CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 1

Challenge Problems

Chapter 1 A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions.

1. Draw the graph of the equation x  y
1  xy .


2. Draw the graph of the equation x 2 y  y 3  5x 2  5y 2
0 without making a table of values.

Chapter 3 A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions.

1. (a) Find the domain of the function f x
s1  s2  s 3  x .

(b) Find f x.
; (c) Check your work in parts (a) and (b) by graphing f and f  on the same screen.
2. Find the nth derivative of the function f x
x n1  x.
dn
3. Prove that sin4 x  cos4 x
4n1 cos4x  n2.
dx n
sin3  x2  sin 9
4. Evaluate lim .
xl0 x
5. Find the two points on the curve y
x 4  2x 2  x that have a common tangent line.

Chapter 4 A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions.

1. Find the absolute maximum value of the function

1 1
f x

1 x

1 x2


2. Find a function f such that f 1
2 , f 0
0, and f x  0 for all x, or prove that such a
1

function cannot exist.

3. A triangle with sides a, b, and c varies with time t, but its area never changes. Let
be the angle
opposite the side of length a and suppose
always remains acute.
(a) Express d
dt in terms of b, c,
, dbdt, and dcdt.
(b) Express dadt in terms of the quantities in part (a).

4. (a) Let ABC be a triangle with right angle A and hypotenuse a
BC . (See the figure.) If the
inscribed circle touches the hypotenuse at D, show that

CD

(
BC

AC

AB
)
1
2

(b) If

12
C, express the radius r of the inscribed circle in terms of a and
.
(c) If a is fixed and
varies, find the maximum value of r.

A B
2 ■ CHALLENGE PROBLEMS

5. The line y
mx  b intersects the parabola y
x 2 in points A and B (see the figure). Find the
point P on the arc AOB of the parabola that maximizes the area of the triangle PAB.
y
y=≈
B

y=mx+b
O P x

Chapter 5 A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions.

1 2 1 7
1. Show that y dx  .
1 1  x
4
17 24

2. If n is a positive integer, prove that

1
y ln xn dx
1n n!
0

3. (a) Evaluate x0n x dx, where n is a positive integer.

(b) Evaluate xab x dx, where a and b are real numbers with 0  a b.

; 4. Suppose that f is a positive function such that f  is continuous.

(a) How is the graph of y
f x sin nx related to the graph of y
f x? What happens as n l ?
(b) Make a guess as to the value of the limit
1
lim y f x sin nx dx
nl 0

based on graphs of the integrand.

(c) Using integration by parts, confirm the guess that you made in part (b). [Use the fact that, since


f  is continuous, there is a constant M such that f x  M for 0  x  1.]

x
5. Prove that if f is continuous, then y f ux  u du

0
x
y y
0
 u

0

f t dt du.

6. A rocket is fired straight up, burning fuel at the constant rate of b kilograms per second. Let
v
vt be the velocity of the rocket at time t and suppose that the velocity u of the exhaust gas is
constant. Let M
Mt be the mass of the rocket at time t and note that M decreases as the fuel
burns. If we neglect air resistance, it follows from Newton’s Second Law that
dv
F
M  ub
dt
where the force F
Mt. Thus
dv
1 M  ub
Mt
dt

Let M1 be the mass of the rocket without fuel, M2 the initial mass of the fuel, and M0
M1  M2 .
Then, until the fuel runs out at time t
M2 b, the mass is M
M0  bt.
(a) Substitute M
M0  bt into Equation 1 and solve the resulting equation for v. Use the initial
condition v 0
0 to evaluate the constant.
(b) Determine the velocity of the rocket at time t
M2 b. This is called the burnout velocity.
(c) Determine the height of the rocket y
yt at the burnout time.
(d) Find the height of the rocket at any time t.
 CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 3

7. If 0 a b, find lim
tl0
y0
1
bx  a1  x t dx  1t
.

; 8. The Chebyshev polynomials Tn are defined by

Tnx
cosn arccos x n
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
(a) What are the domain and range of these functions?
(b) We know that T0x
1 and T1x
x. Express T2 explicitly as a quadratic polynomial and T3
as a cubic polynomial.
(c) Show that, for n 1,
Tn1x
2x Tnx  Tn1x
(d) Use part (c) to show that Tn is a polynomial of degree n.
(e) Use parts (b) and (c) to express T4 , T5 , T6 , and T7 explicitly as polynomials.
(f) What are the zeros of Tn ? At what numbers does Tn have local maximum and minimum values?
(g) Graph T2 , T3 , T4 , and T5 on a common screen.
(h) Graph T5 , T6 , and T7 on a common screen.
(i) Based on your observations from parts (g) and (h), how are the zeros of Tn related to the zeros
of Tn1 ? What about the x-coordinates of the maximum and minimum values?
(j) Based on your graphs in parts (g) and (h), what can you say about x1 1
Tnx dx when n is odd
and when n is even?
(k) Use the substitution u
arccos x to evaluate the integral in part (j).
(l) The family of functions f x
cosc arccos x are defined even when c is not an integer (but
then f is not a polynomial). Describe how the graph of f changes as c increases.

9. Evaluate lim
nl
 1
sn sn  1

1
sn sn  2
 
1
sn sn  n

.

Chapter 6 A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions.

1. Find the area of the region S
x, y x
0, y  1, x 2  y 2  4y .

2. There is a line through the origin that divides the region bounded by the parabola y
x  x 2 and
y the x-axis into two regions with equal area. What is the slope of that line?

