‭Magnetic Tape‬

‭‬ T
● ‭ hin plastic strip coated with iron oxide.‬
‭●‬ ‭Data is stored as magnetised (1) or demagnetised (0) areas.‬
‭●‬ ‭Access:‬‭Serial (read/write in the order written).‬

‭Uses:‬

‭‬ B
● ‭ atch processing:‬‭Bank cheques, utility billing, payroll.‬
‭●‬ ‭Backup media:‬‭Storing large amounts of data.‬
‭●‬ ‭Long-term archiving:‬‭Stable with huge storage capacity.‬

‭Advantages:‬

‭‬
● ‭ heaper per byte than HDDs.‬
C
‭●‬ ‭Robust and stable over time.‬
‭●‬ ‭High data storage capacity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fast data transfer rate.‬

‭Disadvantages:‬

‭‬ V
● ‭ ery slow data access (serial access).‬
‭●‬ ‭Updating requires a new tape (slow, error-prone).‬
‭●‬ ‭Susceptible to corruption by strong magnetic fields.‬

‭Hard Disk Drives (HDD)‬

‭●‬ S ‭ torage‬‭: Data is stored digitally on magnetic platters made of glass, ceramic, or‬
‭aluminum coated in iron oxide.‬
‭●‬ ‭Read/Write Heads‬‭: These heads move across the platters‬‭to read and write data, with‬
‭two heads per platter, one for each side.‬
‭●‬ ‭Direct Access‬‭: Unlike magnetic tape, data on an HDD‬‭can be accessed directly without‬
‭needing to read earlier data.‬
‭●‬ ‭Actuators‬‭: Voice coils act as actuators, moving the‬‭read/write heads quickly across the‬
‭platters.‬
‭●‬ ‭Platter Speed‬‭: The platters rotate at speeds up to‬‭10,000 RPM (revolutions per minute).‬
‭●‬ ‭Data Organization‬‭: Data is stored in concentric tracks,‬‭divided into smaller sections‬
‭called sectors. A File Allocation Table (FAT) tracks free sectors for efficient data storage.‬
‭●‬ ‭Latency‬‭: This refers to the delay in data access caused‬‭by the time it takes for the‬
‭platter to rotate the data to the read/write head. Latency can cause noticeable delays‬
‭when multiple applications are running.‬
‭●‬ ‭Types‬‭: HDDs can be either fixed (internal) or portable‬‭(external).‬
‭Uses of Fixed Hard Disk Drives‬

‭‬
● ‭ tore operating systems, system software, and working data/files.‬
S
‭●‬ ‭Store applications software.‬
‭●‬ ‭Used in real-time systems (e.g., robots, chemical plant control).‬
‭●‬ ‭Used in online systems (e.g., airline booking, EPOS stock control).‬
‭●‬ ‭Used in file servers for computer networks‬

‭Advantages of Fixed Hard Disk Drives‬

‭‬ F
● ‭ ast data transfer rate and access times.‬
‭●‬ ‭Large memory capacities.‬

‭Disadvantages of Fixed Hard Disk Drives‬

‭‬ P
● ‭ rone to damage (e.g., head crashes from improper shutdown).‬
‭●‬ ‭Many moving parts can reduce reliability.‬
‭●‬ ‭Read/write operations can be noisy compared to solid-state drives.‬

‭Portable Hard Disk Drives‬

‭ ortable Hard Disk Drives‬‭are external HDDs that connect‬‭to a computer by USB ports. They‬
P
‭are used for‬‭backup storage‬‭or for‬‭transferring files‬‭between computers.‬

‭Uses:‬

‭‬ B
● ‭ ackup systems to prevent data loss.‬
‭●‬ ‭Transfer data/files/software between computers.‬

‭Advantages:‬

‭‬ F
● ‭ ast data access time and transfer rate.‬
‭●‬ ‭Large memory capacity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Useful for transferring information between computers.‬

‭Disadvantages:‬

‭‬ E
● ‭ asily damaged if dropped or not properly shut down.‬
‭●‬ ‭Slower data transfer rate compared to fixed hard drives.‬

‭CD/DVD Optical Disks‬

‭Overview:‬

‭‬ C
● ‭ Ds and DVDs are optical media read and written using laser light.‬
‭●‬ ‭Optical storage devices can be built-in or connected via USB.‬
‭Types:‬

‭ ‬ ‭‘R’ (Write Once Only):‬‭Data can be written once, then‬‭read multiple times.‬
●
‭●‬ ‭‘RW’ (Rewritable):‬‭Data can be written, read and erased‬‭multiple times.‬
‭●‬ ‭‘ROM’ (Read-Only Memory):‬‭Pre-recorded data, cannot be written to.‬

‭Data Storage:‬

‭ n the spiral track, the data is kept in pits and lands (lands are the spaces between pits). The‬
O
‭data is read and written using a red laser. About 20% of the laser light's wavelength, which was‬
‭used to read the disc, is contained within these pits. This indicates that there is harmful‬
‭interference because the reflected laser light's wavelength differs slightly from the source laser‬
‭light's. This allows the pits and lands to be read and then be converted into binary data.‬

