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Bird's Higher Engineering Mathematics

Why is knowledge of mathematics important in engineering?

A career in any engineering or scienti c eld will require both basic and
advanced mathematics. Without mathematics to determine principles,
calculate dimensions and limits, explore variations, prove concepts and so
on, there would be no mobile telephones, televisions, stereo systems, video
games, microwave ovens, computers or virtually anything electronic. There
would be no bridges, tunnels, roads, skyscrapers, automobiles, ships,
planes, rockets or most things mechanical. There would be no metals
beyond the common ones, such as iron and copper, no plastics, no
synthetics. In fact, society would most certainly be less advanced without
the use of mathematics throughout the centuries and into the future.

Electrical engineers require mathematics to design, develop, test or

supervise the manufacturing and installation of electrical equipment,
components or systems for commercial, industrial, military or scienti c use.

Mechanical engineers require mathematics to perform engineering duties in

planning and designing tools, engines, machines and other mechanically
functioning equipment; they oversee installation, operation, maintenance
and repair of such equipment as centralised heat, gas, water and steam
systems.

Aerospace engineers require mathematics to perform a variety of

engineering work in designing, constructing and testing aircraft, missiles
and spacecraft; they conduct basic and applied research to evaluate
adaptability of materials and equipment to aircraft design and manufacture
and recommend improvements in testing equipment and techniques.

Nuclear engineers require mathematics to conduct research on nuclear

engineering problems or apply principles and theory of nuclear science to
problems concerned with release, control and utilisation of nuclear energy
and nuclear waste disposal.

Petroleum engineers require mathematics to devise methods to improve oil

and gas well production and determine the need for new or modi ed tool
designs; they oversee drilling and offer technical advice to achieve
economical and satisfactory progress.

Industrial engineers require mathematics to design, develop, test and

evaluate integrated systems for managing industrial production processes,
including human work factors, quality control, inventory control, logistics
and material ow, cost analysis and production co-ordination.

Environmental engineers require mathematics to design, plan or perform

engineering duties in the prevention, control and remediation of
environmental health hazards, using various engineering disciplines; their
work may include waste treatment, site remediation or pollution control
technology.

Civil engineers require mathematics in all levels in civil engineering –

structural engineering, hydraulics and geotechnical engineering are all elds
that employ mathematical tools such as differential equations, tensor
analysis, eld theory, numerical methods and operations research.

Knowledge of mathematics is therefore needed by each of the engineering

disciplines listed above.

It is intended that this text – Bird's Higher Engineering Mathematics – will

provide a step-by-step approach to learning the essential mathematics
needed for your engineering studies.

Now in its ninth edition, Bird's Higher Engineering Mathematics has helped
thousands of students to succeed in their exams. Mathematical theories are
explained in a straightforward manner, supported by practical engineering
examples and applications to ensure that readers can relate theory to
practice. Some 1,200 engineering situations/problems have been ‘ agged-
up’ to help demonstrate that engineering cannot be fully understood without
a good knowledge of mathematics.

The extensive and thorough topic coverage makes this an ideal text for
undergraduate degree courses, foundation degrees, and for higher-level
vocational courses such as Higher National Certi cate and Diploma courses
in engineering disciplines.
Its companion website at www.routledge.com/cw/bird provides
resources for both students and lecturers, including full solutions for all
2,100 further questions, lists of essential formulae, multiple-choice tests,
and illustrations, as well as full solutions to revision tests for course
instructors.

John Bird, BSc (Hons), CEng, CMath, CSci, FIMA, FIET, FCollT, is the
former Head of Applied Electronics in the Faculty of Technology at
Highbury College, Portsmouth, UK. More recently, he has combined
freelance lecturing at the University of Portsmouth, with Examiner
responsibilities for Advanced Mathematics with City and Guilds and
examining for the International Baccalaureate Organisation. He has over 45
years’ experience of successfully teaching, lecturing, instructing, training,
educating and planning trainee engineers study programmes. He is the
author of 146 textbooks on engineering, science and mathematical subjects,
with worldwide sales of over one million copies. He is a chartered engineer,
a chartered mathematician, a chartered scientist and a Fellow of three
professional institutions. He has recently retired from lecturing at the Royal
Navy's Defence College of Marine Engineering in the Defence College of
Technical Training at H.M.S. Sultan, Gosport, Hampshire, UK, one of the
largest engineering training establishments in Europe.
Bird's Higher Engineering Mathematics

Ninth Edition
John Bird
Ninth edition published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2021 John Bird

The right of John Bird to be identi ed as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance
with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by
any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identi cation and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Elsevier 1993

Eighth edition published by Routledge 2017

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Bird, J. O., author.
Title: Bird's higher engineering mathematics / John Bird.
Other titles: Higher engineering mathematics Description: Ninth edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New
York : Routledge, 2021. | Includes index.
Identi ers: LCCN 2021000158 (print) | LCCN 2021000159 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367643737
(paperback) | ISBN 9780367643751 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003124221 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Engineering mathematics.
Classi cation: LCC TA330 .B52 2021 (print) | LCC TA330 (ebook) | DDC 620.001/51--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021000158
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021000159

ISBN: 978-0-367-64375-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-64373-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-12422-1 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bird

To Sue
 Contents

Preface

Syllabus guidance

Section A Number and algebra

1 Algebra
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Revision of basic laws
1.3 Revision of equations
1.4 Polynomial division
1.5 The factor theorem
1.6 The remainder theorem

2 Partial fractions
2.1 Introduction to partial fractions
2.2 Partial fractions with linear factors
2.3 Partial fractions with repeated linear factors
2.4 Partial fractions with quadratic factors
3 Logarithms
3.1 Introduction to logarithms
3.2 Laws of logarithms
3.3 Indicial equations
3.4 Graphs of logarithmic functions

4 Exponential functions
4.1 Introduction to exponential functions
4.2 The power series for e x

4.3 Graphs of exponential functions

4.4 Napierian logarithms
4.5 Laws of growth and decay
4.6 Reduction of exponential laws to linear form

Revision Test 1

5 The binomial series

5.1 Pascal's triangle
5.2 The binomial series
5.3 Worked problems on the binomial series
5.4 Further worked problems on the binomial series
5.5 Practical problems involving the binomial theorem

6 Solving equations by iterative methods

6.1 Introduction to iterative methods
6.2 The bisection method
6.3 An algebraic method of successive approximations

7 Boolean algebra and logic circuits

7.1 Boolean algebra and switching circuits
7.2 Simplifying Boolean expressions
7.3 Laws and rules of Boolean algebra
7.4 De Morgan's laws
 7.5 Karnaugh maps
7.6 Logic circuits
7.7 Universal logic gates