3. A clepsydra, or water clock, is a glass container with a small hole in the bottom through which
b water can flow. The “clock” is calibrated for measuring time by placing markings on the container
x=f(y)
corresponding to water levels at equally spaced times. Let x
f  y be continuous on the interval
0, b and assume that the container is formed by rotating the graph of f about the y-axis. Let V
h denote the volume of water and h the height of the water level at time t.
(a) Determine V as a function of h.
x (b) Show that

dV dh
FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 3
 f h 2
dt dt
(c) Suppose that A is the area of the hole in the bottom of the container. It follows from
Torricelli’s Law that the rate of change of the volume of the water is given by

dV

k A sh
dt
where k is a negative constant. Determine a formula for the function f such that dhdt is a
constant C. What is the advantage in having dhdt
C ?

4. A cylindrical glass of radius r and height L is filled with water and then tilted until the water
remaining in the glass exactly covers its base.
(a) Determine a way to “slice” the water into parallel rectangular cross-sections and then set up a
definite integral for the volume of the water in the glass.
4 ■ CHALLENGE PROBLEMS

(b) Determine a way to “slice” the water into parallel cross-sections that are trapezoids and then
set up a definite integral for the volume of the water.
(c) Find the volume of water in the glass by evaluating one of the integrals in part (a) or part (b).
(d) Find the volume of the water in the glass from purely geometric considerations.
(e) Suppose the glass is tilted until the water exactly covers half the base. In what direction can
you “slice” the water into triangular cross-sections? Rectangular cross-sections? Cross-sections
that are segments of circles? Find the volume of water in the glass.

L L

r
r

5. Suppose that the density of seawater,
z, varies with the depth z below the surface.
(a) Show that the hydrostatic pressure is governed by the differential equation

dP

zt
dz
where t is the acceleration due to gravity. Let P0 and 0 be the pressure and density at z
0.
Express the pressure at depth z as an integral.
(b) Suppose the density of seawater at depth z is given by
0 e zH where H is a positive con-
stant. Find the total force, expressed as an integral, exerted on a vertical circular porthole of
radius r whose center is at a distance L  r below the surface.

CAS 6. Suppose we are planning to make a taco from a round tortilla with diameter 8 inches by bending
the tortilla so that it is shaped as if it is partially wrapped around a circular cylinder. We will fill the
tortilla to the edge (but no more) with meat, cheese, and other ingredients. Our problem is to decide
how to curve the tortilla in order to maximize the volume of food it can hold.
(a) We start by placing a circular cylinder of radius r along a diameter of the tortilla and folding
the tortilla around the cylinder. Let x represent the distance from the center of the tortilla to a
point P on the diameter (see the figure). Show that the cross-sectional area of the filled taco in
the plane through P perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder is


Ax
r s16  x 2  12 r 2 sin
2
r
s16  x 2
and write an expression for the volume of the filled taco.
(b) Determine (approximately) the value of r that maximizes the volume of the taco. (Use a
graphical approach with your CAS.)

7. In a famous 18th-century problem, known as Buffon’s needle problem, a needle of length h is

dropped onto a flat surface (for example, a table) on which parallel lines L units apart, L h, have
been drawn. The problem is to determine the probability that the needle will come to rest intersect-
ing one of the lines. Assume that the lines run east-west, parallel to the x-axis in a rectangular
 CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 5

coordinate system (as in the figure). Let y be the distance from the “southern” end of the needle to
y h h sin ¨ the nearest line to the north. (If the needle’s southern end lies on a line, let y
0. If the needle
¨ happens to lie east-west, let the “western” end be the “southern” end.) Let
be the angle that
the needle makes with a ray extending eastward from the “southern” end. Then 0  y  L and
L
0 
 . Note that the needle intersects one of the lines only when y h sin
. Now, the total
set of possibilities for the needle can be identified with the rectangular region 0  y  L,
0 
 , and the proportion of times that the needle intersects a line is the ratio
area under y
h sin

y area of rectangle
L This ratio is the probability that the needle intersects a line. Find the probability that the needle will
h
intersect a line if h
L. What if h
L2?

8. If the needle in Problem 7 has length h  L, it’s possible for the needle to intersect more than one
line.
(a) If L
4, find the probability that a needle of length 7 will intersect at least one line.
¨ [Hint: We can proceed as in Problem 7. Define y as before; then the total set of possibilities
π π
2 for the needle can be identified with the same rectangular region 0  y  L, 0 
 .
What portion of the rectangle corresponds to the needle intersecting a line?]
FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 7 (b) If L
4, find the probability that a needle of length 7 will intersect two lines.
(c) If 2L h  3L, find a general formula for the probability that the needle intersects three lines.
9. The figure shows a curve C with the property that, for every point P on the middle curve y
2x 2,
the areas A and B are equal. Find an equation for C.
y
y=2≈
C
y=≈
P
B

0 x

y 10. A cylindrical container of radius r and height L is partially filled with a liquid whose volume is V .
v If the container is rotated about its axis of symmetry with constant angular speed , then the con-
tainer will induce a rotational motion in the liquid around the same axis. Eventually, the liquid will
be rotating at the same angular speed as the container. The surface of the liquid will be convex, as
indicated in the figure, because the centrifugal force on the liquid particles increases with the dis-
L
tance from the axis of the container. It can be shown that the surface of the liquid is a paraboloid of
revolution generated by rotating the parabola
h
 2x 2
y
h
r x 2t
about the y-axis, where t is the acceleration due to gravity.
FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 10
(a) Determine h as a function of .
(b) At what angular speed will the surface of the liquid touch the bottom? At what speed will it
spill over the top?
(c) Suppose the radius of the container is 2 ft, the height is 7 ft, and the container and liquid are
rotating at the same constant angular speed. The surface of the liquid is 5 ft below the top of
the tank at the central axis and 4 ft below the top of the tank 1 ft out from the central axis.
(i) Determine the angular speed of the container and the volume of the fluid.
(ii) How far below the top of the tank is the liquid at the wall of the container?

