CHAPTER 13 - Physiologic Monitoring of The Surgical Patient
CHAPTER 13 - Physiologic Monitoring of The Surgical Patient
1
inflatable
cuff
-‐ readings
may
be
↓
accurate
in
hypotension
/
hypothermia
Electrocardiographic
Monitoring
(ECG)
-‐ records
electrical
activity
associated
with
cardiac
contraction
by
detecting
voltages
on
the
body
surface
-‐ waveforms
are
continuously
displayed
on
a
monitor,
can
sound
alarm
if
(+)
abnormality
of
rate
/
rhythm
is
detected
3
LEAD
ECG
for:
12
LEAD
ECG
for:
Acute
coronary
syndromes
Potential
MI
(detects
ischemic
episodes
in
20.5%)
Blunt
myocardial
injury
R/o
cardiac
complications
in
acutely
ill
patients
Dysrrhythmias
2º
shock
/
sepsis
(from
↓
myocardial
O2)
↑
sensitive
than
3
Lead
ECG
Vasoactive
/
inotropic
drugs
to
↑
BP
&
cardiac
output
Standard
for
monitoring
high
risk
surgical
patients
ST
Segment
analysis
à
detect
ischemia
/
infarction
è
precordial
lead
V4 =
most
sensitive
lead
for
detecting
perioperative
ischemia
&
infarction
CARDIAC
OUTPUT
&
RELATED
PARAMETERS
STARLING’S
LAW
OF
THE
HEART
–
the
force
of
muscle
contraction
depends
on
the
initial
length
of
the
cardiac
fibers
DETERMINANTS
OF
CARDIAC
PERFORMANCE:
1. PRELOAD
–
the
stretch
of
ventricular
myocardial
tissue
just
prior
to
the
next
contraction
DETERMINED
BY:
a. END
DIASTOLIC
VOLUME
(EDV)
b. END
DIASTOLIC
PRESSURE
(EDP)
–
used
as
a
measurement
for
EDV,
determined
by
Volume
&
Ventricular
Compliance
i. CENTRAL
VENOUS
PRESSURE
(CVP)
=
EDV
in
right
ventricle
ii. PULMONARY
ARTERY
OCCLUSION
PRESSURE
(PAOP)
=
EDV
in
left
ventricle
• May
be
altered
by
atrioventricular
valvular
stenosis
2. AFTERLOAD
–
force
resisting
fiber
shortening
once
systole
begins
o measured
by
=
Systemic
Vascular
Resistance
=
MAP
/
Cardiac
Output
DETERMINED
BY:
a. Ventricular
intracavitary
pressure
b. Wall
thickness
c. Chamber
radius
d. Chamber
geometry
3. CONTRACTILITY
–
the
inotropic
state
of
the
myocardium
o ↑
when
the
force
of
ventricular
contraction
↑
at
a
constant
preload
&
afterload
o measured
by
=
End-‐Systolic
Pressure
Volume
Line
(steeper
slope
=
↑
contractility)
PULMONARY
ARTERY
CATHETER
(PAC)
/
SWAN-‐GANZ
CATHETER
-‐ has
4
channels,
allows
direct,
simultaneous
measurement
of
pressures
in
the
R
atrium,
R
ventricle,
pulmonary
artery,
&
filling
pressure
(Wedge
Pressure)
of
L
atrium
-‐ placed
percutaneously
(Seldinger
Technique)
-‐ requires
access
to
the
central
venous
circulation:
o antecubital,
femoral,
jugular,
subclavian
veins
(preferred)
à
Right
Atrium
o Right
IJ
=
preferred,
lowest
risk
