ELECTROTECHNICS

N6
ELECTROTECHNICS N6
LE Ching

.^T*A

JROUPANT
Publishers
Copyright © 1985 by the author

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without prior written permission by the publisher.

ISBN: 978 1 919780 15 3; eISBN: 978 1 430802 46 4

First edition 1999

Second impression 1999
Third impression 2002
Fourth impression 2003
Fifth impression 2006
Sixth impression 2007
Seventh impression 2008
Eighth impression 2010
Ninth impression 2012
Tenth impression 2012

Published by
Troupant Publishers
Suite 10, Private Bag X12
Cresta, 2118

Previously published by
Southern Book Publishers
First edition 1989

Cover design by Alix Gracie

Set in 9 on 11pt Times New Roman
Typesetting by Latsky Phototypesetting
Contents

1. Direct current machines 5. Polyphase induction motors

1.1 Emf equation 1 5.1 Principle of operation 73
1.2 Torque equation 1 5.2 Torque exerted due to current in rotor
1.3 Speed control of d.c. motors 2 conductors 76
1.4 Load sharing of generators in parallel... 9 5.3 Vector diagram of the induction
1.5 Efficiency of d.c. machines 13 motor 78
5.4 Circle diagram of the induction
2. Alternating current circuit theory motor 82
2.1 Balanced three-phase systems 20 6. Generation and supply of a.c. power
2.2 Unbalanced three-phase systems 21
2.3 Non-sinusoidal or complex waves 25 6.1 Power factor correction 87
6.2 Transmission lines 91
3. Transformers
7. Overhead line protection
3.1 Theory and performance 32
3.2 Voltage regulation 37 7.1 General requirements 98
3.3 Losses and efficiency 39 7.2 Electromagnetic relay 98
3.4 Testing 40 7.3 Combined overcurrent and earth leakage
3.5 Transformer connections 44 protection 99
3.6 Harmonics in transformers 47 7.4 Distance or impedance relays 99
3.7 Heat runs 47 7.5 Distance/time protection 99
7.6 Merz-Price balanced voltage system 100
4. Synchronous machinery 7.7 Merz-Price circulating current system ....100
4.1 Alternators 49
4.2 The synchronous motor 67 8. Cable faults
1. Direct current machines

1.1 The emf equation Note:

Let P = pairs of poles • In a lap-wound armature a = P
a = pairs of parallel paths • In a wave-wound armature a = 1
FIG. 1.1
0 = flux per pole in webers • Emf is the voltage at the terminals of a
Z = total number of armature conductors machine when the external load is disconnected.
emf induced in conductor • P.d. is the voltage at the terminals of a machine
= webers cut per second when the external load is connected, causing a volt
Wb cut per second by 1 conductor in 1 r.p.s. drop (I R) in the armature.
= 2P0 • For a generator: E = V + IR
emf induced in 1 conductor in 1 r.p.s. and I = I. + I
L f
= 2 P 0 volts For a motor E V IR
emf induced in 1 conductor in n r.p.s.
= 2 P 0 n volts and I
emf induced in Z conductors in n r.p.s.
= 2 P 0 nZ volts
1.2 The torque equation
1.2.1 Force acting on a conductor method
O^ Let 0 = flux per pole in webers
/ = current per conductor
c
/ = armature current
conductor — a
d = diameter of armature in meters
Torque = force x radius
But force on a conductor = B.LI newtons
^X^ Torque exerted by 1 conductor = B.LI x ^N.m
But B Total Flux 2P0
FIG. 1.1 Cross-sectional area nde
But this is not the actual emf available at the and I la
brushes of the machine, since there are 2a paths c 2.a
through the armature. Torque exerted by 1 conductor
.'. The emf induced in Z conductors in n r.p.s. = 2P0xl xIa x d N.m
2.P.0nZ volts ndl 1 2a 2
2a P0
T = h N.m
a2n
and the torque exerted by Z conductors
E = - 0 nZ volts P0IZ
a
a2n" N.m

1
 is used only where very low speeds are occasionally
N.m required, and other considerations outweigh those
of efficiency.
The most common method of speed control is by
1.2.2 The emf method varying the field strength of the motor.
For a motor: E = V - IR 1.3.1 Varying the value of the flux
a a

Multiply both sides by / ; EI See N5 notes.

