Chemistry Class XII

(Conceptual Questions)

# Halolaknes and Haloarenes

1. Why is sulphuric acid not used during the reaction of alcohols with KI??
Ans: Since sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent, it oxidizes HI to produce I2.

2. Although chlorine is an electron withdrawing group, yet it is ortho-, para- directing in electrophilic
aromatic substitution reactions. Why?
Ans: Cl is ortho- and para directing because it shows +R effect.
Cl is ring deactivating because it shows -I effect.
Reactivity is thus controlled by the stronger inductive effect and orientation is controlled by
resonance effect.
(Note : Draw the resonance structures also if asked for 3 marks)

3. What are ambident nucleophiles? Explain with an example.

Ans:Ambident nucleophiles are nucleophiles having two nucleophilic sites. Thus, ambident
nucleophiles have two sites through which they can attack.
Eg:
• -CN and -NC
• NO2 and -ONO

4. The treatment of alkyl chlorides with aqueous KOH leads to the formation of alcohols but in the
presence of alcoholic KOH, alkenes are major products. Explain
Ans:In aqueous solution, KOH produces OH- ions which act as nucleophiles, and nucleophilic
substitution takes place.
In alcoholic solutions, KOH produces alkoxide ions (OR-) which act like a strong base, and
elimination takes place.

5. Haloalkanes react with KCN to form alkyl cyanides as main product while AgCN forms
isocyanides as the chief product. Explain
Ans:
• KCN is ionic, CN- ion is free to form bonds using C as well as N atom but C-C bond is
stronger than C-N bond hence bonding takes place from C side and alkyl cyanides (R-CN)
are formed as main product.
• AgCN is covalent, , CN- ion is NOT free. Only N atom is available for bonding and hence
isocyanides (R-NC) are formed.
6. Alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water. Why?
Ans: Because they do not form Hydrogen bonds with water.

7. Grignard’s reagents should be prepared and stored under anhydrous conditions. Why?
Ans: Because they react with water to form hydrocarbons.

8. What is racemic mixture?

Ans: Equimolar mixture of two enantiomers (d and l forms of same compound) is called racemic
mixture. It is optically inactive.

9. The dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride. Explain.
Ans: Chlorobenzene has resonance due to which its C-Cl bond is shorter. Dipole moment depends
 on bond length. There is no resonance in case of cyclohexyl chloride.

10. Chloroform is stored in closed dark brown bottles. Explain.

Ans: Chloroform is stored in dark bottles because it is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of
light to an extremely poisonous gas phosgene.

11. Why are haloarenes are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reactions than haloalkanes?
Ans: Due to resonance, there is partial double bond character in C-Cl in case of haloarenes due to
which it is difficult to replace the Cl. There is not resonance in case of haloalaknes.
(Note : Draw the resonance structures also if asked for 3 marks)

12. Iodoform has an antiseptic property. Why?

Ans: As Iodoform comes in contact with organic matter of skin it decomposes to give free iodine
which acts as an antiseptic.

# Alcohols, Phenols & Ethers

1. Why are alcohols soluble in water?

Ans: Because they from hydrogen bonds with water.

2. Explain why propanol has higher boiling point than that of the hydrocarbon, butane?
Ans: Because propanol has hydrogen bonding.

3. Alcohols are comparatively more soluble in water than hydrocarbons of comparable molecular
masses. Explain this fact.
Ans: Due to hydrogen bonding in alcohols.

4. Give reason for the higher boiling point of ethanol in comparison to methoxymethane.
Ans: Due to hydrogen bonding in ethanol.

5. What is common name of phenol?

Ans: Carbolic acid.

6. Draw the structure and give IUPAC name of picric acid.

Ans: 2,4,4-Trinitrophenol

7. Explain why is ortho nitrophenol more acidic than ortho methoxyphenol?

Ans: Nitro is electron withdrawing group which increases the acidic nature.
Methoxyis electron withdrawing group which decreases the acidic nature.
8. Explain how does the –OH group attached to a carbon of benzene ring activate it towards
electrophilic substitution?
Ans: Due to resonance.

9. Give the equations of reactions for the preparation of phenol from cumene.
Ans:

10. Write chemical reaction for the preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene
Ans:

11. Give two reactions that show the acidic nature of phenol.
Ans:

12. Why is phenol stronger acid than alcohol?

Ans: This is because phenoxide ion is more stable than alkoxide ion. The phenoxide ion is
stabilized by resonance. There is no resonance in alkoxide ion.
 13. The alkoxy group activates the benzene ring towards electrophilic substitution. It directs the
incoming substituents to ortho and para positions in benzene ring.
Ans: This is due to resonance.

