABRIC

The machine used for weaving fabrics is a loom. Before weaving yarns intended for warp must pass
through such operations as spooling, wrapping and slashing to prepare them to withstand the strain of
weaving process. These processes do not improve quality of yarns.

a. Spooling / Winding : Yarn is wound on large spools, or cones which are placed on a rack called a
creel from this yarns are wound on warp beam, which is similar to huge spool.

b. Starching/ Sizing : These yarns are unwound to be put through a slashing or sizing bath. The slasher
machine covers every yarn with a coating to prevent breaking during weaving process.

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c. Wrapping: The sized yarns are then wound on a final warp beam and are ready for the loom. The
warp beam prepared now is then mounted on looms.

d. Drawing: this is the process of drawing every warp end through its drop wire, healed eye & reed
dents

Parts of Loom

A- Weaver’s Beams: A cylindrical body with end flanges on which a multiple of warp ends is wound in
such way to permit the removal of these yarns as a warp sheet.

B- Back Rest: It is a fixed roller placed in front of the loom above the cloth beam & act as a guide for
the cloth to wind on to the cloth beam.

C- Heald/Heddle: Wire or cords with eyelets that hold warp yarns in a place.

Function:
1. It helps in shed formation.
2. It is useful in identifying broken ends.
3. It determines the order or sequence of the warp threads.
4. It determines the warp thread density in a fabric.

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D- Heald frames shaft/Harness: A wood or metal frame that holds the heddles in position in the loom
during weaving. It is usually more than one.

E- Shuttle: This is a vehicle for weft & passes through the divided warp for the interlacement of the
warp & weft.

G- Reed: A comb like wire or device used to separate yarns on a loom & to beat up the filling during
weaving.

H - Woven Cloth : Roller device on a loom that hold the cloth at a proper width to prevent it from
being drawn in too much by the filling.

Weaving Operation:

A mechanical device which interweaves yarns into a fabric. Usually there are two sets of yarns (warp
and weft, which are interlaced to make the fabric.)

 SHEDDING
Raising specific warp yarns by means of the harness or heddle frame/shaft The formation of the shed
is known as shedding.

 PICKING
It is the actual process of placing the weft yarns in the shed. This is done using a device known as
‘shuttle’. It has a metal strip in which bobbin or pin is inserted. Inserting weft yarns through the shed.

 BEATING UP
Pushing weft yarns firmly in place by means of the REED Sometimes called beating in or beating up,
consists of evenly packing the filling yarns into position in the fabric. It gives a compact construction to
the fabric.

~ 74 ~
  SECONDARY MOTIONS:

- TAKING UP/ LETTING OFF

It involves taking up the newly manufactured fabric onto the cloth beam and letting off or releasing
yarn from the warp beam. The operation maintains uniform distance and tension from warp beam to
harness to completed cloth. Winding the finished fabric on the cloth beam and releasing more of the
warp from the warp beam

- MONITORING YARN BREAKAGE

There is always the possibilities that a warp or filling yarn may break during weaving, resulting in a flaw
in the fabric. The drop wires fall down when a yarn breaks or they may be monitored by electronic
scanners.

SHUTTLE LOOMS
 For many years weaving machines depended on shuttle as the primary device for weft insertion.
 Shuttle is a device that contains a bobbin on which filling yarn is wound.
 The shuttles are available in different shapes depending on the type of loom they are to be used.
 Shuttle looms are among the oldest kind of looms.
 They are versatile and effective but there are certain disadvantages. As the shuttle passes over
warp ends during every picking cycle, it causes abrasion, which lead to thread breakage

LOOMS Classification based on shedding mechanism

~ 75 ~
 TAPPET LOOMS

 Most simple Shedding Mechanism.

 Mechanical controlled device called cam raises the harness or heald frames for a particular
weave.
 Maximum no. of heald shafts – 14. Theoretically it can control 6-10 heald shafts.
 High speed production.

DOBBYSHEDDING MECHANISM

 The dobby mechanism uses a pattern chain on which there are pegs. For different designs,
different designs of pegging legs are placed on cylinder/pattern drum.
 Theoretically it can control maximum 48, but practically for wool no. of heald shafts -36 & for
cotton no. of heald shafts -24.
 Rate of Production lower than Tappet looms.