VI
a i
1.3.2 Varying the value of the armature voltage
But VI
total electrical power supplied to For normal motors, this voltage cannot economic-
the armature ally be controlled if the motor is fed from a con-
total armature copper losses stant voltage system.
When the motor is fed from a three-wire system,
EI
= mechanical power developed by the two working voltages are available, as the armature
armature (gross output) may be connected either across the outers for full
Mechanical power developed = 2 n nT speed, or between one outer and neutral for half
speed, as shown in Fig. 1.2.
InnT = EI

N.m neutral 200 V

400 V-
200 V
Note: Not all of this mechanical power is available

o
externally, since some of it is absorbed in over-
coming the mechanical losses.
For a given machine, Z, a and P are constants, in
which case
1
rcwrocT1- —Qfinsrsmp—'
T a I 0 FIG. 1.2

1.3 Speed control of d.c. motors In large factories, special three- or four-wire sys-
tems are sometimes used, giving a number of
From the emf equation: graded values for the armature voltage. With a
0 nZ four-wire system, as shown in Fig. 1.3, the arma-
V-I R ture may be supplied at no less than six different
values of voltage.
?0Z 0Z
a
From the above it is obvious that the speed of a
d.c. motor can be adjusted by:
50 V -
• Varying the value of the flux;
+
• varying the value of the voltage applied to the 100 V
motor armature; +
• varying the value of the effective number of 200 V
conductors in series.
The latter method can be applied only in special
cases and involves rocking the brushes through an FIG. 1.3
appreciable angle.
Most motors work off constant voltage supply 1.3.3 Series parallel control
systems. The only simple means of varying the vol- By using two similar motors mechanically coupled
tage applied to the armature is by including resis- to the same load, and connecting them in series as
tance in the main armature circuit. This involves shown in Fig. 1.4, each motor armature will receive
considerable waste of energy, so that the method one-half the normal voltage obtained when the

2
motors are connected in parallel, as shown in Fig. whether the field coils are connected in parallel
1.5, so that two operating characteristics are across the full voltage, or in series as shown.
possible. For a given armature current, the torque developed
by each motor has the same value for both series
and parallel connections and the speed at which this
torque is developed varies in direct proportion to
the voltage applied to the armature. The combina-
tion when working in parallel and developing a
given torque thus takes approximately twice the
-rZMWMW -ZIMOTMTP- current that is taken with the series connection for
the same torque, but the speed obtained with
" / parallel connection is double that obtained for

o—o
series connection, as shown by the torque current
and torque speed curves in Figs 1.6 and 1.7.

FIG. 1.4 1.3.4 Ward Leonard control system

This method of control not only gives a wide range
of operating speeds, but reduces to the very
minimum the waste of energy that may take place
2/ /' at starting and stopping.
In this system the motor is powered by its own

0 special generator, and the whole of control is

effected by varying the excitation and hence the
voltage of this generator. The motor armature is
connected directly to the variable voltage generator,
as shown in Fig. 1.8. Both the generator and motor
are separately excited. For normal working, the
FIG. 1.5 motor excitation is constant, although adjustments
may be made by means of a field regulator.
In the case of shunt motors, the voltage applied The main control is performed by varying the
to the field windings will be the same for both series generator field current, a convenient method being
and parallel working. It is a matter of convenience to employ a potentiometer regulator. By connect-

speed parallel
torque series torque series

i ii
4 l torque parallel
speed parallel
torque parallel

speed series

speed series

total current total current

FIG. 1.6: Characteristics of a pair of FIG. 1.7: Characteristics of a pair of

shunt motors with series parallel series motors with series parallel
control control

