MOTOR PRIMER

PART 2
Paper #29

Gary Donner Bill Subler Steve Evon

Senior Member IEEE Member IEEE Member IEEE
Equilon Reliance Electric Reliance Electric
2101 E Pacific Coast Hwy. 6040 Ponders Ct. 6040 Ponders Ct.
P.O. Box 817 Greenville, SC 29615 Greenville, SC 29615
Wilmington , CA 90748 0817

Abstract: In recent years much has been written about When a circuit breaker is used, it is recommended that the
applying motors with variable speed drives, high speed circuit breaker be a thermal magnetic trip type rather than a
rigid shaft motors, the impact of API Standard 541 on magnetic only motor protection breaker. The thermal
motors, motor diagnostics and much more. Most of these magnetic breaker provides back up thermal protection for
papers and articles assume that the reader has significant the motor. In addition a thermal magnetic circuit breaker
knowledge of motor theory and operation. However, this has a stand-alone short circuit interrupting rating, which is
assumption is overly optimistic, considering that little, if not available for motor protection breakers. This fact is
any, colleges teach motor theory today and that very important because a common problem that occurs in
application experience at motor user locations has been combination motor starters is the motor starting contactor
significantly reduced in recent years. may fail either phase to phase or phase to ground. When
this happens it is imperative that the fault be cleared with
This paper is the second of a series of papers on motor no escalation of the fault.
basics. The authors will present motor theory and
application information with an extensive reference list
that will help engineers understand such questions as
why do motors make pulsating noises? This paper will
also serve as a valuable reference for those who use or
purchase motors.

Introduction
This paper is the second in a series of papers answering
questions that are routinely asked by engineers and
technicians working in refineries and chemical plants. As
with the previous paper, this paper will use a question and
answer format to enable the reader to gain a better
understanding of motors and motor applications. It also
allows for easier reference in the future when the reader
has to find the answer to a specific question.

1. What is the appropriate protection for my motor?

Motor protection is based, to a large extent, on the size,

voltage rating, and importance of the motor. The
following answers are based on the assumption that the
motor in question is a three-phase motor.
Figure 1 – Combination Motor Starter
460 volt motors up to l50 to 200 Hp: A molded case
circuit breaker, or fuses and thermal overloads adequately If fuses are used instead of a circuit breaker, it is
protect motors of this size. This type of arrangement is recommended that current limiting fuses be used. Current
called a Combination Motor Starter (1). limiting fuses have the ability to limit the damage that

1
occurs when a short circuit current must be cleared. In Oil immersed motor starters are primarily used in classified
addition they will limit the thermal and acoustic energy locations today because it is possible to make this
that is released if an electrical worker is working on the configuration safe for operation in an explosive
combination motor starter and a fault occurs. The correct atmosphere
selection of the fuse is very important. If there is not
sufficient short circuit energy available, the current Air magnetic contactors equipped with current limiting
limiting fuse will not limit current. It is also very important fuses are primarily used today on systems where it is
that when fuses are replaced, they have the same rating desired to match an existing equipment installation.
and the same characteristics as the original fuse, and that Another appropriate application of air magnetic contactors
all three fuses are built by the same manufacturer. Fuses is on systems where the fault duty is very high, the motor
with the same rating but made by different manufacturers starting MVA is more than 60% of the contactor’s
might not all be the same. interrupting rating, and/or the motor feeder is long.

The addition of an amp meter, amp meter switch, and three Vacuum contactors equipped with current limiting fuses
current transformers to power the amp meter, is an are by far the most widely used type of motor contactor
excellent addition to provide increased safety by design. that is used today because of their smaller size and lower
This addition will increase the safety of electrical workers maintenance; however care must be exercised in their
and help determine the load on the motor being protected. application. If the starter is repeatedly operated near its
With the amp meter, the motor starter enclosure does not interrupting rating, after many operations the contactor
have to be opened to measure the motor load. The amp will re-strike or force a current zero when it interrupts large
meter is also a very good troubleshooting tool if motor magnitudes of current.
problems should occur.