JACQUARD SHEDDING MECHANISM

 Jacquard loom was invented by Joseph Jacquard in 1805.

 The jacquard loom controls each warp yarn separately by threading it through a loop in the end of
a leash or cord.
 Before the loom is set up, a design is worked out on graph paper or on a computer, and the
position of each of the yarns in the design is analyzed.
 A punched card is prepared that corresponds to each of the filling yarns.
 The card contains a set of punched holes that will determine which warp yarns must be lifted for
each passage of the filling.

SHUTTLELESS LOOMS
 Shuttle less looms were developed to overcome the problems of Shuttle looms.
 These looms were faster and also reduced the breakage of yarn during weaving.
 Finer fabric qualities like shirting and dress material could be manufactured with these looms.
 The modern looms use three prominent devices for pick insertion; rapiers, air jet and water jet.

 PROJECTILE LOOMS

The projectile loom does away with the shuttle and instead shoots the weft yarns across the warp
one row at a time that work in sequence to form the fabric.

~ 76 ~
 Projectile machines carry yarn through the shed using a small
bullet shaped object known as a ‘projectile’.
 The picking action is accomplished by a series of small bullet
like projectiles which grip the filling yarn and carry it through
the shed and return empty.
 All the filling inserted from one side of the loom and a special
tucking device is used to hold the filling in place at the edges
of cloth to form selvage.
 Speed: up to 300ppm and less noisy than shuttle looms.

 RAPIER LOOMS

 These looms are competitors to the projectile

looms. There are two types of rapier looms.
 Long and single rapier that carries the weft across
the width from one side of the loom to another.
 Double rapier that is one on each side of the loom.
One rapier feeds the filling yarn halfway through
the shed of warp yarns to the arm on the other
side, which reaches in and takes it across the rest of the way.
 Speed: 200 to 260ppm at the same noise levels of projectile loom.

 AIR JET LOOMS

 These looms use a jet of air to proper the filling yarn

through the shed.
 It is carried through the shed by compressed air flow
supplied from a main nozzle and relay nozzles.
 Require uniform filling yarns.
 They are suitable for use with medium weight yarns
than very light and very heavy yarns.
 Speed: 600ppm, at noise levels lower than projectile
and rapier looms.

 WATER JET LOOMS

 Water jet weaving is the same principle as air

jet weaving, water is used instead of air and a
similar speed is achieved
 A pre measured length of filling yarn is
carried across the loom by a jet of water can
produce superior quality of fabrics. Suitable
for non-absorbent fibers like synthetic fibers.
 Speed: 600ppm, at noise levels lower than
projectile and rapier looms.

~ 77 ~
 FABRIC WEAVES
SELVAGES
 As the shuttle moves back and forth across the width of the shed, it weaves a self edge called a
selvage on each side of the fabric.
 The selvages prevent the fabric from raveling.
 It is usually made more compact and stronger than the rest of the fabric by using more or heavier
warp yarns or by using a stronger weave.
 The kind of selvage depends upon the economy of production and the expected use of the fabric.

Plain Selvage Fringe Selvage

Leno Selvage Tucked-in Selvage

- Plain selvedges
These selvedges are constructed of the simple plain weave with the same size yarns as the rest of the
fabric, but with the threads packed more closely together.

- Fringe selvedge
These are sometimes constructed with open end yarns to leave fringes Leno selvedges

- Leno selvedges –
These are obtained by binding the wefts with strong additional threads working in leno or gauze
weave and by eliminating through cutting the protruding weft ends. Half cross leno weave fabrics
have excellent shear resistance. They are made with special leno weaving harnesses. The leno
selvedge is used on some shuttle less looms.

- Tucked-in selvedges
The tucked selvedge is a technique used on some shuttle less looms. A device is used to tuck and hold
the cut ends into the fabric edge. In tucked-in selvedge, the fringed edges of the weft yarns are woven
back into the body of the fabric using a special tuck-in mechanism.

~ 78 ~
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WEAVE
There are different types of weave for the production of fabrics, such as:

1. Plain weave
• Basket/ Matt weave
• Ribbed ( Warp & Wet )
2. Twill weave
3. Satin and Sateen weave
4. Variation of Basic weave.
• Crepe
• Pile (Cut/Uncut)
• Double Cloth
• Gauze (Leno)
• Swivel
• Lappet
• Dobby
• Jacquard
• Tri-axial.

