2022 Calculus Series
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우수한2022 Calculus Series
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우수한CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▶ Using L’Hôpital’s Rule
#01. Sequences
THEOREM 4 Suppose that is a function defined for all
1. 수열의 수렴과 발산의 엄밀한 정의를 이해한다. ≥ and that is a sequence of real numbers such that
2. 단조수렴정리를 이해하고 이를 활용하여 문제를 해결할 수 있다.
for ≥ . Then
▣ 10.1 Sequences lim ⇒ lim .
→∞ → ∞
▶ Convergence and Divergence ln
EXAMPLE 7 Show that lim .
DEFINITION The sequence converges to the number if →∞
for every positive number there corresponds an integer
such that for all ,
⇒ .
If no such number exists, we say that diverges.
If converges to , we write lim , simply → ,
→∞
and call the limit of the sequence.
DEFINITION The sequence diverges to infinity if for every
EXAMPLE 8 Does the sequence whose th term is
number there is an integer such that for all larger
than , . If this condition holds we write
lim ∞ or →∞ . converge? If so, find lim .
→ ∞ →∞
Similarly, if for every number there is an integer such
that for all we have , then we say diverges
to negative infinity and write
lim ∞ or → ∞ .
→ ∞
▶ Calculating Limits of Sequences
THEOREM 1 Let and be sequences of real numbers,
and let and be real numbers. The following rules hold if
lim and lim .
→ ∞ → ∞ ▶ Commonly Occurring Limits
1. Sum Rule: lim THEOREM 5 The following six sequences converge to the
→ ∞
2. Difference Rule: lim limits listed below:
→∞
ln
3. Constant Multiple Rule: lim · · (∀∈ ) 1. lim
2. lim
→ ∞ → ∞
→ ∞
4. Product Rule: lim · · 3.
lim 4. lim ( )
→∞
→ ∞ →∞
lim
5. Quotient Rule:
→∞
if ≠
5.
→ ∞
lim
(any ) 6. lim
→∞
(any )
In Formulas (3) through (6), remains fixed as → ∞ .
THEOREM 2 - The Sandwich Theorem for Sequences
Let and , and be sequences of real numbers.
If holds for all beyond some index , and if ▶ Recursive Definitions (점화적 정의)
lim lim , then lim also. recursion formula: 점화식
→ ∞ →∞ → ∞
THEOREM 3 - The Continuous Function Theorem for
Sequences Let be a sequence of real numbers.
If → and if is a function that is continuous at
and defined at all , then → .
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▶ Bounded Monotonic Sequences ▣ Exercises 10.1
DEFINITION A sequence is bounded from above if there
47.
exists a number such that ≤ for all . The number
is an upper bound for . If is an upper bound for
but no number less than is an upper bound for ,
then is the least upper bound for .
A sequence is bounded from below if there exists a
number such that ≥ for all . The number is a
lower bound for . If is a lower bound for but no
ln
49.
number greater than is a lower bound for , then is
the greatest lower bound for . If is bounded from
above and below, then is bounded. If is not
bounded, then we say that is an unbounded sequence.
DEFINITION A sequence is nondecreasing if ≤ for
all . That is, ≤ ≤ ≤ ⋯ . The sequence is
nonincreasing if ≥ for all . The sequence is ln
50.
monotonic if it is either nondecreasing or nonincreasing. ln
THEOREM 6 - The Monotonic Sequence Theorem
If a sequence is both bounded and monotonic,
then the sequence converges.
Monotonic Convergence Theorem(MCT): 단조수렴정리라 하기도 함.
(proof)
수열 을 증가수열이라 하자. 수열 은 유계이므로 집합
≥
54.
은 Completeness Axiom(완비성공리)에 의해 least upper bound 을 갖는다.
이제 수열 이 에 수렴한다는 사실을 증명하자.
주어진 에 대하여 은 집합 의 상계가 아니므로
을 만족하는 자연수 이 존재한다. 그런데, 수열 은 증가수열이므로
⇒ ⇒
≤ ⇒
이다. 따라서 수열 은 수렴한다. ln
59.
수열 이 감소수열일 때도 비슷하게 증명할 수 있다.
63.
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
87.
69.
98.
⋯
70.
71.
,
80.
84.
ln
85.
ln
86.