460 volt motors above 200 Hp., or in critical un-spared

service: Motors of this size can be protected the same
way as smaller motors. It is recommended that in these
types of applications the motor be equipped with
resistance temperature detectors (RTD’s) in the windings
and the overload protection be provided by a
microprocessor based motor protection relay. Such relays
provide much more sensitive protection and protect the
motor against many more types of potential problems.
These relays are available from many manufacturers and
provide local indication of all of the major motor
performance parameters. In addition to local indication, it
is possible to connect these relays to a data acquisition
system that allows monitoring of the motor remotely.
Such relays protect against overload, too many starts per
hour, short circuit in the motor or its feeder cables,
mechanical jam, underload, current balance, grounded
winding, high winding temperature, damaged
hydrodynamic bearings, under or over supply voltage,
phase reversal, under or over supply voltage frequency,
as well as many customer configured special options (2).
Because of the relatively low price of microprocessor-
based relays compared to individual protection relays for
each protection function, the microprocessor-based relays
are becoming very popular. This higher level of protection
will also save an important motor from damage or minimize
the damage should a motor failure occur.

Medium voltage motors, up to around 800 to 1000Hp:

There are currently three types of motor starters available Figure 2 – E2 Starter
for use in this voltage range. They are air magnetic,
vacuum and oil immersed motor starters.

2
Regardless of the type of contactor that is used, a The temperature rise of a motor operated at 1.15 service
microprocessor-based motor protection relay is factor will usually increase 25 to 30% above rated load
recommended for these applications. The normal mode of temperature. As a general rule, for every 1% increase in
backup protection for failure of the microprocessor-based load above rated load the temperature rise will increase
relay is for the relay to trip the motor if the relay's self- 2%.
diagnostics detect a relay failure. For critical applications,
where tripping the motor because of a relay problem is
unacceptable, it is possible to use the relay's intelligence
and relay auxiliary contacts to make two relays check each
other and provide redundant protection. Such a
configuration can remove the defective relay from the
protection system without shutting down the motor, and
initiate an alarm while still providing complete protection
of the motor using the one remaining protection relay.

Motors 1500 Hp. and above: Large motors are usually

controlled by a circuit breaker. The circuit breaker is also
used when the size of the motor exceeds the ratings of
motor starting contactors. The protection in this type of
installation is usually provided by discrete relays. The
reason for this is that the value of the motor and its Figure 3
associated equipment is so great that the highest level of
redundant protection that can be achieved is desired. The motor nameplate in figure 3 is a typical nameplate for
an AC induction motor. The motor for this nameplate is
The normal protection for this class of motor consists of rated 900 HP with a 1.15 service factor. Notice that the
individual relays to provide protection for instantaneous nameplate rise of the motor is 80°C rise by resistance at
and timed over current, under and over voltage and phase 900 hp. The nameplate does not state the temperature rise
reversal, current balance, differential current, excessive for 1.15 service factor but does list the insulation as class
winding temperature rise as detected by RTD's, (mandated F. The maximum temperature rise can be found by using
by the National Electrical Code) (3), excessive bearing the tables in the figures 4 and 5. The tables in figures 4
temperature rise, ground fault protection, and stall and 5 are from NEMA MG-1 20.8. They define the
protection. (4). maximum allowable temperature rise for a motor. Using
table 5 it can be determined that the maximum rise for F
Synchronous Motors of any size: The basic protection for insulation is 115°C rise by resistance or 125°C rise by
synchronous motors is the same as that for induction embedded detector at 1.15 service factor. The motor rise is
motors except that additional protection against the allowed to increase 35°C above rated rise for this particular
following is required: field voltage not applied, loss of field motor.
voltage, power factor out of range, and under or over
excitation. The actual rise of this particular motor is 73°C rise by
resistance at rated load and 92°C rise by resistance at 1.15
service factor. This is a 25% increase in motor temperature
2. What is service factor? NEMA MG-1 defines when run at the service factor load. While the temperature
the service factor of an AC motor as “a multiplier which, rise of the motor is within the maximum temperature for the
when applied to the rated horsepower, indicates a insulation class, it has increased nearly 20°C. Using the
permissible horsepower loading which may be carried rule of thumb that insulation life is reduce 50% for every
under the conditions specified for the service factor”. In 10°C increase in temperature, one could argue that motor
other words it is the amount that the motor may be insulation life at service factor would be 25% of the life at
overloaded for the duty conditions specified on the rated load. The above temperature rises are in ideal
nameplate. For example, a continuous duty 1000 hp motor operating conditions. Many motors do not operate in
with a 1.15 service factor can be continuously loaded up ideal operating conditions. Conditions such as low
to 1150 hp. A similar motor with a 1.0 service factor can be voltage, high ambient, poor maintenance and as well as
only loaded up to 1000 hp. many others will increase the temperature rise of the
motor.
The motor’s temperature rise and performance will be
different from rated load when operating at service factor.