11. If the tangent at a point P on the curve y
x 3 intersects the curve again at Q, let A be the
area of the region bounded by the curve and the line segment PQ. Let B be the area of the region
defined in the same way starting with Q instead of P. What is the relationship between A and B ?
6 ■ CHALLENGE PROBLEMS

Chapter 8 A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions.

1. (a) Show that tan 2 x
cot 2 x  2 cot x.

1 1

(b) Find the sum of the series

1 x

n
1 2n
tan n
2
2. A function f is defined by
x 2n  1
f x
lim
nl x 2n  1
Where is f continuous?

3. (a) Show that for xy  1,

xy
arctan x  arctan y
arctan
1  xy
if the left side lies between 2 and 2.
(b) Show that

119  arctan 239

arctan 120 1

4
(c) Deduce the following formula of John Machin (1680–1751):

4 arctan 15  arctan 239
1


4
(d) Use the Maclaurin series for arctan to show that
0.197395560 arctan 15 0.197395562

(e) Show that

1
0.004184075 arctan 239 0.004184077

(f) Deduce that, correct to seven decimal places,

  3.1415927
Machin used this method in 1706 to find  correct to 100 decimal places. Recently, with the aid of
computers, the value of  has been computed to increasingly greater accuracy. In 1999, Takahashi
and Kanada, using methods of Borwein and BrentSalamin, calculated the value of  to
206,158,430,000 decimal places!
4. (a) Prove a formula similar to the one in Problem 3(a) but involving arccot instead of arctan.
(b) Find the sum of the series

 arccotn
n
0
2
 n  1

5. Find the interval of convergence of n
1 n 3x n and find its sum.

6. If a 0  a 1  a 2   a k
0, show that
1 1
lim (a0 sn  a1 sn  1  a2 sn  2   ak sn  k )
0
1 1 nl

If you don’t see how to prove this, try the problem-solving strategy of using analogy (see page 86).
¨£
Try the special cases k
1 and k
2 first. If you can see how to prove the assertion for these
¨™ 1 cases, then you will probably see how to prove it in general.
¨¡
7. Right-angled triangles are constructed as in the figure. Each triangle has height 1 and its base is the
P 1
hypotenuse of the preceding triangle. Show that this sequence of triangles makes indefinitely many
FIGURE FOR PROBLEM 7 turns around P by showing that 
n is a divergent series.
 CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 7

Chapter 10 A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions.

1. A projectile of mass m is fired from the origin at an angle of elevation . In addition to gravity,
assume that air resistance provides a force that is proportional to the velocity and that opposes
the motion. Then, by Newton’s Second Law, the total force acting on the projectile satisfies the
equation

d 2R dR
2 2
mt j  k
m
dt dt

where R is the position vector and k  0 is the constant of proportionality.

(a) Show that Equation 2 can be integrated to obtain the equation

dR k
 R
v0  tt j
dt m

dR
where v0
v0
0.
dt
(b) Multiply both sides of the equation in part (a) by e kmt and show that the left-hand side of the
resulting equation is the derivative of the product e kmt Rt. Then integrate to find an expres-
sion for the position vector Rt.
8 ■ CHALLENGE PROBLEMS

Answers

Chapter 1

S Solutions 1. y

1 x

Chapter 3

S Solutions 1. (a) 1, 2 (b) 1(8 s3  x s2  s3  x s1  s2  s3  x )

5. 1, 2, 1, 0

Chapter 4
4
Solutions
 
S 1. 3
db dc dc db

 
b c  b c sec

1 dc 1 db dt dt dt dt
3. (a) tan
 (b)
c dt b dt sb  c  2bc cos

2 2

5. m2, m 24

Chapter 5

S Solutions 3. (a) n  1n2 (b) 2 b2b  b  1  12 a2a  a  1

1

7. b baa 1bae1
9. 2(s2  1)

Chapter 6

S Solutions 1. 23  s32

3. (a) V
x0h  f  y 2 dy
(c) f  y
sk A C y 14
Advantage: the markings on the container are equally spaced.
5. (a) Pz
P0  t x0z x d x (b) P0  0 tHr 2   0 tHe LH xr
r
e xH
2 sr 2  x 2 dx
7. 2, 1
9. y
9 x 2
32

11. B
16A

Chapter 8

S Solutions 1. (b) 0 if x
0, 1x  cot x if x  k, k an integer

5. 1, 1, x 3  4x 2  x1  x4

Chapter 10

S Solutions 1. (b) Rt
mk1  ektm v0  tmk mk1  ektm   t j

 CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 9

Solutions

E Exercises Chapter 1
1. |x| + |y| = 1 + |xy| ⇔ |xy| − |x| − |y| + 1 = 0 ⇔
|x| |y| − |x| − |y| + 1 = 0 ⇔ (|x| − 1)(|y| − 1) = 0 ⇔
x = ±1 or y = ±1.