Revision Test 2

Section B Geometry and trigonometry

8 Introduction to trigonometry
8.1 Trigonometry
8.2 The theorem of Pythagoras
8.3 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles
8.4 Evaluating trigonometric ratios
8.5 Solution of right-angled triangles
8.6 Angles of elevation and depression
8.7 Sine and cosine rules
8.8 Area of any triangle
8.9 Worked problems on the solution of triangles and nding their
areas
8.10 Further worked problems on solving triangles and nding their
areas
8.11 Practical situations involving trigonometry
8.12 Further practical situations involving trigonometry

9 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Changing from Cartesian into polar co-ordinates
9.3 Changing from polar into Cartesian co-ordinates
9.4 Use of Pol/Rec functions on calculators

10 The circle and its properties

10.1 Introduction
 10.2 Properties of circles
10.3 Radians and degrees
10.4 Arc length and area of circles and sectors
10.5 The equation of a circle
10.6 Linear and angular velocity
10.7 Centripetal force

Revision Test 3

11 Trigonometric waveforms
11.1 Graphs of trigonometric functions
11.2 Angles of any magnitude
11.3 The production of a sine and cosine wave
11.4 Sine and cosine curves
11.5 Sinusoidal form A sin(ω t ±α)
11.6 Harmonic synthesis with complex waveforms

12 Hyperbolic functions
12.1 Introduction to hyperbolic functions
12.2 Graphs of hyperbolic functions
12.3 Hyperbolic identities
12.4 Solving equations involving hyperbolic functions
12.5 Series expansions for cosh x and sinh x

13 Trigonometric identities and equations

13.1 Trigonometric identities
13.2 Worked problems on trigonometric identities
13.3 Trigonometric equations
13.4 Worked problems (i) on trigonometric equations
13.5 Worked problems (ii) on trigonometric equations
13.6 Worked problems (iii) on trigonometric equations
13.7 Worked problems (iv) on trigonometric equations
14 The relationship between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
14.1 The relationship between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
14.2 Hyperbolic identities

15 Compound angles
15.1 Compound angle formulae
15.2 Conversion of a sin ω t + b cos ω t into R sin(ω t + α)
15.3 Double angles
15.4 Changing products of sines and cosines into sums or differences
15.5 Changing sums or differences of sines and cosines into products
15.6 Power waveforms in a.c. circuits

Revision Test 4

Section C Graphs

16 Functions and their curves

16.1 Standard curves
16.2 Simple transformations
16.3 Periodic functions
16.4 Continuous and discontinuous functions
16.5 Even and odd functions
16.6 Inverse functions
16.7 Asymptotes
16.8 Brief guide to curve sketching
16.9 Worked problems on curve sketching

17 Irregular areas, volumes and mean values of waveforms

17.1 Areas of irregular gures
17.2 Volumes of irregular solids
17.3 The mean or average value of a waveform
 Revision Test 5

Section D Complex numbers

18 Complex numbers
18.1 Cartesian complex numbers
18.2 The Argand diagram
18.3 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers
18.4 Multiplication and division of complex numbers
18.5 Complex equations
18.6 The polar form of a complex number
18.7 Multiplication and division in polar form
18.8 Applications of complex numbers

19 De Moivre's theorem
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Powers of complex numbers
19.3 Roots of complex numbers
19.4 The exponential form of a complex number
19.5 Introduction to locus problems

Section E Matrices and determinants

20 The theory of matrices and determinants

20.1 Matrix notation
20.2 Addition, subtraction and multiplication of matrices
20.3 The unit matrix
20.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix
20.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a 2 by 2 matrix
20.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix
 20.7 The inverse or reciprocal of a 3 by 3 matrix

21 Applications of matrices and determinants

21.1 Solution of simultaneous equations by matrices
21.2 Solution of simultaneous equations by determinants
21.3 Solution of simultaneous equations using Cramer's rule
21.4 Solution of simultaneous equations using the Gaussian
elimination method
21.5 Stiffness matrix
21.6 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Revision Test 6

Section F Vector geometry

22 Vectors
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Scalars and vectors
22.3 Drawing a vector
22.4 Addition of vectors by drawing
22.5 Resolving vectors into horizontal and vertical components
22.6 Addition of vectors by calculation
22.7 Vector subtraction
22.8 Relative velocity
22.9 i, j and k notation

23 Methods of adding alternating waveforms

23.1 Combination of two periodic functions
23.2 Plotting periodic functions
23.3 Determining resultant phasors by drawing
23.4 Determining resultant phasors by the sine and cosine rules
 23.5 Determining resultant phasors by horizontal and vertical
components
23.6 Determining resultant phasors by using complex numbers

24 Scalar and vector products

24.1 The unit triad
24.2 The scalar product of two vectors
24.3 Vector products
24.4 Vector equation of a line

Revision Test 7

Section G Differential calculus

25 Methods of differentiation
25.1 Introduction to calculus
25.2 The gradient of a curve
25.3 Differentiation from rst principles
25.4 Differentiation of common functions
25.5 Differentiation of a product
25.6 Differentiation of a quotient
25.7 Function of a function
25.8 Successive differentiation

26 Some applications of differentiation

26.1 Rates of change
26.2 Velocity and acceleration
26.3 The Newton–Raphson method
26.4 Turning points
26.5 Practical problems involving maximum and minimum values
26.6 Points of in exion
26.7 Tangents and normals
 26.8 Small changes

Revision Test 8

27 Differentiation of parametric equations

27.1 Introduction to parametric equations
27.2 Some common parametric equations
27.3 Differentiation in parameters
27.4 Further worked problems on differentiation of parametric
equations

28 Differentiation of implicit functions

28.1 Implicit functions
28.2 Differentiating implicit functions
28.3 Differentiating implicit functions containing products and
quotients
28.4 Further implicit differentiation

29 Logarithmic differentiation
29.1 Introduction to logarithmic differentiation
29.2 Laws of logarithms
29.3 Differentiation of logarithmic functions
29.4 Differentiation of further logarithmic functions
29.5 Differentiation of [f (x)]
x

Revision Test 9

30 Differentiation of hyperbolic functions

30.1 Standard differential coef cients of hyperbolic functions
30.2 Further worked problems on differentiation of hyperbolic
functions

31 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions

 31.1 Inverse functions
31.2 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions
31.3 Logarithmic forms of the inverse hyperbolic functions
31.4 Differentiation of inverse hyperbolic functions

32 Partial differentiation
32.1 Introduction to partial derivatives
32.2 First-order partial derivatives
32.3 Second-order partial derivatives

33 Total differential, rates of change and small changes

33.1 Total differential
33.2 Rates of change
33.3 Small changes

34 Maxima, minima and saddle points for functions of two variables

34.1 Functions of two independent variables
34.2 Maxima, minima and saddle points
34.3 Procedure to determine maxima, minima and saddle points for
functions of two variables
34.4 Worked problems on maxima, minima and saddle points for
functions of two variables
34.5 Further worked problems on maxima, minima and saddle points
for functions of two variables