3
It should be noted that bearing temperatures would also power factor will also change. The change is dependent
increase at service factor load. The amount of increase of motor enclosure and design. The power factor will
depends on enclosure and motor design. It is possible to typically change by ± 2%.
see a bearing temperature increase of 10°C. This increase
could impact bearing lubrication life and maintenance New motors should be sized with maximum load being less
cycles. than or equal to rated load. It is not recommended that
motors be size based on service factor load. The service
The electrical performance of the motor at service factor is factor of a motor is intended for occasional overload
also different. The motor efficiency usually decreases at conditions. Purchasing a motor with a 1.15 service factor
service factor load. The amount of decrease is dependent is common and allows for some safety factor in sizing the
on the motor design and enclosure. The amount of motor. Motors should not be run for long periods of time
decrease is usually in the range of 0.2 to 1.0%. Motor at loads above their nameplate service factor.

Machines with a 1.0 Service Factor at Rated Load

Temperature Rise, Degrees C
Class of Insulation System
Method of
Temperature
Item Machine Part Determination A B F H
a. Insulated windings
1. All horsepower (kW) ratings Resistance 60 80 105 125
2. 1500 horsepower and less Embedded detector* 70 90 115 140
3. Over 1500 horsepower (1120 kW)
a. 7000 volts and less Embedded detector* 65 85 110 135
b. Over 7000 volts Embedded detector* 60 80 105 125
b. The temperatures attained by cores, squirrel-cage windings, collector rings, and miscellaneous parts (such as
brushholders and brushes, etc.) shall not injure the insulation or the machine in any respect.
*Embedded detectors are located within the slot of the machine and can be either resistance elements or thermocouples. For
machines equipped with embedded detectors this method shall be used to demonstrate conformity with the standard.

Figure 4

Machines with a 1.15 Service Factor at Service Factor Load

Temperature Rise, Degrees C
Class of Insulation System
Method of
Temperature
Item Machine Part Determination A B F H
a. Insulated windings
1. All horsepower (kW) ratings Resistance 70 90 115 135
2. 1500 horsepower and less Embedded detector* 80 100 125 150
3. Over 1500 horsepower (1120 kW)
a. 7000 volts and less Embedded detector* 75 95 120 145
b. Over 7000 volts Embedded detector* 70 90 115 135
b. The temperatures attained by cores, squirrel-cage windings, collector rings, and miscellaneous parts (such as
brushholders and brushes, etc.) shall not injure the insulation or the machine in any respect.
*Embedded detectors are located within the slot of the machine and can be either resistance elements or thermocouples. For
machines equipped with embedded detectors this method shall be used to demonstrate conformity with the standard.

Figure 5

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3. How much can a motor be overload and for how long? measurements. The overload time can then be determined
NEMA MG-1 does not have a definition for motor from the chart. For example, for 300% of rated current the
overload. The overload of a motor can be defined as any motor could be loaded for 100 seconds without damage to
load that exceeds the rated load of a motor. the motor.

A service factor may be considered an overload. An

overload that is within the service factor rating and duty of
the motor is acceptable. Since service factor was
discussed in the previous section, overloads that are
above the service factor will be reviewed.

For certain applications overloads are common.

Applications such as reciprocating compressors, crushers
and chippers have frequent and repetitive overloads.
Frequent overloads should be and usually are taken into
consideration when sizing the motor. The RMS loading of
the motor must be calculated for applications with frequent
overloads. The percentage of the overload should also be
determined and taken into account when sizing the motor.
Issues such as current pulsation and peak toques must be
reviewed by the motor manufacture if they frequently or
significantly exceed rated torque.

Other applications may require occasional overloads.

