Decanter sas cael] cs -.01e4 Exam.style questions and sample answers have been writen by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded may be diferent >» Coursebook answers Chapter 1 Jupiter and Saturn are the biggest of the planets in our solar system and are made of hydrogen and helium in the gaseous state, There is a progression outwards from the Sun in terms of the structure of the planets. Those ncarest the Sun are rocky and relatively small beyond Mars the planets are gascous. Hydrogen molecules are the smallest of all the clements and therefore the forces between them are very small. The gas needs to be highly compressed (so that the molecules are close together) and at a very low temperature (0 that the molecules are moving slowly) in order for it to condense into a liquid, freezing boiling condensation methane ethanol and mercury; they have melting points below room temperature, but boiling points above room temperature the impurity lowers the freezing point of the liquid a volatile quid is one that evaporates ceasily; it has a low boiling point ethanol > water > ethanoie acid; ethanol is the most volatile, ethanoie acid is the least volatile B; both the melting point and boiling, point are above room temperature; therefore, itis a solid ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021 if heated strongly then the temperature rises very quickly, the melting and boiling points are close together, the liquid stage is not seen as it boils quickly you would need to heat the solid slowly so that the temperature rise is not too qui you could use an electrical heater so you ‘can control temperature more carefully; you could use an oil bath to heat the solid and carefully control the temperature so it is kept between the melting point (114 °C) ‘and boiling point (184 °C) of iodine Substance B is a pure substance as the curve is, flat while the substance melts. Substance A is a mixture as there is no single melting point — that region of the curve is sloped. Take temperature readings at shorter time intervals (e.g. every 30s); use of a digital thermometer would give more accurate readings / use of a temperature sensor linked to a computer would enable the readings to be taken continuously and enable the graph to be plotted as the readings were being taken. The samples can be re-heated and cooled again, allowing duplicate sets of data to be collected,CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 1 continued freezing Time solid; B = energy released; C = energy absorbed A = solid; B = liquid; C = liquid and gas (vapour); D = gas silver iodide silver nitrate + potassium iodide > silver iodide + potassium nitrate the rates of diffusion of silver and iodide ions because the rates of diffusion of the ions are not the same — silver ions are less heavy and so diffuse slightly more quickly Evaporation of bromine takes place as molecules escape from the surface of the liquid, the gaseous bromine molecules then spread throughout the gas jar to completely fill the container, there are collisions with air molecules, bromine molecules move from a region of high concentration to Iow concentration and so are completely mixed with the air and at the same ‘concentration throughout. ‘Methylamine molecules have a greater ‘mass than ammonia molecules and so diffuse more slowly; the white smoke ring, will be more central than for ammonial hydrogen chloride, slightly to the right of centre as methylamine diffuses slightly faster than hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide (from hydrobromie acid) or hydrogen iodide (from hydroiodic acid) In a the liquid levels are the same as there is air both inside and outside the porous pot cylinder, in b hydrogen difuses into the pot faster than air molecules diffuse out because hydrogen molecules have less mass than the air molecules; this produces an increase in pressure inside the pot and so the liquid level is pushed 2NaCl iron + oxygen > ion(IIT) oxide sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid > sodium sulfate + water Seam dost ydrogen 2Cu+0, + 26u0 23H, 9 2NH, 4Na +0, +2Ni,0 2NaOH + H,SO, * Na,SO, + 2H,0 2AL+ SCI, »2AIC1, 3Fe + 4H.O > FeO, + 4H, H+), + 2HC1 2Cu+0, »2C¥0 Mg-+ ZnCl, » MgCl, + Zn Solid sodium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid solution to give sodium chloride solution and carbon dioxide gas. Water, a liguid, is also produced. Ag'(ag) + Chag) » ACs) Ba™*(aq) + SO(aq) » BaSO,(s) HC\(aq) + KOH(aq)_* KCI(ag) + H,0(1) Hr(aq) + OFF(aq) + HO) 2HCK(ag) + CuCO3) > CuCl (ag) + H,0(1) + COYg) 2H-lag) + COM) > HO) + COL) Mass of hydrated magnesium sulfate erystals 22.50 ~ 10.20 = 12.308 Mass of dehydrated erystals 16.20 ~ 10.20 = 6.00 Mass of water combined in erystals 2.30 — 6,00 = 6.302 4.5g (4.48 rounded to one devimal place) covalent ionic CH,, Nal, CH, IC1,, BrF,, HBr 32 " 98 ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 4 continued Ay a 1,PO, (order of elements not evtieal; [1] ‘magnesium carbonate (s) + phosphor acid (ag) > magnesium phosphate (aq) + carbon dioxide (g) + water (0) ((1] for substances and [1] for state symbols 3) 244 124(3 19) =84 (partially correct caleulation = [1]. [2] Relative formula mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the elements in acompound. ; io) (1.266) x 21=428 (partial calculation = CHO 88; Ma(s) + 2C,H,COOH(aq) > Mg(C,H,COO),(aq) + H.(g) : (state symbols [1] ; formula of ‘magnesium butanoate [1]; balancing [1] ; correct substances [1] ;) The sum of the relative atomic masses of the elements in the compound ; [2] [1 mark if only the simpler terms, masses or atomic masses are used.] ‘magnesium butanoate (or any ionic compound) is not made up of molecules and so cannot have a molecular mass ; [1] Se eseN » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 5 ‘The balloons will all contain the same number of characteristic particles (atoms for Band DJ molecules for A and C). Balloon B will fall fastest; the constituent particles Of the gas have the heaviest mass, Other costs: energy costs / safety costs in terms Of the physical plant / evel of manpower nceded / cost of unwanted by-products Marketing should consider uses for the by-products and then convincingly “sell” their usefulness 18g/mol 0.125mol 0.4mol 2.41 x 10" formula units /2.41 X10 Na ions and 2.41 x 10° OH ions molar ratio of Cu: Fe:S is 11:2 ‘empirical formula = CuFeS, molar ratio of Cs: Os 1:3:1 empirical formula = CH,O molar mass of CH,O = 31 so actual formula is C,H,O, HoH It Home—e— oH HOH 32g methane = 2mol methane reacting ratio of methane : oxygen is 1:2 reacts with 4mol oxygen = 64g of oxygen mol Mg = 4/24 = 0.167 mol mol acid = 5.48/36.5 = 0.15 mol from equation 1 mol Mg reacts with 2mol acid therefore 0.167mol would react with 0.3mol cid HCl is the limiting reagent from equation 2mol Al gives 2mol aluminium chloride (1:1 ratio) mol AL = 4.5/27 = 0.167mol 0.167 mol aluminium chloride = 22.298 °% purity = (17.8/22.29) x 100 = 79.9% Percentage by mass of N= 21.2% Percentage by mass of water = 62.9% 28.2% 18.7% ‘The mole is that amount of substance that contains 6.02 x 10° constituent particles (eg. atoms, molecules). It is equal to the relative Formula mass (relative molecular mass) of substance in grams, The percentage yield of a product from a reaction is the proportion of the theoretical yield that is actually obtained, The percentage purity of the product of a rea measure of how