Digital Signal & Image Processing

Lecture-6
Dr Kazi Rafiqul Islam
 Overview

• Realization of Digital Systems

• Direct-form I Realization
• Direct-form II Realization
• Cascade or Series Realization
• Parallel Realization
 Realization of Digital Systems

• A realization is a hardware or software configuration that

implements the system.

• Digital filters described by the transfer function 𝐻(𝑧) may be

generally realized into the following forms:

➢ Direct-form I
➢ Direct-form II
➢Cascade or Series
➢ Parallel

• There are other forms of realizations such as lattice, however in

this course we will only study above mentioned realizations.
3
 Realization of Digital Systems

• The transfer function 𝐻(𝑧) of the digital filter (system) transfer is

given by:

• Let 𝑥(𝑛) and 𝑦(𝑛) be the digital filter (system) input and output,
respectively. We can express the relationship in 𝑧-transform
domain as:

4
 Realization of Digital Systems

• By substituting 𝐻(𝑧) from equation (1) in (2) yields

• Taking the inverse of the 𝑧-transform of Equation (3) we get the

difference recursive difference equation

5
 Direct-Form I Realization

• The recursive difference equation can be implemented by the direct-

form I realization as shown in the figure.

6
 Direct-Form I Realization

• Calculation for 𝑦(𝑛) using this form require 𝑀+1 input states, 𝑁 output states,
𝑀+𝑁+1 coefficient multiplications, and 𝑀+𝑁 additions.

• When more than two or three delays are needed, this particular
implementation is very sensitive to the finite word length effects. 7
 Direct-Form I Realization

Example-1: Draw a Direct-Form I realization of a second-order

transfer function H(z) given by

Solution

8
 Direct-Form II Realization

• We consider digital filter (system) defined with transfer function, 𝐻(𝑧),

given by

• Considering 𝑁=𝑀, we can express equation (5) as

9
Direct-Form II Realization

10
 Direct-Form II Realization

• Realization of Equations (9) and (10) produces direct-form II realization,

(also called canonical form) which is demonstrated in following figure.

11
 Direct-Form II Realization

• Much less storage is needed if a direct form II realization is

used.

• This realization requires the use of an intermediate signal 𝑤(𝑛)

that records salient information about the history of the filter
in place of past inputs and past outputs.

• Instead of 𝑁 past outputs and 𝑀 past inputs, only max(𝑁,𝑀)

samples of the intermediate signal need to be remembered to
produce the new filter outputs.

• Calculation for 𝑦(𝑛) using this implementation require

max(𝑁,𝑀)+1 intermediate states, 𝑀+𝑁+1 coefficient
multiplications, and 𝑀+𝑁 additions.
12
 Direct-Form II Realization

Example-2: Draw a Direct-Form II realization of a second-order

transfer function given by

Solution

The difference equations for the direct-form II realization are

expressed as

13
 Direct-Form II Realization

The realization is shown in following figure.

14
Transpose of the Direct-Form II Realization

• Transpose of the direct form II realization is an another

popular implementation model, obtained by reversing the
flows of information of the direct form II realization.

15
Transpose of the Direct-Form II Realization

• To minimize the finite word length effect, second order blocks

of the direct form II realization or its transpose are frequently
connected together in cascade or parallel combinations to
produce higher order filter implementation.

Direct Form II Realization Transpose of Direct Form II Realization

16
Cascade (Series) Realization

17
 Cascade (Series) Realization

• When two or more systems are combined in cascade (in series), the
transfer functions of the systems can be used to determine a transfer
function for the overall system.

• E.g. The transfer function of two systems H1(z) and H2(z) cascaded
together is H(z) = H1(z)H2(z)

• The block diagram of the cascade, or series, realization is depicted in

following figure.

18
 Cascade (Series) Realization

Example-3: Draw a Cascade realization of a second-order

transfer function H(z) given by

Solution
To achieve the cascade (series) form realization, we factor 𝐻(𝑧)
into two first-order sections to yield

19
 Cascade (Series) Realization

where 𝐻1(𝑧) and 𝐻2(𝑧) are chosen to be

20
Cascade (Series) Realization

21
 Cascade (Series) Realization

Example-4: Find the difference equation that corresponds to

the cascaded system.

• First write down the difference equation of each stage.