14. Why phenol is weaker acid than carboxylic acid?

OR
Although phenoxide ion has more number of resonating structures than carboxylate ion, carboxylic
acid is a stronger acid than phenol. Why?
Ans: The conjugate base of carboxylic acid is carboxylate ion. The conjugate base of phenol is
phenoxide ion. Resonance stabilisation is more in carboxylate ion than phenoxide ion. This is
because the five resonating structures of phenoxide ions are not equivalent. Hence carboxylic acids
are more acidic than phenols.

15. Why is Thionyl chloride preferred in the preparation of alkyl halide using alcohol?
Ans: This is because the by-products SO2 and HCl are escapable gases , and hence alkyl halides are
obtained in pure form.

16. Bromination of phenol takes place even in the absence of Lewis acid (catalyst). Why?
Ans: It is due to the highly activating effect of OH group attached to the benzene ring.

17. Preparation of ethers by acid dehydration of secondary or tertiary alcohols is not a suitable method.
Give reason.
Ans: If secondary or tertiary alcohols are used, due to steric hindrance, alkenes are formed and not
ethers.

# Aldehyde, Ketone and Carboxylic acids

1. Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones. Why?

Ans: There is more steric hindrance in ketones which make them less reactive.

2. Would you expect benzaldehyde to be more reactive or less reactive in nucleophilic addition
reactions than propanal? Explain your answer.
Ans: Less reactive. Due to resonance.
3. Cyclohexanone forms cyanohydrin in good yield but 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone does not. Give
Reason.
Ans: Due to greater steric hindrance in 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone.

4. There are two –NH2 groups in semicarbazide. However, only one is involved in the formation of
semicarbazones. Give reason.
Ans: Because one of the NH2 is involved in resonance with carbonyl group.

5. Draw structure and IUPAC name of aspirin.

Ans:

IUPAC: 2-Acetoxybenzoic acid

6. During the preparation of esters from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of an acid
catalyst, the water or the ester should be removed as soon as it is formed.
Ans: To prevent reaction from being reversible.

7. Carboxylic acids have higher boiling liquids than alcohols. Give reasons.
Ans: Carboxylic acids have greater extent of hydrogen boning than alcohol.

8. Which type of aldehydes undergo aldol condensation?

Ans: Aldehydes having alpha hydrogen.

9. Why pH of reaction should be carefully controlled while preparing ammonia derivatives of

carbonyl compound?
Ans: In strongly acidic medium ammonia derivatives being basic will react with acids and will not
react with carbonyl compound. In basic medium OH- will attack carbonyl group. So the pH of a
reaction should be carefully controlled.

10. Carboxylic acids do not give reactions of aldehydes and ketones, although contain carbonyl group.
Why?
Ans: The carbonyl group in carboxylic acid is not a free group as in aldehydes and ketones. It is
involved in resonance. Therefore, carboxylic acids fail to give te characteristic reactions of the
carbonyl groups as are given by aldehdes and ketones.
 11. Explain why aldehydes get oxidised more readily than ketones.
OR
Why aldehydes are stronger reducing agents than ketones?
OR
Why aldehyde reduces tollens reagent but ketone does not?

Ans: Oxidation of ketones involve breaking of C-C bonds which require greater energy so it is
difficult to oxidise them. Hence aldehydes are stronger reducing agent than ketones.
12. Name the aldehyde which does not give Fehling’s solution test.
Ans: Benzaldehyde

13. Why are alpha hydrogen of carbonyl compounds acidic?

Ans: Due to the acidic nature of α-hydrogen of aldehydes and ketones, they undergo a number of
reactions. This acidity is because of the strong electron-withdrawing nature of the carbonyl groups
and resonance stabilisation of the conjugate base.

# Amines

1. Ethylamine is soluble in water whereas aniline is not

Ans: Because ethylamine forms hydrogen bonds with water molecules. In aniline benzene ring
creates steric hindrance to hydrogen bonding.

2. Methylamine in water reacts with ferric chloride to precipitate hydrated ferric oxide.
Ans: Methyl amines is a base so it reacts with water to produce OH- ions. These OH- ions convert
ferric ion into hydrated ferric oxide.

3. Although amino group is o– and p– directing in aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions,

aniline on nitration gives a substantial amount of m-nitroaniline.
Ans: In acidic medium protonation of aniline takes place to form anilinium ion which is meta
directing.

4. Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction

Ans: This is due to salt formation of aniline with the lews base used as catalyst. As a result, N of
aniline acquires positive charge and hence it acts as a strong deactivating group for electrophilic
substitution reactions. Consequently, aniline does not undergo Fridel Craft reaction.

5. Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are more stable than those of aliphatic amines.
Ans: Due to resonance.
 6. Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is preferred for synthesising primary amines.
Ans: Gabriel phthalimide reaction gives pure primary amines without any contamination of
secondary and tertiary amines. Therefore, it is preferred for synthesising primary amines.

7. Describe the method for the identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines
Ans: The three types of amines can be distinguished by Hinsberg test. In this test, the amine is
shaken with benzene sulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl) is the presence of excess of NaOH or KOH.
• A primary amine reacts to give a clear solution, which on acidification yields an insoluble
compound.
• A secondary amine forms an insoluble compound, which remains insoluble even on
acidification.
• A tertiary amine does not react with the reagent.

8. Why aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by Gabriel phthalimide synthesis?

Ans: The success of Gabriel phthalimide reaction depends upon the nucleophilic attack by the
phthalimide anion on the organic halogen compound. Since aryl halides do not undergo
nucleophilic substitution reactions easily, therefore, arylamines, i.e., aromatic, primary amines
cannot be prepared by Gabriel phthalimide reaction.

9. How do aromatic and aliphatic primary amines react with nitrous acid?
Ans: Both aromatic and aliphatic primary amines react with HNO2 at 273-278 K to form aromatic
and aliphatic diazonium salts respectively. But aliphatic diazonium salts are unstable even at this
low temperature and thus decompose readily to form a mixture of compounds.

10. Why are amines less acidic than alcohols?

Ans: This is because O is more electronegative that N.

11. Why are primary amines higher boiling point than tertiary amines?
Ans: Due to the presence of two H-atoms on N-atom of primary amines, they undergo extensive
intermolecular H-bonding while tertiary amines due to the absence of a H-atom on the N-atom do
not undergo H-bonding.

12. Why are aliphatic amines stronger bases than aromatic amines?
Ans: Due to resonance in aniline, the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom gets delocalized
over the benzene ring and thus is less easily available for protonation. Therefore, aromatic amines
are weaker bases than ammonia.

# Biomolecules

1. Glucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or benzene (simple six membered ring
compounds) are insoluble in water. Explain.
Ans: Due to hydrogen bonding

2. What are the expected products of hydrolysis of lactose.

Ans: β- D glucose and β- D galactose

3. How do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the pentaacetate of D-glucose?
Ans: Pentaacetate of D-glucose in aqueous medium does not form open chain structure and
thus when it reacts with NH2OH, it does not form oxime indicating that there is absence of free
aldehyde (−CHO) group.
4. The melting points and solubility in water of amino acids are generally higher than that of the
corresponding halo acids. Explain.
Ans: The amino acids exist as Zwitter ions. Due to this dipolar salt like character, they have strong
dipole-dipole attractions. Therefore, their melting points are higher than corresponding haloacids
which do not have salt like character.
Due to salt like character, amino acids intereact strongly with water. As a result, their solubility in
water is higher than corresponding haloacids which do not have salt like character.

5. What are monosaccharides?

Ans: Monosaccharides are carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed to smaller carbohydates.

6. What are reducing sugars?

Ans: Carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s solution or Tollen’s reagent are called reducing sugars.

7. The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary. Explain
Ans: In the helical structure of DNA, the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between
specific pairs of bases. Cytosine forms hydrogen bond with guanine, while adenine forms hydrogen
bond with thymine. As a result, the two strands are complementary to each other.

8. Starch and cellulose both contain glucose unit as monomer, yet they are structurally different.
Explain
Ans: Starch and cellulose both contain glucose unit as monomer, yet they are structurally different
because Starch is a polymer of - glucose while cellulose is a polymer of - glucose.

9. Glucose doesn’t give 2,4-DNP test. Why?

Ans: because the – CHO group in glucose is involved in hemiacetal formation and thus it is not
free.

10. How can you explain the absence of an aldehyde group in the pentaacetate of D-glucose ?
Ans: Pentaacetate of D-glucose does not react with NH2OH.

11. Name the bases present in RNA. Which one of these is not present in DNA ?
Ans: Uracil.

12. What type of bonding provides stability to -helix structure of protein ?

Ans: Hydrogen Bonding

13. Give any one property of glucose that cannot be explained by the open chain structure.
Ans: (i) Glucose does not give Schiff's test and does not produce hydrogensulphite addition
product with NaHSO3, despite having aldehyde group
(ii) The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine.

14. What type of linkage is present in Nucleic acids

Ans: Phosphodiester linkage

15. What do you understand by the glycoside linkage?

Ans: The linkage through which two monosaccharides are joined together to form a molecule of
disaccharide is called the glycosidic linkage.