contaminated the product is. 2g of carbon Volume of gas = 12dm! yxide = 0.5 mol number of moles nitrogen = 1.5mol mass of nitrogen = 28 x 2g Molar concentration = 0.1 mol/dm* mol acid used = (0.21000) x 25 = 0.005 (5 x 10) mol molar ratio 1:2, so mol NaOH = 0.01 mol 0.01 mol NaOH in 10cm" concentration of NaOH solution = (0.01/10) * 1000 = 1moVidm* ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 5 continued 0.12/24 = 0.005 mol 0.02 motes 0.005 mol I mol BaCO, = 137 + 12+ (16 x 3) 2 moles aioe 0.07 moles, mass of barium carbonate = 36.000" 0.005 x 197 = 0.985 1440em" °% purity = (0.985/1.23) x 100 = 80% 12.000em? 2molldm' 0.2mol/dm* Imol/dm’ 0.8g of NaOH = 0.2 moles; 0.2mol/dm" (1 40/12, $3.3/16, 6.7 = 3.33:3.33:6.7 empirical formula = COH, (C11 for each step); molecular formula =(COH,)*2=COM,: i) 12/60 = 0.2 mol in 250cm*/ concentration = 0.2 x 4=0.8moVdnr ; [2] ({1] for units) 1) potassium carbonate ; m 0.008, 0.005, 0.428: Bl (0.35/0.42) « 100 = 83.3% ; (2) CH, + 50, + 3C0, + 4H,0; [2] ({1) for correct formulae, [1] for balancing) volume ratio of propane to earbon dioxide is 1:3 ;1003=300cm'; [2] (Wrong answer to part a can be carried through to gain marks here.) ‘SOem? of methane forms Sem? of carbon dioxide water condenses at room temperature and pressure so not counted ; excess of oxygen is SOem’ so total is 100em’ ; BI Se eseN » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 6 Wiring is most often made of copper (due to high conductivity and flexibility). ‘Wiring is usually covered in plastie coating to insulate the wires to ensure that the electricity is conducted to where itis intended to go. Plastic is used as the insulator as it is generally flexible which is helpful as it can be easily manipulated and will not crack. Liquid metals do conduet electricity. Other liquids that conduct include molten and aqueous solutions of ionic substances. 2H,(g) + O,(2) > 2H,0(2) The reaction is exothermic, generating electrical energy. ‘The fuel cell is considered to be environmentally advantageous as the only emissions ate water vapour. However, to be considered. ‘carbon-neutral involves a broader range of considerations. These include the origins of the raw materials - particularly the hydrogen and the energy source used to generate it, There is “grey hydrogen’ obtained by steam-reforming natural gas, or from electrolysis of water where the electricity is produced by fossil fuel power stations. “Green hydrogen’ is hydrogen from the electrolysis of water using electricity generated by solar or wind power. iv and v conduct electricity. and v are electrolytes (aqueous solutions of ionic compounds). The ionic solid does not conduct as the ions present cannot move about (they can only vibrate at fixed positions). Melt it or dissolve it in water. When a metal conducts electricity itis the delocalised electrons present in the structure that move through the metal to carry the charge /in aqueous solutions of ionic compounds itis the ions present that move to carry the charge. Depends on the equipment available but a reliable power pack to adjust the voltage applied is useful / use of an ammeter rather than a light bulb to detect flow of current. ‘The electrodes would need to be thoroughly cleaned with sandpaper / washed in propanone and then dried / weigh the electrodes on as accurate a balance as is available. potassium at cathode and chlorine at anode hydrogen at cathode and chlorine at anode metal is formed at the cathode and a non-metal at the anode the object to be plated is made the cathode copper) sulfate solution 2Br() > Br(g) + 2° because the lead ions have gained electrons steam-reforming of methane (natural gas) electrolysis of water using electricity generated by solar or wind power 2H,(e) > 41 (aq) + 46° ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 6 continued 6) ceathode 5 fo} electrolyte; a arrows pointing (clockwise) away from negative and towards positive; io) dilute sulfuric acid; a carbon or platinum ; tt) cathode gains in mass ; i) anode does not change 1) the blue colour would fade to colourless [1] 40H” > 0, + 2H,0 + 4e> (correct product [1] ; balanced equation [1] 3) the anode would lose mass 1] ;/ copper anode dissolves to form ions [1] s cathode inereases in mass [1] :/ copper deposited on cathode [1] ; the solution colour would not change [1]: / concentration of copper ions in solution remains the same [1] ; movement of copper ions [1]; from anode to cathode [1]; Se eseN » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 7 CFCs were very stable compounds and were not degraded (broken down) until they reached the upper atmosphere where they released chlorine free radicals. These radicals reacted with the ozone layer protecting the Earth from harmful UV radiation. ‘Holes’ appeared in the upper atmosphere, particularly over the Earth’s poles. CFCs were banned by the Montreal Protocol. CFCs are also greenhouse gases. Use of refrigerants greatly improved food storage and preservation and allowed for the long-distance transportation of foods. Air-conditioning made the workplace much more comfortable in regions of intense or extreme climate, physical chemical physical physical exothermic exothermic exothermic endothermic A now substance(s) has been formed. an endothermic reaction Zn(s) + CuSO(ea) | ZnSO{aq) + Cuts) — Eneray /kJ Progress of reaction ‘The energy of the reactants is lower than the ‘energy of the products / upwards arrow. Bond breaking is endothermic. bonds broken = (4 x 464) + (2 » 144) bonds made = (4 * 464) + (1 x 498) enthalpy of reaction = bonds broken ~ bonds made = -210kW/mol reaction is exothermic For a reaction to take place some bonds in the reacting substances must first be broken. Bond breaking is an endothermic process and therefore there is always a need for some energy to be supplied by the surroundings to start off a reaction. inerease [1] ; physical [1] inerease [1] ; ‘chemical [1] : ‘chemical [1]: effervescenceffizzing/bubbles ; bubbling stops 5 endothermic [1]; because the temperature goes down [1]; exothermic [1]; products have less ‘energy than the reactants [1] ; ‘energy to break bonds = 2253kJ/mol [1]: energy forming bonds = 2346kW/mol [1] ; difference = 93kW/mol [1] correct sign (-) [1]; 4+93kI/mol ; 2] [1] foreach correct label (see Figure 7.15) (2) made activation energy E, lower; [1] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 8 carbon dioxide + water > glucose + oxygen ‘The photosynthesis reaction maintains the level of oxygen in the atmosphere and removes carbon dioxide. The two biochemical processes of photosynthesis and respiration maintain the balance between these two gases that are important for life. Other important reactions include those involved in the making of proteins and the copying of DNA. ‘The keys factors in industry are achieving sulficient product in as economic a way as possible. The reaction processes used must give a yield at a reasonable rate as time is an economic cost. The product must also be achieved in a system that is safe and cavironmentally sustainable. rate increases rate increases rate increases ‘The reactions that would spoil the food are slowed down at the lower temperature, at the beginning A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a ‘chemical reaction but is not itself used up in the course of the reuetion biological catalyst manganese(IV) oxide ‘changes in temperature and pH The presence of a