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CHAPTER 13 - Physiologic Monitoring of The Surgical Patient

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CHAPTER 13 - Physiologic Monitoring of The Surgical Patient

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ralph
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SCHWARTZ  CHAPTER  13  –  Physiologic  Monitoring  of  the  Surgical  Patient  


-­‐ Goal  =  allow  clinician  to  take  appropriate  actions  in  a  timely  fashion  to  prevent  /  ameliorate  physiologic  
derangements  
o Detect  pathologic  variations  in  physiologic  parameters  
o Provide  advanced  warning  of  impending  deterioration  in  status  of  1  or  more  organ  systems  
o Titrate  therapeutic  interventions  (e.g.  fluid  resuscitation,  infusion  of  vasoactive  /  inotropic  drugs)  
o Ensure  that  the  flow  of  oxygenated  blood  through  the  microcirculation  is  sufficient  to  support  cellular  
aerobic  metabolism    
-­‐ Done  in  ICU  and  Operating  Room  
 
POINT  OF  CRITICAL  OXYGEN  DELIVERY  –  transition  from  supply-­‐independent  O2  uptake  à  supply-­‐dependent  O2  uptake  
-­‐ below  a  critical  threshold  of  O2  delivery,  ↑  O2  extraction  from  blood  can’t  compensate  for  delivery  deficit  à  O2  
consumption  begins  to  ↓  
 
Arterial  Blood  Pressure  (“Blood  Pressure”)  
-­‐ pressure  exerted  by  blood  in  the  systemic  arterial  system  
-­‐ cardinal  parameter  measured  for  hemodynamic  monitoring  
-­‐ function  of:    
o Cardiac  Output  
o Vascular  input  impedance  
è  normal  BP  =  does  not  mean  that  cardiac  output  &  tissue  perfusion  are  adequate!  
 
METHODS  OF  MEASUREMENT   REMARKS  
INVASIVE  MONITORING  
CATHETER-­‐TUBING   -­‐ fluid-­‐filled  tubing  connected  to  an  intra-­‐arterial  catheter  to  an  external  strain-­‐gauge  
TRANSDUCER   transducer  
SYSTEM   -­‐ accuracy  depends  on  =  compliance  of  tubing,  surface  area  of  transducer  diaphragm,  
compliance  of  diaphragm    
-­‐ should  make  clinical  decisions  based  on  the  MAP  
DIRECT  INTRA-­‐ -­‐ measures  pressure  within  arterial  lumen  
ARTERIAL   -­‐ allow  blood  samples  to  be  obtained  for  ABG  &  other  lab  tests  
MONITORING   -­‐ cons:  invasive  device,  can  have  serious  complications  
-­‐ most  common  site  =  radial  artery  at  wrist  
o SBP  is  usually  ↑  and  DBP  are  usually  ↓  at  the  periphery  
-­‐ COMPLICATIONS:  
o Thrombosis  à  Distal  Ischemia  –  ↑  with  large-­‐caliber  catheters,  catheters  in  place  
for  ↑  time  
§ Use  catheters  <  20  gauge  
§ Use  catheters  for  short  time,  remove  ASAP  
§ Document  collateral  flow  by  using  modified  Allen  Test  
o Retrograde  embolization  of  air  bubbles  /  thrombi  à  intracranial    
§ Avoid  flushing  arterial  lines  when  (+)  air  in  the  system  
§ Use  small  volumes  (<  5  ml)  of  fluid  for  flushing  
o Catheter-­‐related  infections  
§ Occurs  in  0.4  –  0.7%  
§ ↑  incidence  with  ↑  duration  of  catheter  
NON-­‐INVASIVE  MONITORING  
SPHYGMOMANOMETER   -­‐ inflatable  cuff  around  extremity  à  auscultate  for  Korotkoff  sounds  
-­‐ width  of  cuff  =  40%  of  its  circumference  
DOPPLER  STETHOSCOPE   -­‐ reappearance  of  pulse  produces  an  audible  amplified  signal  
PULSE  OXIMETER   -­‐ reappearance  of  pulse  indicated  by  light-­‐emitting  diode  
PHOTOPLETHYSMOGRAPHYS   -­‐ systolic  &  diastolic  BP  are  recorded  on  a  beat-­‐to-­‐beat  basis  
-­‐ uses  transmission  of  infrared  light  to  estimate  Hb  in  a  finger  placed  under  an  