16. What is glycogen called animal starch?

Ans: Glycogen is called animal starch due to its structural similarity with amylopectin. It has more
branching than amylopectin.
17. What is the basic structural difference between starch and cellulose?
Ans: Starch consists of amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a linear polymer of α−D− glucose
while cellulose is a linear polymer of β−D− glucose. In amylose, C−1 of one glucose unit is
connected to C−4 of the other through α- glycosidic linkage. However in cellulose, C−1 of one
glucose unit is connected to C−4 of the other through β−glycosidic linkage. Amylopectin on the
other hand has highly branched structure.

18. What are essential and non-essential amino acids? Give two examples of each type.
Ans: α-Amino acids which are needed for health and growth of human beings but are not
synthesised by the human body are called essential amino acids. For example, valine, leucine,
phenylalanine, etc. On the other hand, α-amino acids which are needed for health and growth of
human beings and are synthesised by the human body are called non-essentials amino acids. For
example, glycine, alanine, aspartic acid, etc

19. What are peptide bonds?

Ans: Bonds which hold two amino acids together in a protein.

20. Explain Denaturation of proteins with example.

Ans: When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change in temperature
or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to this, globules
unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity. This is called denaturation of
protein. Eg. Coagulation of albumin present in the white of an egg.

21. What type of bonding helps in stabilising the α-helix structure of proteins?
Ans: Hydrogen bonding

22. How do you explain the amphoteric nature of amino acids.

Ans: Amino acids contain an acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group) group in the same
molecule. In neutralise aqueous solution, they each other. The carboxyl group loses a proton while
the amino group accepts it. As a result, a dipolar or zwitter ion is formed. In Zwitter ionic form, a-
amino acid show amphoteric behaviour as they react with both acids and bases.

23. How are vitamins classified? Name the vitamin responsible for coagulation of blood.
Ans:
(i) Water soluble vitamins: These include vitamin B-complex (B1 , B2 , B5 , i.e. nicotinic acid),
(B1 , B12 , panthothenic acid biotin, i.e. vitamin H and folic acid) and vitamin C.
(ii) Fat soluble vitamins: These include vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in liver and
adipose (fat storing tissues). Vitamin K is responsible for coagulation of blood

24. What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide

Ans: A nucleoside contains a pentose sugar and a nitrogenous base.
A nucleotide contains pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphoric acid group also.

25. Why is sucrose called Invert sugar?

Ans: Sucrose is dextrorotatory. When sucrose undergoes hydrolysis, it breaks down into glucose
and fructose Glucose is also dextrorotatory, but fructose is laevorotatory. The laevorotation of
fructose is stronger than the dextrorotation of glucose. Therefore, the overall rotation of the mixture
changes from dextro (+) to laevo (-) i.e. inversion takes place.

26. Why vitamin C cannot be stored in our body?

Ans: It is water soluble vitamin. It comes out from our body along with urine.
# Solutions

1. What is the effect of temperature on the solubility of a gas in a liquid?

Ans: Solubility of gas decreases with increase in temperature.

2. What is an antifreeze?
Ans: A substance such as ethylene glycol which is added to water to lower its freezing point is
called an antifreeze. Eg Ethylene glycol, Propylenen glycol and isopropyl alcohol.

3. How is Raoult's law becomes a special case of Henry's law?

Ans: Raoult's law becomes a special case of Henry's law when KH becomes equal to p10 in Henry's
law.

4. State Henry’s law correlating the pressure of a gas and its solubility in a solvent and mention two
applications of the law.
Ans: It states that at constant temperature the mass of a gas(m) dissolved in a given volume of the
liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas (P) present in equilibrium with the liquid.
P = KHX
Application :
• To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under high
pressure.
• To minimize the painful effects accompanying the decompression of deep sea divers, oxygen
diluted with less soluble helium gas is used as breathing gas.
5. What are colligative properties?
Ans: The properties of a solution which depend only on the number of solute particles and not on
their nature. Eg..
• Relative lowering of vapor pressure
• Elevation in boiling point
• Depression in freezing point
• Osmotic pressure

6. Why does the use of a pressure cooker reduce cooking time?

Ans: Boiling point of water inside the cooker increases because inside the pressure cooker, the
pressure increases. Hence, the heat will increase the temperature of the system instead of boiling
the water.

7. Explain why are aquatic species more comfortable in cold water rather than warm water?
Ans: Cold water has greater amount of dissolved oxygen.
As temperature increases, KH increases, hence, solubility decreases. Therefore, at higher
temperature, value of KH is high, so, solubility is low. So, it is difficult for aquatic species to
breathe dissolved oxygen.