Revision Test 10

Section H Integral calculus

35 Standard integration
35.1 The process of integration
35.2 The general solution of integrals of the form ax n
 35.3 Standard integrals
35.4 De nite integrals

36 Some applications of integration

36.1 Introduction
36.2 Areas under and between curves
36.3 Mean and rms values
36.4 Volumes of solids of revolution
36.5 Centroids
36.6 Theorem of Pappus
36.7 Second moments of area of regular sections

Revision Test 11

37 Maclaurin's series and limiting values

37.1 Introduction
37.2 Derivation of Maclaurin's theorem
37.3 Conditions of Maclaurin's series
37.4 Worked problems on Maclaurin's series
37.5 Numerical integration using Maclaurin's series
37.6 Limiting values

38 Integration using algebraic substitutions

38.1 Introduction
38.2 Algebraic substitutions
38.3 Worked problems on integration using algebraic substitutions
38.4 Further worked problems on integration using algebraic
substitutions
38.5 Change of limits

39 Integration using trigonometric and hyperbolic substitutions

39.1 Introduction
39.2 Worked problems on integration of sin x, cos x, tan
2 2 2
x and cot
2
x
 39.3 Worked problems on integration of powers of sines and cosines
39.4 Worked problems on integration of products of sines and cosines
39.5 Worked problems on integration using the sin θ substitution
39.6 Worked problems on integration using the tan θ substitution
39.7 Worked problems on integration using the sinh θ substitution
39.8 Worked problems on integration using the cosh θ substitution

40 Integration using partial fractions

40.1 Introduction
40.2 Integration using partial fractions with linear factors
40.3 Integration using partial fractions with repeated linear factors
40.4 Integration using partial fractions with quadratic factors

41 The t = tan substitution

θ

41.1 Introduction
41.2 Worked problems on the t = tan substitution
θ

41.3 Further worked problems on the t = tan substitution

θ

Revision Test 12

42 Integration by parts
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Worked problems on integration by parts
42.3 Further worked problems on integration by parts

43 Reduction formulae
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Using reduction formulae for integrals of the form ∫ n
x e
x
dx

43.3 Using reduction formulae for integrals of the form ∫ x

n
cos x dx

and ∫ x
n
sin x dx
 43.4 Using reduction formulae for integrals of the form ∫ n
sin x dx

and ∫ n
cos x dx

43.5 Further reduction formulae

44 Double and triple integrals

44.1 Double integrals
44.2 Triple integrals

45 Numerical integration
45.1 Introduction
45.2 The trapezoidal rule
45.3 The mid-ordinate rule
45.4 Simpson's rule
45.5 Accuracy of numerical integration

Revision Test 13

Section I Differential equations

46 Introduction to differential equations

46.1 Family of curves
46.2 Differential equations
46.3 The solution of equations of the form
dy
= f (x)
dx

46.4 The solution of equations of the form

dy
= f (y)
dx

46.5 The solution of equations of the form dy

dx
= f (x). f (y)

47 Homogeneous rst-order differential equations

47.1 Introduction
47.2 Procedure to solve differential equations of the form P
dy
= Q
dx
 47.3 Worked problems on homogeneous rst-order differential
equations
47.4 Further worked problems on homogeneous rst-order differential
equations

48 Linear rst-order differential equations

48.1 Introduction
48.2 Procedure to solve differential equations of the form
dy
+ Py = Q
dx

48.3 Worked problems on linear rst-order differential equations

48.4 Further worked problems on linear rst-order differential
equations

49 Numerical methods for rst-order differential equations

49.1 Introduction
49.2 Euler's method
49.3 Worked problems on Euler's method
49.4 The Euler–Cauchy method
49.5 The Runge–Kutta method

Revision Test 14

50 Second-order differential equations of the form a

d y dy
+ b 2
+ cy = 0
dx dy

50.1 Introduction
50.2 Procedure to solve differential equations of the form
2
d y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = 0
dx dx

50.3 Worked problems on differential equations of the form

2
d y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = 0
dx dx

50.4 Further worked problems on practical differential equations of the

2

form a d y

dx
2
+ b
dy

dx
+ cy = 0
51 Second-order differential equations of the form
2
d y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = f (x)
dx dx

51.1 Complementary function and particular integral

51.2 Procedure to solve differential equations of the form
2
d y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = f (x)
dx dx
2

51.3 Differential equations of the form a

d y dy
2
+ b + cy = f (x)
dx dx

where f(x) is a constant or polynomial

2

51.4 Differential equations of the form a d y

dx
2
+ b
dy

dx
+ cy = f (x)

where f(x) is an exponential function

2

51.5 Differential equations of the form a d y

dx
2
+ b
dy

dx
+ cy = f (x)

where f(x) is a sine or cosine function

2

51.6 Differential equations of the form a

d y dy
2
+ b + cy = f (x)
dx dx

where f(x) is a sum or a product

52 Power series methods of solving ordinary differential equations

52.1 Introduction
52.2 Higher order differential coef cients as series
52.3 Leibniz's theorem
52.4 Power series solution by the Leibniz-Maclaurin method
52.5 Power series solution by the Frobenius method
52.6 Bessel's equation and Bessel's functions
52.7 Legendre's equation and Legendre polynomials

53 An introduction to partial differential equations

53.1 Introduction
53.2 Partial integration
53.3 Solution of partial differential equations by direct partial
integration
53.4 Some important engineering partial differential equations
53.5 Separating the variables
53.6 The wave equation
53.7 The heat conduction equation
 53.8 Laplace's equation

Revision Test 15

Section J Laplace transforms

54 Introduction to Laplace transforms

54.1 Introduction
54.2 De nition of a Laplace transform
54.3 Linearity property of the Laplace transform
54.4 Laplace transforms of elementary functions
54.5 Worked problems on standard Laplace transforms

55 Properties of Laplace transforms

55.1 The Laplace transform of e f (t)
at

55.2 Laplace transforms of the form e f (t)

at

55.3 The Laplace transforms of derivatives

55.4 The initial and nal value theorems

56 Inverse Laplace transforms

56.1 De nition of the inverse Laplace transform
56.2 Inverse Laplace transforms of simple functions
56.3 Inverse Laplace transforms using partial fractions
56.4 Poles and zeros

57 The Laplace transform of the Heaviside function

57.1 Heaviside unit step function
57.2 Laplace transforms of H(t – c)
57.3 Laplace transforms of H(t – c).f(t – c)
57.4 Inverse Laplace transforms of Heaviside functions

58 The solution of differential equations using Laplace transforms

 58.1 Introduction
58.2 Procedure to solve differential equations using Laplace transforms
58.3 Worked problems on solving differential equations using Laplace
transforms