eatalyst decreases the activation energy of a reaction. ‘An increased temperature means that the particles are moving faster and will therefore collide more frequently: when they collide, more particles will have energy greater than the activation energy so there will be more collisions that result in a reaction ‘There will be more surface area of the solid exposed to the reactant and therefore more frequent collisions. Greater concentration means there are more reactant molecules present and so there will bea greater frequency of collision m because the reaction is complete (has stopped) ; tt] 20/30 = 0.67 [1] ; unit ems [1] as syringe : m any two from: inerease temperature smaller pieces of calcium carbonate ; more concentrated aci 2) the rate of reaction is inversely proportional to the time for the cross to disappear ; mM as the temperature increases the cross is obscured (becomes hidden) in a shorter time / the reaction rate increases with temperature so the cross becomes hidden faster : (2) the reaction rate inereases with an inerease in temperature because the particles ‘are moving faster and so collide more frequently (1] ;/ the particles have more kinetic energy and so more collisions involve energy greater than the activation [1] ;/ more collisions produce smaller particles have a larger surface area [1] s0 there are more collisions [1] ; collisions are more frequent (1]; and higher proportion have sufficient energy to reaet [1]; copper acts as a catalyst [1] ; catalysts are not consumed by the reaction [1] hydrogen is a very light gas [1] ;s0 the change in mass is not sufficient to be detected [1]; ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 9 A crop is a plant that is grown on a large scale in order to sell it ‘This answer will depend on where learners live but could include a type of cereal, fruits or vegetables. Crops need sunlight and water but also nutrients. A fertiliser contains the nutrients that plants need. It can be added to soil to improve plant growth. An organic fertiliser is made of a natural product such as manure. An artificial fertiliser is manufactured. Iron is a much more readily available metal and more evonomically suitable. Apart from cost, there are environmental sues involved in mining for the rarer metals as such mining often involves development in eavironmentally sensitive areas, The white powder turns blue, as a test for the presence of water CuSOs) + SHOW) > CuSO,SH,O() ‘Test to see that it boils at 100°C, ‘The reverse reaction to form the anhydrous, salt requires heat (is endothermic); therefore, the reaction to add water back must give out heat (exothermic). ‘There is no effect as there are the same number of moles of gas on both sides of the equation. Increasing pressure will move the position of the equilibrium to the right, more NO, Increasing the temperature favours the endothermic process, so the equilibrium position will move to the right. / The equilibrium counteracts the external ‘change in conditions so the endothermic process absorbs the heat being supplied, Hydrogen is obtained by the steam- reforming of methane: CH(g) + H,O(g) > CO(w) + 3H(g) burning sulfur or the roasting of metal sulfide ores such as zine sulfide S(s) + Og) + SO,(2) 2ZnS(s) + 30) + 2ZnO(S) + 280(¢) the air 450°C J iron catalyst / 20000 kPa pressure Increased pressure would produce Increased temperature would yield less ammonia. ‘The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recirculated so that they can further react to give more ammonia / so that they react the second time around (saves producing more raw materials) to replace mutrients that have been lost from the sol by plant growth /to increase crop yield because these are the three elements needed by plants, which can become used up in soil nitric acid and ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) phosphoric acid and ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) sulfuric acid and ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) They are washed off fields by rain and end up in streams and rivers algal growth / cutrophication / acidification of soils by excessive use of nitrates. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 9 continued reversible reaction ; a turns green/blue [1] ; and gets hot [1]; anhydrous [1]; cobalt chloride turns pink [1]; advantage: increases rate [1]; disadvantage: causes decomposition of ethanol [1] makes particles closer together (more collisions) [1] ; moves equilibrium to the right (forward) [1] ; to speed it up: a none: mm ethanol is constantly removed from the reactor [1], which draws reaction to the right (60 reverse reaction doesn't happen) (ms nitrogen from the air [1] ; hydrogen from methane/water [1]; A higher temperature would make the reaction faster [1] ; but would also move equilibrium position to the left (move reaction backwards) [1] ; Higher pressure is costly to produce; [1] The catalyst becomes poisoned / doesn't work as efficiently Mm ‘The catalyst is finely divided or pelleted to increase the surface area so that more of the reactant gases ean attach and react together. a ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 10 Oxygen is the gas in the air that is involved in burning magnesium and hydrogen popping when ignited. Reduction is the loss of oxygen. Redox reactions are usually used to drive aan engine or as an explosive reaction. Very fast reactions / producing a large amount of energy / rapid expansion ia volume. The products of an explosive reaction are likely to be gaseous. N,H,(g) + Og)» Nig) + 2H,0(8) A,BandD. AandB reduetion An oxidising agent is a substance that will oxidise (add oxygen to) another substance and is itself reduced during a redox reaction, Examples: oxygen / hydrogen peroxide / chlorine / potassium manganate(VI) A reducing agent is an element or compound that will reduce (remove oxygen from) another substance and is itself oxidised during a redox reaction, Examples: hydrogen / carbon / carbon monoxide / a reactive metal Reduction isthe gain of electrons; oxidation is the loss of electrons, During « redox reaction the oxidising agent gains electrons; the oxidising agent is itself reduced during the reaction. The definition involving gain or loss of oxygen is the more straightforward to understand; but that based on electrons includes more reactions, and is more ‘useful in that sense. No, even in a reaction such as the burning of magnesium the magnesium is obviously oxidised, but the oxygen has been reduced in that itis no longer the free element, 8 +5 o 43 +6 Zn**ions Br, Mno> b colourless to yellow-brown /¢ purple to colourless D: EB: F: potassium manganate( VIL) [1] ; iron(II) sulfate [1] ; Fe" (Ml: Chlorine is an oxidising agent and so oxidises iodide ions to iodine molecules (electrons have been lost). The chlorine molecules are reduced to chloride ions (electrons have been gained). ; 2] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 10 continued ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 11 Many of these terms come from what was an impressive age of Islamic science and mathematies centred around the Mediterranean (including southern Spain). Modern terms such as algebra have an Arabie origin. The period was linked to the practice of alchemy. which included some truly ‘experimental science together with the more rystical aspects and practices. Strong alkali needs to be removed from soup as