Human beings are using the materials from past in one or other way to meet

their daily needs. Materials have always been an integral part of progress of
human civilization. The civilizations have been designated by the level of their
material development. According to the need of the society, man discovered
techniques for producing materials that had properties to those of the materials
occurring naturally. The development of many advanced technologies has made
life easier. For example, in automobile and aircraft materials used were mostly
metallic. As metal has high density so there was limitation on achieving high
speed. Due to the advancement in technologies metals are being replaced by
composite materials. Now-a-days vehicles are light weight and can achieve very
high speed. To apply the materials in any field we should aware of the internal
structure of the materials. This is very important part of the observation of any
material in different applications so that the criticalities in achieving various
applications of the material can defined clearly. Structure of the materials can be
studied at various levels of observations depending on the magnification and
resolution of physical aids used. For example, macrostructure of material is
examined with naked eye or under a low magnification optical instrument. Same
way microstructure of materials is examined under higher magnification. So
under higher magnification crystals may be studied. Crystal structure deals with
the repetitive atomic arrangement. Based on crystal structure, solids are divided
into crystalline and non-crystalline solid. The name crystal comes from the
Greek word `krystallos’ which means clear ice. It was first applied to describe
beautiful transparent quartz `stones’ found in the Swiss Alps. This chapter starts
with crystallography. Crystallography is the study of internal structure of
crystals, their properties, and external or internal symmetries of crystals.
Various techniques applied in industry for determining crystal structure have
been described. It further proceeds with fundamental concepts behind solid
formation and the various bonds responsible for formation of solid. As we are
dealing with crystal structure it is considered a perfect arrangement of atoms but
in normal practice it is not so. Therefore point defects are being taken in both
ways, qualitative and quantitative. Finally we have put some light about the
elementary particles of material.

© The Author(s) 2022 1

P. K. Basu and H. Dhasmana, Solid State Engineering Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10940-9_1
2 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

1.1 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

The intermolecular forces bind a large number of atoms into a form, which has a
volume and a definite shape. Such aggregates of atoms, which preserve their
volumes and shapes, unless subjected to large external force are called Solids.
The solids are generally divided into two categories.
(A) Amorphous : The amorphous solids are those which lack the regular
arrangement of atoms or molecules in long range. Examples are pitch,
plastics, etc.
(B) Crystalline : The crystalline solids are those which contain the regular
and repeated patterns of atoms and molecules, and hence a long range order of
atoms and molecules. The examples are shown below in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Some examples of crystalline and amorphous materials.

1.1.1 Space Lattice
The crystal structure of a solid can be described with the aid of a simple
geometrical concept namely a space lattice. The space lattice may be defined as
an array of points in space such that the environment about each point is same.
The Basis and Crystal Structure
A crystal lattice is a space lattice in which the lattice sites are occupied by
atoms or clusters of atoms. Each lattice point is associated with the same unit of
group of atoms, called the basis (or pattern). Thus basis is an aggregate of atoms
occupying space point’s position. Space lattice and basis are shown in figures
1.2 (a) and 1.2 (b), whose combination gives crystal structure of material. When
the basis is repeated with correct periodicity in all directions it gives the actual
Crystal Structure. The crystal structure is real, whereas, the lattice is imaginary.
Hence, space lattice + basis = crystal structure
Lattice does not have any physical significance. It is just a convenient way
of representation of position of atoms in a crystal by points. In two dimensions it
is called a plane lattice, while in three dimensions it is known as space lattice.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 3

Fig. 1.2(a, b)

(i) Plane lattice : It may be defined as an infinite array of points in two

dimensions in such a way that each point has identical environment. There are
generally 5 lattices in two dimensions as given below: 1. Oblique, 2. Square, 3.
Hexagonal, 4. Rectangular, and 5. Centered rectangular.

Fig. 1.3 The 14 types of bravais lattices.

4 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

(ii) Space lattice : In 1848 A. Bravais, the French crystallographer proved

that there are only 14 space lattices in total, which are required to describe all
possible arrangements of points in space. It is subjected to the condition that
each lattice point has exactly identical environment. The 14 space lattices are
called as Bravais lattice and are shown in Fig. 1.3.
The examples of seven crystal systems and parameters of the
corresponding unit cell are as follows :
1. Cubic : Au, Cu, NaCl,
2. Tetragonal : SiO 2 , TiO 2 ,
3. Orthorhombic : KNO 3 , MgSO 4 ,
4. Trigonal (Rhombohedron) : As, Sb, Bi,
5. Hexagonal : SiO 2 , Zn, Cd, Mg,
6. Monoclinic : CaSO 4 , 2H 2 O, FeSO 4 , Na 2 SO 4 ,
7. Triclinic : K 2 Cr 2 O 7

1.1.2 Unit Cell and Translational Vectors

In the three dimensional picture as in Fig. 1.4, we have shown a part of the
crystal. It has a three dimensional unit cell ABCDEFGH as a cuboid. Its sides
are AB = a, AD = b & AH = c, then, by rotating this cuboid by any integral
multiple of vectors, a, b and c the whole
crystal lattice is obtained. This way the
fundamental unit ABCDEFGH is called a
unit cell. The dotted line AP represents the
translational vector.
· A unit cell is the smallest
geometrical figure, the repetition
of which gives the actual crystal
structure. It is the fundamental
elementary pattern of minimum.
no. of atoms, molecules, which
Fig. 1.4 A part of a three dimensional
represent fully all the characteri-
crystal with its atomic arrangement.
stics of the crystal.
· The periodically repeating arrangement of points in a space lattice can
be described by the operation of parallel
displacement, called a `Translation’.
The position of any lattice point P with
respect to another lattice point A in the crystal as
shown in Fig. 1.4 is subjected to the three
® ® ®
different translational a, b, & c along x, y, & z
directions respectively and is given by
® ® ® ® ®
AP = l = p a + q b + r c ; where, p, q & r are
integers.
Fig. 1.5 A three dimensional
unit cell.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 5
® ® ®
The vectors a , b & c are translational vectors, also known as basis
vectors or primitive vectors.
A three dimensional unit cell is shown in Fig. 1.5. The unit cell is a
® ® ®
parallelepiped formed by translational a , b & c vectors as concurrent edges.