 PLAIN WEAVE
 Plain weave is the most widely used of all fabric structures and has the simplest possible pattern
of interlacing,
 It also has the maximum possible frequency of interlacing, thereby producing a fabric of firm
structure
 The yarns in this weave are not easily displaced and are more resistant to slipping.
 Some popular plain-woven fabrics are gingham, voile, calico, muslin and taffeta.

VARIATIONS OF PLAIN WEAVE

There are two other weaves where the warp yarns are equally divided and are, therefore, regarded as
variations of the plain weave. They are the rib and basket weaves; they make plain-weave fabrics
more attractive.

a) Rib-weave
- Rib weave fabrics have a ridged surface. T
- he ribs may be woven lengthwise or crosswise. If lengthwise, they lie in the direction of the
warp and are formed by the filling yarns passing alternately over and under a group of warp
yarns.
- This is called a filling-rib weave, and an example is fabric. The Crosswise ribs, in the direction
of the filling, are formed by the warp yarns passing alternately over and under a group of
filling yarns.
- This is called a warp-rib weave, and poplin is an example.

~ 79 ~
b) Basket weave
- Basket weave fabrics are made by passing two or more filling yarns over and under two or
more warp yarns.
- The basket weave may be three by three, four by four, or any other balanced arrangement.
- Very attractive fabrics may be woven in plain, basket weave by the use of colored yarns.
- This weave produces a rather Heavy cotton Cloth in a coarse basket weave, chiefly used for
draperies, monk’s cloth, sports coats or suits and dosooti.

 TWILL WEAVE -

 Twill weave, the second basic weave is characterized by diagonal lines running at angles
varying between 15 and 75 degrees
 The wide range covered by this category is the most durable of weaves. In twill weave, the
filling yarns float over and under the warp yarns in regular patterns to form diagonal lines.
 There are sever types of basic twill weaves, such as --
 (a).1/2 Twill (b).2/1 Twill (c).2/2 Twill. (d).2/3 Twill, (e).3/2 (f) 3/3 Twill, (g).4/4 Twill Etc

Variations of the twill weave are herring-bone, broken twill and zigzag twill. Twill fabrics include
gabardine, denim, drill, khaki gabardine, tweed, worsteds and broadcloth in wool.

 Twill weaves can easily be identified by its general characteristic with its series of more or less
pronounced diagonal lines in either warp or weft direction, or in equal or quantities on both sides
of the cloth.
 The twill lines can be made continuously either from left to right in / direction is called Right Hand
Twill or Z Twill and a twill which runs from right to left in \ direction is called left hand twill or S
twill.

Types of Fabrics:
Denim: A Strong Warp Face Cotton Cloth used for overall, Jeans skirts etc. Largely made in 3/1 twill
weave. Generally warp yarn is dyed brown or blue and crossed with white weft.
Gabardine: A Warp Face cloth mostly woven 2/2 twill, 27/2 tex warp, 20/2 tex cotton weft. Here
cotton weft is yarn dyed but the wool warp may be dyed in piece.

VARIATIONS OF TWILL WEAVE

~ 80 ~
 HOUNDSTOOTH CORKSCREW TWILL

 SATIN WEAVE

Satin weave produces a solid face on one side of the cloth so as to give it a smooth, lustrous surface. If
more warp than weft yarns show on the surface, it is called a warp-face or satin weave. ‘Satin’ is the
name of the weave as well the fabric woven in this weave. Satin originally referred to silk fabrics with
the warp predominating on the surface. Satin weaves are very flat, have good wet out and a high
degree of drape.

Used for ribbons, trimmings, dresses, linings etc, and originally was an all silk fabric with a fine rich
glossy surface formed in a warp satin weave. Double faced Satins are made on the reversible warp
backed principle, with one side differently colour from the other.

5 harness satin Weave

 SATEEN WEAVE
It is the reverse of satin weave. That is if more filling yarns show on the surface it is called a filling-face
or sateen weave. A cotton fabric is made in 5 thread weft face sateen, and woven like cotton. It is sold
in bleached, mercerized or printed condition.

