Questions and Problems • P-37

CHAPTER 9 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion Diffusion VMSE resource available
SS Student solution available in WileyPLUS Tensile Tests VMSE resource available
Metallic Crystal VMSE resource available

Solubility Limit Composition Solidus Liquidus

9.1 Consider the sugar–water phase diagram of (wt% Si) Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
Figure 9.1. 0 938 938
(a) How much sugar will dissolve in 1500 g water 10 1005 1147
at 90°C (194°F)? 20 1065 1226
(b) If the saturated liquid solution in part (a) is 30 1123 1278
cooled to 20°C (68°F), some of the sugar precipi- 40 1178 1315
tates as a solid. What will be the composition of
50 1232 1346
the saturated liquid solution (in wt% sugar) at
20°C? 60 1282 1367
70 1326 1385
(c) How much of the solid sugar will come out of
solution upon cooling to 20°C? 80 1359 1397
90 1390 1408
9.2 At 700°C (1290°F), what is the maximum solubil-
ity of the following: 100 1414 1414
(a) Cu in Ag
(b) Ag in Cu 9.8 How many kilograms of nickel must be added to
5.66 kg of copper to yield a liquidus temperature
Microstructure of 1200°C?
9.3 Cite three variables that determine the micro- 9.9 How many kilograms of nickel must be added to
structure of an alloy. 2.43 kg of copper to yield a solidus temperature
SS of 1300°C?
Phase Equilibria
Interpretation of Phase Diagrams
9.4 What thermodynamic condition must be met for a
9.10 Cite the phases that are present and the phase
state of equilibrium to exist? SS compositions for the following alloys:
(a) 90 wt% Zn–10 wt% Cu at 400°C (750°F)
One-Component
(b) 75 wt% Sn–25 wt% Pb at 175°C (345°F)
(or Unary)
Phase Diagrams (c) 55 wt% Ag–45 wt% Cu at 900°C (1650°F)
9.5 Consider a specimen of ice that is at −10°C and (d) 30 wt% Pb–70 wt% Mg at 425°C (795°F)
1 atm pressure. Using Figure 9.2, the pressure– (e) 2.12 kg Zn and 1.88 kg Cu at 500°C (930°F)
temperature phase diagram for H2O, determine
(f) 37 lbm Pb and 6.5 lbm Mg at 400°C (750°F)
the pressure to which the specimen must be
raised or lowered to cause it (a) to melt, and (b) (g) 8.2 mol Ni and 4.3 mol Cu at 1250°C (2280°F)
to sublime. (h) 4.5 mol Sn and 0.45 mol Pb at 200°C (390°F)
9.6 At a pressure of 0.01 atm, determine (a) the melt-
9.11 Is it possible to have a copper–nickel alloy that,
ing temperature for ice, and (b) the boiling tem-
at equilibrium, consists of a liquid phase of com-
perature for water.
position 20 wt% Ni–80 wt% Cu and also an 𝛼
phase of composition 37 wt% Ni–63 wt% Cu? If
Binary Isomorphous Systems so, what will be the approximate temperature of
9.7 Given here are the solidus and liquidus tempera- the alloy? If this is not possible, explain why.
tures for the germanium–silicon system. Construct 9.12 Is it possible to have a copper–zinc alloy that, at
the phase diagram for this system and label each equilibrium, consists of an 𝜀 phase of composition
region. 80 wt% Zn–20 wt% Cu, and also a liquid phase of
P-38 • Questions and Problems