Occasional overloads are acceptable for most applications.
An AC induction motor usually has a long thermal time
constant. Generally these motors take between 3 and 8
hours to reach rated temperature from ambient temperature. Figure 6
Therefore, overloads that last several minutes and occur
occasionally do not harm the motor. The overloads within limits on the thermal limit curve
should be infrequent. If the motor is frequently overloaded
The best way to determine the acceptable amount of to the curve limits the life of the motor will be reduced.
overload and the duration of the overload is to check the Continuous operation of the motor above its insulation
manufactures thermal limit curves for the specific motor. temperature limits can reduce the life of the motor by 50%
An example of a thermal limit curve and be found in figure for every 10°C that the temperature limit is exceeded. If the
6. overloads are required frequently a larger motor should be
considered.
IEEE Std. 620 is a guide for the presentation of thermal limit
curves. The thermal limit curve in figure 6 was created per The use of winding temperature detectors can be used to
this standard. Many motor manufactures provide the protect the motor if overloading is a concern. The
thermal limit curve for each motor as part of the standard temperature detectors should be wired to a controller and
software package. set for warning and trip temperatures. The table in figure 7
lists recommended stator winding alarm and trip
The thermal limit curve lists the Percentage of Full Load temperatures.
Current on the X-axis and Time in seconds on the Y-axis.
The curve defines maximum times for three conditions. Stator Insulation
The conditions are Locked Rotor, Acceleration and
Class B Class F
Overload.
Maximum total temperature 130°C 155°C
Alarm total temperature 135°C 160°C
The overload section of the curve defines overload from
service factor up to motor breakdown torque. To Trip total temperature 145°C 170°C
determine the time that the motor can be overloaded the Figure 7
percent of full load current at the overload must be
determined. The overload current can be found on the
motors speed-torque/current curve or by line current

5
In addition to concerns for the winding temperatures at and laminations, the rotor core will be at a higher
overload conditions, the bearings must also be considered, temperature than the motor shaft.
particularly in Totally Enclosed motors. In these Totally
Enclosed motors, heat from the motor windings and rotor is • In cast aluminum rotors and fabricated rotors that
conducted/convected into the motor bearings. This is have the rotor bars in tension at ambient temperature,
particularly important for the drive end bearing on the the residual tension in the bars will be reduced as the
typical TEFC motor without internal/external counter-flow rotor temperature increases, due to the greater
air circuits. Figure 7-a shows the correlation between coefficient of thermal expansion of the rotor bars.
winding and bearing temperatures for such a motor. In
general, if the winding temperature does not exceed NEMA Both of these conditions will lead to a decrease in the
Class F, the bearing temperatures will be satisfactory. rotor/shaft assembly bending critical speeds, as they both
However, on vertical and flanged motors, more decrease the effective shaft diameter through the rotor and
conservatism may be required as no bearing external resulting bending stiffness of the assembly.
cooling schemes are usually incorporated on the drive end
of these motors.
4. What is the maximum acceleration time of a motor?
The acceleration time of a motor is the time required for the
Brg Rise vs. Winding Rise motor to accelerate from zero to rated speed. During a full
TEFC Motor
voltage start motor current is usually 5 to 7 times rated
60
DE Brg current. The large increase in current produces high I2R
ODE Brg losses in stator and rotor. The temperature of the stator
and rotor will increase rapidly. The insulation systems
50 maximum temperature can be exceeded if acceleration time
is too long. This can cause reduce insulation and motor
life.
40
The acceleration time of a motor depends on the
Bearing Rise (C)

application and motor design. When purchasing a motor it

is important to consider the load starting characteristics,
30
both load inertia and load speed versus torque. This is
especially important in large motors and applications where
reduced voltage starting is required. Issues such as
20 voltage drop during starting should be addressed.
Reduced voltage at the motor terminals will increase
acceleration time.
10
Motors are usually designed for typical applications. For
example, two pole motors are designed for applications
such as pumps and compressors. Pumps and compressors
0
usually have low inertia’s and have a load speed versus
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
torque curve where torque increase as the square of the
Winding Rise (C)
speed. The acceleration time of pump and compressors is
normally short. If a standard two-pole motor was used for
Figure 7 – a. Drive End Motor Bearing Temperature a high inertia application, above NEMA rated inertia,
versus Winding Temperature excessive acceleration times would result. The excessive
acceleration times could result in premature insulation
The rotor losses increase more than linearly with increased failure.
load, which results in significantly increased rotor
temperatures. As the rotor temperature increases, the Many applications required specially designed motors to
following occurs: start. Some compressors have inertia’s several time above
NEMA values. Unique applications such as centrifuges,
• The interference fit between the rotor laminations and crushers and pulverizers can require starting loaded inertia
the shaft is reduced, due to the temperature difference many times the NEMA limit. The load starting information
between the rotor core and the shaft. Since the losses should be reviewed by the motor manufacture for all
in the rotor due to load are generated in the rotor bars applications with inertia exceeding NEMA levels.