Both satin and sateen constructions produce smooth, lustrous, rich-looking fabrics which can
withstand a good deal of hard wear. Satin weaves can be done on many fibers. Silks, rayon and wools
woven with warp satin weave produces lustrous fabrics. Wool satin-weave fabrics are often napped.
Cotton fabrics are more frequently woven with the sateen weave.

~ 81 ~
Difference between Satin & Sateen weave

• Sateen weaves have a weft effect & satin weaves have a warp effect
• Satin is a warp faced rearranged twill and sateen is are arranged weft faced twill.
• Thus satin is the reverse side of sateen weaves. These weaves form an important category of
weaves.

Thread or Cloth Count

Fabric construction is recorded as the number of warp by the number of weft within a square inch, and
the thread count is the sum (or the total number of yarns within a square inch.)
For example,

Fabric Name warp yarns / weft yarns = thread count

Sheeting 60 / 60 per square inch = 120
Poplin 133 / 72 per square inch = 205
Percale sheeting 92 / 88 per square inch = 180

NOVELTY WEAVES
Fancy fabrics differ from basic fabrics in that the design, texture or pattern is an inherent or
permanent part of fabric’s structure.
 The production process is more involved than that for basic weaves.
 Costs are higher
 Fancy weaves and woven figures are made by changing the interlacing pattern between the
design area and the background
 The interlacing pattern is controlled by the warp yarns position during weaving.

DOBBY WEAVES
Small-figured designs that require fewer than 25 different warp arrangements to complete one repeat
of the design
They are made on a loom with Dobby attachment-a dobby loom.
Bird’s-eye, Madras or madras gingham, Waffle cloth & huck-a-back.

- HUCK AND BACK WEAVE –

The huck a back weaves are basically toweling fabrics. They are generally associated with honey comb
fabrics and hence known as honeycomb effects.
10 X 10 is the widely used repeat size.

- BIRDS EYE WEAVE

A weave forming small-scale diamond shapes (diaper) each with a dot in the center, suggestive of the
eye of a bird.
EXTRA YARN WEAVES
Additional warp or filling yarns of different colors or types are woven into the fabric to create a pattern
in an extra yarn weave.
When not used in the figure, extra yarns float across the back of fabric and are usually cut away during
finishing
 Dotted Swiss
 Clipped spot
 Clipped dot designs
 Swivel-dot

~ 82 ~
PIQUE WEAVES

- Comes from the French word meaning “quilted” because the raised effect in these fabrics is
similar to that in Quilts.
- The Pique weave produces a fabric with ridges, called Wales or cords that are held up by
floats on the back.
- Stuffer yarns are laid under the ridges in better quality pique fabrics to emphasize the
roundness
- Cords or Wales generally run in the lengthwise direction
- Fabrics in this group are call pique with the exception of Bedford cord.

 JACQUARD WEAVES

Large figured designs that require more than 25 different arrangements of the warp yarns to complete
one repeat design—woven on a jacquard loom Damask, Brocade, Jacquard, tapestry & Wilton rugs

Intarsia – Warp is individually controlled with each pick passage creating intricate designs

Types of Jacquard fabric-

 Brocade:. Originally a heavy rich silk fiber ornaments with raised figures formed by extra
threads or by embroidery. Mostly used for upholstery fabrics and draperies.

 Damask: Fabric with a weft sateen figures on a warp satin, twist or plain grained, made of silk,
cotton, rayon and linen yarns Damasks are reversible. Cotton and linen damasks are made
either with four yarn float or a seven yarn float in the satin weave. The Longer floats are
more lustrous, but the shorter floats are more durable.

Characteristics of jacquard Weave

- The fabrics have the tendency to have floats.
- It has luster contrasts.
- It has snagging potential.
- It is more stable and resilient than the basic weaves.

MOMIE WEAVES

A weave that presents no wale or other distinct weave effect but gives the fabric appearance of being
sprinkled with small spots or seed—also called granite or crepe weave. The appearance resembles
crepe made from yarns of high twist.