3
ing one end of the field winding to the mid-point feed back energy to the M-G set. Thus to stop the
of the regulator, and the other to the moving con- motor and its load, the exciting current of the
tact, the exciting current can not only be varied generator is steadily reduced, so that the emf in-
from maximum to zero, but its direction can be duced by the generator falls, and remains below
reversed. Zero field current will be obtained when that developed in the motor armature, the latter
A is at the mid-point. Moving A to the right puts still revolving in a fully excited field. The motor
A at a lower potential than B, and to the left at current reverses, and flows in the direction of its
a higher potential. induced emf. The motor therefore functions as a
The variable voltage generator is driven by a d.c. generator, converting into electrical energy its
or a.c. motor, the whole thus forming a motor energy of motion and that of the load, and supply-
generating set, which for certain duties is provided ing this energy to the generator of the converter
with a heavy flywheel. The motor generating set set. This latter machine will, in turn, act as a motor
runs continuously, but the generator is excited only and the speed of the converter set will be increased,
during the actual moments when the motor is work- the action of this set being completely reversed so
ing. The field current of the motor is unaltered dur- that for a brief period it will actually restore energy
ing any given working period. to the supply system. This holds both for a.c. and
To start up the motor the generator field is very d.c. supply systems when no flywheel is provided.
feebly excited by moving A a small distance in the When a flywheel is used it is so arranged that when
required direction. To produce full-load current, heavy load is taken from the generator, the
only a very small percentage of maximum work- converter set slows down appreciably. As a result
ing voltage is necessary. As the motor speeds up, the flywheel supplies energy to the generator, thus
the generator field current and hence its voltage is reducing the demand of the supply system. During
steadily increased, so that the current circulating braking of the winding motor, the energy restored
between the two armatures remains sensibly con- to the converter set is mainly stored by increasing
stant, and rapid acceleration takes place even when the kinetic energy of the flywheel.
the motor is heavily loaded. Any position of the
contact A gives a definite steady speed, and the
waste of energy in resistances is limited to that in 1.3.5 Problems relating to speed control
the potentiometer regulator, and is thus relatively
Since E, = - 0 , n, Z (1)
small. 1 a
The Ward Leonard method of control is much used and E=?0.n,Z (2)
2. i. I
for large reversing rolling mill motors and for col- a

liery winding, in which much of the energy of Dividing equation (2) by equation (1) we have:
motion of the motor and its load can be recovered,
E
when bringing the speed to zero, by causing the _l_ ="fl
variable voltage motor to act as a generator and E{ H.0,

UwvvvvVvJ
F

D.C.
A.C. drive
motor
V
exciter
variable load
voltage motor A
generator

FIG. 1.8: Ward Leonard method of speed control

4
Example 1.1 n2 = ?
The full load current of a shunt-wound motor is 0 2 = 0_
120 A and the applied voltage 400 V. The resistance £, = p.d. - xl R
of the armature and field circuit is 0,2 ohm and 2 a a
200 ohms respectively, while the speed is 780 r/min. = 400 - xl x 1,4
The torque developed by the motor is reduced to
70% of the full-load value with an additional
resistance of 1,2 ohms in series with the armature. Finding xl
Determine the speed of the motor.
T a I 0 , ; and T a xl 0,
1 0 1 2 a 2

120 A 2 A
0,7 T a xl 0,
I a{ 2

xI 0
i «3 = 02)
0,7

XI 0,
= / 0,
0,7
x 0,7
XI = 0,7 x 118
a,
FIG 19(a) = 82,6 A
E2 = 400 - 82,6 x 1,4
400 = 284,36 V
h " 200
= 2A

", = 780
0 0 „2 = E2 x «,
, = ?
- I R
£
, = p.d.
284,36 x 780
= 400 - 118 x 0,2 376,4
= 376,4 V = 589,3 r/min

Example 1.2
2 A
A series motor is fed from a 460 V supply and runs
at 780 r/min. on full-load while drawing a current
C5 of 120 amperes. The field and armature resistances
o are 0,05 and 0,09 ohms respectively. If the field is
o
assumed to be unsaturated, calculate:
400 V 200QC
D
(a) the speed when the torque is 60% of its
full-load value and a resistance of 0,1 ohm is
connected in parallel with the field;

(b) the speed if the applied voltage is 500 volts, the

load torque 70% of its full-load value and a
resistance of 1 ohm is connected in series with the
FIG. 1.9 (b) motor.

5
 / = 120 A
. x2!* x 0,1
= ',2
0,6 x 0,15

X
/ 0 , 6 X 0,15
0,05 Q \/ 0,1

= 0,948
460 V

*', = 0,948 x 120

0,09 Q = 113,76 A
Finding R

R
FIG. 1.10 (a) = 0,09 +
0,
° 5 x 0,1
0,05 + 0,1

W ", = 780 = 0,09 + 0,033

0, = 120 = 0,123 Q
460 - 113,76 x 0,123
E, = V - IR
1 a a,
= 445,97 V
= 460 - 120 x 0,14 n
202
= 443,2 V = 11,0,
xl
= E2 x ni x 0 j
E}x02
445,97 x 780 x 120 x 0,15
0,1 Q 0,05 Q
443,2 x 113,76 x 0,T