1.1.3 Miller Indices

The Crystal lattice may be regarded as made up of an aggregate of a set of
parallel equidistant planes passing through lattice points. These planes are
known as lattice planes. For a given lattice, planes can be chosen in a different
number of ways (as shown in Fig. 1.6 below) to evolve a difficulty to designate
them. In the Fig. 1.6, there are many planes passing through same nine atoms

Fig. 1.6 Two dimensional array of atoms in a crystal with different

possible lattice planes.

with different plane lattice with different interplaner spacing D1 and D2. One
scientist, Miller, developed a procedure by using three numbers, (hkl), known as
Miller Indices, to designate the planes. He introduced the way to represent the
position of all types of planes in crystal structure within the unit cell. Miller
planes are represented by (hkl) and their family is by {hkl}. Direction of Miller
planes are represented by <hkl > and their family by [hkl]. This means that (110)
& (110) planes correspond to same family of planes {110}. Similarly <110> &
<110 > directions correspond to same family of directions [110].
· The Miller Indices are the set of three smallest possible integers which
have the same ratios as the reciprocals of the intercepts of the plane
concerned on the three crystallographic axes.
(a) Rules to Find Miller Indices
Step-1 : Determine the intercepts of plane on three coordinate axes.
Step-2 : Take reciprocals of these.
Step-3 : Reduce the reciprocals into whole number by LCM.
6 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Example : From the Fig. 1.7 below we have

Fig. 1.7 A crystal plane ABC intercepting the axes.

Step-1 : Intercepts are 3, 2, 1

Step-2 : Their reciprocals are 1/3, 1/2, 1
Step-3 : LCM of denominator of the reciprocals is 6.
Hence multiplying all the three reciprocals by 6, we get, 2, 3, 6. Hence the
Miller Indices here are (236).

(b) Drawing of Lattice plane using Miller Indices

Let the Miller Indices of the plane is given as (123).
Step-1 : Its reciprocals are 1, 1/2, 1/3.
Step-2 : In coordinate axes as shown in Fig. 1.8 aside we mark a unit of
magnitude 1 (as maximum possible in the drawing) in all X , Y
and Z-axis.

Fig. 1.8 (123) lattice plane in a unit cell.

Step-3 : Now, as for our plane we mark the reciprocals as intercepts on

the axes as in figure 7 as points A, B and C respectively. Now
we join ABC. This is our required plane.
Some more planes are shown in the following Fig. 1.9.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 7

Fig. 1.9 (200), (120) and (302) lattice planes in a unit cell.

1.1.4 Some Concepts of Crystal Structure

(a) Separation between Lattice Planes
We consider a plane ABC of a cubic crystal as shown in Fig. 1.10(a) given
below :
Its Miller Indices are (hkl). ON is the perpendicular drawn from the origin
to this plane. This distance ON represents the interplaner distance `d‘ of the
family of planes with one plane at the origin. Let a, b and g are the angles
between coordinate axes X, Y, Z and ON respectively as shown in Fig. 1.10(b).

Fig. 1.10 (a) Lattice place ABC inside the unit cell,
(b) It shows the angles made by interplaner distance ON with the three axes.

a a a
So, OA = , OB = , OC = …(1.1)
h k l
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
Because, if OA, OB and OC are intercepts, then h = ç ÷ a, k = ç ÷ a;
è OA ø è OB ø
æ 1 ö
l =ç ÷ a; where, a is the LCM of OA, OB and OC and also the length of the
è OC ø
cube edge as shown in Fig. 1.10(a).
8 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Also, from Fig. 1.10(a),

ON d
In DONA, cos a = =
OA OA
d
In DONB, cos b =
OB
d
and in DONC, cos g = …(1.2)
OC
From Fig. 1.10(b)

d = ON = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 …(1.3)

x
and = cos a
d
Þ x = d cos a
Similarly, y = d cos b ; z = d cos g …(1.4)
Using eqns. (1.3) and (1.4)

d = [( d cos a) 2 + ( d cos b) 2 + ( d cos g) 2 ]

Þ cos 2 a + cos 2 b + cos 2 g = 1

2 2 2
æ d ö æ d ö æ d ö
Þ ç ÷ +ç ÷ +ç ÷ =1 (Using eqn. (1.2))
è OA ø è OB ø è OC ø
Using eqn. (1.1) we have
é d 2 (h 2 + k 2 + l 2 ) ù
ê ú =1
êë a2 úû
a
Þ d= …(1.5)
2 2 2
h +k +l

This is the relation between d and a by using (hkl).

(b) Values of ‘d’ for Different Planes with Simple Cubic (SCC) and
Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Structures
(i) SCC
Here, the (100) planes cut X-axis and are parallel to Y and Z-axis.
The (110) planes cut obliquely across X & Y-axis and are parallel to
Z-axis.
The (111) planes cut obliquely across X , Y & Z-axis.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 9

a
Hence, using eq. 1.5, d110 = =a
1 + 02 + 02
2

a
d110 = = a/ 2
12 + 12 + 0 2
a
d111 = = a/ 3
12 + 12 + 12
Hence, d100 : d110 : d111 = 1 :1/ 2 :1/ 3

(ii) FCC
It is clear from Fig. 1.11 next that the additional (100) planes arise
halfway between original (100) planes, which are due to atoms placed on faces
of each unit cell. Hence, the distance between d100 planes is a/2.

Fig. 1.11 Additional (100) planes in FCC crystal.

For (110) planes as in Fig. 1.12 next, we find that an additional plane of
(110) comes midway between the planes of original (110) planes. So the
distance between (110) planes are half of that in simple lattice, i. e.,
1
d110 = d110½ ½ =
1 a
=
a
2 ½SCC 2 2 2 2

Fig. 1.12 Additional (110) planes in FCC crystal.

10 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

For (111) planes, as in Fig. 1.13, we find that no additional plane arise.

Fig. 1.13 No additional (111) plane possible in FCC crystal.

Hence, d111 = a / 3
Finally, for FCC crystals,
d100 : d110 : d111 = 1 :1/ 2 : 2 / 3 3

(iii) BCC
It is clear from Fig. 1.14 that due to the presence of an additional point at
the body centre, the interplaner spacing for three low index planes (100), (110)
and (111) give slightly different results. There appears an additional plane
halfway between (100) and (111) planes.

Fig. 1.14 Additional (100) planes in BCC crystal.