For stage 1: y1[n] = x1[n] – 0.1x1[n-1] + 0.2x1[n-2]
For stage 2: y2[n] = x2[n] + 0.3x2[n-1] + 0.1x2[n-2]
For stage 3: y3[n] = x3[n] – 0.4x3[n-1]
22
 Cascade (Series) Realization

• First write down the difference equation of each stage.

For stage 1: y1[n] = x1[n] – 0.1x1[n-1] + 0.2x1[n-2]
For stage 2: y2[n] = x2[n] + 0.3x2[n-1] + 0.1x2[n-2]
For stage 3: y3[n] = x3[n] – 0.4x3[n-1]

• Then find the transfer function of each stage.

For stage 1: H1(z) = 1 – 0.1z-1 + 0.2z-2
For stage 2: H2(z) = 1 + 0.3z-1 + 0.1z-2
For stage 3: H3(z) = 1 – 0.4z-1

23
 Cascade (Series) Realization

• The transfer functions of the three stages are.

For stage 1: H1(z) = 1 – 0.1z-1 + 0.2z-2
For stage 2: H2(z) = 1 + 0.3z-1 + 0.1z-2
For stage 3: H3(z) = 1 – 0.4z-1

• The overall transfer function of the system is

H(z) = H1(z)H2(z) H3(z)
H(z) = 1 – 0.2z-1 +0.19z-2 – 0.058z-3 – 0.008z-5

• Finally the difference equation can be get from the H(z)

Y3[n] = x1[n] -0.2x1[n-1] + 0.19x1[n-2] - 0.058x1[n-3] – 0.008x1[n-5]
24
 Cascade (Series) Realization
Example-5: Find the transfer function of the transposed direct form
II realization of the filter.

First write down the difference equation of each stage.

For stage 1:
y1[n] = – 0.1y1[n-1] + 0.5y1[n-2] + 2.5x1[n] + 0.9x1[n-1] - 0.4x1[n-2]
For stage 2:
y2[n] = 0.2y2[n-1] - 0.2y2[n-2] + 1.2x2[n] + 0.5x2[n-1] + 0.1x2[n-2]25
 Cascade (Series) Realization

• The difference equation for the filter is most exactly found by

multiplying the transfer function for each stage.

H(z) = H1(z)H2(z)

2.5 + 0.9𝑧 −1 − 0.4𝑧 −2 1.2 + 0.5𝑧 −1 + 0.1𝑧 −2

𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 0.1𝑧 −1 − 0.5𝑧 −2 1 − 0.2𝑧 −1 + 0.2𝑧 −2

3 + 2.33𝑧 −1 + 0.22𝑧 −2 − 0.11𝑧 −3 − 0.04𝑧 −4

𝐻 𝑧 =
1 − 0.1𝑧 −1 + 0.32𝑧 −2 + 0.12𝑧 −3 − 0.1𝑧 −4
26
Parallel Realization

27
 Parallel Realization
• When two or more systems are combined in parallel the transfer functions of
the systems can be used to determine a transfer function for the overall
system.

• E.g. The transfer function of the two systems connected in parallel is H(z) =
H1(z) + H2(z)

• The resulting parallel realization is illustrated in the block diagram in following

Figure.

28
 Parallel Realization
Example-6: Find the transfer function of the parallel combination.

• For Top Section: 𝐻1 𝑧 = 𝑧 −1

1+0.25𝑧 −1 +0.1𝑧 −2
• For Bottom Section: 𝐻2 𝑧 =
1+0.2𝑧 −1 +0.4𝑧 −2 29
 Parallel Realization

• The overall transfer function of the parallel system is

1 + 0.25𝑧 −1 + 0.1𝑧 −2 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = + 𝑧
1 + 0.2𝑧 −1 + 0.4𝑧 −2

30
 Parallel Realization

Example-7: Draw parallel realization of a second-order transfer

function given by

Solution

In order to yield the parallel form of realization, we need to

make use of the partial fraction expansion. We get

31
 Parallel Realization

• using the direct-form II realization for each section, we obtain

the parallel realization in Following figure.

32
 Realization of Digital Systems

• In practice, the second-order filter module with the direct-

form I or direct-form II realization is used.

• The high-order filter can be factored in the cascade form with

the first- or second-order sections.

• In cases where the first order-filter is required, we can still

modify the second-order filter module by setting the
corresponding filter coefficients to be zero.

33