E Exercises Chapter 3

 √
1. (a) f (x) = 1− 2− 3−x
 √  √   √  √ 
D = x | 3 − x ≥ 0, 2 − 3 − x ≥ 0, 1 − 2 − 3 − x ≥ 0 = x | 3 ≥ x, 2 ≥ 3 − x, 1 ≥ 2 − 3 − x
 √   √ 
= x | 3 ≥ x, 4 ≥ 3 − x, 1 ≥ 2 − 3 − x = x | x ≤ 3, x ≥ −1, 1 ≤ 3 − x

= {x | x ≤ 3, x ≥ −1, 1 ≤ 3 − x} = {x | x ≤ 3, x ≥ −1, x ≤ 2} = {x | −1 ≤ x ≤ 2} = [−1, 2]

 √
(b) f (x) = 1− 2− 3−x ⇒ (c)

1 d   √ 
f
(x) =
 1− 2− 3−x
√ dx
2 1− 2− 3−x
1 −1 d √
=
 √
·  √ 2− 3−x
2 1− 2− 3−x 2 2− 3−x
dx

1 Note that f is always decreasing

=−
 √  √ √
8 1− 2− 3−x 2− 3−x 3−x and f
is always negative.

dn
3. We use mathematical induction. Let Sn be the statement that (sin4 x + cos4 x) = 4n−1 cos(4x + nπ/2).
dxn
S1 is true because
d
(sin4 x + cos4 x) = 4 sin3 x cos x − 4 cos3 x sin x = 4 sin x cos x (sin2 x − cos2 x)
dx
= −4 sin x cos x cos 2x = −2 sin 2x cos 2x = − sin 4x = sin(−4x)
= cos π
2 − (−4x) = cos π
2 + 4x = 4n−1 cos 4x + n π2 when n = 1

dk
Now assume Sk is true, that is, (sin4 x + cos4 x) = 4k−1 cos 4x + k π2 . Then
dxk
dk+1 4 4 d dk d 
(sin x + cos x) = sin4 x + cos4 x = 4k−1 cos 4x + k π2
dxk+1 dx dxk dx
= −4k−1 sin 4x + k π2 · d
dx
4x + k π2 = −4k sin 4x + k π2

= 4k sin −4x − k π2 = 4k cos π

2 − −4x − k π2 = 4k cos 4x + (k + 1) π2

which shows that Sk+1 is true.

10 ■ CHALLENGE PROBLEMS

dn
Therefore, (sin4 x + cos4 x) = 4n−1 cos 4x + n π2 for every positive integer n, by mathematical induction.
dxn

Another proof: First write

sin4 x + cos4 x = (sin2 x + cos2 x)2 − 2 sin2 x cos2 x = 1 − 1

2
sin2 2x = 1 − 14 (1 − cos 4x) = 3
4
+ 1
4
cos 4x.
n n
d d
Then we have (sin4 x + cos4 x) = n 3
4 + 1
4 cos 4x = 1
4 · 4n cos 4x + n π2 = 4n−1 cos 4x + n π2 .
dxn dx

5. y = x4 − 2x2 − x ⇒ y
= 4x3 − 4x − 1. The equation of the tangent line at x = a is

y − (a4 − 2a2 − a) = (4a3 − 4a − 1)(x − a) or y = (4a3 − 4a − 1)x + (−3a4 + 2a2 ) and similarly for x = b. So if at

x = a and x = b we have the same tangent line, then 4a3 − 4a − 1 = 4b3 − 4b − 1 and −3a4 + 2a2 = −3b4 + 2b2 . The first

equation gives a3 − b3 = a − b ⇒ (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ) = (a − b). Assuming a = b, we have 1 = a2 + ab + b2 .

The second equation gives 3(a4 − b4 ) = 2(a2 − b2 ) ⇒ 3(a2 − b2 )(a2 + b2 ) = 2(a2 − b2 ) which is true if a = −b.

Substituting into 1 = a2 + ab + b2 gives 1 = a2 − a2 + a2 ⇒ a = ±1 so that a = 1 and b = −1 or vice versa. Thus, the

points (1, −2) and (−1, 0) have a common tangent line.

As long as there are only two such points, we are done. So we show that these are in fact the only two such points. Suppose

that a2 − b2 = 0. Then 3(a2 − b2 )(a2 + b2 ) = 2(a2 − b2 ) gives 3(a2 + b2 ) = 2 or a2 + b2 = 23 . Thus,

1 1 2
ab = (a2 + ab + b2 ) − (a2 + b2 ) = 1 − 2
= 13 , so b = . Hence, a2 + 2 = , so 9a4 + 1 = 6a2 ⇒
3 3a 9a 3
1
0 = 9a4 − 6a2 + 1 = (3a2 − 1)2 . So 3a2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ a2 = 1
⇒ b2 = = 1
= a2 , contradicting our assumption
3 9a2 3

that a2 = b2 .

E Exercises Chapter 4
1 1
1. f(x) = +
1 + |x| 1 + |x − 2|
 
 1 1  1 1

 + if x < 0 
 + if x < 0

 1 − x 1 − (x − 2) 
(1 − x)2 (3 − x)2

 

 1 1  −1 1
= + if 0 ≤ x < 2 ⇒ f
(x) = + if 0 < x < 2

 1 + x 1 − (x − 2) 
(1 + x)2 (3 − x)2

 


 1 1 
 −1 1

 + if x ≥ 2 
 − if x > 2
1 + x 1 + (x − 2) (1 + x)2 (x − 1)2

We see that f
(x) > 0 for x < 0 and f
(x) < 0 for x > 2. For 0 < x < 2, we have

1 1 (x2 + 2x + 1) − (x2 − 6x + 9) 8(x − 1)

f
(x) = − = = , so f
(x) < 0 for 0 < x < 1,
(3 − x)2 (x + 1)2 (3 − x)2 (x + 1)2 (3 − x)2 (x + 1)2

f
(1) = 0 and f
(x) > 0 for 1 < x < 2. We have shown that f
(x) > 0 for x < 0; f
(x) < 0 for 0 < x < 1;

f
(x) > 0 for 1 < x < 2; and f
(x) < 0 for x > 2. Therefore, by the First Derivative Test, the local maxima of f are at

x = 0 and x = 2, where f takes the value 43 . Therefore, 4

3
is the absolute maximum value of f .
 CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 11