composition 95 wt% Zn–5 wt% Cu? If so, what 9.19 A 90 wt% Ag–10 wt% Cu alloy is heated to a
will be the approximate temperature of the alloy? temperature within the 𝛽 + liquid phase region.
If this is not possible, explain why. If the composition of the liquid phase is 85 wt%
9.13 A copper–nickel alloy of composition 70 wt% Ag, determine
Ni–30 wt% Cu is slowly heated from a tempera- (a) the temperature of the alloy
ture of 1300°C (2370°F).
(b) the composition of the 𝛽 phase
(a) At what temperature does the first liquid
(c) the mass fractions of both phases
phase form?
9.20 A 30 wt% Sn–70 wt% Pb alloy is heated to a tem-
(b) What is the composition of this liquid phase?
perature within the 𝛼 + liquid phase region. If the
(c) At what temperature does complete melting of mass fraction of each phase is 0.5, estimate
the alloy occur?
(a) the temperature of the alloy
(d) What is the composition of the last solid re-
maining prior to complete melting? (b) the compositions of the two phases
9.14 A 50 wt% Pb–50 wt% Mg alloy is slowly cooled 9.21 For alloys of two hypothetical metals A and B,
from 700°C (1290°F) to 400°C (750°F). there exist an 𝛼, A-rich phase and a 𝛽, B-rich phase.
From the mass fractions of both phases for two dif-
(a) At what temperature does the first solid phase ferent alloys provided in the following table, (which
form? are at the same temperature), determine the com-
(b) What is the composition of this solid phase? position of the phase boundary (or solubility limit)
(c) At what temperature does the liquid solidify? for both 𝛼 and 𝛽 phases at this temperature.
(d) What is the composition of this last remaining Alloy Fraction Fraction
liquid phase? Composition 𝛼 Phase 𝛽 Phase
9.15 For an alloy of composition 74 wt% Zn–26 wt% 60 wt% A–40 wt% B 0.57 0.43
Cu, cite the phases present and their composi-
tions at the following temperatures: 850°C, 750°C, 30 wt% A–70 wt% B 0.14 0.86
680°C, 600°C, and 500°C. 9.22 A hypothetical A–B alloy of composition 55
9.16 Determine the relative amounts (in terms of wt% B–45 wt% A at some temperature is found
mass fractions) of the phases for the alloys and SS to consist of mass fractions of 0.5 for both 𝛼 and
temperatures given in Problem 9.10. 𝛽 phases. If the composition of the 𝛽 phase is 90
9.17 A 1.5-kg specimen of a 90 wt% Pb–10 wt% Sn wt% B–10 wt% A, what is the composition of the
alloy is heated to 250°C (480°F); at this tempera- 𝛼 phase?
ture it is entirely an 𝛼-phase solid solution (Figure 9.23 Is it possible to have a copper–silver alloy of
9.8). The alloy is to be melted to the extent that composition 50 wt% Ag–50 wt% Cu, which, at
50% of the specimen is liquid, the remainder be- equilibrium, consists of 𝛼 and 𝛽 phases having
ing the 𝛼 phase. This may be accomplished either mass fractions W𝛼 = 0.60 and W𝛽 = 0.40? If so,
by heating the alloy or changing its composition what will be the approximate temperature of the
while holding the temperature constant. alloy? If such an alloy is not possible, explain why.
(a) To what temperature must the specimen be 9.24 For 11.20 kg of a magnesium–lead alloy of com-
heated? position 30 wt% Pb–70 wt% Mg, is it possible, at
(b) How much tin must be added to the 1.5-kg equilibrium, to have 𝛼 and Mg2Pb phases having
specimen at 250°C to achieve this state? respective masses of 7.39 kg and 3.81 kg? If so,
what will be the approximate temperature of the
9.18 A magnesium–lead alloy of mass 5.5 kg consists alloy? If such an alloy is not possible, explain why.
of a solid 𝛼 phase that has a composition that is
just slightly below the solubility limit at 200°C 9.25 Derive Equations 9.6a and 9.7a, which may be
(390°F). used to convert mass fraction to volume fraction,
and vice versa.
(a) What mass of lead is in the alloy?
9.26 Determine the relative amounts (in terms of
(b) If the alloy is heated to 350°C (660°F), how volume fractions) of the phases for the alloys and
much more lead may be dissolved in the 𝛼 phase temperatures given in Problem 9.10a, b, and c.
without exceeding the solubility limit of this Below are given the approximate densities of the
phase? various metals at the alloy temperatures:
 Questions and Problems • P-39