59 The solution of simultaneous differential equations using Laplace

transforms
59.1 Introduction
59.2 Procedure to solve simultaneous differential equations using
Laplace transforms
59.3 Worked problems on solving simultaneous differential equations
using Laplace transforms

Revision Test 16

Section K Fourier series

60 Fourier series for periodic functions of period 2π

60.1 Introduction
60.2 Periodic functions
60.3 Fourier series
60.4 Worked problems on Fourier series of periodic functions of period
2π

61 Fourier series for a non-periodic function over period 2π

61.1 Expansion of non-periodic functions
61.2 Worked problems on Fourier series of non-periodic functions over
a range of 2π

62 Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier series

62.1 Even and odd functions
62.2 Fourier cosine and Fourier sine series
 62.3 Half-range Fourier series

63 Fourier series over any range

63.1 Expansion of a periodic function of period L
63.2 Half-range Fourier series for functions de ned over range L

64 A numerical method of harmonic analysis

64.1 Introduction
64.2 Harmonic analysis on data given in tabular or graphical form
64.3 Complex waveform considerations

65 The complex or exponential form of a Fourier series

65.1 Introduction
65.2 Exponential or complex notation
65.3 Complex coef cients
65.4 Symmetry relationships
65.5 The frequency spectrum
65.6 Phasors

Section L Z-transforms

66 An introduction to z-transforms
66.1 Sequences
66.2 Some properties of z-transforms
66.3 Inverse z-transforms
66.4 Using z-transforms to solve difference equations

Revision Test 17

Section M Statistics and probability

67 Presentation of statistical data
67.1 Some statistical terminology
67.2 Presentation of ungrouped data
67.3 Presentation of grouped data

68 Mean, median, mode and standard deviation

68.1 Measures of central tendency
68.2 Mean, median and mode for discrete data
68.3 Mean, median and mode for grouped data
68.4 Standard deviation
68.5 Quartiles, deciles and percentiles

69 Probability
69.1 Introduction to probability
69.2 Laws of probability
69.3 Worked problems on probability
69.4 Further worked problems on probability
69.5 Permutations and combinations
69.6 Bayes' theorem

Revision Test 18

70 The binomial and Poisson distributions

70.1 The binomial distribution
70.2 The Poisson distribution

71 The normal distribution

71.1 Introduction to the normal distribution
71.2 Testing for a normal distribution

72 Linear correlation
72.1 Introduction to linear correlation
 72.2 The Pearson product-moment formula for determining the linear
correlation coef cient
72.3 The signi cance of a coef cient of correlation
72.4 Worked problems on linear correlation

73 Linear regression
73.1 Introduction to linear regression
73.2 The least-squares regression lines
73.3 Worked problems on linear regression

Revision Test 19

74 Sampling and estimation theories

74.1 Introduction
74.2 Sampling distributions
74.3 The sampling distribution of the means
74.4 The estimation of population parameters based on a large sample
size
74.5 Estimating the mean of a population based on a small sample size

75 Signi cance testing

75.1 Hypotheses
75.2 Type I and type II errors
75.3 Signi cance tests for population means
75.4 Comparing two sample means

76 Chi-square and distribution-free tests

76.1 Chi-square values
76.2 Fitting data to theoretical distributions
76.3 Introduction to distribution-free tests
76.4 The sign test
76.5 Wilcoxon signed-rank test
76.6 The Mann-Whitney test
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Silkworms are so little disposed to wander away from their food
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use they begin to make of their silk. By watching them closely he sees
each caterpillar throw out a number of very fine silken lines, by
which it fastens the skin to one spot. Having done this, it is able to
creep out, without dragging the skin about after it, as would
otherwise be the case. In this operation the whole covering of the
body, including that of the feet, of the jaws and teeth, is cast off; but
it sometimes happens that the animal cannot entirely cast its skin, a
portion of it breaking and remaining attached to the extremity of the
body. As the animal increases rapidly in size, this portion of the old
skin compresses its body tightly, causing inflammation and much
suffering, which usually ends in death.
Worms that have newly moulted are readily distinguished by their
pale colour, and the wrinkled appearance of the new skin. Soon after
moulting they recover health and vigour, and feed with increased
appetite. To keep them in health they must be fed with great
regularity, and not crowded together in their trays. In the course of
five days the rapid growth of the insect causes the wrinkles to
disappear from the skin; it is now half an inch in length; a second
sickness, and a second moulting, prepare it for increase of growth; it
casts its skin as before, and feeds without intermission during
another five days, during which time it attains a length of three
quarters of an inch. It then falls sick and moults a third time. It again
feeds during five days, after which it casts its skin for the fourth and
last time in the caterpillar state.

PROGRESSIVE GROWTH OF THE SILKWORM.

It is now about one and a half or two inches in length, and devours
its food most voraciously, increasing rapidly in size during ten days.
When the worms are fed a slight hissing noise is heard similar to that
of green wood burning. According to some writers this noise
proceeds from the action of the jaws, but others attribute it solely to
the action of the feet, which are continually moving until the worms
have fastened to their food, when the noise ceases. In a large nursery
of silkworms this noise sounds like a soft shower of rain.
 SILKWORM ON MULBERRY-LEAF.

When the caterpillar has attained its full growth, it is a very

different creature from the little black worm which first issued from
the egg, being from two and a half to three inches in length, and its
body consisting of twelve membranous rings, which contract and
elongate as the animal moves. It is furnished with sixteen legs, in
pairs: three pairs in front, under the first three rings, are covered
with a shelly or scaly substance; the other five pairs, called holders,
are furnished with little hooks, which assist the insect in climbing.
The head is covered with a scaly substance similar to the covering of
the fore legs. The mandibles are of great strength, and indented like
the teeth of a saw. Beneath the jaw are two small openings, through
which the insect draws its silken lines. The substance of which the
silk is composed is a fine yellow transparent gum, secreted in two
slender vessels, “which are wound, as it were, on two spindles in the
stomach; if unfolded, these vessels would be about ten inches in
length.” The insect breathes by means of eighteen holes or spiracles,
distributed along the body, nine on each side. On each side of the
head, near the mouth, are seven small eyes; the two specks higher up
on the head, which are generally mistaken for eyes, are only parts of
the skull.

FULL GROWN SILKWORM.