460 V
1242 r/min
(b)

0,09 Q
"l
= 780

0
, = '.
£
FIG. 1.10(b) , = V - 1 0

= 460 - 120 X 0,14

= 443,2 V
0 m xJl X 0,1
0,15
120
2 1 o,

= 460 - xly x R„2

0,05 Q

Finding x/,
460 V
r , o / , 0 , ; and T2 o x / , 0 2
0,09 Q
r /
2 0,6 r a ^ , x */, x 0,1
." ,
0,15

0,6 x 0,15 FIG. 1.11 (a)

6
 xl
supply. The current drawn is again 100 A.
Calculate:
1 Q (a) The speed of the motors;
(b) the voltage across the terminals of the motor
with the largest air gap.
0,052
500 V
100 A
0,09 Q

FIG. 1.11 (b) 0,3 Q

500 V

?
"2 =
<Z»2 = * / ,
500 - x / , x 1,14
FIG. 1.12(a)
Finding xl
(a)
T, a 7,0, and T2 a xl{ X x/(
". = 600
7, a 7,2 0,7 Tl a x2/,2
?
0
, =
r. a x2!2
E
i = V - IR
0,7 a a
~ 500 - 100 x 0,3
2
A 2
= I1
470 V
0,7
X
100 A
= 0,836
••• tf, = 0,836 x 120
= 100,39 A
£
2
= 500 - 100,39 x 1,14
0,3 Q
= 385,56 V 500 V

£
2
n 2 02
=

385,56 x 780 x 120

"2
=
443,2 x 100,39
= 811 r/min FIG. 1.12(b)
Example 1.3
The air gaps of two series motors are slightly "2 = 660
different. When separately supplied at 500 V each 0
7
2
draws 100 A, but motor A rotates at 600 r/min,
while motor B rotates at 660 r/min. Each motor E = V - IR
2
has a total resistance of 0,3 ohms. a a

The motors are now mechanically coupled to the = 500 -- 100 X 0,3
same load and electrically in series to a 500 V 470 V

7
 2 =
W
2g2 «, = 600
11,0, 0, = 02

470 =
660 x 0 , £•, = 470
470 600 x 0 [

0
2 = 470 X 600 r-^nnnnnras'MT \—TPrttt&S^-S Jh
0, 470 X 660
J. 100 A
02 = 0,909 0 ,
500 V
When the motors are mechanically coupled they
run at the same speed.

E 0. FIG. 1.12(e)

.-. E2 = 0,909 0 , x El
n2 = ?
0, = 0
E2 = 230,48
I—^nfinnnnn—^"y^MTOTRP-H^^-

#1,0,
n 100 A

500 V
"2
= 230,48 x 600 = 294,2 r/min
470

FIG. 1.12(c)
Machine B has the largest air gap.
V V
The applied voltage V
B = ~ A
V = E{ + E2 + volt drop in both = 500 - (EA + IR.)
machines
= 500 - (230,48 + 100 x 0,3)
500 = El + 0,909 El + 100 x 0,6
= 500 - 260,48
500 = 1,909 E, + 60
M0
= 239,52 V
E1 =
1,909
= 230,48 V Exercise 1.1
1. A d.c. shunt motor takes an armature current
The conditions of machine A running alone against of 20 A from a 230 V supply. Armature circuit
its conditions running coupled to machine B. (Figs resistance is 0,5 ohm. Calculate the resistance
1.12 (d) and (e)): required in series with the armature to halve the
speed, if:
(a) The load torque is constant; (5,5 ohms)

^nmnrcrirw^
O (b) the load torque is proportional to the square
of the speed. (23,5 ohms)
2. A d.c. shunt motor rotates at 900 r/min when
connected to a 480 V supply and takes an
1100 A
armature current of 25 A. Calculate the speed
500 V if the motor operates from a 240 V supply,
taking an armature current of 15 A. The
resistance of the armature circuit is 0,8 ohm.
Assume that the flux per pole at 240 V is 75%
FIG. 1.12 (d) of the flux at 480 V. (595 r/min)