  1  
inflatable  cuff  
-­‐ readings  may  be  ↓  accurate  in  hypotension  /  hypothermia  
   
Electrocardiographic  Monitoring  (ECG)  
-­‐ records  electrical  activity  associated  with  cardiac  contraction  by  detecting  voltages  on  the  body  surface  
-­‐ waveforms  are  continuously  displayed  on  a  monitor,  can  sound  alarm  if  (+)  abnormality  of  rate  /  rhythm  is  
detected  
 
3  LEAD  ECG  for:   12  LEAD  ECG  for:  
Acute  coronary  syndromes   Potential  MI  (detects  ischemic  episodes  in  20.5%)  
Blunt  myocardial  injury   R/o  cardiac  complications  in  acutely  ill  patients  
Dysrrhythmias  2º  shock  /  sepsis  (from  ↓  myocardial  O2)   ↑  sensitive  than  3  Lead  ECG  
Vasoactive  /  inotropic  drugs  to  ↑  BP  &  cardiac  output   Standard  for  monitoring  high  risk  surgical  patients  
ST  Segment  analysis  à  detect  ischemia  /  infarction    
 
è  precordial  lead  V4 =  most  sensitive  lead  for  detecting  perioperative  ischemia  &  infarction  
 
CARDIAC  OUTPUT  &  RELATED  PARAMETERS  
STARLING’S  LAW  OF  THE  HEART  –  the  force  of  muscle  contraction  depends  on  the  initial  length  of  the  cardiac  fibers  
 
DETERMINANTS  OF  CARDIAC  PERFORMANCE:  
1. PRELOAD  –  the  stretch  of  ventricular  myocardial  tissue  just  prior  to  the  next  contraction    
DETERMINED  BY:  
a. END  DIASTOLIC  VOLUME  (EDV)    
b. END  DIASTOLIC  PRESSURE  (EDP)  –  used  as  a  measurement  for  EDV,  determined  by  Volume  &  Ventricular  
Compliance  
i. CENTRAL  VENOUS  PRESSURE  (CVP)  =  EDV  in  right  ventricle  
ii. PULMONARY  ARTERY  OCCLUSION  PRESSURE  (PAOP)  =  EDV  in  left  ventricle    
• May  be  altered  by  atrioventricular  valvular  stenosis  
2. AFTERLOAD  –  force  resisting  fiber  shortening  once  systole  begins  
o measured  by  =  Systemic  Vascular  Resistance  =  MAP  /  Cardiac  Output  
DETERMINED  BY:  
a. Ventricular  intracavitary  pressure  
b. Wall  thickness  
c. Chamber  radius  
d. Chamber  geometry  
3. CONTRACTILITY  –  the  inotropic  state  of  the  myocardium    
o ↑  when  the  force  of  ventricular  contraction  ↑  at  a  constant  preload  &  afterload  
o measured  by  =  End-­‐Systolic  Pressure  Volume  Line  (steeper  slope  =  ↑  contractility)  
 
PULMONARY  ARTERY  CATHETER  (PAC)  /  SWAN-­‐GANZ  CATHETER  
-­‐ has  4  channels,  allows  direct,  simultaneous  measurement  of  pressures  in  the  R  atrium,  R  ventricle,  pulmonary  
artery,  &  filling  pressure  (Wedge  Pressure)  of  L  atrium    
-­‐ placed  percutaneously  (Seldinger  Technique)  
-­‐ requires  access  to  the  central  venous  circulation:  
o antecubital,  femoral,  jugular,  subclavian  veins  (preferred)  à  Right  Atrium  
o Right  IJ    =  preferred,  lowest  risk  
 
CHANNEL   PURPOSE   PROXIMAL  TIP   DISTAL  TIP  
1   Tip  inserted  into  right   Syringe  for  balloon  inflation  with  air   Balloon  at  tip  of  catheter  à  
ventricle  à  pulmonary  artery   inflated  &  “wedged”  into  a  
pulmonary  artery  
2   Contains  wires   Fitting  for  connection  to  hardware  that   Thermistor  
calculates  Cardiac  Output  
3   For  pressure  monitoring      
4   Injection  of  thermal  indicator      
  2  
for  measuring  cardiac  output  
 