Due to the presence of an additional plane at the body centre, the

interplaner spacing for three low index planes (100), (110) and (111) give
slightly different result. There appears an additional plane half way between
(100) and (111) planes as shown in Fig. 1.15 and Fig. 1.16.
Here, distance between (100) planes is half of that in simple lattice, i. e.,
1
d100 = d100½ ½ 1
= a.
2 ½SCC 2
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 11

Fig. 1.15 Additional (111) planes in BCC crystal.

However, distance between (110) planes is same as in simple lattice,

a
i. e., d110 = d110 | SCC =
2
as there is no additional plane as shown in Fig. 1.16.

Fig. 1.16 No additional (110) plane possible for BCC crystal.

The distance between (111) planes is half of that in simple lattice,

1 a
i. e., d111 = d111½ = .
2 ½SCC 2 3

Finally, for BCC crystals,

d100 : d110 : d111 = 1 : 2 :1/ 3

(c) Some Relevant Physical Parameters

(i) Co-ordination Number (CN)
Co-ordination number is the number of nearest neighbours at equal
distance to an atom in a given structure. These are shown in Fig. 1.17.
12 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Fig. 1.17 (a) A part of SCC crystal showing nearest neighbours

(b) Same drawing only showing four adjacent unit cells.

For SCC : CN = 6 as each atom is shared by 6 atoms with a distance

between neighbouring atoms is `a‘. This is shown in Fig. 1.16.
3
For BCC : CN = 8 as each corner atom of unit cell is at a distance, a
2
to body centered atom. Body centered atom is represented by “O” in the
Fig. 1.18.

Fig. 1.18 A unit cell of BCC crystal showing its nearest neighbours.

For FCC : CN = 12 as four corner atoms are at a distance, a/ 2 to face

centered atoms and eight face centered atoms are also at a distance a/ 2. Face
centered atoms are represented by “O” in the Fig. 1.19.

Fig. 1.19 A unit cell of FCC crystal showing its nearest neighbours.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 13

(ii) Number of atoms in a Unit Cell (N)

This is given by
Nf N
N = Ni + + C .
2 8
Here, Ni is no. of interior or body centered atoms, N f is no. of face
centered atoms and NC is no. of corner atoms.
For SCC : Ni = 0, N f = 0, NC = 8; Therefore, N =1.
For FCC : Ni = 0, N f = 6, NC = 8; Therefore, N = 4.
For BCC : Ni = 1, N f = 0, NC = 8; Therefore, N = 2.
(iii) Packing Fraction (APF)
The fraction of space occupied by atoms in a unit cell is known as the
atomic packing fraction. It is defined as the fraction of the volume occupied by
the atoms in the unit cell to the total volume of the unit cell. In figures below R
is the radius of the atom,
4
N´ pR 3
So, APF = 3
a3
For SCC : Here, N =1 and in close packed directions, 2R = a. This is
shown in Fig. 1.20.

Fig. 1.20 An SCC unit cell with maximum possible packing.

4
N´pR 3
3 p
So, APF for SCC = = = 0.52
3 6
a
For BCC : Here N = 2 and one atom is at the centre (as shown in Fig. 1.21
below) :

Fig. 1.21 A BCC unit cell with maximum possible packing.

14 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Here, in close-packed directions :

length = body diagonal = 4R = 3a
p 2
So, APF for BCC = = 0.68.
6
For FCC : Here, N = 4 and is shown in Fig. 1.22.

Fig. 1.22 An FCC unit cell with maximum possible packing.

In Close-packed directions :
length = face diagonal = 4R = 2a
p
So, APF for FCC = = 0.74
3 2

(iv) Nearest Neighbour Distance

This is the distance between the centers of two neighbouring atoms in
contact.
(v) Atomic Radius
This is the half of the nearest neighbour distance.
(vi) Density
The density of any material is the mass per unit volume. For unit cell also
this definition works and the density of the unit cell is same as the density of the
crystal itself. Hence, density, r, is given by
Mass N´M
r= =
Volume V N A
Here, N, M , V , N A are number of atom per unit cell, atomic weight
volume of atom and Avagadro’s number respectively.

1.1.5 Sodium Chloride Structure

Ionic solids are made up of cation and anions. The cations (+ve) are
smaller in size to the anions as cations have given up their valence electrons to
anions. The anions form the closed pack structure into whose voids cations get
accommodated as shown in Fig. 1.23. Each cation prefers to have as many
nearest neighbours as possible. So does the anion. Therefore packing
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 15

Fig. 1.23 NaCl packing in one face of the crystal.

arrangements are possible due to different sizes of the ions. In NaCl structure
shown in Fig. 1.24, it is like the interpenetration of two FCC lattices. One is
sodium ion lattice & the other chlorine ion lattice. It is having a co-ordination
no. 6, so 6 anions surround each cation and 6 cations surround each anion. The
cations occupy the void formed by the ions. As there is one octahedral void, so 6
anions surround each cation and 6 cations surround each anion. The cations
occupy the void per anion (Na : Cl = 1 : 1), so all octahedral voids in this
structure are occupied. In the unit cell, the 8 chlorine ions are in the corners
shared by 8 unit cells around and 6 ions at the faces each of which is shared by 2
conjugated cells.

Fig. 1.24 NaCl structure.

Hence, total no. of chlorine ions per unit cell (i. e., for FCC)
1 1
= 0 + 8 ´ + 6 ´ = 4. Similarly, 12 sodium ions located at the edges of the
8 2
cube and each sodium ion is shared by 4 conjugated unit cells. One sodium ion
is located at the centre of the unit cell. Hence, total no. of sodium ions per unit
1 1
cell (i. e., for FCC) = 0 + 12 ´ + 8 ´ = 4. Thus the total nos. of sodium and
4 8
chlorine ions per unit cell is 8 and hence there are 4 sodium chloride molecules
per unit cell. The formation of NaCl molecule is shown in Fig. 1.25.
16 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Fig. 1.25 Formation of NaCl structure.

1.2 BONDING IN SOLIDS

The existence of matter to be in solid state lies in the interatomic forces. This
force comes into play when the atoms are brought in close to each other. For a
solid we have a solid structure.