 Sand crepe
 Granite cloth
 Moss crepe
 Bark cloth

~ 83 ~
LENO WEAVES (also called Gauze weave or Cross weave)

A weave in which warp yarns do not lie parallel to each other—warp yarns work in groups (usually in
pairs of two) one yarn of each pair is crossed over the other before the filling yarn is inserted.
is a weave in which two warp yarns are twisted around the weft yarns to provide a strong yet
sheer fabric.
Household Uses: Thermal Blankets, curtains, All fabrics characterized by open Spaces between the
yarns

 Marquisette - Marquisette is a sheer, lightweight mesh or net fabric with a leno weave. It can
be made from almost any fibre: silk, cotton, wool, rayon, nylon, polyester and a blend of any of
the above.
 Mosquito netting
 Laundry, fruit & vegetable bags

DOUBLE CLOTH

Made from three or more sets of yarns—The two sides of double-cloth fabrics usually look different
because of fabrication method
Double cloths tend to be heavier and have more body than single cloths.
 Double cloth—coat fabrics: Melton & kersey
 Double weave—apparel and upholstery fabrics: matelassé & pocket weave
 Double-faced—blankets, double-satin ribbon, lining fabric & silence cloth

PILE WEAVES

Woven pile fabrics are three-dimensional structures made by weaving an extra set of warp or filling
yarns in the ground yarns to make loops or cut ends—can be both functional & beautiful

Filling pile—always cut pile

 corduroy
 velveteen
Warp pile—can be cut or uncut
 Velvet
 Crushed velvet
 Velour

~ 84 ~
Different types of Cut pile Fabric:

Corduroy: Corded velveteen Structures in which a weft pile forms longitudinal lines or chords, strong
heavy clothes being used for trouser-rings, smoking jackets and lighter fabrics for dress materials.

Velvet: A cut warp pile fabric with a short, soft, dense pile.

Velveteen: A Short heavily wefted cotton fabric uniformly covered with a short dense pile of fibers
which formed after the cloth has been woven by cutting certain picks of weft that float somewhat
loosely on the surface.

 The pile is typically midway between velvet (the longest) and velveteen (the shortest).
Velvet can be cotton, silk, rayon, poly, and I think even wool. Velour is a knit fabric with the
cut pile, stretchy. Velour is a knit fabric with stretch while velvet is a woven backed fabric.

 Velvet is a very ancient fabric, whereas velveteen is a rather recent innovation.

 Velvet was earlier made from silk though it later got produced from many different fabrics
such as wool, linen, polyester, rayon, and even cotton

VELOUR PILE WEAVE

 Knit; made from cotton or synthetics; drapes similar to velvet

 Is manufactured using the same weaving process as velvet: two sets of warps and wefts woven at
the same time, with additional threads that will become the nap in between, then cut apart to
produce the two separate tufted fabrics.

~ 85 ~
CUT PILE WEAVES

 Corduroy, a cut filling-pile fabric with lengthwise ridges, or wales that may vary from fine
(pinwale) to wide.
 Woven, closely set short pile, never more than 3 mm deep; made generally from cotton, or
cotton and silk; greater body, drapes less well than velvet, less sheen.
 Woven, cut, crushed; made from linen, mohair, silk, and wool, and sometimes cotton;
luxurious.

 Soft and warm, resilient, absorbent

 May have a nap that must be matched
 May be expensive and need professional cleaning
 Method of Construction:
 Similar to uncut pile, but loops have been cut

PILES WEAVES

Over-wire method—single fabric woven with wires placed across width of loom
 Frieze
Slack-tension pile method—special weaving arrangement in which 3 picks or fillings are inserted and
beaten up with one motion of the reed
 Terrycloth

SLACK TENSION WEAVES

Two warp beams are used—yarns on one beam are held at regular tension and those on other beam
are held at slack tension
As reed beats filling yarn into place, slack yarns crinkle or buckle to form a puckered stripe—regular-
tensioned yarns form flat stripe

 Seersucker

TAPESTRY WEAVES

Hand-produced, filling-faced, plain-weave fabric—discontinuous filling yarns arranged so that as the

color in the weave changes, a pattern is created.
Discontinuous filling means that one filling yarn rarely travels across the fabric from one side to the
other