3. (a) A = 12 bh with sin θ = h/c, so A = 12 bc sin θ. But A is a constant,

so differentiating this equation with respect to t, we get

dA 1 dθ dc db
=0= bc cos θ +b sin θ + c sin θ ⇒
dt 2 dt dt dt
dθ dc db dθ 1 dc 1 db
bc cos θ = − sin θ b +c ⇒ = − tan θ + .
dt dt dt dt c dt b dt

(b) We use the Law of Cosines to get the length of side a in terms of those of b and c, and then we differentiate implicitly with
da db dc dθ dc db
respect to t: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos θ ⇒ 2a
= 2b + 2c − 2 bc(− sin θ) +b cos θ + c cos θ
dt dt dt dt dt dt
 
da 1 db dc dθ dc db
⇒ = b +c + bc sin θ −b cos θ − c cos θ . Now we substitute our value of a from the Law
dt a dt dt dt dt dt
of Cosines and the value of dθ/dt from part (a), and simplify (primes signify differentiation by t):

da bb
+ cc
+ bc sin θ [− tan θ(c
/c + b
/b)] − (bc
+ cb
)(cos θ)

= √
dt b2 + c2 − 2bc cos θ

bb
+ cc
− [sin2 θ(bc
+ cb
) + cos2 θ(bc
+ cb
)]/ cos θ bb
+ cc
− (bc
+ cb
)sec θ
= √ = √
b2 + c2 − 2bc cos θ b2 + c2 − 2bc cos θ

5. A = x1 , x21 and B = x2 , x22 , where x1 and x2 are the solutions of the quadratic equation x2 = mx + b.

Let P = x, x2 and set A1 = (x1 , 0), B1 = (x2 , 0), and P1 = (x, 0). Let f (x) denote the area of triangle P AB.

Then f(x) can be expressed in terms of the areas of three trapezoids as follows:

f (x) = area (A1 ABB1 ) − area (A1 AP P1 ) − area (B1 BP P1 )

= 1
2
x21 + x22 (x2 − x1 ) − 1
2
x21 + x2 (x − x1 ) − 1
2
x2 + x22 (x2 − x)

After expanding and canceling terms, we get

1

f (x) = 2
x2 x21 − x1 x22 − xx21 + x1 x2 − x2 x2 + xx22 = 12 x21 (x2 − x) + x22 (x − x1 ) + x2 (x1 − x2 )

f
(x) = 1
2
−x21 + x22 + 2x(x1 − x2 ) . f

(x) = 12 [2(x1 − x2 )] = x1 − x2 < 0 since x2 > x1 .

f
(x) = 0 ⇒ 2x(x1 − x2 ) = x21 − x22 ⇒ xP = 12 (x1 + x2 ).

 
f (xP ) = 1
2
x21 1
2
(x2 − x1 ) + x22 1
2
(x2 − x1 ) + 14 (x1 + x2 )2 (x1 − x2 )
 
= 1
2
1
2 (x2 − x1 ) x21 + x22 − 14 (x2 − x1 )(x1 + x2 )2 = 18 (x2 − x1 ) 2 x21 + x22 − x21 + 2x1 x2 + x22

= 18 (x2 − x1 ) x21 − 2x1 x2 + x22 = 18 (x2 − x1 )(x1 − x2 )2 = 18 (x2 − x1 )(x2 − x1 )2

= 18 (x2 − x1 )3

To put this in terms of m and b, we solve the system y = x21 and y = mx1 + b, giving us x21 − mx1 − b = 0 ⇒
√ √ √ 3
x1 = 12 m − m2 + 4b . Similarly, x2 = 12 m + m2 + 4b . The area is then 18 (x2 − x1 )3 = 18 m2 + 4b , and is

attained at the point P xP , x2P = P 1

2
m, 14 m2 .

Note: Another way to get an expression for f (x) is to use the formula for an area of a triangle in terms of the coordinates of

the vertices: f(x) = 12 x2 x21 − x1 x22 + x1 x2 − xx21 + xx22 − x2 x2 .
12 ■ CHALLENGE PROBLEMS

E Exercises Chapter 5
 2  2
1 1 1 1 1
1. For 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, we have x4 ≤ 24 = 16, so 1 + x4 ≤ 17 and ≥ . Thus, dx ≥ dx = .
1 + x4 17 1 1 + x4
1 17 17
 2  2 2
1 1 1 −4 x−3 1 1 7
Also 1 + x4 > x4 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, so < 4 and dx < x dx = =− + = .
1 + x4 x 1 1 + x4 1 −3 1
24 3 24
 2
1 1 7
Thus, we have the estimate ≤ dx ≤ .
17 1 1 + x4 24

n n 
 
i
3. (a) We can split the integral 0
[[x]] dx into the sum i−1
[[x]] dx . But on each of the intervals [i − 1, i) of integration,
i=1