6
It is important that the actual acceleration time does not breakdown torque, the pull-up torque is the minimum
exceed the safe time provided by the motor manufacture. torque up to rated speed.
The motor thermal limit curve is the best way to determine
maximum acceleration time. An example of a thermal limit Breakdown torque of a motor is the maximum torque which
curve can be found in figure 6. The center section of the it will develop with rated voltage applied at rated
curve is the maximum acceleration time. The acceleration frequency, without an abrupt drop in speed.
time on the Y-axis is plotted against percent full load
current on the X-axis.

It is desirable to have the acceleration time less than the

motor safe locked rotor time at rated voltage. The maximum
locked rotor time is plot to the right of acceleration time on
the motor thermal limit curve. It is not always possible for
the acceleration time to be less than maximum locked rotor
time. This is especially true for high inertia applications.

If the load inertia and speed versus torque curve is

provided to the motor manufacture, the motor manufacture
can superimpose the motor acceleration time versus
current curve on the thermal limit curve, see figure 6. The
motor acceleration time versus current curve is a plot of
motor current versus time for a particular application. It is
then easy to determine if the motor accelerates within the
safe acceleration time. Providing the load data and starting
conditions also allows the motor manufacture to review the
application requirements and provide the optimum motor.
Although providing this information is not practical for all
motors, this data should be provided for large motors.

5. How much torque does a motor develop during

starting and running? How long does it take to accelerate Figure 8
a load? The amount of torque a motor develops during
starting depends on the motor’s speed, horsepower and NEMA MG-1defines four design letters or speed-
design. The motor speed versus torque curve provided torque/amps characteristics for Polyphase Squirrel-Cage
with the motor plots both current and speed from rest to induction motors. NEMA MG-1 Part 12 defines the
synchronous speed. An example of a motor speed vs. minimum locked rotor, pull-up and breakdown torques as
torque curve can be found in figure 8. NEMA MG-1 well as locked rotor currents through 500 Hp. NEMA MG-
defines four torque points on the motor speed torque 1 Part 20 defines motors characteristic above those listed in
curve. They are as follows. part 12. The following are definitions of each of the four
design letters.
Full-load torque of a motor is the torque necessary to
produce its rated horsepower at full-load speed. In pounds Design A motor is a squirrel-cage motor designed to
at a foot radius, it is equal to the horsepower multiplied by withstand full-voltage starting and developing locked-rotor
5252 divided by the full-load speed. torque as shown in figure 10, pull-up torque as shown in
table 11 and breakdown torque as shown in figure 12. The
Locked-rotor Torque of a motor is the minimum torque, locked-rotor current is higher than the values shown in
which it will develop at rest for all angular positions of the figure 9. The rated slip shall be less than 5 percent. The
rotor, with rated voltage applied at rated frequency. design A motor is generally a higher efficiency motor than
Design B.
Pull-up Torque of an alternating-current motor is the
minimum torque developed by the motor during the period
of acceleration from rest to the speed at which breakdown
torque occurs. For motors, which do not have a definite

7
 Maximum Locked-Rotor Current for 60-Hz Minimum Locked-rotor Torque of Design A and B
Design B, C, and D Motors at 230 volts Single Speed Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Medium Motors
Locked-Rotor Synchronous Speed, Rpm
HP Current, Amps* Design Letters 3600 1800 1200 900
½ 20 B,D HP 3000 1500 1000 750
¾ 25 B,D ½ --- --- --- 140
1 30 B,C,D ¾ --- --- 175 135
1½ 40 B,C,D 1 --- 275 170 135
2 50 B,C,D 1½ 175 250 165 130
3 64 B,C,D 2 170 235 160 130
5 92 B,C,D 3 160 215 155 130
7.5 127 B,C,D 5 150 185 150 130
10 162 B,C,D 7.5 140 175 150 125
15 232 B,C,D 10 135 165 150 125
20 290 B,C,D 15 130 160 140 125
25 365 B,C,D 20 130 150 135 125
30 435 B,C,D 25 130 150 135 125
40 580 B,C,D 30 130 150 135 125
50 725 B,C,D 40 125 140 135 125
60 870 B,C,D 50 120 140 135 125
75 1085 B,C,D 60 120 140 135 125
100 1450 B,C,D 75 105 140 135 125
125 1815 B,C,D 100 105 125 125 125
150 2170 B,C,D 125 100 110 125 120
200 2900 B,C 150 100 110 120 120
250 3650 B 200 100 100 120 120
300 4400 B 250 70 80 100 100
350 5100 B 300 70 80 100 ---
400 5800 B 350 70 80 100 ---
450 6500 B 400 70 80 --- ---
500 7250 B 450 70 80 --- ---
Figure 9 500 70 80 --- ---
Figure 10