Metal Temperature ( °C) Density (g/cm3) (b) Determine the mass fractions of primary 𝛼
and eutectic microconstituents.
Ag 900 9.97
(c) Determine the mass fraction of eutectic 𝛼.
Cu 400 8.77
9.35 The microstructure of a lead–tin alloy at 180°C
Cu 900 8.56
(355°F) consists of primary 𝛽 and eutectic struc-
Pb 175 11.20 tures. If the mass fractions of these two microcon-
Sn 175 7.22 stituents are 0.57 and 0.43, respectively, determine
Zn 400 6.83 the composition of the alloy.
9.36 Consider the hypothetical eutectic phase diagram
Development of Microstructure for metals A and B, which is similar to that for the
in Isomorphous Alloys lead–tin system (Figure 9.8). Assume that (1) 𝛼
9.27 (a) Briefly describe the phenomenon of coring and 𝛽 phases exist at the A and B extremes of the
and why it occurs. phase diagram, respectively; (2) the eutectic com-
position is 47 wt% B–53 wt% A; and (3) the com-
(b) Cite one undesirable consequence of coring. position of the 𝛽 phase at the eutectic temperature
Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys is 92.6 wt% B–7.4 wt% A. Determine the compo-
sition of an alloy that will yield primary 𝛼 and total
9.28 It is desirable to produce a copper–nickel al- 𝛼 mass fractions of 0.356 and 0.693, respectively.
loy that has a minimum non-cold-worked tensile
strength of 350 MPa (50,750 psi) and a ductility of 9.37 For an 85 wt% Pb–15 wt% Mg alloy, make sche-
at least 48%EL. Is such an alloy possible? If so, matic sketches of the microstructure that would
what must be its composition? If this is not pos- SS be observed for conditions of very slow cooling
sible, then explain why. at the following temperatures: 600°C (1110°F),
500°C (930°F), 270°C (520°F), and 200°C (390°F).
Binary Eutectic Systems Label all phases and indicate their approximate
9.29 A 45 wt% Pb–55 wt% Mg alloy is rapidly compositions.
quenched to room temperature from an elevated 9.38 For a 68 wt% Zn–32 wt% Cu alloy, make
temperature in such a way that the high-temperature schematic sketches of the microstructure that
microstructure is preserved. This microstructure would be observed for conditions of very slow
is found to consist of the 𝛼 phase and Mg2Pb, cooling at the following temperatures: 1000°C
having respective mass fractions of 0.65 and 0.35. (1830°F), 760°C (1400°F), 600°C (1110°F), and
Determine the approximate temperature from 400°C (750°F). Label all phases and indicate their
which the alloy was quenched. approximate compositions.
Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 9.39 For a 30 wt% Zn–70 wt% Cu alloy, make sche-
9.30 Briefly explain why, upon solidification, an alloy matic sketches of the microstructure that would be
of eutectic composition forms a microstructure con- observed for conditions of very slow cooling at the
sisting of alternating layers of the two solid phases. following temperatures: 1100°C (2010°F), 950°C
(1740°F), 900°C (1650°F), and 700°C (1290°F).
9.31 What is the difference between a phase and a Label all phases and indicate their approximate
microconstituent? compositions.
9.32 Is it possible to have a copper–silver alloy in 9.40 On the basis of the photomicrograph (i.e., the
which the mass fractions of primary 𝛽 and to- relative amounts of the microconstituents) for the
tal 𝛽 are 0.68 and 0.925, respectively, at 775°C lead–tin alloy shown in Figure 9.17 and the Pb–Sn
(1425°F)? Why or why not? phase diagram (Figure 9.8), estimate the composi-
9.33 For 6.70 kg of a magnesium–lead alloy, is it pos- tion of the alloy, and then compare this estimate
sible to have the masses of primary 𝛼 and total with the composition given in the figure legend of
𝛼 of 4.23 kg and 6.00 kg, respectively, at 460°C Figure 9.17. Make the following assumptions: (1)
(860°F)? Why or why not? the area fraction of each phase and microconstitu-
9.34 For a copper–silver alloy of composition 25 wt% ent in the photomicrograph is equal to its volume
Ag–75 wt% Cu and at 775°C (1425°F), do the fraction; (2) the densities of the 𝛼 and 𝛽 phases
following: as well as eutectic structure are 11.2, 7.3, and
8.7 g/cm3, respectively; and (3) this photomicro-
(a) Determine the mass fractions of 𝛼 and 𝛽 graph represents the equilibrium microstructure
phases. at 180°C (355°F).
P-40 • Questions and Problems