DIRECTLY  MEASURED  &  DERIVED  HEMODYNAMIC  DATA  OBTAINABLE  BY  BEDSIDE  PAC:  
STANDARD  PAC   PAC  WITH  ADDITIONAL  FEATURES   DERIVED  PARAMETERS  
CVP  (central  venous  pressure)   SVO2  (continuous)   Stroke  volume  (SV)  
Pulmonary  artery  pressure  (PAP)   Cardiac  output  (Qt  continuous)   Systemic  vascular  resistance  (SVR)  
Pulmonary  artery  occlusion  /  wedge   Right  ventricular  ejection  fraction   Pulmonary  vascular  resistance  (PVR)  
pressure  (PAOP)   (RVEF)  
Systemic  O2  utilization  (SVO2)     Right  ventricular  end  diastolic  volume  
(RVEDV)  
Cardiac  output  (Qt  intermittent)     Systemic  O2  delivery  (DO2)  
Systemic  O2  extraction  ratio  (ER)  
 
 
THERMODILUTION  TECHNIQUE  –  used  to  measure  cardiac  output  with  the  Swan-­‐Ganz  Catheter  (gold  standard)  
th
-­‐ 10  ml  Cold  PNSS  is  injected  into  R  atrium  à  flows  past  a  thermistor  (temperature  probe)  at  the  balloon  tip  (4  
channel)    
-­‐ thermistor  measures  the  drop  in  blood  temperature  à  calculates  preload,  afterload  &  R  heart  activity  
 
SUGGESTED  CRITERIA  FOR  PERIOPERATIVE  MONITORING  WITHOUT  USE  OF  A  PAC  IN  PATIENTS  UNDERGOING  CARDIAC  /  
MAJOR  VASCULAR  SURGERY  
1. No  anticipated  need  for  suprarenal  or  supraceliac  aortic  cross-­‐clamping  
2. No  history  of  MI  during  3  months  prior  to  OR  
3. No  history  of  poorly  compensated  CHF  
4. No  history  of  coronary  artery  bypass  graft  surgery  during  6  weeks  prior  to  operation  
5. No  history  of  ongoing  symptomatic  mitral  /  aortic  valvular  heart  disease  
6. No  history  of  ongoing  unstable  angina  pectoris  
 
MINIMALLY  INVASIVE  ALTERNATIVES  TO  PAC    
1. INVASIVE:  
a. DOPPLER  ULTRASONOGRAPHY  –  can  calculate  RBC  velocity  &  cardiac  output  
i. Ultrasonic  transducer  is  positioned  manually  in  suprasternal  notch  &  focused  on  root  of  aorta  
à  measures  aortic  cross-­‐sectional  area  
ii. Continuous-­‐wave  Dopper  transducer  is  placed  in  esophagus  à  measures  blood  flow  in  
descending  thoracic  aorta  
b. PULSE  CONTOUR  ANALYSIS  –  estimates  SV  on  a  beat-­‐to-­‐beat  basis    
c. TRANSESOPHAGEAL  ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY  –  needs  px  to  be  sedated  &  intubated  
§ Measures  ventricular  volume,  ejection  fraction,  cardiac  output,  wall  motion  abnormalities,  
pericardial  effusions  etc.  
 
2. NON-­‐INVASIVE  
a. PARTIAL  CO2  REBREATHING  –  uses  FICK  principle  to  estimate  cardiac  output  non-­‐invasively  
b. IMPEDANCE  CARDIOGRAPHY  –  measures  changes  in  volume  &  velocity  of  blood  in  thoracic  aorta  by  
measuring  alternating  electrical  currents    (non-­‐invasive)  
c. PULSE  PRESSURE  VARIATION  (PPV)  –  measures  preload  
         Maximal  pulse  pressure  –  minimum  pulse  pressure___  
(maximal  pulse  pressure  +  minimum  pulse  pressure)  /  2  
 
d. NEAR  INFRARED  SPECTROSCOPIC  MEASUREMENT  OF  TISSUE  HB  O2  SATURATION  (NIRS)  –  measures  
Hb  concentration  by  change  in  light  intensity  as  it  passes  through  tissues  
 