When the silkworm is ready to spin, it gets upon the leaves without
eating them, rears its head as if in search of something, or crawls to
the edges of the tray and moves slowly along; its rings draw in, and
its greenish colour changes to a deep golden hue; its skin becomes
wrinkled about the neck, and its body feels like soft dough, and on
taking it in the hand, and looking through it, the whole body has
assumed the transparency of a ripe yellow plum. When this is
observed, the owner of the insects puts each singly into a little cone
of white paper, which he pins to the wall or elsewhere, so that the
creature may be undisturbed at its work. But in the nurseries abroad
little bushes are set up on the wicker shelves, and the insects mount
them and form their cocoons among the twigs.
Supposing the worm to be left to itself on the tray, without either
of these precautions, it at last selects some corner or hollow place
which will conveniently hold the cocoon it is about to spin, and
begins by throwing out a number of irregular threads, which are
intended to support its nest. Upon these it forms, during the first
day, a loose structure of floss silk of an oval shape, within which,
during the next three days, it winds the firm, hard, yellow ball,
remaining, of course, all the time within it. In this operation the
insect does not greatly change the position of the hinder part of its
body, but continues drawing its thread from various points and
attaching it to others, so that after a time the body becomes to a great
extent enclosed by the thread. “The work is then continued from one
thread to another, the silkworm moving its head and spinning in a
zigzag way, bending the fore part of the body back to spin in all
directions within reach, and shifting the body only to cover with silk
the part which was beneath it. As the silkworm spins its web by thus
bending the fore part of the body back, and moves the hinder part of
the body in such a way only as to enable it to reach the farther back
with the fore part, it follows that it encloses itself in a cocoon much
shorter than its own body, for soon after the beginning the whole is
continued with the body in a bent position. From the foregoing
account it appears that with the most simple instinctive principles all
the ends necessary are gained. If the silkworm shifted its position
much at the beginning of the work, it could never enclose itself in a
cocoon; but by its mode of proceeding, as above explained, it
encloses itself in a cocoon which only consumes as much silk as is
necessary to hold the chrysalis.”
 THE COCOON.

(A portion of the floss silk has been removed.)

The use of the cocoon, in the natural state of the insect, is to afford
a warm nest, where, secure from the inclemencies of the season, and
the attacks of enemies, it may undergo its final changes. The cocoon
is made water-tight by an internal lining of gum, and the silken
thread of which the ball is made is also smeared with a similar gum,
which hardens in the air.
While
the worm
is
spinning
its cocoon
it takes THE CHRYSALIS.
no food,
and as it
is continually emitting silk, its body
gradually diminishes to less than half
its original length. When its labour is
GIRL WINDING SILK. completed it rests awhile, and then
once more throws off its skin; but it is no longer a caterpillar; its
form is changed into a chrysalis, or aurelia, with a smooth brown
skin, and pointed at one end. A few days after the insect has finished
spinning, the cocoons will be ready to be unwound. Our amateur
silkworm cultivator then takes the cocoons out of the paper cones
and separates the outer floss silk. He then throws several cocoons
into a glass of water slightly warm, to make them more easy to
unwind, and having found the ends, proceeds to wind the silk on a
reel, or he gives the task to a sister’s gentler hands, while he prepares
a little box of bran, in readiness to put the poor exposed chrysalis the
moment it is released from the cocoon. As the winding proceeds, the
cocoons become thinner and thinner until the insects within are
visible. The chrysalis, though covered with a horny skin, and
apparently without much sensation, shows very plainly that it is
sensible of the rough treatment it is receiving, as the cocoon is tossed
about in the water by the motion of the reel. It rapidly moves the
rings of its tail, which is doubtless a sign of uneasiness or pain. When
nearly all the silk is wound off, there still remains a transparent film
like silver paper, which is torn open to let out the chrysalis. The latter
is immediately buried in bran, where it remains very quietly for a
week or two, then changes into a cream coloured moth, lays its eggs,
and dies. This is the common domestic treatment when silkworms
are kept for amusement, but in a commercial establishment such as
those of Italy, they are very differently treated.
The cocoons are collected in large
quantities, separated and sorted
according to their quality, about one-
sixtieth part being saved for the
production of eggs, after which the life
of the chrysalis is destroyed in all the
rest. This is done in hot countries by
exposure to the sun; but in more
temperate climes by artificial heat,
such as that of an oven after the bread
has been withdrawn. Before the FEMALE SILKWORM MOTH
AND EGGS.
cocoons can be reeled they must be
separated from the floss, which is done
by opening the floss covering at one end and pushing out the cocoon.
Care is taken in reeling to use cocoons of one quality, as different
qualities require a different treatment.
The natural gum of the cocoons is first softened in warm water,
kept at the proper temperature, either by a charcoal fire or by a
steam pipe. After remaining in this for a few minutes, the reeler
(generally a woman) gently stirs up or brushes the cocoons with a
short birch rod, and to this the loose threads of the cocoons adhere,
and are thus drawn out of the water: they are then taken commonly
four or five together, twisted with the fingers into one thread, and
passed through a metal loop, to get rid of dirt and impurities: the
thread then passes on to the reel, which is so constructed as to have a
slight lateral motion, so that the thread of one revolution does not
overlay the other; for if it did so, the threads would be glued together
before the gum had had time to harden by exposure to the air. The
threads of the four or five cocoons are thus united into one strong
and smooth thread. Sometimes as many as thirty cocoons are united
into one thread, and it is difficult to wind more. As often as a thread
of any single cocoon breaks or comes to an end, the attendant
supplies its place by a new one, so that by continually keeping up the
same number the united thread may be wound to any length: these
joinings are not made by a knot, but the new end is simply laid on
the compound thread, to which it adheres by its gum; and as the
threads are finer near their termination than at the commencement,
it is necessary for the reeler to add other cocoons before the first set
is quite exhausted; so that the compound thread may be of uniform
thickness. The filaments of three fresh cocoons, added to two half-
wound ones, make a thread about equal to that from four fresh
cocoons. The cocoons are not entirely wound off, but the husk
containing the chrysalis is used together with the floss silk under the
name of waste. Improved methods of reeling have been introduced
on the continent, but they are similar in principle to the above.
Eleven or twelve pounds of cocoons yield about one pound of
reeled silk; and as from 240 to 250 cocoons weigh a pound, the
number of cocoons required to produce a pound of silk may be
estimated at 2,817½. The length of filament yielded by a single
cocoon is 300 yards, but some have yielded as much as 625 yards.
The reeled silk is made up into hanks for sale or use. The form and
contents, as well as quality, of these hanks, differ greatly, as will be
seen by the following wood-cuts.

HANKS FROM ITALY.