9.41 The room-temperature tensile strengths of pure 1600

lead and pure tin are 16.8 MPa and 14.5 MPa, 1400
respectively.
1200 L
(a) Make a schematic graph of the room-

Temperature (°C)
temperature tensile strength versus composition 1000
for all compositions between pure lead and pure
800
tin. (Hint: you may want to consult Sections 9.10
and 9.11, as well as Equation 9.24 in Problem 9.70.) 600

Al11Nd3
(b) On this same graph, schematically plot tensile

AlNd2

AlNd3
Al3Nd

Al2Nd
400

AlNd
strength versus composition at 150°C.
200 Al
(c) Explain the shapes of these two curves, as well Nd
as any differences between them. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
(Al) Composition (wt% Nd) (Nd)

Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Figure 9.36 The aluminum–neodymium phase diagram.
Phases or Compounds (Adapted from ASM Handbook, Vol. 3, Alloy Phase Dia-
9.42 Two intermetallic compounds, AB and AB2, grams, H. Baker (Editor), 1992. Reprinted by permission
exist for elements A and B. If the compositions of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.)
for AB and AB2 are 34.3 wt% A–65.7 wt% B and
20.7 wt% A–79.3 wt% B, respectively, and ele- 1700
ment A is potassium, identify element B.
9.43 An intermetallic compound is found in the
magnesium–gallium system that has a composi- 1500
tion of 41.1 wt% Mg–58.9 wt% Ga. Specify the
L
formula for this compound.
9.44 Specify the liquidus, solidus, and solvus tempera- 1300

tures for the following alloys:

Temperature (°C)

(a) 50 wt% Ni–50 wt% Cu

1100
(b) 10 wt% Sn–90 wt% Pb 𝛽

(c) 55 wt% Zn–45 wt% Cu

900
(d) 50 wt% Pb–50 wt% Mg
(e) 1.5 wt% C–98.5 wt% Fe TiCu

𝛼
700
Ti2Cu

Congruent Phase Transformations

Ti3Cu4
Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions
500
9.45 What is the principal difference between congru- 0 20 40 60
ent and incongruent phase transformations? (Ti) Composition (wt% Cu)

9.46 Figure 9.36 is the aluminum–neodymium phase

Figure 9.37 The titanium–copper phase diagram.
diagram, for which only single-phase regions are
(Adapted from Phase Diagrams of Binary Titanium Alloys,
labeled. Specify temperature-composition points
J. L. Murray (Editor), 1987. Reprinted by permission
at which all eutectics, eutectoids, peritectics, and
of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.)
congruent phase transformations occur. Also, for
each, write the reaction upon cooling. 9.48 Construct the hypothetical phase diagram for
9.47 Figure 9.37 is a portion of the titanium–copper SS metals A and B between temperatures of 600°C
phase diagram for which only single-phase regions and 1000°C given the following information:
are labeled. Specify all temperature-composition
points at which eutectics, eutectoids, peritectics, • The melting temperature of metal A is 940°C.
and congruent phase transformations occur. Also, • The solubility of B in A is negligible at all
for each, write the reaction upon cooling. temperatures.
 Questions and Problems • P-41