RESPIRATORY  MONITORING-­‐    
ARTERIAL  BLOOD   -­‐detects  alterations  in  acid-­‐base  balance  2º  to  low  Cardiac  Output,  Sepsis,  Renal  failure,  trauma,  
GAS  (ABG)   medication  /  drug  overdose,  altered  mental  status  
-­‐ can  be  analyzed  for  pH,  PO2,  PCO2,  HCO3  &  base  deficit  

  3  
-­‐ serial  ABGs  are  not  needed  for  weaning  from  mech  vent  
AIRWAY   -­‐ routinely  monitored  in  mechanically  ventilated  patients  
PRESSURES   -­‐ checks  for  compliance  in  the  lung  /  chest  wall  
PEAK  AIRWAY  PRESSURE  =  measured  at  end  of  inspiration  
-­‐ function  of  tidal  volume,  airway  resistance,  lung  /  chest  wall  compliance,  &  peak  inspiratory  
flow  
PLATEAU  OF  AIRWAY  PRESSURE  =  airway  pressure  measured  at  end  of  inspiration  when  inhaled  
volume  is  held  in  lungs  by  briefly  closing  the  expiratory  valve  
-­‐ related  to:  lung/chest  wall  compliance  &  delivered  tidal  volume  
VENTILATOR-­‐ -­‐ Barotrauma  2º  to  ↑  airway  pressure  &  tidal  volume    
INDUCED  LUNG   -­‐ Parenchymal  lung  injury,  ARDS,  pneumothorax  
INJURY  (VILLI)   LUNG  PROTECTIVE  STRATEGIES:  
1. Limit  plateau  airway  pressure  to  <  30  cmH2O  
2. Tidal  volume  <  6  mL/kg  of  ideal  body  weight  
PULSE  OXIMETRY   -­‐ Provides  continuous  non-­‐invasive  monitoring  of  the  O2  sat  of  arterial  blood  
CAPNOMETRY   -­‐ Measurement  of  CO2  in  the  airway  throughout  the  respiratory  cycle  
-­‐ Measured  by  infrared  light  absorption  
-­‐ Allows:  confirmation  of  ET  placement,  continuous  assessment  of  ventilation,  airway  integrity,  
operation  of  the  mech  vent,  &  cardiopulmonary  function    
 
RENAL  MONITORING  
 
URINE  OUTPUT   -­‐ via  FC  insertion  
-­‐ gross  indicator  of  renal  perfusion  (è  note:  normal  UO  does  not  rule  out  impending  renal  
failure!)  
o Adults  =  0.5  ml/kg/hr  
o Pedia  =  1-­‐2  mk/kg/hr  
CAUSES  OF  OLIGURIA:  
1. ↓  renal  artery  perfusion  2º  to  hypotension,  hypovolemia,  or  low  cardiac  output  
2. intrinsic  renal  dysfunction  
BLADDER   -­‐ for  monitoring  ABDOMINAL  COMPARTMENT  SYNDROME  (ACS):  
PRESSURE   o Elevated  Peak  airway  pressures  
(TRANS-­‐ o ↑  intra-­‐abdominal  pressure  
URETHRAL   o Oliguria  ß  cardinal  sign  
BLADDER   -­‐ Associated  with  interstitial  edema  of  the  abdominal  organs  à  ↑  intra-­‐abdominal  pressure  à  
PRESSURE   pressure  >  venous  /  capillary  pressures  à  ↓  perfusion  of  kidneys  &  other  organs    
MEASUREMENT)   -­‐ Used  to  confirm  presence  of  ACS  
PROCEDURE:  
1. Instill  50  –  100  ml  of  PNSS  into  bladder  via  FC  
2. Connect  tubing  to  a  transducing  system  à  measure  bladder  pressure  
Intra-­‐abdominal   IAP  ≥  12  mmHg  on  3  standard  measurements  conducted  4-­‐6  hours  
Hypertension   apart  
Abdominal  Compartment   IAP  ≥  20  mmHg  on  3  measurements  1-­‐6  hours  apart  
syndrome    
 