it causes skin burns and can be particularly dangerous for the eyes. Modern soaps do have an interestingly wide range of pH. Most are not actually neutral (pH = 7.0). Ibis worth, investigating; same are slightly acidic, while others are mildly alkaline A corrosive substance ‘eats’ things away. citric acid cthanoie a It changes its colour depending on whether it isin an acidic or alkaline solution, alkaline neutral alkaline acidic pH 1 is more acidic (1000 times more acidie than pH 4). H,S0, HCI They are equal hydroxide ion, OH hydrogen ions and nitrate ions calcium ions and hydroxide ions ammonium ions and hydroxide ions potassium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide blue S(s) + Ofg) SOJe) magnesium + oxygen > magnesium oxide An amphoteric oxide is one that will neutralise both an acid and an alkali to give a salt and water only. AILO,(9) + 6HCKag) > 2AICL (ag) + 34,00) ALO,(3) + 2NaOH(aq) > 2NaAl0 (aq) + H,00) zine hydroxide or aluminium hydroxide zine hydroxide + sodium hydroxide > sodium zineate + water Zn{OH),(s) + 2NaOH (aq) > Na,ZnO (aq) + 21,000) ‘or aluminium hydroxide + sodium hydroxide » sodium aluminate + water AMON) (3) + NaOH(ag) > NaAlO (ag) + 24,00) You need to consider the effectiveness of the whole tablet and then the mass of powder used. You need to work out a value for how much acid has been neutralised per unit mass of the tablet. For example magnesium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid > magnesium chloride + water calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid > calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water Mg(OH), + 2HCI-» MgCl, + H,O ‘To make the solid more accessible to the acid iand to speed up the reaction. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 11 continued An acid is a proton donor; a base is a proton acceptor. CuO() + 2HNO(aq) > Cu(NO,),(aq) + 00), Zn(s) + 2HCK(ag) > ZnCl (aq) + Hg) Zn has lost electrons and H*ions have gained electrons; Zn atoms have been oxidised. HClig) +aq > Haq) + Crag) Hydrochloric acid is fully dissociated into ions itis a strong acid): ethanoic acid is a weak acid (only partially dissociated into ons); 0, there will be more ions present in the hydrochloric acid solution and the electrical conductivity will be higher. a (1 red; a calcium carbonate (3) + hydrochloric acid (aq) > calcium chloride (aq) + water () + carbon dioxide (2) (1) for compounds, [1] 5 for state symbols. ;) Jimewater turns milkyleloudy 1 carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide (or simply acidic); i) metal oxides are basic [1] ; non-metal oxides are acidic [1] ; test with universal indicator [1] ; note colour change [1] : compare with colour chart to find pH value [1]; H,SO,(aq) > 2H"(aq) + SO?(aq) (Ei); for substances, [1] ; for state symbols, allow H,SO,(I) and equations involving water molecules as long as they are balanced. :) CH,COOH (ag) = CH,COO (aq) + Hr(aq) ((1] ; for equation, (1; for reversible arrow) ALO, + 6HCI » 2AICI, + 3H,0 ((1); for compounds, [1] ; for balancing) Amphoteric ; tt) ‘marking points as follows: ‘aluminium hydroxide is insoluble in water aluminium hydroxide dissolves in sodium hydroxide solution / itis amphoteric ; the reaction is reversible hydrochloric acid makes the reaction ‘go backwards / equilibrium shifts toleft; (Max. 3] ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 12 Itis sometimes called table salt because people add salt to their food. The salt is placed in container on the table, Salt is necessary for the regukation of many bodily functions including maintaining the body's overall balance of Auid. Salt may be found dissolved in seas and ‘oceans, Salt can also be found in rocks (rock salt) To preserve food / to add flavour (saltiness is one of the basic human senses) / some cultures use soy sauce, fish sauce oF oyster sauce to favour food rather than table salt. Salt (sodium chloride) is present in the body and is soluble in water. Loss of salt produces muscle cramps. It is replaced by drinking isotonic drinks (isotonie means the same ion ‘concentration as in our cells). sulfuric acid nitric acid carbonic acid sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid calcium hydroxide and nitric aci ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) and sulfuric acid nitric acid potassium sulfate and ammonium nitrate copper(II) oxide + sulfurie acid > copper(II) sulfate + water CuO + H.SO, + CuSO, +H, ‘That the copper oxide was present in excess / this makes sure that ull the acid is reacted / this is important as the solution is concentrated by heating after filtration, and hot, concentrated acid is dangerous, magnesium chloride calcium nitrate zine sulfate to make sure all the acid is reacted/used up filtration pipette, burette yellow If heated too strongly, the salt could dehydrate (lose water of crystallisation) or even decompose, method B sulfuric acid zine + sulfuric acid > zine sulfate + water Precipitation is the sudden formation of a solid when two solutions are mixed, or a ‘gas passed into a solution A method in which an acid solution and. aan alkali are reacted precisely to produce aasalt solution; the salt can be erystallised from the solution produced. An ionic equation includes just those ions ‘and molecules that actually take part in the reaction. Aaand C/ silver iodide and lead(I) chloride sodium sulfate white Ba""(aq) + $O,*(ag) + BaSO,) ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 12 continued io} sodium chloride or copper sulfate ; sodium too reactive and so unsafe / copper does not react with dilute acids [1] sodium chloride ; a barium sulfate ; i potassium carbonate ; a bubbles / effervescence / izing Mm to ensure all the sulfur acid was reacted / used up: a) fizzing would stop, or excess solid remained ; a filter [1] ; heat to crystallisation point [1] ; separateldry crystals [1] a lead nitrate [1]; sodium, potassium or other soluble chloride [1] ; mix solutions of the substances [1] ; filter and keep the residue [1] ; wash the residue [1]; dry the residue [1]: insoluble calcium sulfate [1] ; stops the acid reaching the carbonate [1] ; use hydrochloric or nitrie acid instead : [1] sodium, potassium, copper or magnesium ; iO Se eseCAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 13 Discuss the historic social and religious attitudes to the role of women in society in different parts of the world — their role and. access to education; and opportunity to pursue an independent career. Consider the modern situation in different cultures and the development of attitudes, opportunities and perceptions potassium hydroxide lithium + water ~> lithium hydroxide + hydrogen approximately 40 °C (note that the difference between one element and the next is getting smaller as we go down the group) Rubidium will react more strongly with water than potassium. chlorine of the ones available in a school lab (and fluorine) ‘They all have 8 electrons in their outer shell, ‘except for helium in the first period, which has the maximum possible of 2. c PH, The elements move from metallic character in the first two or three groups to non-metallic ‘character; the non-metallic elements in the contre of the period are giant covalent solids, moving to simple molecular gases on the right of the period. sodium, Na silicon, Si Alkali metals are soft, transition metals are hard / alkali metals have low density, transition metals have high