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▶ The th-Term Test for a Divergent Series
#02. Infinite Series
∞
1. Series의 정의를 이해하고 Partial Sum의 극한을 이용하여 Series의 수렴과 발산
THEOREM 7 If
converges, then → .
을 판정할 수 있다.
2. Geometric series의 수렴과 발산을 판정할 수 있다.
3. Test for Divergence을 이해하고 이를 활용하여 문제를 해결할 수 있다.
The th-Term Test for Divergence
∞
▣ 10.2 Infinite Series
diverges if lim fails to exist or is different from zero.
→ ∞
DEFINITION Given a sequence of numbers , an expression
of the form
⋯ ⋯
is an infinite series. The number is the th term of the
series. The sequence defined by
▶ Combining Series
∞ ∞
THEOREM 8 If and are convergent
⋯
series, then
is the sequence of partial sums of the series, the number ∞ ∞ ∞
being the th partial sum. If the sequence of partial sums
1.
converges to a limit , we say that the series converges and ∞ ∞ ∞
that its sum is . In this case, we also write 2.
∞
∞ ∞
⋯ ⋯
. 3. (any number ).
If the sequence of partial sums of the series does not
converge, we say that the series diverges. 1. Every nonzero constant multiple of a divergent series
diverges.
∞ ∞ ∞
▶ Geometric Series 2. If
converges and
diverges, then
DEFINITION Geometric series are series of the form ∞
∞ and both diverge.
⋯ ⋯
≠
∞
The series can also be written as .
▶ Reindexing
If , the geometric series ⋯ ⋯
converges to :
∞
.
If ≥ , the series diverges.
EXAMPLE 4 Express the repeating decimal 5.232323c as the
ratio of two integers.
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▣ Exercises 10.2
∞
39. cos
cos
∞
43.
∞
48. tan
tan
∞
68.
∞
sin
72.
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
Bounds for the Remainder in the Integral Test
#03. The Tests of Series
Suppose is a sequence of positive terms with ,
1. Integral Test를 이용하여 급수의 수렴과 발산을 판정하고 급수의 합을 근사할 수 where is a continuous positive decreasing function of
있다. ∞
2. Comparison Test의 원리를 이해하고 이를 활용하여 급수의 수렴과 발산을 판정할 for all ≥ , and that
converges to . Then the
수 있다.
remainder satisfies the inequalities
3. Absolutely convergent과 Conditional convergent의 의미를 알 수 있다.
∞ ∞
4. Ratio Test와 Root Test를 이용해 급수의 수렴과 발산을 판정할 수 있다.
≤ ≤
. (1)
▣ 10.3 The Integral Test If we add the partial sum to each side of the inequalities
in (1), we get
∞
COROLLARY OF MCT A series
of nonnegative terms
∞
≤ ≤
∞
. (2)
converges if and only if its partial sums are bounded from
above. ∞
EXAMPLE 6 Estimate the sum of the series
using the
THEOREM 9 - The Integral Test Let be a sequence of inequalities in (2) and .
positive terms. Suppose that , where is a
continuous, positive, decreasing function of for all ≥ .
∞
( a positive integer). Then the series
and the integral
∞
both converge or both diverge.
EXAMPLE 3 Show that the p-series
∞
⋯ ⋯
( a real constant) converges if , and diverges if ≤ . ▣ 10.4 Comparison Test
THEOREM 10 - The Comparison Test
Let , and be series with nonnegative terms.
Suppose that for some integer
≤ ≤ for all .
(1) If converges, then also converges.
(2) If diverges, then also diverges.
EXAMPLE 1
∞
EXAMPLE 5 Determine the convergence or divergence of the
series
(a)
∞ ∞
(a)
(b)
ln
∞
(b)
∞
(c)
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▶ The Ratio Test
THEOREM 11 - Limit Comparison Test
Suppose that and for all ( an integer). THEOREM 13 - The Ratio Test
1. If lim
, then and both converge or
Let be any series and suppose that
→ ∞
both diverge.
lim
.
→∞
Then (a) the series converges absolutely if ,
2. If lim and
→ ∞
converges, then converges.
(b) the series diverges if or is infinite,
(c) the test is inconclusive if .
3. If lim ∞ and
→ ∞
diverges, then diverges.
EXAMPLE 2 Investigate the convergence of the following series.