8. Define the terms osmosis and osmotic pressure. Is the osmotic pressure of a solution a colligative
property? Explain.
Ans: The process of flow of solvent from a solution through a semi-permeable membrane is called
osmosis. The extra pressure that must be applied on the solution to stop the flow of solvent through
the semi-permeable membrane is called osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure method has the
advantage over other methods as pressure measurement is around the room temperature and the
molarity of the solution is used in place of molality.
9. Why is an increase in temperature observed on mixing chloroform and acetone?
Ans: The solution shows negative deviation.
The bonds between chloroform molecules and molecules of acetone are dipole-dipole interactions,
but on mixing, the chloroform and acetone molecules start forming hydrogen bonds which are
stronger bonds resulting in the release of energy. This gives rise to an increase in temperature.

10. Define an ideal solution and write one of its characteristics.

Ans: Solution which obey Raoult's law over the entire range of concentration at specific
temperature is known as an ideal solution.
Characteristics:
△Hmix = 0
△Vmix = 0

11. What are azeotropes?

Ans: Azeotropes are constant boiling mixtures. They have same composition in liquid and vapour
phase. They can not be separated by steam distillation. They are non ideal solutions
Types of azeotropes..
a. Minimum boiling azeotropes: The solutions which show a large positive deviation
from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
Eg. 95% by volume solution of ethanol.
b. Maximum boiling azeotropes: The solutions that show large negative deviation from
Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition. Nitric acid
and water is an example of this class of azeotrope.
Eg. 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass.

12. State the condition resulting in reverse osmosis.

Ans: The external pressure applied must be greater than osmotic pressure.

13. What are isotonic solutions?

Ans: Solutions having equal osmotic pressure.

14. What is difference between Hypotonic and Hypertonic solutions?

Ans: A cell placed in a hypotonic solution will swell due to the movement of water into the
cell. Alternatively, if a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the cell will shrink due to the
movement of water outside the cell through osmosis. The difference between a hypotonic
solution and a hypertonic solution is tabulated below:

Hypotonic solution Hypertonic solution

Solution is hypotonic to the cell if the solute Solution is hypertonic to the cell if the
concentration outside the cell is lower compared to concentration of solutes is higher compared to
inside the cell. inside the cell.

As a result of flow of water into cell, the cell gains As a result of flow of water out of the cell, the cell
volume and swells. loses volume and shrinks.
 A plant cell becomes turgid when putting in a A plant cell undergoes plasmolysis in a hypertonic
hypotonic solution. solution.

15. What role does the molecular interaction play in a solution of alcohol and water?
Ans: In pure alcohol and water, the molecules are held tightly by a strong hydrogen bonding.
The interaction between the molecules of alcohol and water is weaker than alcohol−alcohol
and water−water interactions. As a result, when alcohol and water are mixed, the
intermolecular interactions become weaker and the molecules can easily escape. This increases
the vapour pressure of the solution, which in turn lowers the boiling point of the resulting
solution.

16. Why do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as the temperature is raised?
Ans: Dissolution of gas is an exothermic process. As the temperature is raised, the equilibrium
shifts in reverse direction (Le-Chatelier's principle). It results in decrease of solubility of gases
in liquid.

17. How does the sprinkling of salt help in clearing the snow-covered roads in hilly areas? Explain
the phenomenon involved in the process.
Ans: According to Raoult’s law, when a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the vapor
pressure of the solvent decreases, and now this pressure would be equal to the vapour pressure
of the solid solvent at a lower temperature. Thus, the freezing point of the solvent decreases
with the addition of a non-volatile solute.
So, when salt is spread over snow-covered roads, the freezing point of water decreases, due to
which the snow on the road starts to melt and clears the road.

18. Why boiling point of water is increased on addition of non-volatile solute into it?
Ans: This is because when a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile liquid solvent, its vapour
pressure decreases and it has to be heated to a higher temperature so that its vapour pressure
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure.

19. Why vapour pressure of solvent decreases on addition of non-volatile solute into it?
Ans: Non-volatile solute covers fraction of the surface area, which decreases number of
solvent molecules going into vapour phase. Hence vapour pressure decreases.

20. Measurement of osmotic pressure method is preferred for the determination of molar masses of
macromolecules such as proteins and polymers.
Ans: Because macromolecules such as proteins and polymers are generally not stable at higher
temperature and osmotic pressure is measured at room temperature.

# Electrochemistry

1. Why conductivity of an electrolyte solution decreases with the decrease in concentration?

Ans: Because number of ions per unit volume decreases.

2. Express the relation among the cell constant, the resistance of the solution in the cell and the
conductivity of the solution. How is the conductivity of a solution related to its molar
conductivity?
 Ans:Relation between cell constant G*, resistance of the solution R and conductivity K of the
solution is given by G* = RK
Relation between molar conductivity Λm and conductivity k is given by
Λm=k/c
where C is the concentration of the solution.