density / alkali metals have just one valency (oxidation number), transition metals show variable ‘oxidation number / alkali metal compounds are white solids, transition metal compounds are coloured, D iodine ; lithium bromine potassium [1] : chlorine [1]; false ; false: true; true; true; they have coloured compounds [1] ; they act as catalysts [1] ; they have variable oxidation states [1]; C10 is ionically bonded [1] 5 ‘CrO, is covalently bonded [1] amphoteric ; ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 14 The name is made up of the of the elements in the alloy: nickel (Ni) and titanium (Ti), and the initials of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL), They are good conductors of heat and electricity / flexible without breaking / corrosion resistant / biocompatible can be beaten into sheets / gives a ringing sound when hit / conduets heat well / conducts electricity well is an insulator / has a dull surface graphite sodium and potassium mercury diamond Metals conduct electricity / metals are malleable and ductile. ‘The fact that there are mobile, delocalised electrons in the structure of a metal means that they conduct electricity. Metallic bonding. ‘means that the layers of metal ions in the structure can move over each other without the bonding breaking; therefore they are malleable and ductile. B copper and silver metal + water > metal hydroxide + hydrogen metal + steam > metal oxide + hydrogen Mg +H,0 > MgO +H, 3Fe + 4H.0 > Fe,0,+ 4H, D brass or steel copper plastic any two from iron, chromium and nickel hardness and corrosion resistance Cc; D: They conduct True electricity They react with | True ‘oxygen in the air They are brittle [False They can easily be | True bent and shaped They have high | True’ melting points [1 mark for each row correct] ; Its low density ; Its resistance to corrosion ; Because of its low density ; Copper [1] ; Because itis better conductor (11; Alloy ; Conductor ; Metal ; Mixture ; [1 mark for each correct answer] It does not rusticorrode [1] ; itis an alloy containing chromium sand nickel [1] layers of atoms / ions can slide over each other ; the larger atoms prevent layers sliding, over each other. Yes [1] ; Electrons are still free to move around the metal ions [1] ; ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 15 Modern batteries depend inereasingly on relatively rare metals such as cobalt. This, means that there is pressure to exploit mineral deposits in environmentally sensitive areas, e.g. Alaska. These resources will be depleted rapidly if batteries continue to be used disposably: Graphite rods are used in batteries. hydrogen potassium hydroxide sodium + water -> sodium hydroxide + hydrogen 2K +2H,0 > 2KOH + H, strong and has a low density Aluminium is coated with a very thin oxide layer that protects it from corrosion, copper rise in temperature would not be as great as that observed when zine reacts with copper(I) sulfate solution, Carry out the experiments in polystyrene ‘cups to prevent heat loss or lag the boiling tube with cotton wool / take more frequent temperature readings to find the maximum. temperature reached more accurately ‘magnesium + copper(I) sulfate > magnesium, sulfate + copper ‘Magnesium becomes coated with a layer of copper / the colour of the blue solution fades. Mg(s) + CuSO(aq) > MgSO (aq) + Cuts) Ma(s) + Cu**(aq) > Me™ (aq) + Cuts) ‘This question is speculative — look at the first letters of the metals in onder and see if you «can think of a phrase or sentence! bubblevfizzing/effervescence [1] ;/ magnesium dissolves (1] ; no reaction (accept very slow bubbles) ; iron, unknown metal, magnesium, calcium [2] ; (one out of order (11) burning splint [1] ; pops [1]; (elowing splint pops = (1) ; aqueous copper sulfate : Cus) + 2AgNO,(aa) > CUINO,)(ag)* 2Ae) [1 mark for substances, 11 mark for balancing, 1 mark for state symbol] copper becomes coated with silver coating ; solution changes from colourless to blue zine is more reactive than copper ; Zinc is the reducing agent /it removes oxygen from CuO ; ions / Cu" ions gain electrons to become copper atoms ; ‘magnesium is more reactive than zine itis more ready to form positive ions than zine / so it removes oxygen from copper(II) oxide more readily than zine ; ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 16 ‘The metallic nodules are rich in the metals in demand and it would be relatively easy to extract, the required metals, There are various different sites in different regions of the ovean floor. The damage to the ocean floor itself through what is effectively open-cast mining would be significant, as would the damage to the habitat of marine species about which we know relatively litle ‘The dependence on a single land-based source is open to political and economic dangers; and could lead to exploitation of the local population and create socio-economic tensions ‘The formation of red-brown copper metal. 2CuO + C + 2Cu + CO, ‘To combine with the silicon(1V) oxide (sand) and remove it as slag CaCO{s) + CaO(s) + CO) carbon monoxide iron(II1) oxide + carbon monoxide > iron + carbon dioxide Fe,0, +300 > 2Fe +30, silicon(TV) oxide + caleium oxide > calcium silicate SiO, + CaO > CaSiO, Because of the high cost of electricity, which is needed in large quantities / also the carbon anodes need replacing regularly. ‘The eryolite lowers the melting point of the clectrolyte/ because this makes the temperature noeded to melt the aluminium oxide much lower, Because the oxygen produced at the anode causes the graphite anodes to burn away as ‘carbon dioxide. water and air (oxygen) / sult water or acid rain painting / greasing / covering with plastic Zinc is more effective because if the surface layer is broken the zinc will still protect the steel beneath as itis more reactive than iron (sacrificial protection) / chromium will not protect if the layer is broken as itis less reactive than iron, hematite; carbon monoxide ; because of the high temperature in the furnace ; calcium oxidelearbonate [1]; reacting with impucitis inthe ore [1]; the air; it produces the heat needed in the furnace ; the carbon dioxide is then reduced in the furnace to give carbon monoxide from oxygen ions [1] ; discharged at the anode [1] ; ‘The carbon anode burns away [1] ‘and so has to be replaced [1] It reacts with the silica (silicon dioxide) impurity in the ore [1] ; forming calcium silicate slag [1]; alvanisation ; it is more resistant to damage but still protects even if the zine layer is, seratched or broken 5 the zine or magnesium is more reactive than iron [1]; these metals more readily form positive ions than iron [1] ; so they are corroded rather than the iron / sacrificial protection [1] ; Aluminium does not corrode because it has a natural surface layer of aluminium oxide. [1] ; This protets the metal by preventing it coming into contact with air. (1 ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021» CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 17 Possible reasons include population density (the greater the number of people, the higher the levels of pollution will tend to be), presence of particular types of industry (living ‘closer to large factories will generally mean poorer air quality), impact of events such as forest/bush fires, government initiatives to reduce levels of airborne pollution, etc Factors that might encourage more ceavironmentally friendly options include ‘education (an understanding of the problems ‘caused to the environment), tax incentives (redueing the cost of more environmentally friendly solutions), cost savings (switching. off electrical equipment when not in use is both good for the environment and saves money), etc. Factors that might prevent more environmentally friendly options include cost (too expensive), habit (used to always using the car / not walking), inconvenience (easier to drive on a wet day than walk), lack of ‘education, ete. nitrogen 78%, argon 0.9% and oxygen 21% Harmful to life both on land and in the water / Increased acidity levels in lakes can kill fish and other aquatic life / Can kill forests (many plants are extremely sensitive to pH) / Some building materials will be damaged/corroded. methane + oxygen ~ carbon monoxide + water 2C,H,, + 130, + 12CO + 14H,0 (Oxides of nitrogen are formed when nitrogen from the air reacts with oxygen at a high temperature (eg. in a car engine). They are linked (o the formation of acid rain and photochemical smog. 2CO +2NO + 2C0, + Carbon dioxide: product of the combustion Of fossil fuels: Methane: waste product from livestock (cattle) and landfill sites. Increased use of fossil fuels, Rising sea levels so inereased flooding and faster rates of coastal erosion / changes to the life eyeles and migratory patterns of animals and birds / more severe droughts and crop failure / drying out of grasslands increases the frequency and severity of wildfires / more frequent and severe weather patterns. Strategies include reducing use of fossil fuels for transportation and electricity generation (eg, by using renewable sources of energy such as wind and solar) / phasing out of diesel and petrol cars and replacing with electric ears / remove CO, from the atmosphere / reduce meat consumption / better separation of houschold waste, Greenhouse gases absorb and re-emit the longer wavelength racliation reflected from the Earth’s surface. Cobalt chloride paper: colour change from blue to pink. Alternatively, anhydrous copper(II) sulfate: colour change from white to blue, Measure melting or boiling point. For pure water, the melting point is 0°C and the boiling point 100°C. When nitrates and phosphates enter waterways there is rapid growth of algae. ‘This can block out sunlight and lead to the death of aquatic plants, which will reduce levels of oxygen in the water and so also kill aquatic animals. Useful metals include calcium (supports the health of teeth and bones) and iron (needed for the production of haemoglobin in red blood cells). Problem metals include lead (which can cause liver and kidney damage) ‘and mercury (which has been linked to damage of the nervous system). ‘The majority of current plasties are not biodegradable and are creating pollution, especially in waterways, Biodegradable plastics, will break down naturally, Microplastics removed by filtration using a fine sand filter. Dissolved organic compounds removed by an activated carbon filter. Microbes are removed by disinfection using chlorine ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 17 continued 78%; Any two from argon, carbon dioxide, other noble gases (neon, krypton and helium); B: A Cand D; cs desulfurisation / serubbing [1] ; using caleium oxide [1]; the air [1]; oxides of nitrogen and sulfur cause acid rain [1] : this causes acidic lakes / rivers [1]; Not enough oxygen fair for complete combustion ; iO Tris toxic; fo} The toxic gases produced in the engine are converted into less harmful gases before they are emitted into the atmosphere. The process uses a transition metal catalyst [1] ; 2CO + 2NO 2C0, +N, [1 mark, other balanced equations showing correct substances are acceptable] [1] a photosynthesis [1] ; 6CO, + 6H,0 + C,H,,0, + 60, : [1 mark for substances, 1 mark methane [1] ; livestock or landiill [1] ; They are greenhouse gases [1] :/ Heat from the Sun passes through the atmosphere [1] ; / Greenhouse gases prevent some of it from escaping back into space [1] ;/ The global temperature increases [1]; [Max. 3 marks] Se eseN » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 18 The advantages of a space elevator are seen in terms of the ease of transfer of astronauts and goods to the space station without the need for rocket launches from the Earth. Indeed, subsequent exploration from the space station would be easier since there would be no need for the technology to escape the Earth's gravity, ‘These different forms of carbon all cond electricity because of the mobile, delocalised electrons associated with the layered structure (see Chapter 3), methane, ethane, propane, butane / CH, GH, CH, CH, ‘The bromine water is det orange-brown to colourless. There would be no change if ethane was bubbled into bromine water. The test is for unsaturation (a C: ethene is unsaturated, but ethane is saturated. carbon-carbon double bond, C=C a hydroxyl group, OH a carboxylic acid group, COOH C.H,COOH HoH butane propene propanol butanoie acid (CH,CHOF)CH, (CH,CH=CHCH, CH,COOC.H, Structural isomerism is a property of compounds that have the same molecular Formula but different structural formulae; the individual compounds are known as structural isomers. ‘There is a steady increase in the boiling point of the alcohols with increasing chain length, 80) oT23a456 Number of carbon atoms B; M1) Cc: tt] AandE; (2) carbon-carbon double bond ; " molecule must contain at least one carbon-carbon double or triple bond : [1] CH, and CH, ; 2 am ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 18 continued btt-ene uc2ene [2 marks for names, 2 marks for displayed formulae] (4) cyclobutane is not an alkene as it does not contain a carbon-carbon double bond ; fo} butane and 2-methylpropane ; CHLCH.CHCH, © CH,CHICHJCH, [2 marks for names, 2 marks for displayed formulae] (4) CHa. Mm they contain the same functional group [1] and have similar chemieal properties {1]/a consistent trend in certain physical properties with increasing chain length [1]: Se eseN » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 19 ‘The fullerenes, despite the fact that they contain 60 or 70 carbon atoms per molecule, are considered to be simple molecular substances. The forces between these large simple molecules are relatively weak compared to covalent bonds, ‘The nanotubes are enclosed cylinders that can contain the molecules of medicinal drugs — protecting the drug molecules from the environment as they move to the target organ. ‘The nanotubes are stable, biocompatible polymers and can be tailored to form containers that package the drug and carry it across tissue barriers to the target site. The nanotubes have free electrons at their surfaces, ‘The walls of the nanotubes can be modified to provided water-liking or membrane-liking surfaces to match the different environments in the body and the drug involved, propane + oxygen » carbon dioxide + water C\H, +50, »3C0, + 4H,0 methane + oxygen + carbon monoxide + water co It binds to red blood ells (to the haemoglobin) and interferes with the ransport of oxygen in the body. H I —oH 4 er Br H 4 Lh aH or db b on “T Tor H HOH OH The reuction requires light for it to take place. CHB, Bree H-C—C—H i ethane > ethene + hydrogen CH, > CH, +H, propene + hydrogen » propane CH, +10 > C.H,0H Ethanol is a renewable resource / can reduce dependence on petroleum imports {can reduce carbon monoxide emissions / can reduce environmental pollution, ete, yeast, carbohydrate