∞
EXAMPLE 2
∞
(a)
(a)
∞
∞
(b)
(b)
∞
ln
(c)
∞
(c)
∞
ln
EXAMPLE 3
THEOREM 14 - The Root Test
Let be any series and suppose that
lim .
→ ∞
▣ 10.5 Absolute Convergence; The Ratio and Root Tests Then (a) the series converges absolutely if ,
(b) the series diverges if or is infinite,
DEFINITION A series converges absolutely (is absolutely
(c) the test is inconclusive if .
convergent) if the corresponding series of absolute values,
EXAMPLE 2 Investigate the convergence of the following series.
, converges.
∞
(a)
THEOREM 12 - The Absolute Convergence Test
∞ ∞
If
converges, then
converges.
∞
EXAMPLE 1 (b)
∞
(a)
∞
(c)
∞
sin
(b)
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
∞
▣ 10.6 Alternating Series and Conditional Convergence
EXAMPLE 5
THEOREM 15 - The Alternating Series Test The series
∞
⋯
converges if all three of the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The ’s are all positive.
2. The positive ’s are (eventually) nonincreasing:
for all ≥ , for some integer N.
3. → .
∞
▶ Summary of Tests
EXAMPLE 1
1. The th-Term Test: If it is not true that → , then the
series diverges.
∞
2. Geometric series:
converges if ; otherwise it
diverges.
∞
THEOREM 16 - The Alternating Series Estimation Theorem
∞
3. p-series:
converges if ; otherwise it diverges.
If the alternating series
satisfies the three
4. Series with nonnegative terms: Try the Integral Test or try
conditions of Theorem 15, then for ≥ , comparing to a known series with the Comparison Test or
⋯
the Limit Comparison Test. Try the Ratio or Root Test.
approximates the sum of the series with an error whose 5. Series with some negative terms: Does
converge by
absolute value is less than , the absolute value of the the Ratio or Root Test, or by another of the tests listed
first unused term. Furthermore, the sum lies between any above? Remember, absolute convergence implies
two successive partial sums and , and the remainder, convergence.
, has the same sign as the first unused term. 6. Alternating series: converges if the series satisfies the
conditions of the Alternating Series Test.
∞
EXAMPLE 3
Tip
1.
형태일 때는
-Test를 이용하여 이면 수렴, ≤ 이면
발산으로 판정한다.
▶ Conditional Convergence
2.
형태일 때는 Geometric series(기하급수)이므로
DEFINITION A convergent series that is not absolutely 이면 수렴, ≥ 일때는 발산으로 판정한다.
convergent is conditionally convergent. 3. 주어진 급수가 -급수나 Geometric series(기하급수)와 비슷한
∞ 형태일때는 Comparison Test(비교판정법)를 사용한다. 특히, 이
EXAMPLE 4
유리함수이거나 대수함수(다항항수의 제곱근)일 때 비교판정법을
사용한다. (이때, 의 값은 분자와 분모의 가장 높은 차수를
선택한다.)
4. Comparison Test(비교판정법)은 양항급수에서만 사용하고 음수인
항이 있는 경우는 을 사용한다.
▶ Rearranging Series 5. lim ≠ 일 때는 Test for Divergence(발산판정법)을 사용한다.
→ ∞
THEOREM 17 The Rearrangement Theorem for 6. 의 형태일 때는 Alternating Series
Absolutely Convergent Series Test(교대급수판정법)을 사용한다.
∞ 7. 계승(factorial)이나 거듭제곱인 경우는 Ratio test(비판정법)을
If
converges absolutely, and ⋯ ⋯ is any
이용한다.
∞ 8. 형태는 Root test(근판정법)을 이용한다.
arrangement of the sequence , then
converges
∞
∞ ∞
9.
가 쉽게 구해질 때는 Integral test(적분판정법)을
absolutely and
.
이용한다.
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▣ Exercises 10.3 ▣ Exercises 10.4
Use the Integral Test to determine if the series converge or Use the Comparison Test to determine if each series converges or
diverge. Be sure to check that the conditions of the Integral Test diverges.
are satisfied. ∞
∞
7.
9.
∞
8.
∞
10.
Use the Limit Comparison Test to determine if each series
converges or diverges.
∞
58. Use the Integral Test to show that the series
15.
ln
∞
converges.
∞
16. ln
∞
ln
61. Show that
converges for ∞ ∞ and .
∞
(Hint: Limit Comparison with
for .)