• The melting temperature of metal B is 830°C. The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram
• The maximum solubility of A in B is 12 wt% A, Development of Microstructure in
which occurs at 700°C. Iron–Carbon Alloys
• At 600°C, the solubility of A in B is 8 wt% A. 9.51 Compute the mass fractions of 𝛼 ferrite and ce-
• One eutectic occurs at 700°C and 75 wt% B–25 mentite in pearlite.
wt% A. 9.52 (a) What is the distinction between hypoeutec-
• A second eutectic occurs at 730°C and 60 wt% toid and hypereutectoid steels?
B–40 wt% A. (b) In a hypoeutectoid steel, both eutectoid and
• A third eutectic occurs at 755°C and 40 wt% proeutectoid ferrite exist. Explain the difference
B–60 wt% A. between them. What will be the carbon concen-
tration in each?
• One congruent melting point occurs at 780°C
and 51 wt% B–49 wt% A. 9.53 What is the carbon concentration of an iron–carbon
alloy for which the fraction of total ferrite is 0.94?
• A second congruent melting point occurs at
755°C and 67 wt% B–33 wt% A. 9.54 What is the proeutectoid phase for an iron–
• The intermetallic compound AB exists at 51 carbon alloy in which the mass fractions of total
wt% B–49 wt% A. ferrite and total cementite are 0.92 and 0.08, re-
spectively? Why?
• The intermetallic compound AB2 exists at 67
wt% B–33 wt% A. 9.55 Consider 1.0 kg of austenite containing 1.15 wt%
C, cooled to less than 727°C (1341°F).
SS
The Gibbs Phase Rule (a) What is the proeutectoid phase?
9.49 Figure 9.38 shows the pressure–temperature phase (b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite and
diagram for H2O. Apply the Gibbs phase rule at cementite form?
points A, B, and C, and specify the number of de-
grees of freedom at each of the points—that is, the (c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and the
number of externally controllable variables that proeutectoid phase form?
must be specified to define the system completely. (d) Schematically sketch and label the resulting mi-
crostructure.
10,000
Ice III
A
9.56 Consider 2.5 kg of austenite containing 0.65 wt%
1,000 C, cooled to less than 727°C (1341°F).
100 (a) What is the proeutectoid phase?
Pressure (atm)

10
C
Liquid (b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite and
cementite form?
1.0 Ice I
(c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and the
0.1 B
proeutectoid phase form?
Vapor
0.01
(d) Schematically sketch and label the resulting mi-
0.001
crostructure.
–20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (°C) 9.57 On the basis of the photomicrograph (i.e., the relative
Figure 9.38 Logarithm pressure-versus-temperature amounts of the microconstituents) for the iron–carbon
phase diagram for H2O. alloy shown in Figure 9.30 and the Fe–Fe3C phase
diagram (Figure 9.24), estimate the composition of
9.50 Specify the number of degrees of freedom for the the alloy, and then compare this estimate with the
following alloys: composition given in the figure legend of Figure
9.30. Make the following assumptions: (1) The area
SS
(a) 95 wt% Ag–5 wt% Cu at 780°C
fraction of each phase and microconstituent in the
(b) 80 wt% Ni–20 wt% Cu at 1400°C photomicrograph is equal to its volume fraction;
(c) 44.9 wt% Ti–55.1 wt% Ni at 1310°C (2) the densities of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite
are 7.87 and 7.84 g/cm3, respectively; and (3) this
(d) 61.9 wt% Sn–38.1 wt% Pb at 183°C photomicrograph represents the equilibrium micro-
(e) 2.5 wt% C–97.5 wt% Fe at 1000°C structure at 725°C.
P-42 • Questions and Problems