CHANNEL
PURPOSE
PROXIMAL
TIP
DISTAL
TIP
1
Tip
inserted
into
right
Syringe
for
balloon
inflation
with
air
Balloon
at
tip
of
catheter
à
ventricle
à
pulmonary
artery
inflated
&
“wedged”
into
a
pulmonary
artery
2
Contains
wires
Fitting
for
connection
to
hardware
that
Thermistor
calculates
Cardiac
Output
3
For
pressure
monitoring
4
Injection
of
thermal
indicator
2
for
measuring
cardiac
output
DIRECTLY
MEASURED
&
DERIVED
HEMODYNAMIC
DATA
OBTAINABLE
BY
BEDSIDE
PAC:
STANDARD
PAC
PAC
WITH
ADDITIONAL
FEATURES
DERIVED
PARAMETERS
CVP
(central
venous
pressure)
SVO2
(continuous)
Stroke
volume
(SV)
Pulmonary
artery
pressure
(PAP)
Cardiac
output
(Qt
continuous)
Systemic
vascular
resistance
(SVR)
Pulmonary
artery
occlusion
/
wedge
Right
ventricular
ejection
fraction
Pulmonary
vascular
resistance
(PVR)
pressure
(PAOP)
(RVEF)
Systemic
O2
utilization
(SVO2)
Right
ventricular
end
diastolic
volume
(RVEDV)
Cardiac
output
(Qt
intermittent)
Systemic
O2
delivery
(DO2)
Systemic
O2
extraction
ratio
(ER)
THERMODILUTION
TECHNIQUE
–
used
to
measure
cardiac
output
with
the
Swan-‐Ganz
Catheter
(gold
standard)
th
-‐ 10
ml
Cold
PNSS
is
injected
into
R
atrium
à
flows
past
a
thermistor
(temperature
probe)
at
the
balloon
tip
(4
channel)
-‐ thermistor
measures
the
drop
in
blood
temperature
à
calculates
preload,
afterload
&
R
heart
activity
SUGGESTED
CRITERIA
FOR
PERIOPERATIVE
MONITORING
WITHOUT
USE
OF
A
PAC
IN
PATIENTS
UNDERGOING
CARDIAC
/
MAJOR
VASCULAR
SURGERY
1. No
anticipated
need
for
suprarenal
or
supraceliac
aortic
cross-‐clamping
2. No
history
of
MI
during
3
months
prior
to
OR
3. No
history
of
poorly
compensated
CHF
4. No
history
of
coronary
artery
bypass
graft
surgery
during
6
weeks
prior
to
operation
5. No
history
of
ongoing
symptomatic
mitral
/
aortic
valvular
heart
disease
6. No
history
of
ongoing
unstable
angina
pectoris
MINIMALLY
INVASIVE
ALTERNATIVES
TO
PAC
1. INVASIVE:
a. DOPPLER
ULTRASONOGRAPHY
–
can
calculate
RBC
velocity
&
cardiac
output
i. Ultrasonic
transducer
is
positioned
manually
in
suprasternal
notch
&
focused
on
root
of
aorta
à
measures
aortic
cross-‐sectional
area
ii. Continuous-‐wave
Dopper
transducer
is
placed
in
esophagus
à
measures
blood
flow
in
descending
thoracic
aorta
b. PULSE
CONTOUR
ANALYSIS
–
estimates
SV
on
a
beat-‐to-‐beat
basis
c. TRANSESOPHAGEAL
ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY
–
needs
px
to
be
sedated
&
intubated
§ Measures
ventricular
volume,
ejection
fraction,
cardiac
output,
wall
motion
abnormalities,
pericardial
effusions
etc.