We may aptly conclude our account of this most industrious silk-

manufacturer in the words of the Rev. Samuel Pullein, M.A., who, so
long ago as 1758, wrote an Essay on the Culture of Silk, in which the
following passage occurs:—
“There is scarce anything among the various wonders which the
animal creation affords more admirable than the variety of changes
which the silkworm undergoes; but the curious texture of that silken
covering with which it surrounds itself when it becomes a moth, and
arrives at the perfection of its animal life, vastly surpasses what is
made by other animals of this class. All the caterpillar kind do indeed
undergo changes like those of the silkworm, and the beauty of many
of them in their butterfly state greatly exceeds it; but the covering
 which
they put
on
before
this
change
into a fly
is poor
and
mean,
when
compare
d to that
golden
tissue in
which
the
silkwor
m wraps
itself.
They
indeed
come
BOOK OF SILK FROM CHINA.
forth in
variety
of colours, their wings bedropped with gold and scarlet, yet are they
but the beings of a summer’s day; both their life and beauty quickly
vanish, and they leave no remembrance after them; but the silkworm
leaves behind it such beautiful, such beneficial monuments, as at
once record both the wisdom of their Creator, and His bounty to
man.”
On the importance of the silk itself, Kirby and Spence have the
following remarks:—
“To estimate justly the importance of this article, it is not sufficient
to view it as an appendage of luxury unrivalled for richness, lustre,
and beauty, and without which courts would lose half their
splendour; we must consider it what it actually is, as the staple article
of cultivation in many large provinces in the south of Europe,
amongst the inhabitants of which the prospect of a
deficient crop causes as great alarm as a scanty harvest of
grain with us; and, after giving employment to tens of
thousands in its first production and transportation, as
furnishing subsistence to hundreds of thousands more in
its final manufacture, and thus becoming one of the most
important wheels that give circulation to national wealth.”

SLIP
FROM
BENGAL.
 CHAPTER III.
MANUFACTURE OF SILK BY SPIDERS.

Our history of the silk manufacture among insects would be

incomplete without a notice of the labours of spiders. Not only do
these insects produce filmy webs to entrap their prey, but they also
spin, for the protection of their eggs, a bag not much unlike the
cocoon of the silkworm. At the beginning of the last century a
method was discovered of procuring silk from these spiders’ bags,
and of making it into several useful articles. The experiments took
place in France, and it was there discovered that two species of
spider in particular produced strong and beautiful silk, capable of
being usefully employed. The structure of these insects was closely
examined by the celebrated naturalist Réaumur, and he found that
the silk is spun from five papillæ, or small nipples, placed in the
hinder part of the body; these serve the purpose of so many wire-
drawing irons, to mould a gummy liquor, which dries as it is drawn
out and exposed to the air.
On pressing the body of a spider, the liquor flows into these
nipples, by applying the finger against which, distinct threads may be
drawn out through the numerous openings; and, what is very
astonishing, every separate thread is made up of innumerable
smaller threads, so that Réaumur thought himself far within the
limits of the truth when he stated that each of the five nipples
supplied one thousand separate fibres, in which case the slender
filament of the spider’s nest must be made up of five thousand fibres.
By applying the whole, or a part, of this apparatus to her work, the
spider can make the thread stout or fine at pleasure: thus the webs
for entrapping flies are very slight and fragile; but the nest for
securing the eggs is much stronger, to afford them shelter from the
cold. The threads are wound loosely round the eggs in a shape
similar to that of the silkworm’s
cocoon. The colour of the silk is
generally grey, becoming blackish on
exposure to the air: sometimes it is pale
yellow, and also of very fine quality;
but this is the production of
comparatively rare species, which
could not be depended on for the
purposes of manufacture. A spider’s
nest preserved by the writer during the
last winter was of a beautiful yellow,
almost approaching that of the cocoon
of the silkworm. As spring approached
it increased in bulk and became rather
paler, until at last a dark appearance in
the centre betokened the bursting of SPINNING APPARATUS OF
the eggs. At the present time (April THE SPIDER.
10th) ninety-six small yellow-bodied (Greatly magnified.)
spiders have come forth, and are
actively engaged in weaving their
delicate webs across the glass which contains them. A muslin cover
admits air to the interior, and these minute insects appear perfectly
healthy although deprived of their natural food. Some sugar was
placed in the glass, but they do not appear to have consumed any of
it, although some of them have been hatched for more than a
fortnight. From the appearance of the nest, more of these spiders yet
remain to be hatched.
In the French experiments, spiders’ nests in large quantities were
collected from the trunks of trees, corners of windows and vaults,
and eaves of houses at the time above mentioned, and from these a
new kind of silk was obtained by M. Bon, who declared it to be in no
respect inferior to that of the silkworm. It was afterwards proved that
he was greatly mistaken in this respect; yet the spiders’ silk readily
took all kinds of dyes, and was actually wrought into stockings and
gloves, specimens of which were presented by M. Bon to the Royal
Academy of Paris, and also to the Royal Society of London. His
method of preparing the silk was as follows:—
 Twelve or thirteen ounces of the bags were beaten with the hand,
or by a stick, until they were entirely free from dust. They were then
washed in warm water, which was frequently changed, until it was no
longer discoloured by the bags. They were next steeped in a large
quantity of water, wherein soap, saltpetre, and gum-arabic had been
dissolved. The whole was then set to boil over a gentle fire for three
hours. Lastly, the bags were rinsed in clear warm water, and set out
to dry. They were then fit for the operation of carding, which was
performed with very fine cards, and thus silk of a peculiar ash colour
was obtained, which was spun without difficulty.

SPIDER’S NEST ATTACHED TO A FLAT SURFACE.

SPIDER’S NEST LAID OPEN.

 The great obstacle which prevented the establishment of any
considerable manufacture from these spiders’ bags, was the difficulty
of obtaining them in sufficient abundance; but M. Bon, who was
enthusiastic respecting the value of his discovery, fancied that he
could easily overcome this obstacle, and at first his efforts appeared
remarkably successful. He formed a large spider establishment,
which, for a time, was very prosperous. Having ordered all the short-
legged spiders (which are the most industrious spinners) to be
collected for him by persons employed for the purpose, he enclosed
them in paper boxes, with pin-holes pricked in them to admit the air
to the prisoners. The insects were regularly fed with flies, and
prospered well on their diet. In due time most of them laid their
eggs, and spun their silken bags. M. Bon affirmed that each female
produced from six to seven hundred eggs, whereas the silkworm
moth lays only about one hundred. He also stated, that out of seven
hundred or eight hundred young spiders which he kept, scarcely one
died in a year; while of one hundred silkworms, not forty lived to
form their cocoons.
These favourable statements led the Royal Academy of Paris to
take the subject into consideration, and Réaumur was appointed to
inquire into the merits of the new scheme. This careful inquirer
found many serious obstacles in the way of such establishments. The
fierceness of spiders, and their propensity to destroy each other,
were noticed as unfitting them to be bred and reared together. On
distributing about five thousand spiders in cells, in companies of
about fifty or a hundred, it was found that the larger spiders quickly
killed and ate the smaller, until there were only one or two occupiers
of each cell. The silk of the spider was also found inferior in lustre
and strength to that of the silkworm, and had the disadvantage of
being incapable of winding off the ball, but must necessarily be
carded.
 GARDEN SPIDER—(Natural Size.)