[[x]] is a constant function, namely i − 1. So the ith integral in the sum is equal to (i − 1)[i − (i − 1)] = (i − 1). So the


n 
n−1 (n − 1)n
original integral is equal to (i − 1) = i= .
i=1 i=1 2
b b a b  [[b]] b
(b) We can write a
[[x]] dx = 0
[[x]] dx − 0
[[x]] dx. Now 0
[[x]] dx = 0
[[x]] dx + [[b]]
[[x]] dx. The first of these integrals

is equal to 12 ([[b]] − 1) [[b]], by part (a), and since [[x]] = [[b]] on [[[b]] , b], the second integral is just [[b]] (b − [[b]]). So
b a
0
[[x]] dx = 12 ([[b]] − 1) [[b]] + [[b]] (b − [[b]]) = 1
2
[[b]] (2b − [[b]] − 1) and similarly 0
[[x]] dx = 1
2
[[a]] (2a − [[a]] − 1).
b 1 1
Therefore, a
[[x]] dx = 2
[[b]] (2b − [[b]] − 1) − 2
[[a]] (2a − [[a]] − 1).
 x  u   x
d
5. Note that f (t) dt du = f (t) dt by FTC1, while
dx 0 0 0

  
d x
d x
d x x x
f (u)(x − u) du = x f(u) du − f(u)u du = 0
f(u) du + xf (x) − f(x)x = 0
f (u) du
dx 0 dx 0 dx 0

x x u 
Hence, 0
f (u)(x − u) du = 0 0
f (t) dt du + C. Setting x = 0 gives C = 0.

7. 0 < a < b. Now

 1  b
b
ut ut+1 bt+1 − at+1
[bx + a(1 − x)]t dx = du [put u = bx + a(1 − x)] = = .
0 a (b − a) (t + 1)(b − a) a (t + 1)(b − a)
1/t
bt+1 − at+1 1 bt+1 − at+1
Now let y = lim . Then ln y = lim ln .
t→0 (t + 1)(b − a) t→0 t (t + 1)(b − a)

This limit is of the form 0/0, so we can apply l’Hospital’s Rule to get

bt+1 ln b − at+1 ln a 1 b ln b − a ln a b ln b a ln a bb/(b−a)

ln y = lim − = −1= − − ln e = ln a/(b−a) .
t→0 bt+1 − at+1 t+1 b−a b−a b−a ea
 1/(b−a)
bb
Therefore, y = e−1 .
aa
 CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 13

     
1 1 1 1 n n n
9. lim √ √ +√ √ + ··· + √ √ = lim + + ··· +
n→∞ n n+1 n n+2 n n+n n→∞ n n+1 n+2 n+n
 
1 1 1 1
= lim  + + ··· + √
n→∞ n 1 + 1/n 1 + 2/n 1+1
 
1 n i 1
= lim f where f (x) = √
n→∞ n i=1 n 1+x
 1 √ 
1 √ 1
= √ dx = 2 1 + x 0 = 2 2 − 1
0 1+x

E Exercises Chapter 6

1. x2 + y 2 ≤ 4y ⇔ x2 + (y − 2)2 ≤ 4, so S is part of a circle,

as shown in the diagram. The area of S is
1   1
113
0
4y − y 2 dy = y−2 2
4y − y2 + 2 cos−1 2−y
2
[a = 2]
0
√
= − 12 3 + 2 cos−1 12 − 2 cos−1 1
√ √
3 2π 3
=− 2
+2 π
3
− 2(0) = 3
− 2

Another method (without calculus): Note that θ = ∠CAB = π

3
, so the area is
√ √
(area of sector OAB) − (area of ABC) = 1
2
22 π
3
− 12 (1) 3 = 2π
3
− 2
3

h
3. (a) Stacking disks along the y-axis gives us V = 0
π [f (y)]2 dy.

dV dV dh dh
(b) Using the Chain Rule, = · = π [f(h)]2 .
dt dh dt dt

√ dh dh √ kA √ kA 1/4
(c) kA h = π[f (h)]2 . Set = C: π[f (h)]2 C = kA h ⇒ [f(h)]2 = h ⇒ f(h) = h ;
dt dt πC πC

kA 1/4 dh
that is, f (y) = y . The advantage of having = C is that the markings on the container are equally spaced.
πC dt

5. (a) Choose a vertical x-axis pointing downward with its origin at the surface. In order to calculate the pressure at depth z,

consider n subintervals of the interval [0, z] by points xi and choose a point x∗i ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] for each i. The thin layer of

water lying between depth xi−1 and depth xi has a density of approximately ρ(x∗i ), so the weight of a piece of that layer

with unit cross-sectional area is ρ(x∗i )g ∆x. The total weight of a column of water extending from the surface to depth z

n
(with unit cross-sectional area) would be approximately ρ(x∗i )g ∆x. The estimate becomes exact if we take the limit
i=1


n z
as n → ∞; weight (or force) per unit area at depth z is W = lim ρ(x∗i )g ∆x. In other words, P (z) = 0
ρ(x)g dx.
n→∞ i=1

z
More generally, if we make no assumptions about the location of the origin, then P (z) = P0 + 0
ρ(x)g dx, where P0 is

the pressure at x = 0. Differentiating, we get dP/dz = ρ(z)g.