1.2.1 Different Forces in a Crystals

There exist two types of forces in the crystal.
(a) Attractive force : This is between constituent particles (atoms or
molecules) which keep them together and prevent the atoms moving away from
each other. The Potential Energy (PE) due to this force is negative because the
atoms do work of attraction and is given by
A
U1 = -
rm
(b) Repulsive force : This is between constituent particles (atoms or
molecules) since huge force is required to compress a solid to a appreciable
extent. The Potential Energy due to this force is positive because external work
must be done to bring two such atoms close together so that they repel each
other and is given by
B
U2 = .
rn
Here, A, B are constants; m, n are integers; r is interatomic or
intermolecular distance and is short range in nature which prevents the crystal
from collapsing indefinitely and is also the characteristics the molecule or
compound.
Hence, the net (Total) PE is given by
A B
U = U1 + U 2 = - +
m
r rn
· At large r , U1 - >> 0, but decreases gradually at small r.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 17

· With a decrease in r , U 2 increases rapidly, since positive charges on

nuclei repel each other very strongly as r decreases. The force between
atoms can be expressed as :
dU mA nB
F =- = - .
dr r m + 1 r n + 1
From Fig. 1.26 we see that at large distances the atoms do not interact
each other, so U = 0. With a decrease in interatomic distances force is attractive
due to positive and negative charges of
atoms and becomes zero when this
separation becomes comparable to the
atomic diameter. When the distance is
further decreased, the force becomes
repulsive so that the reduction in interatomic
distance can not take place. So there is a
compromise between the above two
opposite forces at r = r 0 . This corresponds
to stable equilibrium configuration. At this Fig. 1.26 The variation of total
separation U is the minimum and force is potential energy with interatomic
zero. distance.
The corresponding U (r 0 ) is negative and is known as cohesive energy or
dissociation energy of the molecule
Þ Energy required to separate the two atoms of the solid.
At r = r 0 , net force is zero, i. e.,
æ dU ö
F =ç ÷ =0
è dr ø r = r0
mA nB
Þ =
m+ 1 n+1
r0 r0
1/ n - m
æ nB ö
Þ r0 = ç ÷
è mA ø
The energy corresponding to the equilibrium state can be obtained as
A æ mö
U0 = - ç1 - ÷ .
r 0m è nø
From above equation it is clear that minimum in the energy curve is
possible only if n > m. This may be shown by employing equilibrium condition
for U as
æ d 2U ö
ç ÷ >0
ç dr 2 ÷
è ø r = r0
m ( m + 1) n ( n + 1)
Þ - + >0
r 0m + 2 r 0n + 2

Substituting the value of r 0 we can obtain the condition of n >> m at

equilibrium position.
18 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

1.2.2 Bonding
Based on the bond strength, atomic bonding can be grouped into primary
and secondary bonding. Primary bondings have bond energies in the range of
0.1 – 10 eV/bond and act between atom to atom. Ionic, covalent and metallic
bondings are examples of primary bonding. However, secondary bonding have
energies in the range of 0.01 – 0.5 eV/bond. This bond acts between molecule to
molecules and comparatively two orders of magnitude weaker than primary
bond. Hydrogen bond and Van der Waals bonding are examples of secondary
bonding. The crystals may be classified by a variety of ways, e. g., mechanically,
electrically and chemically. However, the most convenient way is on the basis
of Interatomic binding forces.
According to this scheme the crystals may be categorized into 6 major
categories :
(1) Ionic, (2) Covalent, (3) Metallic,
(4) Molecular (5) Hydrogen bonded,
(6) Mixed or Multiple bonded Crystal.
(i) Ionic Crystals (NaCl, CsCl, etc)
Here electrons are transferred from one type of atoms (who loses electrons
readily) to other atoms (which have high affinity to electrons). So the crystal
consists of positively and negatively charged ions.
Example : NaCl : Na is electropositive and Cl is electronegative. The
attractive force is the Coulomb attraction between ions and repulsive force is
due to overlapping of electronic shells of neighbouring atoms.
Properties :
· Strong bonding, i. e., high melting point (NaCl » 800°C),
· Close packed structure,
· Good conductors as ions, but bad conductors of heat & electricity,
· Transparent over wide range of electromagnetic spectrum.
(ii) Covalent Crystal (C, Si, Ge)
Here, two similar or identical atoms are brought together to such an
interatomic distance that the orbital of unpaired electron of one atom begins to
overlap with that of one in other atom. The electrons lying between the two
atoms belong equally to both and serve to complete the outer shell of both
atoms. Since these sharing electrons have anti-parallel spin, the atoms attract
each other and bonding result. This bonding is known as covalent bonding.
Here, the valence electrons are shared equally between neighbouring atoms.
Properties :
· Very strongly bound and bonds are directional,
· Very high melting point (e. g., Si » 1412°C),
· Semiconductors,
· Transparent in IR region, i. e., opaque at high frequencies.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 19

(iii) Metallic Crystal (Na, Al, etc.)

The metallic crystal can be considered as a framework of positive ions
surrounded by electron clouds. The crystal is held together by the electrostatic
attraction between negative electron gas and positive metal ions. Here, the
valence electrons are weakly coupled to nucleus. The cohesion results from a
combination of
· the attraction between positive ion cores and electron cloud,
· the mutual repulsion of electrons,
· the mutual repulsion of positive ion cores.
Properties :
· Moderate to Strong bonding,
· Close packed structure,
· Low melting point (Na » 100°C),
· Very good conductors of heat and electricity,
· Ductile,
· Good reflectors,
· Opaque to electromagnetic radiation.
(iv) Molecular Crystal
It consists of neutral atoms or molecules bound together in the solid phase
by weak short range attractive force (Van der Waals force). It depends on the
mutual deformation of the atoms which is due to permanent dipole of the
molecule on the dipole induced in neighbouring molecules. This leads on the
average to an attraction. Van der Waals force is responsible for the condensation
of gases into liquids and freezing of liquids into solids in the absence of ionic,
covalent or metallic bonding mechanisms.
Properties :
· short range, weak
· responsible for condensation (gas-liquid)
· responsible for freezing (liquid-solid) if no stronger forces present
Reason : temporary fluctuating dipole fields!
Properties :
· Weak binding,
· Transparent,
· Soft, lowest melting,
· Low electrical and thermal conductivity.
(v) Hydrogen Bonded Crystals (Ice (H 2 O))
Here the atom of hydrogen is attracted by an extremely electro-negative
atom such as O, F, N, Cl to form H-bond. The electronegative ion attracts the
bonding electron and becomes negatively charged, the H-atom then assumes a
positive charge. The H-bond is a result of electrostatic attraction of these
charges.
20 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

· Due to Van der Waals force between H containing molecules

· Due to permanent dipole moments
· Occurs in molecules where H is attached to electronegative atoms
( e. g., H2 O, NH3 , HCl)
· The electronegative atoms need to have “lone pairs”
This is shown in Fig. 1.27.