9.58 Compute the mass fractions of proeutectoid fer- conditions of very slow cooling at the following
rite and pearlite that form in an iron–carbon alloy temperatures: 1175°C (2150°F), 1145°C (2095°F),
containing 0.25 wt% C. and 700°C (1290°F). Label the phases and indi-
9.59 The microstructure of an iron–carbon alloy con- cate their compositions (approximate).
sists of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite; the mass 9.70 Often, the properties of multiphase alloys may
fractions of these two microconstituents are 0.286 be approximated by the relationship
and 0.714, respectively. Determine the concentra-
E (alloy) = E𝛼V𝛼 + E𝛽V𝛽 (9.24)
tion of carbon in this alloy.
9.60 The mass fractions of total ferrite and total ce- where E represents a specific property (modulus
mentite in an iron–carbon alloy are 0.88 and 0.12, of elasticity, hardness, etc.), and V is the volume
respectively. Is this a hypoeutectoid or hypere- fraction. The subscripts 𝛼 and 𝛽 denote the exist-
utectoid alloy? Why? ing phases or microconstituents. Use this relation-
ship to determine the approximate Brinell hard-
9.61 The microstructure of an iron–carbon alloy con- ness of a 99.80 wt% Fe–0.20 wt% C alloy. Assume
sists of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite; the mass Brinell hardnesses of 80 and 280 for ferrite and
fractions of these microconstituents are 0.20 and pearlite, respectively, and that volume fractions
0.80, respectively. Determine the concentration of may be approximated by mass fractions.
carbon in this alloy.
9.62 Consider 2.0 kg of a 99.6 wt% Fe–0.4 wt% C al-
The Influence of Other Alloying Elements
loy that is cooled to a temperature just below the 9.71 A steel alloy contains 97.5 wt% Fe, 2.0 wt% Mo,
eutectoid. and 0.5 wt% C.
(a) How many kilograms of proeutectoid ferrite (a) What is the eutectoid temperature of this
form? alloy?
(b) How many kilograms of eutectoid ferrite form? (b) What is the eutectoid composition?
(c) How many kilograms of cementite form? (c) What is the proeutectoid phase?
9.63 Compute the maximum mass fraction of proeu- Assume that there are no changes in the posi-
tectoid cementite possible for a hypereutectoid tions of other phase boundaries with the addition
iron–carbon alloy. of Mo.
9.64 Is it possible to have an iron–carbon alloy for 9.72 A steel alloy is known to contain 93.8 wt% Fe,
which the mass fractions of total ferrite and 6.0 wt% Ni, and 0.2 wt% C.
proeutectoid cementite are 0.846 and 0.049, re- (a) What is the approximate eutectoid tempera-
spectively? Why or why not? ture of this alloy?
9.65 Is it possible to have an iron–carbon alloy for (b) What is the proeutectoid phase when this
which the mass fractions of total cementite and alloy is cooled to a temperature just below the
pearlite are 0.039 and 0.417, respectively? Why eutectoid?
or why not?
(c) Compute the relative amounts of the proeu-
9.66 Compute the mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite tectoid phase and pearlite.
in an iron–carbon alloy that contains 0.43 wt% C.
Assume that there are no alterations in the posi-
9.67 The mass fraction of eutectoid cementite in tions of other phase boundaries with the addi-
an iron–carbon alloy is 0.104. On the basis of tion of Ni.
this information, is it possible to determine the
composition of the alloy? If so, what is its compo- FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
sition? If this is not possible, explain why. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
9.68 The mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite in an iron– 9.1FE Once a system is at a state of equilibrium, a
carbon alloy is 0.82. On the basis of this informa- shift from equilibrium may result by alteration of
tion, is it possible to determine the composition of which of the following?
the alloy? If so, what is its composition? If this is (A) Pressure
not possible, explain why.
(C) Temperature
9.69 For an iron–carbon alloy of composition 5
(B) Composition
wt% C–95 wt% Fe, make schematic sketches of
the microstructure that would be observed for (D) All of the above
 Questions and Problems • P-43

9.2FE A binary composition–temperature phase dia- 9.4FE For a lead–tin alloy of composition 25 wt%
gram for an isomorphous system is composed of Sn–75 wt% Pb, select from the following list the
regions that contain which of the following phases phase(s) present and their composition(s) at 200°C.
and/or combinations of phases? (The Pb–Sn phase diagram appears in Figure 9.8.)
(A) Liquid (C) 𝛼 (A) 𝛼 = 17 wt% Sn–83 wt% Pb; L = 55.7 wt%
(B) Liquid + 𝛼 (D) 𝛼, liquid, and liquid + 𝛼 Sn–44.3 wt% Pb