source, water carbon dioxide Won b_ tow A city ethanoate ethanol + ethanoic acid > ethyl ethanoate + water a compound that contains carbon and hydrogen only ; no colour change as no reaction ; ethene and steam are compressed to 6000kPa and passed over a phosphoric acid catalyst at 300°C ; as a fuel and as a solvent ; (addition) polymerisation ; ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 19 continued a substitution reaction ; fo} 1,2-dibromoethane ; a advantage: relatively cheap / materials are renewable [1] : disadvantage: product needs further purification [1] ; acidified potassium manganate(VII) [1] ; heat under reflux [1] ethyl ethanoate ; HOH 1 wtito # I C—O | HOH SL H ethyl ethanoate [1 mark for name, 2 marks for displayed formula, both parts correct] (3) Se eseN » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 20 Use of resources from the petrochemical industry / uncontrolled littering of the environment — land, rivers and oceans dangers to wildlife / reliable and environmentally sensitive methods of disposal. Catalysts are reusable; enable reactions to take place under milder conditions than without; enzymes can be very specific and ccan be designed/modified to improve reaction conditions and specificity of product. refinery gas, petrol (gasoline), naphtha, paraffin (kerosene), diesel, bitumen road surfacing, ships’ engines, car engines, aircraft fuel (domestic heating) Catalytic cracking isthe thermal decomposition, of a long-chain alkane to a shorter-chain alkane and an alkene (or an alkene and hydrogen), decane > octane + ethene CHa > CH, + GH, Addition polymerisation takes place when many molecules of an unsaturated monomer (eg. ethene) join together to form a long-chain polymer. high pressure hee — heat, catalyst Ll oo ri rf HOCH, HO carbon-carbon double bond rer tor re CHA GHA CHO ‘The monomers join together by a reaction in which a small molecule (usually water) climinated each time a link is made. nylon — the amide link (or peptide link) PET (a polyester) ~ the ester link 9, 9 I it —C-O4E O-C-LC-0--- + 10 the amide link (or peptide link) e 9 2 9 ote de Proteins are made from 20 different amino ‘acid monomers: nylon is made from just two monomers. Simply burning plastic can produce toxic Fumes such as hydrochloric acid from burning PVC / other toxic compounds can be formed (cg. dioxins) / incineration at a precise temperature range can be used to destroy plastics Reuse means simply collecting the containers and then cleaning and reusing them for the same purpose / recycling involves shredding, the original article and then making new and different items from the plastic. Sorting the plastics into their different types / cleaning the plastic / some plastics are difficult to reeyele because of the dyes that have been used to give them colour. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 20 continued alkanes different boiling points 5 airplane fuel / heating systems ; heat / catalyst hydrogen CH GH, + 2C,H, +H, can be broken down into harmless substances [1]: by bacteria / Fungi naturally 1]; they are buried underground / used as landfill ; fo} they can harm sea life [1]: / be consumed by sea creatures and enter the food chain [1] they produce toxie gases when they burn ; io} a water: a condensation polymerisation; [1] proteins ; a they are made by biological cells; (1] Se eseN » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 21 Portable distillation units. Strengths: Provide access to distilled water in remote areas without need for large/expensive equipment 1 May be powered by renewable sources. ‘Weaknesses: If using solar power, the unit will only operate under certain conditions / Produce limited amounts of clean water / May be limited access to replacement parts if there isa failure / Would need to be very robust if used in the field / May require training in safe use / Could be expensive Desalination units. Strengths: Provide aaceess to drinking water in areas with access to seawater but limited freshwater / Can be run continuously / Proven technology. ‘Weaknesses: May be limited access to part if there isa failure / The waste product ean be toxic to marine and coastal ecosystems / Energy intensive as require high temperature and pressure / Require training / Could be expensive. ‘The filter straw needs to remove particles of sand J silt / mud and harmful microbes such as bacteria that can cause disease. ‘The temperature should be recorded either with a thermometer or a digital temperature probe and meter. The volumes could be measured with a measuring cylinder or for greater accuracy a fixed volume could be measured using a volumetric pipette and a variable volume by use of the burets, ‘The teacher was not correct. The data has ‘a narrow sproad of results and so is precise: however, itis not accurate as the average of these results is not very close to the true Error in the mass is 0.1/1.3 x 100% = 7.7%. Error in volume is 0.5/10.0 x 100% = 5.0%. ‘The largest error is in the mass. Random ‘errors could be reduced by repeating the ‘experiment several times, checking for and removing anomalies and then calculating a ‘mean average. Residue It will enable the material to dissolve more quickly. Salt is ionic and dissolves well in water: If the solution is concentrated by heat then the excess solid can be erystallised out. This would not be a good method for producing iodine cerystals for several reasons, Lodine is toxic and unlike sodium chloride it has covalent rather than fonic bonding. lodine is only partially soluble in water. Boiling points. 100°C Distillation involves heating the liquid so that components start to evaporate. As they evaporate, they travel up through the apparatus and into the condenser. In the condenser the temperature is lower and so the gas will condense. Different fractions will separate at different temperatures due to differences in their boiling points If there are two or more dots in a vertical line then the substance is a mixture. A substance that remains on the baseline is insoluble in the solvent used. To improve the experiment the student needs to use an alternative solvent, e.g. swapping from water toethanol. R,=2.32.8=0.82(t0 2d.p) R, = distance moved by sample/distance moved by solvent front Distance moved by sample = R, x distance moved by solvent front Distance moved by sample = 082 9.7 = 8.0em, ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 21 continued Processes for method 2: ‘Step a: The baseline needs to be drawn in hheat crushed powder : pencil, not pen, as the pen could be soluble. forms copper oxide ; Step c: The solvent should fall herween she bottom of the paper and the baseline; it must not cover the base line as the samples will wash with dilute acid dissolve into the solvent and not travel up os through the paper. filter and dry ; [Max. 6 marks] Step d: The solvent should nor travel all the way up but must be stopped just before it gets the gas; 1) to the top of the paper. If this is not done then not sulliciently accurate / ean only samples will continue to travel up the paper. measure to nearest cm’; i] heat with charcoal ; to be able to measure the volume of To reduce the amount of solvent lost open the air hole at the base of the through evaporation. chimney fully io itis fractional distillation / to know when to change collecting vessel ; io tripod [1] ; and evaporating dish when crystals form