2. NON-‐INVASIVE
a. PARTIAL
CO2
REBREATHING
–
uses
FICK
principle
to
estimate
cardiac
output
non-‐invasively
b. IMPEDANCE
CARDIOGRAPHY
–
measures
changes
in
volume
&
velocity
of
blood
in
thoracic
aorta
by
measuring
alternating
electrical
currents
(non-‐invasive)
c. PULSE
PRESSURE
VARIATION
(PPV)
–
measures
preload
Maximal
pulse
pressure
–
minimum
pulse
pressure___
(maximal
pulse
pressure
+
minimum
pulse
pressure)
/
2
d. NEAR
INFRARED
SPECTROSCOPIC
MEASUREMENT
OF
TISSUE
HB
O2
SATURATION
(NIRS)
–
measures
Hb
concentration
by
change
in
light
intensity
as
it
passes
through
tissues
RESPIRATORY
MONITORING-‐
ARTERIAL
BLOOD
-‐detects
alterations
in
acid-‐base
balance
2º
to
low
Cardiac
Output,
Sepsis,
Renal
failure,
trauma,
GAS
(ABG)
medication
/
drug
overdose,
altered
mental
status
-‐ can
be
analyzed
for
pH,
PO2,
PCO2,
HCO3
&
base
deficit
3
-‐ serial
ABGs
are
not
needed
for
weaning
from
mech
vent
AIRWAY
-‐ routinely
monitored
in
mechanically
ventilated
patients
PRESSURES
-‐ checks
for
compliance
in
the
lung
/
chest
wall
PEAK
AIRWAY
PRESSURE
=
measured
at
end
of
inspiration
-‐ function
of
tidal
volume,
airway
resistance,
lung
/
chest
wall
compliance,
&
peak
inspiratory
flow
PLATEAU
OF
AIRWAY
PRESSURE
=
airway
pressure
measured
at
end
of
inspiration
when
inhaled
volume
is
held
in
lungs
by
briefly
closing
the
expiratory
valve
-‐ related
to:
lung/chest
wall
compliance
&
delivered
tidal
volume
VENTILATOR-‐ -‐ Barotrauma
2º
to
↑
airway
pressure
&
tidal
volume
INDUCED
LUNG
-‐ Parenchymal
lung
injury,
ARDS,
pneumothorax
INJURY
(VILLI)
LUNG
PROTECTIVE
STRATEGIES:
1. Limit
plateau
airway
pressure
to
<
30
cmH2O
2. Tidal
volume
<
6
mL/kg
of
ideal
body
weight
PULSE
OXIMETRY
-‐ Provides
continuous
non-‐invasive
monitoring
of
the
O2
sat
of
arterial
blood
CAPNOMETRY
-‐ Measurement
of
CO2
in
the
airway
throughout
the
respiratory
cycle
-‐ Measured
by
infrared
light
absorption
-‐ Allows:
confirmation
of
ET
placement,
continuous
assessment
of
ventilation,
airway
integrity,
operation
of
the
mech
vent,
&
cardiopulmonary
function
RENAL
MONITORING
URINE
OUTPUT
-‐ via
FC
insertion
-‐ gross
indicator
of
renal
perfusion
(è
note:
normal
UO
does
not
rule
out
impending
renal
failure!)
o Adults
=
0.5
ml/kg/hr
o Pedia
=
1-‐2
mk/kg/hr
CAUSES
OF
OLIGURIA:
1. ↓
renal
artery
perfusion
2º
to
hypotension,
hypovolemia,
or
low
cardiac
output
2. intrinsic
renal
dysfunction
BLADDER
-‐ for
monitoring
ABDOMINAL
COMPARTMENT
SYNDROME
(ACS):
PRESSURE
o Elevated
Peak
airway
pressures
(TRANS-‐ o ↑
intra-‐abdominal
pressure
URETHRAL
o Oliguria
ß
cardinal
sign
BLADDER
-‐ Associated
with
interstitial
edema
of
the
abdominal
organs
à
↑
intra-‐abdominal
pressure
à
PRESSURE
pressure
>
venous
/
capillary
pressures
à
↓
perfusion
of
kidneys
&
other
organs
MEASUREMENT)
-‐ Used
to
confirm
presence
of
ACS
PROCEDURE:
1. Instill
50
–
100
ml
of
PNSS
into
bladder
via
FC
2. Connect
tubing
to
a
transducing