∞
ln
62. Show that
diverges for ∞ ∞ and
. (Hint: Limit Comparison with an appropriate
p-series.)
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▣ Exercises 10.5 ▣ Exercises 10.6
Use the Ratio Test to determine if each series converges or Determine if the alternating series converges or diverges.
diverges. ∞
∞
4.
ln
7.
∞
8.
ln
∞
5.
64. Show that neither the Ratio Test nor the Root Test provides
information about the convergence of
∞
ln
( constant).
49. Estimate the magnitude of the error involved in using the
sum of the first four terms to approximate the sum of the entire
∞
series
.
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
∞
#04. Power Series (c)
1. Power Series의 뜻을 안다.
2. Radius of convergence와 interval of convergence를 구할 수 있다.
3. 주어진 함수를 멱급수 형태로 표현할 수 있다.
∞
▣ 10.7 Power Series
(d)
▶ Power Series and Convergence
DEFINITION
A power series about is a series of the form
∞
⋯ .
THEOREM 18 The Convergence Theorem for Power
A power series about is a series of the form
∞
∞
⋯ ⋯ . Series If the power series
⋯
in which the center and the coefficients ⋯ ⋯ converges at ≠ , then it converges absolutely for all
with . If the series diverges at , then it diverges
are constants.
for all with .
∞
EXAMPLE 1
⋯ . ▶ The Radius of Convergence of a Power Series
This is the geometric series with first term and ratio . It COROLLARY TO THEOREM 18 The convergence of the series
∞
converges to for . We express this fact by writing
is described by one of the following three cases:
⋯ . 1. There is a positive number such that the series diverges
for with but converges absolutely for with
. The series may or may not converge at either
of the endpoints and .
2. The series converges absolutely for every ∞ .
3. The series converges at and diverges elsewhere
.
How to Test a Power Series for Convergence
1. Use the Ratio Test (or Root Test) to find the interval where
the series converges absolutely. Ordinarily, this is an open
interval
or .
2. If the interval of absolute convergence is finite, test for
convergence or divergence at each endpoint. Use a
EXAMPLE 3 For what values of x do the following power series
Comparison Test, the Integral Test, or the Alternating Series
converge?
Test.
∞
3. If the interval of absolute convergence is ,
(a)
the series diverges for (it does not even
converge conditionally) because the th term does not
approach zero for those values of .
∞
(b)
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CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▶ Operations on Power Series Caution Term-by-term differentiation might not work for other
kinds of series. For example, the trigonometric series
THEOREM 19 - The Series Multiplication Theorem for Power
∞
sin
Series If
∞
and
∞
converge
absolutely for , and converges for all . But if we differentiate term by term we get
the series
⋯ , ∞
cos
∞
then
converges absolutely to for :
which diverges for all . This is not a power series since it is not
a sum of positive integer powers of .
∞ ∞ ∞
·
.
∞
THEOREM 20 If
converges absolutely for ,
∞ THEOREM 22 - The Term-by-Term Integration Theorem
then
converges absolutely for any continuous
Suppose that
∞
function on .
THEOREM 21 - The Term-by-Term Differentiation Theorem converges for . Then
∞
∞
If
has radius of convergence , it defines a
function converges for and
∞
∞
on the interval .
This function has derivatives of all orders inside the interval, for .
and we obtain the derivatives by differentiating the original
EXAMPLE 5 Identify the function
series term by term:
∞
′
∞
,
≤ ≤ .
∞
′′
,
and so on. Each of these derived series converges at every
point of the interval .
EXAMPLE 4 Find series for ′ and ′′ if
∞
.
- 12 -
CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▣ Exercises 10.7 Find the series’ interval of convergence and, within this interval,
(a) find the series’ radius and interval of convergence. For what the sum of the series as a function of .
∞
values of does the series converge (b) absolutely, (c)
onditionally?
42.
∞
13.
∞
∞
47. (Hint: Apply the Root Test.)
21.
Find the series’ radius of convergence.
∞
37.
·· ⋯
∞
40.
(Hint: Apply the Root Test.)
- 13 -
CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
Two questions still remain.
#05. Taylor and Maclaurin Series 1. For what values of can we normally expect a Taylor series
1. 주어진 함수를 테일러 급수와 매클로린 급수로 표현할 수 있다. to converge to its generating function?