3. State Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions. Write an expression for the molar
conductivity of acetic acid at infinite dilution according to Kohlrausch law.
Ans: The molar conductance of an electrolyte at infinite dilution is equal to the sum of the
molar conductances of the two ions, i.e., the cation and the anion.

4. Define the term molar conductivity and indicate how molar conductivity of a substance
changes with change in concentration of a weak electrolyte and a strong electrolyte in its
solution.
Ans: The molar conductivity Λm is the conductance of a solution containing one mole of an
electrolyte.
Molar conductivity increases with decrease in concentration.
When concentration approaches zero, the molar conductivity is known as limiting molar
conductivity.

5. Define electrochemical cell. What happens if external potential applied becomes greater
than º cell E of electrochemical cell?
Ans: Electrochemical cell is a device used for the production of electricity from energy
released during spontaneous chemical reaction and use electrical energy to bring about the
chemical change.If the external potential applied become greater than E°cell of
electrochemical cell the reaction gets reversed. It starts acting as an electrolytic cell and
vice-versa.

6. What type of a battery is lead storage battery? Write the anode and cathode reactions and
the overall cell reaction occurring in the operation of a lead storage battery
Ans: Lead storage battery is a secondary cell.
Reactions occurring in the lead storage battery while operating (during discharge) are:

7. Define fuel cell. Name the material other than Hydrogen which can be used in fuel cell.
Give its advantages and disadvantages.
 Ans: Galvanic cells that are designed to convert the energy of combustion of fuels like
hydrogen, methane, methanol, etc. directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells.
Advantages:
1. High efficiency
2. Continuous supply of energy
3. Environment friendly
Disadvantages:
1. Costly

8. From the given cells: Lead storage cell, Mercury cell, Fuel cell and dry cell. Answer the
following:
(i) Which cell is used in hearing aids?
Ans: Lead storage cell
(ii) Which cell was used in apollo space programme?
Ans: Fuel cell
(iii) Which cell is used in automobiles and invertors? (iv) Which cell does not have long
life?
Ans: Mercury cell

9. Why does a dry cell become dead after a long time, even if it has not been used?
Ans: NH4Cl corrodes the zinc container.

10. Why is alternating current used for measuring electrolytic conductivity?

Ans: If direct current is used electrochemical reactions will start within the cell.

11. Why a mercury cell gives a constant voltage throughout its life?
Ans: The overall cell reaction does not involve any ion in the solution whose concentration
changes during its life time.

12. What is role of salt bridge?

Ans:
1. To maintain electrical neutrality
2. To complete the circuit.

# Chemical Kinetics

1. Define ‘order of a reaction’.

Ans: Sum of the powers of the concentration in rate law.

2. Define molecularity of a reaction.

Ans: Molecularity of a reaction is defined as the number of the reacting molecules/species that are
colliding simultaneously in an elementary reaction.

3. Why can’t molecularity of a reaction be fractional or zero?

Ans: Molecularity is number of molecules taking part in an elementary reaction which can never
be fractional or zero.
4. For which type of reactions, order is equal to molecularity?
Ans: Elementary reactions

5. Differentiate between order and molecularity.

Ans:
6. For what type of reactions rate of reaction equal to rate constant?
OR
For which type of reaction unit of rate and rate constant are same.
OR
For which type of reaction, rate does not change with change in concentration of reactants?
Ans: Zero order reaction

7. What is the effect of temperature on the rate constant of a reaction? How can this temperature
effect on the rate constant be represented quantitatively?
Ans: The rate constant of a reaction increases with increase of temperature and becomes nearly
double for every 10° rise of temperature. Quantitatively, this temperature effect on the rate constant
is represented as,
K = A eEa/RT
where Ea is the activation energy of the reaction and A represents the frequency factor.

8. Define Elementary and complex reaction?

Ans: Elementary reaction is a single step reaction
Complex reactions takes place in multiple steps.

9. Give four differences rate between of reaction and rate constant?

Ans:
10. List the factors that determine the rate of a chemical reaction
Ans: 1. Concentration of reactants, 2. Temperature, 3. Pressure, Catalyst, 4. Surface area.

11. Define Psuedo first-order reaction

Ans: A Pseudo first-order reaction can be defined as a second-order or bimolecular reaction that is
made to behave like a first-order reaction. This reaction occurs when one reacting material is
present in great excess

12. Define Activation energy

Ans: Activation energy, in chemistry, the minimum amount of energy that is required to
activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which they can undergo chemical change.

13. First order reaction never competes. Why?

Ans: Half life of a first order reaction is independent of concentration of reactant.
t1/2 = 0.693/k
After every half-life, concentration of reactant becomes half of its initial value and never becomes
zero.