Design B motor is a squirrel-cage motor designed to Design D motor is a squirrel-cage motor design to
withstand full-voltage starting, developing locked-rotor per withstand full-voltage starting, developing high locked
figure 10, pull-up per figure 11 and breakdown torque per rotor torque. The locked rotor torque for 4, 6 and 8-pole,
figure 12. The torques are adequate for general single speed medium motor rated 150 horsepower and
applications. Locked-rotor current shall not exceed the smaller, with rated voltage and frequency applied, shall be
values shown in figure 9 and rated slip shall not be more not less than 275 percent of full load torque. The locked
than 5 percent rotor current shall not exceed the values in figure 9. The
slip at rated load shall be 5 percent or more.
Design C motor is a squirrel-cage motor designed to
withstand full-voltage starting, developing locked-rotor
torque for special high-torque application up to values
shown in figure 13, pull-up torque as shown in figure 14
and breakdown torque up to the values shown in figure 15.
The locked-rotor current shall not exceed the values shown
in figure 9. The rated slip shall be less than 5 percent

8
Minimum Pull-up Torque of Design A and B Minimum Locked-rotor Torque of Design C
Single Speed Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Medium Motors Single Speed Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Medium Motors
Synchronous Speed, Rpm Synchronous Speed, Rpm
3600 1800 1200 900 1800 1200 900
HP 3000 1500 1000 750 HP 1500 1000 750
½ --- --- --- 100 1 285 255 225
¾ --- --- 120 100 1.5 285 250 225
1 --- 190 120 100 2 285 250 225
1½ 120 175 115 100 3 270 250 225
2 120 165 110 100 5 255 250 225
3 110 150 110 100 7.5 250 225 200
5 105 130 105 100 10 250 225 200
7.5 100 120 105 100 15 225 210 200
10 100 115 105 100 20-200 Inclusive 200 200 200
15 100 110 100 100 Figure 13
20 100 105 100 100
25 100 105 100 100
30 100 105 100 100 Minimum Pull-up Torque of Design C
40 100 100 100 100 Single Speed Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Medium Motors
50 100 100 100 100 Synchronous Speed, Rpm
60 100 100 100 100 1800 1200 900
75 95 100 100 100 HP 1500 1000 750
100 95 100 100 100 1 195 180 165
125 90 100 100 100 1½ 195 175 160
150 90 100 100 100 2 195 175 160
200 90 90 100 100 3 180 175 160
250 65 75 90 90 5 180 175 160
300 65 75 90 --- 7½ 175 165 150
350 65 75 90 --- 10 175 165 150
400 65 75 --- --- 15 165 150 140
450 65 75 --- --- 20 165 150 140
500 65 75 --- --- 25 150 150 140
Figure 11 30 150 150 140
40 150 150 140
Minimum Breakdown Torque of Design A and B 50 150 150 140
Single Speed Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Medium Motors 60-200 Inclusive 140 140 140
Synchronous Speed, Rpm Figure 14
3600 1800 1200 900
HP 3000 1500 1000 750
½ --- --- --- 225
¾ --- --- 275 220 Minimum Breakdown Torque of Design C
1 --- 300 265 215 Single Speed Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Medium Motors
1½ 250 280 250 210 Synchronous Speed, Rpm
2 240 270 240 210 1800 1200 900
3 230 250 230 205 HP 1500 1000 750
5 215 225 215 205 1 200 225 200
7.5 200 215 205 200 1½ 200 225 200
10-125, inclusive 200 200 200 200 2 200 225 200
150 200 200 200 200 3 200 225 200
200 200 200 200 200 5 200 200 200
250 175 175 175 175 7 ½ - 20 200 190 190
300-350 175 175 175 --- 20-200 Inclusive 190 190 190
400-500, inclusive 175 175 --- --- Figure 15
Figure 12

9
Large horsepower motor above the value listed in NEMA reduced approximately 10% throughout the speed range.
part 12 are defined by NEMA MG-1 part 20. Part 20 defines An example for the motor speed versus torque and current
only two design types, they are: at rated voltage can be found in figure 8.