Fig. 1.27 Formation of hydrogen bonded crystals.

Properties :
· Moderately weak bonding,
· Loose structures,
· Low electrical and thermal conductivities,
· Transparent.
(vi) Mixed or Multiple bond Crystal
This consists of a mixture of Van der Waals and Ionic Bonding. Examples
are salts based on : Tetra- Cyano-Quino-Dimethane TCNQ,
N-methyl-Phenazinium NMP, etc.
Properties :
· Range from metallic to insulating.

1.2.3 Lattice Energy (Binding Energy) of Ionic Crystal

Lattice energy of an ionic crystal is the energy that will be released by the
formation of the crystal from individual neutral atoms. The bond energy is
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 21

however different than the lattice energy. The stability of an ionic crystal
depends on the balancing of at least three forces :
(i) the electrostatic forces (Coulomb forces) between ions which are of
a attraction falling off with square of the distance,
(ii) the Van der Waals force of attraction falls as seventh power of
distance, and
(iii) interatomic repulsive forces fall much more rapidly with distance.
The resultant of the attractive and repulsive forces leads to an equilibrium
position of minimum potential energy as in Fig. 1.28. For two ions of charges

Fig. 1.28 Variation of ion-ion repulsive energy, columb attractive energy and net
energy with interatomic distance for an ionic crystal.

Z1Z 2 e 2
Z 1 e & Z 2 e separated by a distance R the attractive energy is = - , here,
4pRe 0
Z 1 & Z 2 are valencies of ions. So, for the whole crystal, the Coulomb potential
energy (attractive) is
AZ 1 Z 2 e 2
U attr = - .
4pRe 0
This is the net Coulomb potential energy of any one ion due to the
presence of all the other ions in the crystal. Here, A is known as Madelung
Constant.
To stop lattice collapse there are repulsive forces between the ions and
becomes appreciable when the electronic shells of neighbouring ions begin to
overlap. It was assumed that the repulsive energy due to overlap of the outer
electron shells between two ions is inversely proportional to some power of the
B
distance R, i. e., .
Rn
Hence, the repulsive energy of a particular ion due to the presence of all
B
other ions in the crystal is , where, n is called repulsive exponent and B is a
Rn
constant.
Hence, the total energy of one ion due to the presence of all the other ions
is
U ( R) = U attr + U rep
22 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

AZ 1 Z 2 e 2 B
Þ U ( R) = - + .
4pRe 0 Rn
For monovalent alkali halides, Z 1 = Z 2 = 1.
So, U ( R) = U attr + U rep
Ae 2 B
Þ U ( R) = - + kJ/ mol
4pRe 0 R n
If N A is Avogadro’s number, the total energy of the crystal is
U Total = N A U ( R)
é Ae 2 B ù
Þ U Total = N A ê- + ú kJ …(1.6)
êë 4pe 0 R R n úû
The energy will be minimum at equilibrium, i. e., at R = R 0 , where, R 0 is
the equilibrium distance,
dU½
hence, =0
dR½R = R0
é Ae 2 nB ù
Þ ê - ú =0
êë 4pe 0 R 02 R 0n + 1 úû

Ae 2 R 0n - 1
Þ B= …(1.7)
4pe 0 n
Hence, from eqns. (1.6) and (1.7), we have,
é Ae 2 Ae 2 R 0n - 1 ù
U Total | R = R = N A ê- + ú
0
êë 4pe 0 R 0 4pe 0 nR 0n úû

Ae 2 é 1 1 ù
Þ U Total | R = R = N A ê- R + nR ú
0 4pe 0 ë 0 0û

N A Ae 2 é n - 1 ù
Þ U Total | R = R = - .
0 4pe 0 R 0 êë n úû
This is the Lattice Energy or Binding energy. For NaCl,
U Total = 7.95 eV.

1.2.4 Bond Energy

At equilibrium position, i. e., at R = R 0 , the energy released in the
formation of ionic crystal molecule is called the bond energy of the molecule.
Z1Z 2 e 2
So, bond energy, V =- ;
4pe 0 R 0
For NaCl, V = - 6 eV with R 0 = 0.24 nm.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 23

Example : For NaCl, energy required to remove one electron from

Na-atom outer shell (i. e., the Ionization energy) is 5.1 eV, i.e.,
Na + 5.1 eV ® Na + + e -
The electron affinity of Cl is 3.6 eV. So,
Cl + e - ® Cl - + 3.6 eV
So the net energy spent = 5.1 – 3.6 eV = 1.5 eV, thus,
Na + Cl + 1.4 eV ® Na + + Cl -
Now, the bond energy of NaCl = – 6 eV.
Hence, the energy released in the formation of NaCl molecule starting
from Na and Cl atoms having zero point energy is 6 – 1.5 eV = 4.5 eV.
So, conversely, 4.5 eV of energy is required to dissociate NaCl molecule
into Na and Cl ions.

1.3 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE ANALYSIS

Much of our knowledge of the internal structure of crystals has been obtained
from X-rays. Diffraction of waves occurs when the waves are scattered by a
periodic arrangements of scattering objects separated by distances of the order
of wavelengths. A plane diffraction grating is used commonly to study the
diffraction of light.

1.3,1 Bragg’s Law

The dimension of atoms and the interatomic spacing in a crystal are of the
order of the wavelength of X-rays. Braggs (both father and son, received the
Nobel Prize in 1915 for this) derived a simple equation relating the wavelength
of X-rays to the angular positions of scattered beams. A crystal may be regarded
as a stack of parallel planes of atoms. The atomic planes are often called Bragg
Planes. Every crystal has several sets of Bragg planes oriented in different
directions. Let us consider a series of Bragg planes separated by a distance d.
Let a beam of monochromatic X-rays represented
by the parallel lines AB and DE be incident on
these planes as shown in Fig. 1.29(a). The
scattered beams emerge along BC and EF. Here
we are considering only the contributions of two
adjacent atoms in the same plane. In Fig. 1.29(b)
the rays BC and EF are coherent and reinforce
each other. It requires that the path lengths EH
and EG are equal. This is the condition of MN and
PQ are considered. Now, the contributions of two
adjacent atoms in successive planes, MN and PQ
are considered for constructive interference Fig. 1.29(a) Reflection of
between rays ABC and DEF. X-rays from crystal plane.
24 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Fig. 1.29(b) Reflection of X-rays from two consecutive lattice planes.