NEUROLOGIC  MONITORING  
 
INTRACRANIAL   -­‐ Goal  =  ensure  that  cerebral  perfusion  pressure  (CPP)  is  adequate  to  support  brain  perfusion  
PRESSURE  (ICP)   -­‐ CCP  =  MAP  –  ICP  (normal  =  50  –  70  mmHg)  
  -­‐ INDICATIONS:  
N  =  <  15  mmHg   o Severe  TBI  (GCS  ≤  8  +  abnormal  CT  Scan)  
o Severe  TBI  &  Normal  CT  scan  if  ≥  2  of  the  following  are  (+):  
§ Age  >  40  y/o  
§ Unilateral  /  bilateral  motor  posturing  
§ Systolic  BP  <  90  mmHg  
  4  
o Acute  SAH  with  coma  /  neurologic  deterioration  
o Intracranial  hemorrhage  with  intraventricular  blood  
o Ischemic  MCA  stroke  
o Fulminant  hepatic  failure  with  coma  &  cerebral  edema  on  CT  scan  
o Global  cerebral  ischemia  /  anoxia  with  (+)  cerebral  edema  on  CT  scan  
VENTRICULOSTOMY  CATHETER  –  fluid-­‐filled  catheter  inserted  into  a  cerebral  ventricle  &  attached  to  
an  external  pressure  transducer  
-­‐ allows:  
o measurement  of  ICP  
o drainage  of  CSF  as  a  way  of  ↓  ICP  or  sampling  CSF  for  lab  studies  
-­‐ Complications:  infection  (5%),  hemorrhage  (1.1%),  malfunction  /  obstruction  (6.3%-­‐10.5%),  
malposition  with  injury  to  cerebral  tissue  
ELECTROENCE-­‐ -­‐ Monitors  global  neurologic  electrical  activity    
PHALOGRAM     -­‐ Ongoing  evaluation  of  cerebral  cortical  activity  
(EEG)   INDICATIONS:  
1. Obtunded  &  comatose  patients  
2. Status  epilepticus  
3. Detecting  early  changes  associated  with  cerebral  ischemia  
4. Used  to  adjust  level  of  sedation  in  high  dose  barbiturate  therapy  
BISPECTRAL  INDEX  (BIS)  –  used  to  titrate  the  level  of  sedative  medications  &  monitor  the  depth  of  
anesthesia  
EVOKED   -­‐ Monitors  neural  pathways  not  detected  by  conventional  EEG  
POTENTIALS   INDICATIONS:  
1. localizing  brain  stem  lesions  
2. proving  absence  of  structural  lesions  in  cases  of  metabolic  /  toxic  coma  
3. prognostic  data  in  post-­‐traumatic  coma  
TRANSCRANIAL   -­‐ non-­‐invasive  method  for  evaluating  cerebral  hemodynamics  
DOPPLER  UTZ   -­‐ measures  middle  &  anterior  cerebral  artery  blood  flow  
INDICATIONS:  
1. diagnosis  of  cerebral  vasospasm  after  SAH  
2. Determining  brain  death  in  patients  w/  confounding  factors  (e.g.  CNS  depressants  /  
metabolic  encephalopathy)  
JUGULAR   -­‐ Placement  of  a  catheter  in  the  IJ  à  Jugular  bulb  
VENOUS   -­‐ ↓  in  value  =  Cerebral  Hypoperfusion  
OXIMETRY   -­‐ ↑  in  value  =  Cerebral  Hyperemia  
TRANSCRANIAL   -­‐ non-­‐invasive  continuous  method  to  determine  cerebral  oxygenation  (similar  to  pulse-­‐
NEAR  INFRARED   oximetry)  
SPECTROSCOPY   -­‐ Detects  early  cerebral  ischemia  in  patients  with  TBI  
BRAIN  TISSUE  O2   -­‐ Useful  adjunct  to  ICP  monitoring    
TENSION  (PbtO2)   -­‐ For  early  detection  of  brain  tissue  ischemia  despite  normal  ICP  &  CCP  
-­‐ May  ↓  potential  adverse  effects  associated  with  ICP  &  CCP  monitoring  
Normal  values   20  –  40  mmHg  
Critical  levels   8  –  10  mmHg  
 
-­‐end  of  chapter-­‐  

  5  

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