14 ■ CHALLENGE PROBLEMS

r √
(b) F = −r
P (L + x) · 2 r2 − x2 dx
r   L+x  √
= −r P0 + 0 ρ0 ez/H g dz · 2 r2 − x2 dx
r √ r   √
= P0 −r 2 r2 − x2 dx + ρ0 gH −r e(L+x)/H − 1 · 2 r2 − x2 dx
r √ r √
= (P0 − ρ0 gH) −r 2 r2 − x2 dx + ρ0 gH −r e(L+x)/H · 2 r2 − x2 dx
r √
= (P0 − ρ0 gH) πr2 + ρ0 gHeL/H −r ex/H · 2 r2 − x2 dx
π
area under y = L sin θ L sin θ dθ
0 [− cos θ]π0 − (−1) + 1 2
7. If h = L, then P = = = = =
area of rectangle πL π π π
π 1
area under y = 12 L sin θ L sin θ dθ [− cos θ]π0 2 1
If h = L/2, then P = = 0 2 = = = .
area of rectangle πL 2π 2π π

9. We must find expressions for the areas A and B, and then set them equal and see what this says about the curve C. If
a a
P = a, 2a2 , then area A is just 0
2x2 − x2 dx = x2 dx = 13 a3 . To find area B, we use y as the variable of
0

integration. So we find the equation of the middle curve as a function of y: y = 2x2 ⇔ x = y/2, since we are

concerned with the first quadrant only. We can express area B as

 2a2    2a2  2
2a  2a2
0
y/2 − C(y) dy = 43 (y/2)3/2 − 0 C(y) dy = 43 a3 − 0 C(y) dy, where C(y) is the function with
0

 2a2  2a2
graph C. Setting A = B, we get 13 a3 = 43 a3 − 0
C(y) dy ⇔ 0
C(y) dy = a3 . Now we differentiate this equation

with respect to a using the Chain Rule and the Fundamental Theorem: C 2a2 (4a) = 3a2 ⇒ C(y) = 3
4
y/2, where

y = 2a2 . Now we can solve for y: x = 3
4
y/2 ⇒ x2 = 9
16
(y/2) ⇒ y= 32 2
9
x .

11. We assume that P lies in the region of positive x. Since y = x3 is an odd

function, this assumption will not affect the result of the calculation. Let
P = a, a3 . The slope of the tangent to the curve y = x3 at P is 3a2 , and so

the equation of the tangent is y − a3 = 3a2 (x − a) ⇔ y = 3a2 x − 2a3 .

We solve this simultaneously with y = x3 to find the other point of intersection:
x3 = 3a2 x − 2a3 ⇔ (x − a)2 (x + 2a) = 0. So Q = −2a, −8a3 is
the other point of intersection. The equation of the tangent at Q is

y − (−8a3 ) = 12a2 [x − (−2a)] ⇔ y = 12a2 x + 16a3 . By symmetry, this tangent will intersect the

curve again at x = −2(−2a) = 4a. The curve lies above the first tangent, and below the
a 
second, so we are looking for a relationship between A = −2a x3 − 3a2 x − 2a3 dx and
 4a  a
B= −2a
12a2 x + 16a3 − x3 dx. We calculate A = 1 4
4
x − 32 a2 x2 + 2a3 x −2a = 34 a4 − (−6a4 ) = 27 4
4
a , and
4a
B = 6a2 x2 + 16a3 x − 14 x4 −2a
= 96a4 − (−12a4 ) = 108a4 . We see that B = 16A = 24 A. This is because our

calculation of area B was essentially the same as that of area A, with a replaced by −2a, so if we replace a with −2a in our

expression for A, we get 27

4
(−2a)4 = 108a4 = B.
 CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 15

E Exercises Chapter 8

2 tan θ 1 − tan2 θ
1. (a) From Formula 14a in Appendix C, with x = y = θ, we get tan 2θ = , so cot 2θ = ⇒
1 − tan θ
2 2 tan θ
1 − tan2 θ
2 cot 2θ = = cot θ − tan θ. Replacing θ by 12 x, we get 2 cot x = cot 12 x − tan 12 x, or
tan θ
tan 12 x = cot 12 x − 2 cot x.
x x x x ∞ 1 x
(b) From part (a) with in place of x, tan = cot n − 2 cot n−1 , so the nth partial sum of tan n is
2n−1 2n 2 2 n=1 2
n 2

tan(x/2) tan(x/4) tan(x/8) tan(x/2n )

sn = + + + ··· +
2 4 8 2n
cot(x/2) cot(x/4) cot(x/2) cot(x/8) cot(x/4)
= − cot x + − + − + ···
2 4 2 8 4
cot(x/2n ) cot(x/2n−1 ) cot(x/2n )
+ − = − cot x + [telescoping sum]
2n 2n−1 2n

cot(x/2n ) cos(x/2n ) cos(x/2n ) x/2n 1 1

Now = n = · → · 1 = as n → ∞ since x/2n → 0 for x = 0.
2 n 2 sin(x/2 )
n x sin(x/2n ) x x
Therefore, if x = 0 and x = kπ where k is any integer, then
 
∞ 1 x 1 x 1
tan = lim sn = lim − cot x + cot = − cot x +
n=1 2 2n 2n 2n
n n→∞ n→∞ x

If x = 0, then all terms in the series are 0, so the sum is 0.

3. (a) Let a = arctan x and b = arctan y. Then, from Formula 14b in Appendix C,

tan a − tan b tan(arctan x) − tan(arctan y) x−y

tan(a − b) = = =
1 + tan a tan b 1 + tan(arctan x) tan(arctan y) 1 + xy
x−y
Now arctan x − arctan y = a − b = arctan(tan(a − b)) = arctan since −π2 < a − b < π
2.
1 + xy
(b) From part (a) we have
120 1 28,561
119 − 239 28,441
arctan 120
119
1
− arctan 239 = arctan 120 1 = arctan 28,561 = arctan 1 = π
4
1 + 119 · 239 28,441

x+y
(c) Replacing y by −y in the formula of part (a), we get arctan x + arctan y = arctan . So
1 − xy
1
+ 15
4 arctan 15 = 2 arctan 15 + arctan 15 = 2 arctan 5 5
= 2 arctan 12 5
= arctan 12 5
+ arctan 12
1 − 15 · 15
5 5
+
= arctan 12
5
12
5 = arctan 120
119
1− 12
· 12