9.3FE From the lead–tin phase diagram (Figure 9.8), (B) 𝛼 = 25 wt% Sn–75 wt% Pb; L = 25 wt%
which of the following phases/phase combinations Sn–75 wt% Pb
is present for an alloy of composition 46 wt% (C) 𝛼 = 17 wt% Sn–83 wt% Pb; 𝛽 = 55.7 wt%
Sn–54 wt% Pb that is at equilibrium at 44°C? Sn–44.3 wt% Pb
(A) 𝛼 (C) 𝛽 + liquid (D) 𝛼 = 18.3 wt% Sn–81.7 wt% Pb; 𝛽 = 97.8 wt%
(B) 𝛼 + 𝛽 (D) 𝛼 + 𝛽 + liquid Sn–2.2 wt% Pb

CHAPTER 10 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion Diffusion VMSE resource available
SS Student solution available in WileyPLUS Tensile Tests VMSE resource available
Metallic Crystal VMSE resource available
The Kinetics of Phase Transformations number of stable nuclei that exist at the following
10.1 Name the two stages involved in the formation degrees of supercooling: 200 K and 300 K.
of particles of a new phase. Briefly describe each. (b) What is significant about the magnitudes of
10.2 (a) Rewrite the expression for the total free en- these critical radii and the numbers of stable nuclei?
SS ergy change for nucleation (Equation 10.1) for the 10.6 For some transformation having kinetics that
case of a cubic nucleus of edge length a (instead obey the Avrami equation (Equation 10.17), the
of a sphere of radius r). Now differentiate this parameter n is known to have a value of 1.7. If,
expression with respect to a (per Equation 10.2) after 100 s, the reaction is 50% complete, how
and solve for both the critical cube edge length, long (total time) will it take the transformation to
a*, and also ΔG*. go to 99% completion?
(b) Is ΔG* greater for a cube or a sphere? Why? 10.7 Compute the rate of some reaction that obeys
10.3 If copper (which has a melting point of 1085°C) Avrami kinetics, assuming that the constants n and
homogeneously nucleates at 849°C, calculate the k have values of 3.0 and 7 × 10–3, respectively, for
critical radius given values of −1.77 × 109 J/m3 time expressed in seconds.
and 0.200 J/m2, respectively, for the latent heat of 10.8 It is known that the kinetics of recrystallization
fusion and the surface free energy. for some alloy obey the Avrami equation and that
10.4 (a) For the solidification of iron, calculate the the value of n in the exponential is 2.5. If, at some
critical radius r* and the activation free energy temperature, the fraction recrystallized is 0.40 after
ΔG* if nucleation is homogeneous. Values for the 200 min, determine the rate of recrystallization at
latent heat of fusion and surface free energy are this temperature.
−1.85 × 109 J/m3 and 0.204 J/m2, respectively. Use 10.9 It is known that the kinetics of some transforma-
the supercooling value found in Table 10.1. tion obeys the Avrami equation and that the value
(b) Now calculate the number of atoms found of k is 6.0 × 10−8 (for time in minutes). If the frac-
in a nucleus of critical size. Assume a lattice pa- tion transformed is 0.75 after 200 min, determine
rameter of 0.292 nm for solid iron at its melting the rate of this transformation.
temperature. 10.10 The kinetics of the austenite-to-pearlite trans-
formation obey the Avrami relationship. Using
10.5 (a) Assume for the solidification of iron
the fraction transformed–time data given here,
(Problem 10.4) that nucleation is homogeneous,
determine the total time required for 95% of the
and the number of stable nuclei is 106 nuclei per
austenite to transform to pearlite:
cubic meter. Calculate the critical radius and the