2. Taylor's theorem을 이해할 수 있다. 2. How accurately do a function’s Taylor polynomials approximate
3. Taylor Inequality를 이해하고 다양한 문제에 활용할 수 있다. the function on a given interval?
▣ 10.8 Taylor and Maclaurin Series
▶ Taylor and Maclaurin Series
DEFINITION Let be a function with derivatives of all orders
throughout some interval containing as an interior point.
Then the Taylor series generated by at is
∞
′′
′ ⋯ ⋯ .
The Maclaurin series of is the Taylor series generated by
at , or
∞
′′
′
⋯ ⋯ .
▣ 10.9 Convergence of Taylor Series
EXAMPLE 1 Find the Taylor series generated by at
THEOREM 23 - Taylor’s Theorem If and its first
. Where, if anywhere, does the series converge to ?
derivatives ′ ′′ ⋯ are continuous on the closed
interval between and , and is differentiable on the
open interval between and , then there exists a number
between and such that
′ ⋯
▶ Taylor Polynomials
Taylor’s Formula If has derivatives of all orders in an open
DEFINITION Let be a function with derivatives of order
interval containing , then for each positive integer and
for ⋯ in some interval containing as an interior
for each in ,
point. Then for any integer from through , the Taylor
polynomial of order generated by at is the ′ ⋯ ,
polynomial where
″
′ ⋯ for some between and .
EXAMPLE 3 Find the Taylor series and Taylor polynomials
If → as → ∞ for all ∈ , we say that the Taylor
generated by cos at .
series generated by at converges to on , and we
write
∞
.
EXAMPLE 1 Show that the Taylor series generated by
at converges to for every real value of .
- 14 -
CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▶ Estimating the Remainder ▣ Exercises 10.8
THEOREM 24 - The Remainder Estimation Theorem Find the Maclaurin series for the functions
If there is a positive constant such that
≤ for 19. cosh
all between and , inclusive, then the remainder term
in Taylor’s Theorem satisfies the inequality
≤
.
If this inequality holds for every and the other conditions of
Taylor’s Theorem are satisfied by , then the series converges
to .
22.
EXAMPLE 2 Show that the Taylor series for sin at
converges for all . (If you have done, replace sin to cos )
Find the first three nonzero terms of the Maclaurin series for
each function and the values of for which the series converges
absolutely.
33. cos
EXAMPLE 4 Using known series, find the first few terms of the
Taylor series for the given function using power series operations.
(a) cos (b) cos
35. sin ln
EXAMPLE 5 For what values of can we replace sin by
with an error of magnitude no greater than ×
? ▣ Exercises 10.9
35. Estimate the error if is used to estimate the
value of sin at .
44. Use the identity cos cos sin to obtain a power
series for cos .
- 15 -
CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
sin tan
#06. The Binomial Series and EXAMPLE 6 Evaluate lim
→
.
Applications of Taylor Series
이항급수와 테일러 급수의 응용문제를 해결할 수 있다.
▣ 10.10 The Binomial Series and Applications of Taylor Series
▶ The Binomial Series for Powers and Roots
The Binomial Series
For ,
EXAMPLE 7 Find lim .
→ sin
∞
,
where we define
,
and
⋯
for ≥ .
EXAMPLE 1
▶ Euler’s Identity
EXAMPLE 2 DEFINITION For any real number , cos sin .
함수 의 Maclaurine series는 다음과 같다.
▶ Evaluating Nonelementary Integrals ⋯
EXAMPLE 3 Express sin as a power series.
이때, 라 하면
⋯
⋯ ⋯
cos sin
EXAMPLE 4 Estimate sin with an error of less than
When written in the form , this equation combines five
0.001. of the most important constants in mathematics.
TABLE 10.1 Frequently used Taylor series
∞
⋯
,
▶ Evaluating Indeterminate Forms ∞
ln
⋯
,
EXAMPLE 5 Evaluate lim .
→ ∞
⋯
, ∞
∞
sin ⋯
, ∞
∞
cos ⋯
, ∞
∞
ln ⋯
, ≤
∞
tan ⋯
,
- 16 -
CalculusⅠ(Infinite Series) 2022 Daegu Science High School
▣ Exercises 10.10 70. Show that
Find the binomial series for the functions. (a) cosh cos
12.
(b) sinh sin
14.
73. Show that
(a)
Use series to evaluate the limits.
tan sin
34. lim
→ cos (b)
35. lim
→∞
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