 One-of-a-kind rugs
 Wall hangings

~ 86 ~
NARROW FABRICS

Encompass diverse range of products that are up to 12 inches wide & made by a variety of techniques
 Ribbons
 Elastics
 Zipper tapes
 Window-blind tapes
 Labels
 Velcro tapes
 Piping
 Carpet-edge tapes
 Trims
 Safety belts & harnesses

OTHER FABRICATION METHODS:

- COATED
- TUFTED
- LAMINATED
- BONDED
- QUILTED
- EMBROIDERY
- BRAIDS
- LACES

Fabrics from solutions—Films

Made directly from a polymer solution

Most made from vinyl or polyurethane solutions
Structures:-
Plain—firm, dense, and uniform; usually impermeable to air and water; have excellent soil resistance
Expanded—spongier, softer and plumper; air cells incorporated into compound
Supported—plain or expanded attached to a support fabric

Fabrics from solutions—Foams

Made by incorporating air into elastic like substance

Polyurethane most common
Known for bulkiness & sponginess
Used as: Carpet backing & underlay , Furniture padding ,Pillow forms ,Laminated to fabric for apparel
& interior textiles, Shredded foam used to stuff pillows & toys

~ 87 ~
Fabrics from fibers—Nonwoven or fiber web
Nonwoven—somewhat confusing, refers to wide variety of fabric structures
Nonwoven / fiber web—include:
All textile-sheet structures
Made from fibrous webs
Bonded by mechanical fiber entanglement, resin, thermal fusion or the forming of chemical complexes

Few other terms

Batting, Wadding, and Fiberfill are not fabrics but VERY important components in apparel & interiors
Batting—made from new fiber
Wadding—made from waste fiber
Fiberfill—manufactured fiber staple made especially for use as a filler
Down—undercoating of waterfowl
Fiber density & shifting resistance important consideration for all

Fabrics from fibers—Felt

- Mat or web of wool or mostly wool—fibers held together by interlocking of wool scales
- Most craft felts are not true felt because they do not contain wool—usually wet- or dry-laid
nonwoven fiber webs
- Do not have grain, do not ravel
- Stiff, less pliable & weaker than other structures
- Quality depends upon quality of fibers
- Used in apparel accessories, crafts & technical matting

Fabrics from yarns—Braids

Narrow fabrics in which yarns interlace lengthwise & diagonally Good elongation Very pliable—curve
around edges nicely.

Used for:
Trims
Shoelaces
Technical component coverings

Fabrics from yarns—Lace

Openwork fabric with complex patterns or figures, handmade or machine made using several methods
Most commercial lace made by raschel knitting machines or special lace machines
Yarns may be twisted around each other to create open areas
Classified according to way it is made & appearance
Quality based on fineness of yarns, number of yarns per square inch, closeness of ground, intricacy of
design.

~ 88 ~
Fabrics from yarns—Embroidery
The only technique in which yarn can be arranged in almost any direction
Usually considered an aesthetic or surface design, also used to create technical textiles (sensor).

Composite Fabrics:

~ 89 ~
 WEAVES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The three basic weaves in common use for the majority of fabrics are plain, twill, and satin, with some
variations. Important constructions are also obtained from the following weaves: Pile, double cloth,
gauze, swivel, lappet, dobby, and jacquard. Table shows in details.