Indeed, it could require no very great consideration to decide, that

spiders’ silk, when compared with that of the silkworm, was vastly
inferior for manufacturing purposes, though employed in many
useful and highly ingenious ways by the insect itself. A few of these
we must not omit to notice. Every one must have seen the common
garden spider (Epeira diadema) suspended by its silken rope, or
forming its beautiful web; but every one is not aware that that silken
rope is made up of a multiplicity of threads, and that when the spider
attaches the rope to any object by pressing her spinneret against it,
she spreads out these threads over an area of some diameter, thus
securing a much greater degree of strength than could be gained by
merely fixing her thread to one point. This contrivance may be seen
best when the threads are attached to a black object. Under the
microscope they appear thus:—
The uses of silk in the webs and nests
of common spiders are too obvious to
be dwelt on, but there is a most clever
and surprising adaptation of the same
material by several foreign species of
spider which must be briefly stated. In
the Ionian islands, and also in the West
Indies, there are found certain spiders,
commonly known as trap-door spiders,
which make a cylindrical nest in the
earth, and cover the entrance with a
door of their own construction, framed
of alternate layers of silk and earth, and
fastened to the opening by a hinge of
stout silk. These spiders also line their
nests throughout with numerous layers
of silken web to the thickness of stout
cartridge paper, and finish it with the
greatest care. This beautiful lining is
yet further strengthened in particular
parts, where the nest is likely to be
exposed to danger. But the greatest
SPIDER’S METHOD OF amount of skill and care is bestowed
ATTACHING HER THREAD. upon the trap-door and its silken hinge.
This door is about the eighth of an inch
thick, rough on the outside, not much unlike an oyster shell, which it
also resembles in being thick and strong near the hinge, but thinner
towards the circumference. The breadth of this hinge is various, but
sometimes it is very considerable, as shown in the accompanying
figure. It also possesses great elastic force, so that on being opened, it
closes again of itself. This is principally accomplished by a fold or
doubling of the web, at each end of the hinge, which permits the door
to be opened nearly to a right angle with the aperture, but no farther,
unless violence be used. The under side of the door is perfectly
smooth and firm, being shaped so as to fit accurately, and yet to offer
no resistance when pushed open by the insect.
 TRAP-DOOR SPIDER.

As might be expected, there are varieties in the shape and size of

these nests. Some specimens found in the island of Zante had the
silken layers of the lid extended into a sort of handle or lever just
above the hinge, on pressing which in ever so slight a degree the
trap-door opened. From this it would appear that the entrance to
such a nest could be effected as easily by the enemies of the spider as
by the spider itself: this, however, is not the case; for repeated
observation has shown that the spider keeps guard at the entrance,
and actually holds the door with her fore feet and palpi, while the
hinder feet are extended down the side of the nest, and the
mandibles are thrust into the opposite side near the door. By this
means the insect gets such power as to resist with considerable force
the opening of the door. If it be asked how this is known, we are able
to refer to the experiments of careful observers, who extracted a
number of nests from the ground, and opening them at the lower
end, looked up, and saw the spider so occupied. A sectional view of
the nest will show that the curved form of the cover, and the shape of
the side walls, must favour this method of keeping the door shut. In
some cases, small hollows were formed round the interior edge of the
lid, into which the spider thrust its feet when keeping guard. It is a
curious fact, that when several of these spiders enclosed in their
 nests
were kept
as a
matter of
curiosity
in a box
of earth,
and the
doors
frequentl
y opened
to
examine
their TRAP-DOOR OPENING BY A
proceedin LEVER.
gs, one or
two of
them, as if wearied at these repeated
interruptions, effectually closed their
doors by weaving a piece of silken
tapestry, which was spread over the
interior of the opening, and rounded
like the inside of a thimble. This was so
NEST OF TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. strongly attached to the door and to the
side walls, that no opening could be
made without destroying the nest.
It was long a matter of surprise to
the observer to find, that in the case of
some nests, and not of others, there
was a trap-door at the bottom as well
as at the top of the nest: this was at last
explained by the following fact. A
spider’s nest, which was accidentally
broken off in being extracted from the
ground, was purposely restored to the
SECTION OF NEST. earth in a reversed position, with the
trap-door downwards, and the broken
and exposed part level with the surface. The spider immediately set
to work to make a new door over the broken part, and finished it
with as much completeness as the other. Doubtless, then, those nests
which were provided with two doors were such as had been upset
and broken. This is the more likely because in Zante, where such
nests were found, the earth is annually dug up round the roots of the
olive tree, a favourite nesting place of these trap-door spiders.
We must not omit to mention, that in
some parts of South America,
especially in Paraguay, there is a spider
which forms a spherical cocoon for its
eggs, an inch in diameter, of a yellow
silk, which the inhabitants spin on
account of the permanency of the
colour. It must also be observed that
the silk of spiders is useful to the
astronomer, who employs the strongest
thread (the one, namely, which
supports the web) for the divisions of
the micrometer. By its ductility, this
thread acquires about a fifth of its
ordinary length.

NEST WITH TWO OPENINGS.

WHITE WAX INSECT OF CHINA.
 CHAPTER IV.
MANUFACTURE OF WAX BY THE HIVE BEE,
THE HUMBLE BEE, AND THE WHITE WAX
INSECT OF CHINA.

The most notable

insect manufacturer,
after the silkworm, is
the common hive bee,
which is able to
produce three distinct
GRUB IN CELL.
substances, honey, wax,
and silk; the first two
only being useful to mankind. Persons who have
never seen bees in any other than their perfect state,
and are unacquainted with the internal economy of
the hive, will learn with surprise that the first
appearance of this insect is that of a small straight
worm, which rapidly increases in size until it touches the sides of the
cell which forms its dwelling-place. It then coils itself up, until the
extremities meet and form a complete ring. When it ceases eating,
the nurse-bees seal up the cell, leaving the caterpillar to spin its
cocoon in safety. The silken film in which the insect now begins to
wrap itself, proceeds from a spinner, situated in the middle part of
the under lip, and is composed of two threads, gummed together as
they issue from the two orifices of the spinner. The caterpillar is
employed during thirty-six hours in making its cocoon; three days
after which it becomes a chrysalis. Over this chrysalis, or rather over
the cell in which it is contained, the nurse-bees brood until the
warmth of their bodies penetrates, and assists in producing the last
change of the insect within. The cocoon, by degrees, becomes
attached to the interior of the cell like a lining, and the bee, having its
parts gradually unfolded, begins at length to cut its way through the
cover of the cell. It is now a perfect bee, and capable at once of taking
its part in the labours of the hive. These labours chiefly relate to food,
shelter, and care of the young. In the article of food, the bee is a most
industrious collector of the sweet juices of flowers, which are
converted into the luscious honey with which she stores her hive. She
also collects pollen, as an ingredient in the food of the young, and a
gummy substance called propolis, which oozes from the poplar,
birch, and willow, and which she uses as a sort of varnish and cement
to the projecting parts of the hive.