14. Reactions with molecularity greater than three are rare. Explain.
Ans: Molecularity of a reaction is defined as the number of the reacting molecules/species that are
colliding simultaneously. As the number increases, the chances of their simultaneous collisions
decrease.

15. What is an effective collision.

Ans: Collisions between molecules which result in the formation of products are called effective
collisions.
For being a collision effective, it must fulfil following two criteria ..
1. Energy of collision must be equal to or greater than activation energy.
2. The collision must be properly oriented.

16. What is order of nuclear reactions/ radioactive reactions?

Ans: First order

17. What are units of rate constants for zero, first and second order reactions?
Ans: Zero order: molL-1s-1
1st Order: s-1
2nd Order: mol-1Ls-1.
# d and f Block Elements

1. Define transition elements.

Ans: A transition element is defined as the one which has incompletely filled d orbitals in its
ground state or in any one of its oxidation states.
2. Though copper, silver and gold have completely filled sets of d-orbitals yet they are considered as
transition metals. Why?
Ans: Because in their common oxidation states they have incompletely filled d-orbitals

3. Why zinc, cadmium and mercury are generally not considered as transition metals?
Ans: Due to completely filled d orbitals in their ground as well as common oxidation state of +2.

4. On what ground can you say that scandium (Z = 21) is a transition element but zinc (Z = 30) is not?
Ans: Scandium atom in its ground state has incompletely filled d-orbital (3d1), is regarded as a
transition element. Whereas, Zinc atom has completely filled d orbitals (3d10).

5. Why Zn, Cd and Hg has lowest melting point?

Ans: As they have fully filled d-orbitals and therefore they have weak metallic bonds.

6. Why there is dip in the melting point of Mn?

Ans: Due to half-filled d5 configuration the electrons are held tightly by the nucleus so that the de-
localization is less. This results into weak metallic bond and a dip in melting point.

7. Why do the transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of atomization?

Ans: Due to strong metallic bonding because of large number of unpaired electrons.

8. In the series Sc (Z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30), the enthalpy of atomization of zinc is the lowest, i.e, 126
kJmol–1. Why?
Ans. Zinc which has no unpaired electron as its outer electronic configuration is 3d10 4s2 has
weakest atomic intermetallic bonding

9. Why E0 for Mn3+|Mn2+ couple is more positive than that for Fe3+|Fe2+?
Ans. The third ionization of Mn is very high to change Mn2+ (3d5) to Mn3+. Mn2+ (d5) is particularly
stable, low value for Fe shows the extra stability of Fe3+ (d5).

10. Why is Cr2+ reducing and Mn3+ oxidizing when both have d4 configuration?
Ans. Cr2+ is reducing as its configuration changes from d4 to d3, the latter having a half-filled t2g
level. The change from Mn2+ to Mn3+ results in the half-filled (d5) configuration which has extra
stability.

11. Explain why Cu+ ion is not stable in aqueous solution?

OR
Cu+ disproportionate in aq. Solution. Why?
Ans: Due to high hydration enthalpy of Cu2+ ion

12. Why is the highest oxidation state of a metal exhibited in its oxide or fluroide only?
Ans. Oxygen and fluorine are most electronegative elements.

13. Why oxygen stabilizes the highest oxidation state more than fluorine?
 Ans. Because oxygen forms multiple bonds.

14. Name the Oxo metal anions of the first series of the transition metals in which the metal exhibits
the oxidation state equal to its group number.
Ans. MnO4– .

15. Why lowest oxides are basic and highest is acidic?

Ans: In the low oxidation state of metal some of the valence electron of metal atom are not
involved in bonding. Hence it can donate electron and hence behave as basic.
In higher oxidation state, valence electron are involved in bonding and are not available and also
they have high effective nuclear charge.

16. Actinoid contraction is greater from element to element than lanthanide contraction. Why?
Ans: This is due to poor shielding by 5f electrons in the actinoids than that by 4f electrons in the
lanthanides.

17. The chemistry of the actinoid elements is not so smooth as that of the lanthanides. Explain.
Ans: This is because actinoids show greater number of oxidation states.

18. Differentiate between Lanthanides and Actinoids

Ans:

Lanthanides Actinoids
+3, they show +2 and +4 +3 they show +4, +5, +6, +7.
Shows more variable O.S
Smaller tendency of complex Stronger tendency of complex formation.
formation
Do not form oxo-ions. Form oxo ions, like UO22+ PuO22+ UO2+ ,etc.
Except Promethium, they are non- All are radioactive.
radioactive
Less basic More basic.