system
à
measure
bladder
pressure
Intra-‐abdominal
IAP
≥
12
mmHg
on
3
standard
measurements
conducted
4-‐6
hours
Hypertension
apart
Abdominal
Compartment
IAP
≥
20
mmHg
on
3
measurements
1-‐6
hours
apart
syndrome
NEUROLOGIC
MONITORING
INTRACRANIAL
-‐ Goal
=
ensure
that
cerebral
perfusion
pressure
(CPP)
is
adequate
to
support
brain
perfusion
PRESSURE
(ICP)
-‐ CCP
=
MAP
–
ICP
(normal
=
50
–
70
mmHg)
-‐ INDICATIONS:
N
=
<
15
mmHg
o Severe
TBI
(GCS
≤
8
+
abnormal
CT
Scan)
o Severe
TBI
&
Normal
CT
scan
if
≥
2
of
the
following
are
(+):
§ Age
>
40
y/o
§ Unilateral
/
bilateral
motor
posturing
§ Systolic
BP
<
90
mmHg
4
o Acute
SAH
with
coma
/
neurologic
deterioration
o Intracranial
hemorrhage
with
intraventricular
blood
o Ischemic
MCA
stroke
o Fulminant
hepatic
failure
with
coma
&
cerebral
edema
on
CT
scan
o Global
cerebral
ischemia
/
anoxia
with
(+)
cerebral
edema
on
CT
scan
VENTRICULOSTOMY
CATHETER
–
fluid-‐filled
catheter
inserted
into
a
cerebral
ventricle
&
attached
to
an
external
pressure
transducer
-‐ allows:
o measurement
of
ICP
o drainage
of
CSF
as
a
way
of
↓
ICP
or
sampling
CSF
for
lab
studies
-‐ Complications:
infection
(5%),
hemorrhage
(1.1%),
malfunction
/
obstruction
(6.3%-‐10.5%),
malposition
with
injury
to
cerebral
tissue
ELECTROENCE-‐ -‐ Monitors
global
neurologic
electrical
activity
PHALOGRAM
-‐ Ongoing
evaluation
of
cerebral
cortical
activity
(EEG)
INDICATIONS:
1. Obtunded
&
comatose
patients
2. Status
epilepticus
3. Detecting
early
changes
associated
with
cerebral
ischemia
4. Used
to
adjust
level
of
sedation
in
high
dose
barbiturate
therapy
BISPECTRAL
INDEX
(BIS)
–
used
to
titrate
the
level
of
sedative
medications
&
monitor
the
depth
of
anesthesia
EVOKED
-‐ Monitors
neural
pathways
not
detected
by
conventional
EEG
POTENTIALS
INDICATIONS:
1. localizing
brain
stem
lesions
2. proving
absence
of
structural
lesions
in
cases
of
metabolic
/
toxic
coma
3. prognostic
data
in
post-‐traumatic
coma
TRANSCRANIAL
-‐ non-‐invasive
method
for
evaluating
cerebral
hemodynamics
DOPPLER
UTZ
-‐ measures
middle
&
anterior
cerebral
artery
blood
flow
INDICATIONS:
1. diagnosis
of
cerebral
vasospasm
after
SAH
2. Determining
brain
death
in
patients
w/
confounding
factors
(e.g.
CNS
depressants
/
metabolic
encephalopathy)
JUGULAR
-‐ Placement
of
a
catheter
in
the
IJ
à
Jugular
bulb
VENOUS
-‐ ↓
in
value
=
Cerebral
Hypoperfusion
OXIMETRY
-‐ ↑
in
value
=
Cerebral
Hyperemia
TRANSCRANIAL
-‐ non-‐invasive
continuous
method
to
determine
cerebral
oxygenation
(similar
to
pulse-‐
NEAR
INFRARED
oximetry)
SPECTROSCOPY
-‐ Detects
early
cerebral
ischemia
in
patients
with
TBI
BRAIN
TISSUE
O2
-‐ Useful
adjunct
to
ICP
monitoring
TENSION
(PbtO2)
-‐ For
early
detection
of
brain
tissue
ischemia
despite
normal
ICP
&
CCP
-‐ May
↓
potential
adverse
effects
associated
with
ICP
&
CCP
monitoring
Normal
values
20
–
40
mmHg
Critical
levels
8
–
10
mmHg
-‐end
of
chapter-‐
5