BEES GATHERING HONEY.

For the purpose of collecting, carrying home, and manufacturing

these several products, the working bee is provided with a complete
and beautiful apparatus, consisting of a
proboscis (almost as wonderful in its
way as that of the elephant), by which
she ascertains the nature of food, and
imbibes such as is adapted to her
wants; a honey bag, or second
stomach, which is a small transparent
globe about the size of a pea, where she
deposits her nectar; a pair of baskets,
one in each hind leg, in which she
stores the pollen of flowers, and the HEAD OF BEE.
propolis or gum of trees; and lastly, in
the case of the wax-makers, four pairs (Magnified.)
of wax pockets, or membranous bags,
contained in the abdomen, where by
some unknown process wax is secreted from the food taken into the
stomach. What an astonishing provision for the requirements of a
single insect!
 HIND LEG OF WORKER.

a, the haunch; b, the thigh; c, the tibia, or pallet, containing the basket or cavity; d,
e, the foot.
 THE MANUFACTURE OF WAX.
The honey-comb of a bee is a beautiful and highly curious object,
and is composed of wax, a substance which man, with all his skill, is
unable to fabricate. Whether the hive be natural or artificial, the plan
of its construction is much the same. A number of honey-combs,
chiefly composed of six-sided cells, regularly applied to each other’s
sides, and arranged in two layers, are fixed to the upper part and
sides of the interior of the hive. These combs are arranged at a small
distance from each other, and the cells have their openings into the
spaces between them, which are wide enough to allow two bees to
pass each other easily. Besides these vacancies the combs are here
and there pierced with holes, which serve as a means of
communication from one comb to another, without losing time by
going round.
The cells being formed of wax, a
substance secreted by the bees in no
great abundance, it is important that as
little as possible should be consumed.
Bees, therefore, in the formation of
their cells have to solve a problem in
geometry, namely, “a quantity of wax
being given, to form of it similar and
equal cells of a determinate capacity,
but of the largest size in proportion to
the quantity of matter employed, and
INTERIOR OF THE HIVE. disposed in such a manner as to occupy
in the hive the least possible space.”
Every part of this problem is practically
solved by bees. If their cells had been cylindrical, which form seems
best adapted to the shape of a bee, they could not have been applied
to each other without leaving a number of useless vacant spaces. If
the cells had been square or triangular, this last objection would be
removed; but a greater quantity of wax would have been required,
and the shape would have been inconvenient to a round-bodied
animal. Hexagonal cells are admirably fitted to the form of the insect,
at the same time that their sides apply to each other without the
smallest vacant intervals. Another important saving in materials is
gained by making a common base serve for two layers of cells. Much
more wax as well as room would have been required, had the combs
consisted of one layer only. But this is not all. The base of each cell is
not an exact plane, but is usually composed of three lozenge-shaped
pieces, placed so as to form a pyramidal concavity. From this form it
follows that the base of a cell on one side of the comb is composed of
portions of the bases of three cells on the other. By this arrangement
a greater degree of strength is obtained, and also a more roomy cell,
with less expenditure of wax. This has been clearly proved, as also
that the angles of the base of the cell are exactly those which require
the smallest quantity of wax. It is obvious that these angles might
vary infinitely; but by a very accurate measurement Maraldi found
that the great angles were in general 109° 28′, the smaller ones 70°
32′. Réaumur, suspecting that the object of choosing these angles
was to spare wax, proposed to M. König, a skilful geometrician, to
determine by calculation what ought to be the angle of a hexagonal
cell with a pyramidal bottom, formed of three similar and equal
rhomboid plates, so that the least possible matter might enter into its
construction. After an elaborate calculation, the geometrician found
that the great angles of the rhombs should be 109° 26′, and of the
small angles, 70° 34′, a surprising agreement between the solution of
the problem, and the actual measurement.

FRONT AND REVERSE VIEW OF CELLS.

 METHOD OF JOINING CELLS.

The bees have also another contrivance for saving wax. They form
the bottoms and sides of the cells of wax not thicker than writing
paper; but as walls of this thinness at the entrance would be
perpetually injured by the going in and out of the workers, they make
the margin at the opening of each cell three or four times thicker
than the walls.
It has already been said that wax is a
secretion naturally formed in certain
membranous bags in the body of the
bee. As the secretion goes on, the wax
oozes through the membrane, and
forms in thin plates on the outside. The
position adopted by the insects during
this process is strange and almost
ridiculous. Their proceedings are as
follows:—The wax-makers, having
taken a quantity of honey or sugar into
the stomach, suspend themselves to
each other, the claws of the fore legs of
one being attached to those of the hind
pair of another, until they form
themselves into a cluster, consisting of FESTOON OF WAX-MAKERS.
a series of festoons or garlands, which
cross each other in all directions, until
they form a dense curtain, and in which most of the bees turn their
back upon the observer. In this position the wax-makers remain
immovable for about twenty-four hours, during which period the
secretion of wax takes place. At last one of them is seen to detach
itself from the rest, and to make its way to the top of the hive, where
it turns itself round, and clears a space of about an inch in diameter.
It then seizes one of the plates of wax with a pincer, formed at the
joints of the leg, and drawing it forwards, one of the fore legs takes it
with its claw and carries it to the mouth. The insect then proceeds by
means of its mandibles and its proboscis to reduce the plate to a
riband of wax, which it softens with a frothy liquor. During this
operation the proboscis is sometimes flattened like a spatula, then
like a trowel, at other times it is like a pencil, terminating in a point.
The liquor mixed with the wax gives it a whiteness and ductility
which it had not before, the object being to make it fit for working
into any shape.
The
parcels of
wax thus
prepared
are
applied
against
the vault LAYING FOUNDATION OF
THE PROBOSCIS.
of the CELL.
hive, the
little builder arranging them in the
direction she wishes them to take: when she has thus employed the
whole plate that she had separated from her body, she takes a
second, and proceeds in the same manner. At length she leaves her
work, and is lost in the crowd of her companions. Another succeeds,
and resumes the employment; then a third: all follow the same plan
of placing their wax; and if one by chance gives it a contrary
direction, another, coming after, sets it right. The result of all these
operations is a little wall of wax, with uneven surfaces, five or six
lines[1] long, two lines high, and half a line thick, which descends
perpendicularly from the vault of the hive. In this first work there is
no angle, nor any trace of the figure of the cells. It is a simple
partition, in a right line, without any bend.
1. A line is the twelfth part of an inch.
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