Weave Structure Properties Typical Fabric

Plain Each weft passes alternatively Easily produced, Batiste, Cheesecloth,
over and under each warp in a inexpensive, durable and Cretonne, Gingham,
square pattern adaptable dyeing, Parcel, Voil.
printing and finishing.
Basket Two or more warps Inexpensive, drape able, Monk's cloth, Oxford,
simultaneously interlaced with resilient, absorbent, soils
one or more weft. more easily.
Ribbed Plain weave with Wales or cords Drapes well, durability Bengaline, broadcloth,
in warp or weft. affected by pronounced poplin,
rips, yarn slippage.
Twill Warp or weft floats over two or Strong, increased drape Cheviot, denim, drill,
more counterpart yarns in ability, flexible resilient, gabardine, serge,
progressively stepped up right or and lustrous. tweed,
left direction.
Satin Four or more shaft with warp Lustrous, excellent drape Satin, Slipper satin,
floats in interrupted diagonal, ability, floated fashion. crepe back satin.
Sateen Four or more shafts with weft Similar to Satin Sateen
floats in interrupted
Crepe Combination of plain and satin Irregular, indistinct Granite, moss crepe,
or Sateen weaves. pattern, textured surface. sand crepe.
Pile Extra set of warps /wefts woven Soft, warm, resilient, Cut and uncut pile
over ground yarns of plain or absorbent, interesting fabrics ranging from
twill weave to form loops. surface effects, towelling to rugs.
Cut Pile Pile Loops cut As Pile Corduroy, Velvet,
velveteen
Uncut Pile Pile loops intact As Pile Frieze, Terry,
Double Two fabrics of independent Strong Warm, bulky Blanket, coatings,
cloth weaves woven together with upholstery
extra set of yarns.
Leno Pairs of warps twisted over each Open mesh, sheer but Grenadine,
other with each passing of weft durable for its weight. marquisette.
Swivel Small designs interwoven on Attractive design yarns Dotted swiss, Madras
surface of fabric with extra weft tend to roughness on
yarn insertion. back side.
Lappet Small embroidery like designs, Attractive designs are Madras, Grenadine.
stitched into fabric during more durable than swivel
weaving.
Dobby Small, geometric designs Attractive generally good Huka & back, Granite
composed of short floats created body. cloth, Pique.
by dobby loom attachment.
Jacquard Any combination of weaves and Attractive, drapes well. Brocade, damask,
patterns possible since each tapestry.
warp is individually controlled
with each pick passage.
Triaxial Three yarns construction at Strong, stable, minimum Industrial uses and
various angles stretch. home furnishings,

~ 90 ~
Project 3: Fabric /Weaving
Arrange below mentioned fabric swatches (At least 25) in project file and write fabric detail
like Construction, Weave, and GSM.
Ggeorgette , Chambray , Chiffon , Jacquard , Brocade etc. as well different weaves like –
Plain , Twill , satin , Sateen , Jacquard , leno etc.

LIST OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF FABRICS

1 Acetate
A filament fiber made from acetate with a crisp hand and high luster. Drapes well. Acetate
woven fabric is often used for linings, but it shows perspiration stains.
2 Acrylic
A synthetic fiber that has a soft hand and good wrinkle resistance. It is often used in blankets
and socks.
3 Albert Cloth
A reversible wool double cloth with different colors on front and back. Used for coats.
4 Broadcloth
A fine, closely woven, lustrous cotton or poly-cotton blend with an unbalanced weave that
creates a fine rib. An excellent shirting material.
5 Buckram
A coarse, stiff, plain open-weave fabric used as a stiffener.
6 Cambric
A soft plain-weave cloth or linen with a slight luster uses- handkerchiefs, aprons, &
underwear.
7 Chambray
Has the appearance of very fine denim. With a plain weave using colored warp and white
weft. Makes great shirts and pajamas.
8 Chintz
Plain-weave cotton fabric with a glazed finish often used for slipcovers and curtains.
9 Chino
A durable twill-cotton fabric with a slight sheen that makes excellent work clothes or casual
pants.
10 Cool Wool
A trade name used to denote a light-weight “tropical” wool. Armani suits are often made in
this fabric.
11 Dacron
A trademark of Dupont, this polyester is an old favorite for house dresses.
12 Donegal Tweeds
A rather-coarse, wrinkle-resistant multicolored wool most often used in men’s sports jackets.
13 Dotted Swiss
A sheer cotton or nylon fabric patterned with small dots that are woven in or glued on. Makes
good summer blouses and curtains.
14 Drill
A strong, dense, medium-to heavy-weight cotton of twill weave. Used for uniforms, lining
shoes, work clothes, and mattress ticking.
15 Duchesse Satin
A highly lustrous, smooth, very finely woven silk fabric. Used in bridal or evening wear where
volume without bulk is desired.
16 Duck
A durable, plain-weave cotton that is flexible. Used for sails, tents, and awnings.
17 Egyptian Cotton
A high-quality long staple cotton used in the finest sheets.
18 English Net
A cotton netting with a hexagonal weave that dyes well. Used in evening wear for sheer
sections and as underlining in bodices.