The path difference D between the rays reflected along BC and EF is,
D = GE + EH.
The rays BC and EF will be in phase only when,
D = ml ( m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ¼)
Now, ÐABG = q + a = 90° (Q ÐABC = ÐEGB = 90° ) …(1.8)
BE is normal to MN.
So, ÐMBE = 90° ; a = ÐGBE = 90° …(1.9)
From eqn. (1.8) and (1.9),
ÐGBE = q …(1.10)
Also, from DBGE,
GE GE
sin q = = ,
BE d
Þ GE = d sin q …(1.11)
Similirly in DEBH
EH = d sin q …(1.12)
Hence, using eqns. (1.11) and (1.12), the path difference is
D = GE + EH = 2d sin q
Therefore, for the rays in phase,
2 d sin q = ml …(1.13)
The above equation (1.13) for the condition for reinforcement of scattered
wave is known as Bragg Equation or Bragg’s Law. Here, q represents the
angle between the Bragg plane and the incident beam, also known as the
Glancing angle or Bragg angle. 2q is the angle of Diffraction and m is the
order of reflection.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 25

1.3.2 Laue Method

Laue, for the first time, predicted that a crystal acts as a natural three
dimensional grating for X-rays where the regularly placed periodic lines of
atoms serve as a function of parallel rules lines. He received the Nobel on 1914.
Continuous X-rays produced by an X-ray tube are defined into a narrow beam
by a set of lead screens S1 and S 2 having pinholes at their centers as in Fig. 1.30.

Fig. 1.30 Schematic diagram of Laue method assembly.

A thin crystal C is mounted in the path of X-ray and a photographic plate is

positioned beyond it. The single crystal, C, is placed at proper orientation
relative to incident X-ray beams. As the X-rays penetrate C, some of the rays are
scattered or deflected away by atoms from their initial direction. The scattered
X-rays emerge from the crystal in specific directions as highly narrow beams
and they are intercepted by the photographic film. On developing the film a
pattern of bright spots corresponding to maxima are observed. They are shown
in Fig. 1.31. The pattern of Laue spots is a unique characteristic of the crystal C.

Fig. 1.31 Photographic plate showing Laue spots.

The central bright spot on the film corresponds to the main unscattered beam.
This method has been subsequently used to determine the crystal structures
using X-rays of known wavelength. Each spot in the Laue diffraction pattern
corresponds to interference maxima for a set of crystal planes satisfying the
Bragg’s equation for a particular wavelength selected from the continuous
incident beam. From the positions and intensities of these spots, one can
26 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

r r r
determine crystal structure, i. e., the value of primitive vectors ( a, b, c) and the
details of unit cell of the solid concerned.

1.3.3 Powder Crystal Method

Investigations of crystal structures by using the Laue’s method, is possible
only when the material is available in the form of single crystals of reasonable
size. However, for a large number of materials it is impossible to obtain a single
crystal of required size. For such materials powder photography is highly
suitable. It is also known as Debye-Scherrer method. The Fig. 1.32 shows the
principle of the Powder method.

Fig. 1.32 Schematic diagram of powder method assembly along with

diffraction spots on photographic plate.
Here, the material is crushed into a fine grain powder and compressed into
a thin rod or sometimes packed into a small capillary tube. This is shown in
Fig. 1.32. A strip of photo film wrapped in opaque paper is mounted round the
inside of a cylindrical drum. The specimen is positioned vertically at the centre
of the drum. A narrow beam of monochromatic X-rays enters and leaves the
drum through the apertures on opposite sides of the drum. The powder contains
millions of tiny crystals oriented at random in all possible directions. Each
crystallite has the same system of atomic planes. So, some of them are bound to
lie with their planes at a glancing angle q to the incident ray such that, Bragg’s
equation is satisfied. Each such a crystal will produce a spot on the photographic
plate. Reflections will be produced by all such crystallites whose normal to the
plane form a cone as shown in Fig. above. Consequently the reflected rays will
lie in the cone of semi-angle 2q. The intersection of the cone formed by the
reflected rays with the photographic plate yields a circle. On the film strip we
thus see arcs. After exposure the various possible values of 2q are calculated
from the positions of the arcs and the radius of the camera drum.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 27

If ‘x’ be the distance at which a reflected beam strike from the centre `O'
and `R' be the radius of the drum, then,
180 x
2q = deg
p R
é x x x 180 ù
êëas seen in Fig.1.33, 2q » tan 2q = R Þ 2q = R Radian = R p degreeúû
90x
Þ q= degree.
pR
Using this value of q into the Bragg’s equation,
‘d’ can be calculated. This method helps to
differentiate between amorphous to crystalline
materials. Amorphous do not have any reflecting
planes. Therefore, diffraction rings are not produced
on the film. However, they may produce a smeared
ring as they have a very short range periodicity of Fig. 1.33 Diagram of
atoms. find diffraction angle.

1.4 DEFECTS IN SOLIDS

An ideal crystal does have a very long range of order in their atomic
arrangement. However, ideal crystal neither occurs in nature nor can be
produced by artificial methods. The deviations from an ideal crystalline
structure are called defects. Defects can be classified into the following
categories :
(a) Point defects (zero dimensional defects),
(b) Line defects (one dimensional defects), e. g., dislocations,
(c) Surface defect (two dimensional defects), e. g., grain boundary, and
(d) Volume defects (three dimensional defects), e. g., precipitates.
The dislocations and grain boundary defects are shown in Fig. 1.34.

Fig. 1.34 Figures shown dislocation of lattice plane and grain boundary.