Thus, from part (b), we have 4 arctan 15 − arctan 239

1
= arctan 120
119
1
− arctan 239 = π
4
.

x3 x5 x7 x9 x11
(d) From Example 7 in Section 8.6 we have arctan x = x − + − + − + · · · , so
3 5 7 9 11
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
arctan = − + − + − + ···
5 5 3 · 53 5 · 55 7 · 57 9 · 59 11 · 511
This is an alternating series and the size of the terms decreases to 0, so by the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem,
the sum lies between s5 and s6 , that is, 0.197395560 < arctan 15 < 0.197395562.
16 ■ CHALLENGE PROBLEMS

1 1 1 1
(e) From the series in part (d) we get arctan = − + − · · · . The third term is less than
239 239 3 · 2393 5 · 2395
2.6 × 10−13 , so by the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem, we have, to nine decimal places,
1 1
arctan 239 ≈ s2 ≈ 0.004184076. Thus, 0.004184075 < arctan 239 < 0.004184077.

(f ) From part (c) we have π = 16 arctan 15 − 4 arctan 239

1
, so from parts (d) and (e) we have

16(0.197395560) − 4(0.004184077) < π < 16(0.197395562) − 4(0.004184075) ⇒

3.141592652 < π < 3.141592692. So, to 7 decimal places, π ≈ 3.1415927.

1
∞
5. We start with the geometric series , |x| < 1, and differentiate:
xn =
n=0 1 − x
∞   

∞ d  n d 1 1 ∞ ∞ x
nxn−1 = x = = 2 for |x| < 1 ⇒ nxn = x nxn−1 =
n=1 dx n=0 dx 1 − x (1 − x) n=1 n=1 (1 − x)2
for |x| < 1. Differentiate again:

∞ d x (1 − x)2 − x · 2 (1 − x) (−1) x+1 
∞ x2 + x
n2 xn−1 = 2
= = ⇒ n2 xn = ⇒
n=1 dx (1 − x) (1 − x)4 (1 − x)3 n=1 (1 − x)3


∞ d x2 + x (1 − x)3 (2x + 1) − x2 + x 3 (1 − x)2 (−1) x2 + 4x + 1
n3 xn−1 = 3 = 6 = ⇒
n=1 dx (1 − x) (1 − x) (1 − x)4

∞ x3 + 4x2 + x
n3 xn = , |x| < 1. The radius of convergence is 1 because that is the radius of convergence for the
n=1 (1 − x)4

geometric series we started with. If x = ±1, the series is n3 (±1)n , which diverges by the Test For Divergence,
so the interval of convergence is (−1, 1).

7. Suppose the base of the first right triangle has length a. Then by repeated use of the Pythagorean theorem, we find that the base
√ √
of the second right triangle has length 1 + a2 , the base of the third right triangle has length 2 + a2 , and in general, the nth
√ √ √
right triangle has base of length n − 1 + a2 and hypotenuse of length n + a2 . Thus, θn = tan−1 1/ n − 1 + a2 and
   

∞ 
∞ 1 ∞ 1
θn = tan−1 √ = tan −1
√ . We wish to show that this series diverges.
n=1 n=1 n − 1 + a2 n=0 n + a2

∞ 1
First notice that the series √ diverges by the Limit Comparison Test with the divergent
n=1 n + a2
∞ 1
p-series √ p = 12 ≤ 1 since
n=1 n
√ √  
1/ n + a2 n n 1 ∞ 1
lim √ = lim √ = lim = lim = 1 > 0. Thus, √ also diverges.
n→∞ 1/ n n→∞ n+a 2 n→∞ n + a2 n→∞ 1 + a 2 /n
n=0 n + a2
 
∞
−1 1 
∞ 1
Now tan √ diverges by the Limit Comparison Test with √ since
n=0 n + a2 n=0 n + a2
√ √
tan−1 1/ n + a2 tan−1 1/ x + a2 tan−1 (1/y) √ 
lim √ = lim √ = lim y= x + a2
n→∞ 1/ n + a2 x→∞ 1/ x + a2 y→∞ 1/y

tan−1 z H 1/(1 + z2 )
= lim [z = 1/y] = lim =1>0
z→0+ z z→0 + 1


∞
Thus, θn is a divergent series.
n=1
 CHALLENGE PROBLEMS ■ 17

E Exercises Chapter 10
 
d2 R dR d dR dR
1. (a) m = −mg j − k ⇒ m + k R + mgt j = 0 ⇒ m + kR + mgt j = c (c is a constant
dt2 dt dt dt dt
vector in the xy-plane). At t = 0, this says that mv (0) + kR (0) = c. Since v (0) = v0 and R (0) = 0, we have
dR k dR k
c = mv0 . Therefore + R + gt j = v0 , or + R = v0 − gt j.
dt m dt m
dR k
(b) Multiplying by e(k/m)t gives e(k/m)t + e(k/m)t R = e(k/m)t v0 − gte(k/m)t j or
dt m
d  (k/m)t 
e R = e(k/m)t v0 − gte(k/m)t j. Integrating gives
dt
m (k/m)t mg (k/m)t m2 g (k/m)t
e(k/m)t R = e v0 − te − 2 e j + b for some constant vector b.
k k k
m m2 g m m2 g
Setting t = 0 yields the relation R (0) = v0 + 2 j + b, so b = − v0 − 2 j.
k k k k
m   mg m 2 
g 
Thus e(k/m)t R = e(k/m)t − 1 v0 − te(k/m)t − 2 e(k/m)t − 1 j and
k k k
m   mg m    
R(t) = 1 − e−kt/m v0 + 1 − e−kt/m − t j.
k k k