Standard Torque motors shall have torques, with rated The acceleration time of the motor is dependent on many
voltage and frequency applied, not less than the values in factors. The motor torque and inertia as well as the load
figure 16. torque vs. speed curve and inertia have to be known to
determine acceleration time. The acceleration time of a
Torques Percent of Rated Full-Load Torque motor can be calculated using the following equation.
Locked-Rotor 60
Pull-up 60 Acceleration Time = (WK2M + WK2L) x RPM
Breakdown 175 308 x TAVG
Figure 16
WK2M = Inertia of the motor in lb-ft 2.
High Torque motors shall have torques, with rated voltage WK2L = Inertia of the load in lb-ft 2.
and frequency applied, not less than the values in figure RPM = Change in speed in rpm.
17. TAVG = Average acceleration torque in lb.-ft. Average
motor torque less average load torque from minimum to
Torques Percent of Rated Full-Load Torque maximum speed.
Locked-Rotor 200
Pull-up 150 The above equation provides a quick estimate of
Breakdown 190 acceleration time. Most motor manufactures can provide a
Figure 17 more accurate calculation of acceleration time. The motor
manufacture normally provides the acceleration time
Most large motors are designed with torque characteristics versus current on the thermal limit curve. To calculate the
meeting the Standard Torque requirements. The Standard acceleration time the load inertia and load torque versus
Torque motors are similar to a medium horsepower design speed curve must be provided to the motor manufacture.
A or B characteristics. Higher Torque large motors are less
common is large motors. They are similar to medium
horsepower design C or D. Since large motors are not 6. Why do motors make a “pulsating” noise? It is not
usually stocked, they are usually designed to match the unusual to perceive a pulsation or modulation of the noise
application requirements. generated by a motor. This modulation in noise is
accompanied with a modulation in machine vibration and it
The motor torque vs. speed curve is usually provided at is this vibration signature that is used to analyze the
rated voltage. The torque and current of the motor will machine’s health. This is particularly apparent on 2-pole
change with voltage. An example of a motor speed versus induction motors. The most common cause of these
torque and current curve can be found in figure 8. The pulsations is dissymmetry in the air gap of the motor. The
relationship between torque and voltage is as follows. frequency of these pulsations is typically one or two times
the slip frequency of the motor – in the range of 5 to 100
Torque ∝ Voltage2 cycles per minute.

If voltage at the motor terminals is low, the torque Some characteristics of this “pulsating” noise are that the
produced by the motor will drop by approximately the modulating component of the vibration and noise may be
square of the voltage. Therefore, a motor with 90% rated at line frequency, two times line frequency or at rotational
voltage at the terminals will have about 81% of peak speed of the motor. The geometry of the rotor and air gap
torque’s. Since the motor has lower torque acceleration determines which of these components will dominate.
time will increase. If the torque of the motor drops such References A, B, C and D provide in depth discussions of
that it is not greater than the torque required to accelerate these points, but a brief summary follows:
the load, the motor will not reach rated speed.
• An eccentric rotor cage with a concentric rotor outside
Current ∝ Voltage diameter can result in modulation of the running speed
vibration. (See Figure 17)
The current of the motor drops proportional to voltage.
Therefore, a motor with 90% rated voltage has current

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 • An eccentric rotor outside diameter can result in
modulation of the twice line frequency vibration at two
times the slip frequency (See Figure 19)

• Eccentric air gaps with a concentric rotor can result in

modulation of the twice line frequency vibration. (See
Figure 18)

Although the modulation in sound resulting from these

dissymmetries is obvious only when the motor is under
load, the vibration modulation can be detected with the
motor operating at no load. In order to monitor this
vibration modulation, the machine vibration must be
recorded for at least one slip period, which may be as much
as fifteen minutes.

• Motors with open rotor bars will exhibit modulation in

vibration when under load, but may not exhibit any of
these characteristics when operated at no load.
Current must be flowing through the rotor conductors
to cause the open rotor bars to become a dissymmetry.
When the open rotor bars are concentrated in one area
of the rotor, the running speed vibration component
will be modulated at the number of poles in the motor
times the slip frequency.