1.4.1 Point Defects

It can be classified into three categories. However, these all three point
defects does not change the stoichiometry of the crystal.
28 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

(i) Vacancies
A vacancy is an atomic site from which the atom is missing as shown in
Fig. 1.35. Vacancies are produced during crystallization as a result of thermal
stress of atoms at high temperature. The atom then leaves the crystal and
produces a vacancy in the lattice. This defect is known as vacancy defect. These
vacancies often arise in the metallic structures (closed pack). The atoms
surrounding a vacancy produce a tensile stress as evident from Fig. 1.35. In
ionic crystals the formation of vacancy requires a local adjustment of charge
such that charge neutrality is maintained in
the crystal. Therefore a pair of vacancies
arise which lead to missing of one cation and
one anion from the structure. Such pairs of
vacant sites are called a Schottkey Defect.
This defect is shown in Fig. 1.36(a).
Aluminium metal is example of vacancy
defect and potassium chloride (KCl) is
Fig. 1.35 Vacancy in a
example of Schottkey defect.
crystal lattice.
(ii) Interstitials
An interstitial defect is an atom or an ion that has moved from its actual
position to a place between angular lattice sites. The interstitial may be either a
normal atom or a foreign atom.
When a normal atom moves into interstices it leaves behind its original
position which is now vacant and thus produces a pair of defects. In ionic
crystals, a cation goes into an interstitial position. Thus creates a
cation-interstitial pair. This is known as Frenkel Defect as shown in
Fig. 1.36(b). A foreign atom can go into an interstitial space only when it is
substantially smaller that the host atom. Silver halide is example of Frenkal
defect.

Fig. 1.36 (a) Schottkey defect (b) Frenkel defect.

(iii) Impurity Defects

Impurity defects are foreign atoms introduced into the crystal lattice,
either as an interstitial atom or a substitutional atom. If a host lattice is replaced
by a foreign atom then a substitutional defect is observed. The substitutional
atom replaces the host atom from its position. A small substitutional atom
causes a tensile stress in a lattice as in Fig. 1.37(a). A large substitutional atom
causes a compressive stress in a lattice as in Fig. 1.37(b).
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 29

Fig. 1.37 Crystal defects (a) Small substitutional defect (b) Large substitutional

(iv) Electronic Defect

This defect arises due to excess of electrons or deficiency of electrons in
solid, which creates errors in charge distribution in solid. This means solid
departure from its neutral charge distribution due to the electronic defects. For
example when phosphorous is diffused in silicon, it occupy silicon site. Since it
has five valence shell, four out of them form covalent bond with neighbour
electrons of silicon atom leaving behind one electron as free. This free electron
disturbs the charge neutrality of solid. In this fashion thousand of atoms diffuse
in solid, which create appreciable change in the charge distribution in solid. This
type of semiconductor is called as n-type semiconductor. This defect is
intentionally introduced in the formation of various semiconductor devices like
p-n junction diode, p-n-p or n-p-n transistor, MOS devices, CMOS devices etc.
(v) Colour Centre
This defect arises when colourless crystal is heated in the presence of
alkali metals like sodium, potassium and then quenched. These metals get
ionized and positive charged atom occupy normal cation site in crystal while
electron is trapped in anion site. This electron is weakly bound to this site and
lead to the absorption in the visible range. Such centres at which electrons are
bound to anion vacant site are called as colour centre or F-centre. For example if
sodium chloride crystal is heated in the presence of sodium or potassium
vapours and then quenched. Colourless sodium chloride crystal starts to appear
as yellow due to the presence of F-centre.

1.4.2 Schottkey Defect (Quantitative)

Here, a vacancy is created in a metal (ionic crystal) by the migration of a
metal atom / ion to the surface. So in a binary ionic crystal (A + B - , a cation –
anion pair) a cation – anion pair will be missing from the respective lattice
positions. This creation of such sites is called the Schottkey Defect.
The energy absorbed during this creation is compensated by the resultant
disorder in the lattice or structure. The vacancies are always present in a crystal
due to thermal condition variations. This process requires energy. Moreover, as
disorder increases entropy of the system also increases. In thermal equilibrium a
certain number of lattice vacancies are always present. Let ‘n’ be the
concentration of Schottkey Defects produced by vacancy of nA + and nB - ions.
Also we consider, N and E are the total concentrations of cation-anion pairs
30 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

and average energy required to produce a single Schottkey Defect respectively.

This E s is the energy required to take an atom from a lattice site inside the
crystal to a lattice site on the surface, also called the `enthalpy’ of formation of
the point defect.
So, DE = nE s , is the increase in energy associated with n vacant sites.
The total number of different ways in which n Schottkey Defects can be
produced is
W = NC n ´ NC n
2
é N! ù
Þ W =ê ú
ë( N - n)! ( n!) û
The exponent 2 is for both cations and anions, as each can be removed in
é N! ù
ê( N - n)! ( n!) ú ways.
ë û
Thus, the increase in entropy is given by
DS = k log W , where k is Boltzmann’s constant.
2
é N! ù
Hence, DS = k log ê ú
ë( N - n)! ( n!) û
é N! ù
Þ DS = 2k log ê ú
ë( N - n)! ( n!) û
This produce a change in Helmholtz free energy, H, So,
H = D E - TD S
é N! ù
Þ H = nE s - 2 kT log ê ú …(1.14)
ë( N - n)! ( n!) û
Using Stirling’s approximation (as log x ! @ x log x - x) we have from
equation (1.14),
H = nE s - 2 kT [log ( N !) - log ( N - n)! - log ( n!)]
Þ H = nE s - 2 kT [( N log N - N) -
{( N - n) log ( N - n) - ( N - n)} - ( n log n - n)]
Þ H = nE s - 2 kT [ N log N - ( N - n) log ( N - n) - n log n] …(1.15)
At equilibrium, the Free energy is constant, so,
¶H½
=0
¶n½T
é ( -1) ( N - n) ù
Þ E s = 2 kT ê0 - {( -1) log ( N - n) + } - log n - 1ú
ë ( N - n) û
Þ E s = 2 kT [log ( N - n) + 1 - log n - 1]
æN -nö
Þ E s = 2 kT log ç ÷
è n ø
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 31

æ N - n ö Es
Þ log ç ÷=
è n ø 2 kT
N -n
Þ = e E s /2 kT
n
When, n << N, ( N - n) » N, hence,
N = ne E s /2 kT Þ n = Ne E s /2 kT
Hence, the number of Schottkey defects, n, depends on
(i) total number of ion-pairs, N,
(ii) average energy required to produce a Schottkey defect pair, E s , and
(iii) temperature of the material.