8
3. The armature circuit resistance of a 250 V shunt per pole being 0,03 Wb. The armature circuit
motor is 0,3 ohm and its full load speed 1 000 resistance is 0,1 ohm. If the flux is suddenly
r/min. Calculate the resistance required in series reduced to 0,025 Wb, determine:
with the armature to reduce the full load speed (a) The value to which the armature current will
to 800 r/min at a full load armature current of rise; (208 A)
50 A. If the load torque is then 50% of its full (b) the speed to which the motor will accelerate.
load value, what will the speed of the motor be? Ignore inductive effects and armature reaction
Ignore the effect of armature reaction. and assume that the load torque remains
(0,94 ohms; 932 r/min) constant. (950)
4. A 400 V d.c. series motor takes a current of 30
A when running at 800 r/min. Assuming the
flux to be proportional to the current and the 1.4 Load sharing of generators in parallel
resistance of the motor to be 0,6 ohm,
determine: 1.4.1 Shunt generators in parallel
(a) The speed when the current is 50A; (464,9)
The subdivision of the load during parallel
(b) the ratio of the two torques developed.
operation is determined by the nature of the
(1 : 2,78) machines' external characteristics. The total
5. A 400 V d.c. series motor takes 90 A from the external characteristic for a number of machines
supply when running at 800 r/min. The in parallel is obtained by adding corresponding
armature circuit and field resistances are 0,1 and abscissae of their individual characteristics.
0,2 ohm respectively. If the load is increased, Fig. 1.13 (p. 10) gives the external characteristics
the developed torque increases by 0,3 per unit of two shunt generators, excited so as to give
and a 0,2 ohm diverter resistance is connected exactly the same open circuit emf. For a terminal
in parallel with the field. Determine the speed voltage O V, machine 1 delivers a current of VA,
at which the motor will run, assuming that the and machine 2 a current VB\ the total current is
flux is proportional to the field current.(986,9) therefore VC = VA + VB. It follows then that
6. When taking a current of 30 A, a 230 V d.c. the machine with the more drooping characteristic
series motor runs at 94 rad/s. If the sum of the takes a smaller share of the load.
field and armature circuits is 0,8 ohm, determine
the value of a resistor to be connected in series Let us assume that generator P is connected across
with the motor to reduce the speed to 63 rad/s, busbars B B (Fig. 1.14) (p. 10) and is supplying the
assuming that the gross torque is directly load, and that it is desired to connect generator Q
proportional to the speed, and the magnetic in parallel. The engine driving Q is run up to speed,
circuit is unsaturated. (3,98) switch Sl is closed and a voltmeter Kis connected
7. A certain d.c. series motor runs at a speed of across switch S . The excitation of Q is varied by
600 r/min when taking a current of 50 A from means of R until the reading of V is zero and S
a 400 V main; the resistance of the armature and is then closed.
series field are 0,2 ohm and 0,1 ohm Hence the busbar voltage can be maintained
respectively. Calculate the speed of the motor constant and the load transferred from P to Q by
when a 0,15 ohm diverter is connected in parallel increasing the excitation or the speed (or both) of
with the field winding. Assume that the torque Q or by reducing the excitation or speed (or both)
is unaltered and that the flux is proportional to of P.
the field current. (771) The current supplied by an armature depends upon
8. The full-load speed of a certain d.c. series motor the difference between the generated emf and the
is 500 r/min. Calculate the resistance of a terminal voltage. Thus:
diverter to raise the speed to 650 r/min,
assuming that the current taken from the mains
is to remain unchanged at its full load value.
The resistance of the series field is 0,05 ohm and
the ohmic volt drops are negligible. The flux per where / and / „ = armature currents of P and
P Q _ . ,
pole is proportional to the field current. Q respectively
(0,166 ohm) E and E = generated emf of P and Q
9. A 100 V d.c. shunt motor takes an armature respectively
current of 50 A at a speed of 800 r/min, the flux V = common busbar voltage

9
 1 v I
i i i i
/ •
• i i

. J :
T
i i i

load current

FIG. 1.13

+ B
- B
>

<z>

FIG. 1.14: Generators in parallel

It follows that the total current delivered by the two If the main circuit of the two generators operating
machines is: in parallel is open, the terminal voltage will be
E - V E.-V OV0. The one machine now delivers V0F amperes
IT = -PR —2R while the other draws V0K amperes, thus working
n as a motor until the load current reaches the value
p Q OA amperes. At this stage this machine will
If the open-circuit emf of shunt generators working "float", i.e. it will neither deliver nor draw current.
in parallel is not equal, the characteristic shown in If the load now rises beyond this value, the
Fig. 1.15 is obtained. machines will share the load, machine 1 taking the
The total characteristic is obtained by adding the greatest percentage of the load.
corresponding abscissae.

10