Establishing vibration limits for the line frequency and

twice line frequency vibration components will in
effect limit the eccentricities discussed above to
acceptable levels. In addition to the maximum levels of
these components, some users have defined limits in
the modulation of these components.

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7. What is meant by “critical speeds”? Flexible shaft Some parameters that control the: critical speed” frequency
designs? Rigid shaft designs? Damped response and amplitude of vibration are:
critical? The following definitions are very general, but • Rotating assembly mass
will provide a basic understanding of the terms. More in- • Rotating assembly bending stiffness – a function of
depth and technical explanations are provided in the shaft diameters and bending stiffening effect of the
references. rotor core and cage.
• Bearing stiffness – these are generally different in the
For the discussions presented in this paper, the critical horizontal and vertical directions
speed of concern is the rotating assembly first bending • Bearing damping – this is the bearing’s ability to
critical. This critical speed includes the rotating assembly dissipate vibration energy similar to the shock
mass and stiffness, bearing system stiffness and damping absorbers on a car.
and the rotor bearing support system. When a motor • Bearing support system stiffness and damping
operates at a speed coincident with this critical speed, characteristics – this system includes motor brackets,
deflection occurs within the rotor shaft assembly due to motor brackets to frame feet structure and any
bending, in the bearings and in the system that supports structure between the motor feet and the rigid
the bearings. (See Figure 20) foundation or “ground”. Thus, the critical speed is
affected by the support system on which the motor is
mounted.

“Rigid shaft” motors are those that operate at speed less

than their first rotor bending critical speed. These motors
do not pass through a rotor critical speed between zero
speed and their rated no load speed. See Figure 21 for a
typical vibration versus speed response for this type of
motor.

The term “critical speed” in this context is associated with

the rotational speed at which the motor vibration levels
increases dramatically. As this “critical” rotating speed is
approached from lower speeds, the vibration levels will
increase, often time at exponential rates. After this
“critical” rotating speed is passed, the vibration levels will
decrease, even as the rotational speed and unbalance
forces increase. Many years ago, it was erroneously
believed that a rotating machine would destroy itself when
operated at this “critical speed”, thus its name. “Flexible shaft” motors are those that pass through at least
one rotor bending critical speed between zero speed and
their rated no load speed. At this critical speed the motor

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vibration levels will peak. Due to dissymmetries in 3. National Electric Code 1996 Edition; National Fire
stiffness, there is often more than one critical speed below Protection Association, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy,
the operating speed. This design is usually acceptable, MA.
provided that the critical speeds are separated from the full 4. “The art of Protective Relaying”, GET-7203A; General
load operating speed by 15%. For variable speed Electric Co., Power Systems Management Business
applications, acceptable operating speed ranges will be Dept., Malvern, PA.
affected by the location of these critical speeds. See 5. NEMA Standards Publication No. MG 1-1998
Figure 22 for a typical vibration versus speed response for (Revision 1, 2000), National Electrical Manufactures
this type of motor. Association, 1300 North 17th Street, Suite 1847,
Rosslyn, VA.
6. Philip L. Alger, “Induction Machines, Their Behavior
and Uses”, Second Edition, Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers SA.
7. Neville Rieger & James Crofoot, “Vibrations of
Rotating Machinery, Part 1: Rotor Bearing Dynamics”,
The Vibration Institute / Rochester Institute of
Technology – Nov, 1967.
8. Ernest W. Summers, “Vibration in 2-Pole Induction
Motors Related to Slip frequency”, Paper 55-133 AIEE
Rotating Machinery Committee.
9. James P. Carow & Brain K. Wilson, “Vibration and
Motor Current Analysis of AC Induction Motors in
Power Plant Applications”.

There is a class of rotating machines that have its response

so well damped that the speed of peak response is not
referred to as a “critical speed”. Due to their bearing
design, rotating mass distribution and unbalance, these
machines have very low peak vibration responses. See
Reference 10-a, API Publication 684 for detailed discussion
of these machines. However, care must be used when
evaluating these machines, as changes in support
stiffness, unbalance distribution and bearing clearances
may greatly reduce the apparent damping. The result
could be motor that has high peak vibration responses
when the machine is placed into service.

References:

1. IEEE Standard 100; “The new IEEE Standard

dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms”.
2. GE Multilin SR469 Motor Management Relay
Instruction Manual.

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