1.4.3 Frenkel Defect (Quantitative)

Here, a vacancy is created in any material by the migration of an atom/ion
to the surface. So in a material vacancy – interstitial pair is formed. This
creation of such pairs is called the Frenkel Defect.
The energy absorbed during this creation is compensated by the resultant
disorder in the lattice or structure. The vacancies are always present in a crystal
due to thermal condition variations. This process requires energy. Moreover, as
disorder increases entropy of the system also increases. In thermal equilibrium a
certain number of lattice vacancies are always present. Let `n‘ and N are the
concentrations of Frenkel Defects produced and the total concentration of
cations present in the material respectively. Also we consider, Ni and E f are
the total concentration of interstitial sites and average energy required to
produce a single Frenkel Defect respectively.
The total number of different ways in which n Frenkel Defects can be
produced is
é N! ùé Ni ! ù
W =ê ú ê ú
ë( N - n)! ( n!) û ë( Ni - n)! ( n!) û

The first part on RHS represents the no. of ways the n cation or anion
vacancies are formed among total N ions and the second part gives the no. of
ways the n vacancies can combined with Ni interstitial sites. Thus, the increase
entropy is
DS = k log W
é N! ùé Ni ! ù
Þ DS = k log ê ú ê ú
ë( N - n)! ( n!) û ë( Ni - n)! ( n!) û
This produce a change in Helmholtz free energy, H, as
H = D E - TD S
é N! Ni ! ù
Þ H = nE f - kT êlog + log ú …(1.16)
ë ( N - n)! n ! ( N i - n)! n ! û
32 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Using Stirling’s approximation we have from (1),

H = nE f - kT [log ( N !) - log ( N - n)! - log ( n!) + log ( Ni !)
- log ( Ni - n)! - log ( n!)]
Þ H = nE f - kT [( N log N - N) - {( N - n) log ( N - n) - ( N - n)}
- 2 ( n log n - n) + ( Ni log Ni - Ni ) - (( Ni - n) log ( Ni - n) - ( Ni - n)]
Þ H = nE f - kT [ N log N + Ni log Ni - ( N - n) log ( N - n)
- ( Ni - n) log ( Ni - n) - 2n log n]
At equilibrium, the Free energy is constant with respect to defect
concentration, so,
¶H½
½ =0
¶n½T

é ì ( -1) ( N - n) ü
Þ E f = kT ê0 + 0 - í ( -1) log ( N - n) + ý
ë î ( N - n) þ
ì ( -1) ( Ni - n) ü ù
- í ( -1) log ( Ni - n) + ý - 2 (log n + 1) ú
î ( Ni - n) þ û
= kT [log ( N - n) + 1 + log ( Ni - n) + 1 - 2 log n - 2]
æ ( N - n) ( Ni - n) ö
= kT log çç ÷÷
è n2 ø
When, n << N, ( N - n) » N and n << Ni ,
then, Þ E f = kT log ( Ni N) - 2 kT log n
æ log ( Ni N) ö E f
Þ log n = kT çç ÷÷ -
è 2 kT ø 2 kT
Ef
Þ log n = log ( Ni N ) -
2 kT
1 2 - Ef 2 kT
Þ n = ( N Ni ) e
Hence, the number of Frenkel defects, n, depends on
(i) proportional to NNi ,
(ii) average energy required to produce a Frenkel defect pair, E f , and
(iii) temperature of the material.

1.5 ELEMENTARY IDEAS OF QUARKS AND GLUONS

1.5.1 Quarks
In 1803 British scientist John Dalton showed that materials are chemical
compounds formed by mixing units in fixed proportion. He named this minimum
unit as `Molecule’. Later on it was found that Atoms are joined together to form
molecule. However, from the very beginning there was a doubt regarding the
indivisibleness of atom. J.J. Thompson of Cambridge proved the existence of
Electron in atom by using thermionic emission. In 1911 E. Rutherford first
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 33

labeled the atomic structure indicating that an atom consists of a positively

charged `Nucleus’ and negatively charged `Electrons’. The electrons are
revolving around the nucleus in their own trajectory.
Initially it was thought that nucleus only consisted of positively charged
Protons. Then, in 1932, colleague of Prof. Rutherford, James Chadwick
discovered `Neutrons’, the chargeless particle residing with proton in the nucleus
of an atom. Up to 1968 it was thought that these protons and neutrons along with
electrons are the only elementary particles. But with the development of
technology for yielding large amount of energy for high energy research it was
possible to make collisions between proton and also between protons and
neutrons. These experiments revealed the elementary detail of proton and
neutrons. The physicist of Caltech M. Gellman received Nobel Prize for this
invention and he named the particles as `Quarks’. There are six types of quark
available till date, namely, Top, Bottom, Up, Down, Strange and Charmed. Each
quark also have three colours, e. g., Red, Green and Blue. A proton consists of two
up and one down quark, a neutron consists of one up and two down quarks, and so
on. Other particles can also be made of other quarks, but the mass of them are
very large and they decay quickly to form proton and neutron. However, electron
remains the elementary particle. Gellmann and Zivag proposed that all strongly
interacting particles are built up of three new particles, called quarks. They are
assumed to have fractional charges, fractional baryon numbers and spin of 1/2
each. As they have spin 1/2 they all are Fermions.
Originally three quarks were proposed (i) UP quark (u), (ii) DOWN quark
(d) and (iii) STRANGE quark (s).
Another three quarks were then added in their family later on. These are
(iv) CHARM © (v) BEAUTY (or BOTTOM) (b) and (vi) TRUTH (or TOP) (t)
quarks.
Properties :
Isospin Baryon
Name Charge Strangeness Charm Bottom Top
T1 T2 number
d –1/3 1/2 – 1/3 0 0 0 0
u +2/3 1/2 1/2 1/3 0 0 0 0
s –1/3 0 1/2 1/3 –1 0 0 0
c +2/3 0 0 1/3 0 1 0 0
b –1/3 0 0 1/3 0 0 +1 0
t +2/3 0 0 1/3 0 0 0 1

1.5.2 Gluons
Politizer and Wilezek discovered (1974) that in many circumstances the
effective strength of interaction became weaker at short distances. This
interaction between the quarks becomes weaker within short distances.
According to this theory the quarks of a given type create a field (called the
Gluon field) around them so that they emit or reabsorb a type of hypothetical
particles, much like the emission and re-absorption of virtual protons by
electrically charged particles. These hypothetical particles are called Gluons.
34 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Properties :
1. Isospin = 0
2. Other properties resemble with that of protons, i. e., charge, magnetic
moment and charge parity (= –1)
3. Unlike electrically neutral particles, the Gluons carry a type of charge,
called the COLOUR.
The Gluon Field is non-linear and increases with increasing distance from
the quark. The effective COLOUR charge of quark also increases in the process.
The interaction between quark disappear at short distance.

qqq