around the edge of basin [1] ; the arrow also suggests & the solution / when crystals form on Bunsen burner {11 ; ‘a glass rod dipped in the solution; [1] A,CRD.B.Es [Max. 2 marks] [Each of the following scores 1 mark] blue m draw a pencil line on the paper ; because copper oxide reacts with acid ; [1] spot some of the solution om the line ; [Each of the following scores 1 mark] place in the solvent (water) Common starting process: leave until the solvent front reaches . a fixed point; rush lump of malachite ; use a locating agent to make the amino with a pestle and mortar; acids visible + Processes in method I: measure distance moved by the dissolve in acid different components, named acid ; calculate R, values compare with reference values to identify ; filter [Max. 6 marks} electrolyse filtrate : recover copper from cathode : ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021» CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 22 Criteria for a chemical test might include: It needs to give a clear result (¢, a colour change) / i should be specific (i.e. works for only one chemical / Idealy it should be quick and simple to.use / Should not use hazardous chemicals Reactions students might have seen include: Standard tests for gases such as hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide / Standard test for a double bond (bromine water) / Standard test for an acid (addition of a carbonate) / Possible tests for the presence of cations and anions ‘These tests might be needed by: Companies monitoring the quality of air or water / Government bodies / Health and safety committees ‘To ensure their conclusions were valid: To check results are repeatable / To sample multiple times Mineral water might be thought of as pure because it as had no other chemicals added to itand it has come from a natural source. Chemically, mineral water is not pure. Itis a mixture, because it contains dissolved impurities. (One problem is to ensure that the water does not contain harmful microbes (these would normally be removed by disinfection using chlorine). Another problem is the potential for ‘changes in composition that may result from seasonal weather variations, ‘The nichrome wire probe is cleaned by placing it alternately in a roaring flame and ‘concentrated acid. Once elean it can be dipped in the acid and then into the sample containing the sodium ions. A positive test for sodium ions will be the production of a yellow flame, ‘The lilac flame would indicate the presence of potassium ions, Potassium sulfate is K,SO,, ‘The red flame would indicate the presence of lithium ions. Lithium sulfate is Li,SO,. The light green flame would indicate the presence of barium ions, Barium sulfate is BaSO,, ‘Tap water can contain dissolved ions and may have given a false positive result, with the colour being from the impurities and not the sample. The experimental design can be improved by using distilled water: Cand E, ‘The use of state symbols in C shows that this isa precipitation reaction, AICI (ag) + INaOH(aq) > AM(OH),(s) + 3NaCl(ag) A precipitate is an insoluble compound produced during a precipitation reaction (the reaction that produces an insoluble salt when solutions of two soluble sults are mixed), Iron(Il) precipitates are green in colour, iron(II) precipitates are brown in colour. Ammonia is a base. Iron(II) chloride would initially produce a agrcen precipitate. Iron(IID chloride would produce a brown precipitate. When sodium hydroxide solution is added to copper(I) sulfate solution, a light blue precipitate is formed. When dilute ammonia solution is added to copper(II) sulfate solution, initially a light blue precipitate is formed but as more ammonia solution is added this dissolves and produces a dark blue solution, A green precipitate could indicate the presence of cither iron(II) or chromium(III) ions and so their conclusion was not valid. To produce a valid result, the test should be repeated using excess soditum hydroxide, If a green precipitate Forms but then redissolves, the sample contains chromium(IID. ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021N » CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK Chapter 22 continued Student A’s results would be valid as the calcium ions would produce an orange-red flame; no detectable flame colour would be seen with the zine or aluminium ions Student B's results would not be valid as both zinc or aluminium precipitates redissolve in ‘excess sodium hydroxide. To produce a valid conclusion student B would need to repeat the ‘experiment using dilute ammonia solution. Under these conditions the precipitate containing zinc ions would redissolve but not that containing cither calcium or aluminium. In general, the reaction of a carbonate with any acid produces carbon dioxide, Sodium carbonate solution reacts with acids as follows: Sodium + sulfuric carbonate acid Na,CO fag) + H.$O, (ag) > Na,SO, (ag) + CO.(aq) + H,00) Sodium + nitric > sodium + carbon + water carbonate acid nitrate dioxide Na,CO (ag) + 2HINO, (aa) -* 2NaNO, (ag) + COKg) + H,0() » sodium + carbon + water sulfate dioxide Acidified silver nitrate would produce yellow precipitate with the magnesium iodide and a White precipitate with the magnesium chloride Mel.{ag) + 2AgNO,(ag) > Ma(NO,),(aq) + 2A21(9) MgCl,(ag) + 2AgNO (aa) + Mg(NO,),(aq) + 2AECI(S) ‘This would negate the results as the sulfuric acid introduces sulfate ions and so a white precipitate of barium sulfate is immediately produced, AL APT + 36° Carbon dioxide was present. Ca(OH),(aq) + COs) > CaCO) + H,00) ‘The gas is not carbon dioxide and itis not oxygen. Purple manganate(VI1) ions are reduced to very pale pink manganese(II) ions. ‘The sulfur is oxidised and the manganese is reduced, The picees of glassware are a volumetric pipette that adds an accurate, fixed volume of liquid and a burette, which adds an accurate but variable volume of liquid. Methyl orange and thymolphthalein both produce clear colour changes at the end-point, tniversal indicator does not. Swirling ensures everything is mixed and. also ensures liquid that might have splashed ‘onto the sides of the flask is returned to the reaction ‘The mean titre would only use the results within 0.10cm' ie, mean titre = (12.1Sem! + 12.10em! + 12.10cmP/3 = 12.12em tt) To separate the two components of the mixture. ; m ‘aluminium [1] ; sulfate [1] ; calcium [1] ; carbonate [1] aluminium sulfate ; no reaction ino reaction | cream precipitate ‘ho reaction no colour aren | white produced| precipitate, | precipitate redissolves| [1 mark for each answer, Max. 6 marks} ‘Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry - Harwood, Millington & Ledge © Cambridge University Pross 2021Ded omar ace ciao Chapter 22 continued ‘add aqueous sodium hydroxide slowly until in excess [1]; green precipitate which does not redissolve [1] ; add acidified barium nitrate (1); white precipitate [1]; These two tests can be given in either order. pass gas through lime water [1]; lime water turns milky [1]; add acidified potassium manganate(VID) [1]; turns colourless [1] ; These two tests can be given in either order. [Each of the following scores 1 mark] ‘add named volume of first Vinegar to a flask ; «add a named indicator slowly add from a burette; named alkali note volume needed for neutralisation ; repeat with same volume of second vinegar ; largest volume used (titre) = most acid. [Max. 6 marks} Se ese