19. What is lanthanoid contraction? What are the consequences of lanthanoid contraction?
Ans:
Lanthanide Contraction: The steady decrease in the atomic size of lanthanides on increasing the
atomic number is due to the increasing the nuclear charge and electrons entering the inner (n-
2)forbital or anti penultimate shell. This steady decrease in the size with an increasing atomic
number is called lanthanide contraction.
Consequences of Lanthanide Contraction:
• Atomic size: The size of the atom of the third transition series is closely the same as that of
the atom of the second transition series. For example, the atomic radius of Zr= atomic
radius of Hf and the atomic radius of Nb=atomic radius of Ta etc.
• Separation of lanthanides:
As there is only a minute change in the ionic radii of lanthanides, their chemical properties
are the same. This makes the separation very difficult.
• Effect on the basic strength of hydroxides:
The size of lanthanides decreases from La to Lu, the covalent character of the hydroxides
increases, and hence their basic strength decreases. For example, Lu(OH)3 is said to be the
least basic, and La(OH)3 is more basic.
20. Explain giving reasons:
(i) Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic behaviour.
(ii) The transition metals generally form coloured compounds.
(iv) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalyst
 Ans:
(i) due to presence of unpaired electrons in d orbitals
(ii) due to d-d translon of unpaired electrons
(iii) because they show variable oxidation states,

21. Why do transition elements show variable oxidation state?

Ans: because electrons from both ns and (n-1) d subshell participate in bonding due to very less
difference in energy .

22. What are interstitial compounds? Why are such compounds well known for transition metals?
Ans: Transition metals are large in size and contain lots of interstitial sites. Transition elements can
trap atoms of other elements (that have small atomic size), such as H, C, N, in the interstitial sites
of their crystal lattices. The resulting compounds are called interstitial compounds.

23. Why do transition elements form alloys?

Ans: Atomic sizes of transition metals are very similar to each other and hence they can easily
replace one another in their crystal lattice.

# Coordination Compounds

1. Define following terms

Ans:
a. Coordination entity: It constitutes a central metal atom or ion bonded to a fixed number
of ions or molecules (e.g. [CoCl3 (NH3 )3 ]).
b. Ligands: It is a molecule or ion that donates an electron pair to central atom/cation in a
coordination compound. A ligand may be monodentate, bidentate, tridentate or polydentate
depending up on the number of donor sites.
c. Coordination number: It is total number of coordinate bonds with which central atom is
linked to ligands in the complex.
d. Coordination sphere: The central metal atom/cation and the ligands attached to it is called
coordination sphere
e. Coordination polyhedron: The spatial arrangement of the ligand atoms which are directly
attached to the central atom/ion defines a coordination polyhedron. Most common
coordination polyhedron are octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral (e.g. [Co(NH3)6 ]3+ is
octahedral).
2. What are Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes?
Ans: Complexes in which a metal is bound to only one kind of donor groups e.g. [Co(NH3 )6 ]3+
Complexes in which a metal is bound to more than one kind of donor groups e.g. [Co(NH3)4Cl2]+

3. What is a double salt?

Ans: It is an addition product of two compounds and can exist in crystalline state only and loses its
identity in solutions e.g. Mohr’s salt, potash alum, etc.

4. What is meant by unidentate and didentate ? Give two examples for each.
Ans: A molecule or an ion which has only one donor atoms to form one coordinate bond with the
central metal atom is called unidentate ligand (e.g. Cl– and NH3 ).
A molecule or ion which contains two donor atoms and hence forms two coordinate bonds with the
central metal atom is called a didentate ligand. For example,

5. What are ambidentate ligands?

 Ans: A molecule or an ion which contains two donor atoms but only one of them forms a
coordinate bond at a time with the central metal atom is called ambidentate ligand (e.g. :CN– or
NC-: and NO2-or ONO- : ).

6. What is spectrochemical series? Explain the difference between a weak field ligand and a strong
field ligand.
Ans: The arrangement of ligands in order of their increasing field strengths, that is increasing
crystal field splitting energy (CFSE) values, is called spectrochemical series. The ligands with small
value of CFSE (∆0 ) are called weak field ligands, whereas those with large value of CFSE are called
strong field ligands.

7. What is crystal field splitting energy? How does the magnitude of ∆0 decide the actual
configuration of d-orbitals is a coordination entity?
Ans: When the ligands approach a transition metal ion, the d-orbitals split into two sets, one with
lower energy and the other with higher energy. The difference of energy between the two sets of
orbitals is called crystal field splitting energy (∆0 for octahedral field). If ∆0 < P (pairing energy), the
fourth electron.

8. What is meant by chelate effect?

Ans: When a didentate or a polydentate ligand contains donor atoms positioned in such a way
that when they coordinate with the central metal ion, a five or a six membered ring is formed, the
effect is called chelate effect.