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19 Gauze
A fine, transparent, plain-weave fabric with open texture.
20 Gingham
A lightweight plain-weave fabric often woven in checks. Great for pattern pretests.
21 Grosgrain
A closely woven ribbed ribbon made with a rayon warp. Must be preshrunk.
22 Habutai
A soft, lightweight plain-weave silk usually referred to as china silk.
23 Handkerchief Linen
A plain weave of the lightest weight linen. Used for handkerchiefs, blouses, and bias binding.
24 Harris Tweed
A woolen fabric hand-woven on the islands off the coast of Scotland. It is wrinkle resistant
and often used in men’s sport jackets.
25 Hopsacking
A coarse, loosely-woven fabric woven in hopsack or basket weave. Burlap is a rough hopsack.
Cotton or linen hopsacking is more pliable and can be used in lightweight, loose coats.
26 Jacquard
A weaving system that can produce large woven designs.
27 Lawn
A finely-woven, semi-crisp fabric woven in cotton or linen. It is primarily used in heirloom
dresses, blouses, collars, and cuffs. Also makes great underlining.
28 Leatherette
A coated fabric that simulates leather. Used in upholstery.
29 Madras Cottpn
A fine cotton, hand loomed in the Madras region of India. Dyed with natural dyes.
30 Matelasse
A fabric with crepe and ordinary yarn interfaced in the warp. When the crepe yarn shrinks, it
causes the ordinary yarn to pucker, creating raised patterns. Can be made in cotton, silk, or
wool.
31 Merino Wool
A very fine, dense wool from the merino sheep. Takes dye well.
32 Mesh
Woven, knitted, crocheted, or knotted with open spaces between yarns. Supple and elastic.
Used in men’s sport shirts. Lightweight mesh is used in evening wear.
33 Monk’s Cloth
A heavy, coarse cotton fabric with a loose, basket weave. Used in draperies, slipcovers, and
upholstery.
34 Muslin
A firm plain-weave cotton found in many weights. Great for pattern pretests.
35 Napa
A soft, thin, very drapey leather skin used for quality garments.
36 Oilcloth
An oil-coated fabric with a waterproof surface. Cleaned with water. Useds table or shelf
covers.
37 Organdy
A very fine, sheer cotton with a crisp hand.
38 Oxford Cloth
A plain weave with twice as many threads in the warp as in the weft, resulting in a
basketweave.
39 Panné Velvet
Often with a knitted base, pile on this velvet is pressed down in one direction, resulting in a

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 shiny appearance.
40 Patent Leather
Shiny, hard, smooth leather created by applying a solution that hardens to the surface of the
leather.
41 Pima Cotton
A very fine American-Egyptian cotton that is great for underlining.
42 Plisse
A puckered or crinkled cotton.
43 Poplin
Fabric with a similar weave to broadcloth but the rib is larger and the fabric heavier.
44 Raschel Knit
A warp-knitted fabric that comes in a variety of patterns.
45 Sateen
Fabric made of long staple cotton or filament yarns to produce a strong, lustrous surface.
46 Sea Island Cotton
The finest grade of cotton.
47 Seersucker
A permanently crinkled cotton stripe. Crinkle is produced in the weave and is not destroyed
by heat.
48 Sheepskin
Suede produced from a breed of sheep that grows hair rather than wool.
49 Silk Broadcloth
A fine, closely woven silk with a fine rib.
50 Silk Brocade
Silk brocades are known for their smooth texture, durability and strength, which qualify as a
perfect clothing material. Only the highest quality of raw silk is used in brocade weaving.
51 Spandex
A manufactured fiber of at least 85% polyurethane with excellent recovery and flexibility.
52 Thermolite
A fabric made from inter-locked polyester that is coated to be slippery and durable.
53 Triacetate
A modified acetate fiber that is stronger than acetate when wet, with greater resistance to
heat, shrinking, wrinkling, and fading.
54 Tricot
A warp knit fabric with a horizontal rib used often in women’s lingerie. Makes a great lining
for knitted pants. Fusible tricot makes an excellent lightweight interfacing.
55 Tropical Worsteds
Lightweight suiting made of highly twisted yarns that permit air circulation. One yard weighs
7 1/2 ounces to 10 ounces.
56 Vicuna
The finest wool woven from a small South American relative of the camel. Very soft to touch
and very warm to wear.

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