‭Reading/Writing Mechanism:‬

‭‬ A
● ‭ red laser reads and writes data by following the spiral track.‬
‭●‬ ‭The laser doesn’t touch the disk surface.‬
‭●‬ ‭Reflective properties of the pits and lands cause destructive interference, enabling data‬
‭to be read and converted into binary.‬

‭DVD vs. CD:‬

‭‬ D
● ‭ VDs have larger storage capacity due to smaller pit size and track width.‬
‭●‬ ‭DVDs can have dual layers, increasing storage capacity.‬
‭●‬ ‭DVDs use a laser with a 650 nm wavelength; CDs use a 780 nm wavelength.‬

‭Key Points:‬

‭‬ C
● ‭ Ds/DVDs:‬‭Store data using laser light on a spiral track.‬
‭●‬ ‭Storage:‬‭Pits and lands create data patterns read‬‭by lasers.‬
‭●‬ ‭DVDs:‬‭Offer more storage than CDs, especially with dual-layer technology.‬

‭CD-R vs. DVD-R‬

‭Uses:‬

‭‬ C
● ‭ D-R: Home recordings of music.‬
‭●‬ ‭DVD-R: Home recordings of films.‬
‭●‬ ‭Used to store data to be kept for later use or to be transferred to another computer‬

‭Advantages:‬

‭●‬ ‭Both are cheaper than RW disks.‬

 ‭●‬ ‭Once recorded (finalised), they act like ROMs (read-only).‬

‭Disadvantages:‬

‭‬ C
● ‭ an only be recorded once.‬
‭●‬ ‭Not all players can read them.‬

‭CD-RW vs. DVD-RW‬

‭Uses:‬

‭‬ C
● ‭ D-RW: Recording TV programs, CCTV, backups.‬
‭●‬ ‭DVD-RW: Similar uses, with larger storage.‬

‭Advantages:‬

‭‬ R
● ‭ ewritable multiple times.‬
‭●‬ ‭Can use different file formats.‬
‭●‬ ‭Less wasteful than R formats.(You can erase and reuse them multiple times. They allow‬
‭updates and new data, reducing disk waste.)‬

‭Disadvantages:‬

‭‬ R
● ‭ elatively expensive.‬
‭●‬ ‭Risk of accidental data overwriting.‬

‭CD-ROM vs. DVD-ROM‬

‭Uses:‬

‭‬ C
● ‭ D-ROM: Music files, software, games.‬
‭●‬ ‭DVD-ROM: Films, larger computer data, sophisticated games.‬
‭●‬ ‭Used in applications where there is a real need to prevent deletion or overwriting of‬
‭important data.‬

‭Advantages:‬

‭●‬ ‭Cheaper than a hard disk drive system.‬

‭Disadvantages:‬

‭●‬ ‭Slower data transfer/access time than hard drives.‬

‭DVD-RAM‬

‭‬ U
● ‭ sed as RAM in older computers and camcorders.‬
‭●‬ ‭Less common now.‬

‭Blu-ray Discs‬

‭●‬ O ‭ ptical Storage Media‬‭: Like DVDs but with different construction and read/write‬
‭methods.‬
‭●‬ ‭Blue Laser‬‭: Uses a 405 nm blue laser (vs. 650 nm red‬‭laser in DVDs), allowing for more‬
‭data storage.‬
‭●‬ ‭Data Storage‬‭: Smaller pits and lands due to blue laser,‬‭enabling up to 5x more storage‬
‭than DVDs.‬
‭○‬ ‭Single-layer Blu-ray‬‭: 27 GB (HD movies, 13 hours SD‬‭movies).‬
‭○‬ ‭Dual-layer Blu-ray‬‭: 50 GB (4.5 hours HD movies, 20‬‭hours SD movies).‬
‭○‬ ‭Standard DVD‬‭: 4.7 GB (2 hours SD movies).‬
‭●‬ ‭Interactivity‬‭: More features than DVDs; supports editing,‬‭playlists, quick access, and‬
‭web features.‬
‭●‬ ‭Data Transfer Rate‬‭: 36 Mbps (vs. 10 Mbps for DVDs).‬
‭●‬ ‭Encryption‬‭: Built-in system to prevent piracy.‬

‭Uses‬

‭●‬ ‭Home video consoles, movie storage, computers (data backup), camcorders.‬

‭Advantages‬

‭‬
● ‭ arge storage capacity.‬
L
‭●‬ ‭Fast data transfer.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fast access speeds.‬
‭●‬ ‭Secure against piracy.‬

‭Disadvantages‬

‭‬ R
● ‭ elatively expensive.‬
‭●‬ ‭Encryption can cause compatibility issues.‬
‭●‬ ‭Competing HD-DVD technology reduces Blu-ray's advantage.‬

‭Solid-State Media & Storage Devices‬

‭●‬ N ‭ o Latency Issues‬‭: Unlike HDDs, solid-state drives‬‭(SSDs) have no moving parts, so‬
‭data is retrieved at the same speed.‬
‭●‬ ‭Technology‬‭: Data stored using NAND chips, not magnetic properties.‬
 ‭●‬ D ‭ ata Storage‬‭: Stores data as 0s and 1s using millions of tiny transistors (floating gate‬
‭and control gate).‬
‭●‬ ‭Non-Volatile Memory‬‭: Data remains even without power; can be rewritten many times.‬
‭●‬ ‭Common Devices‬‭: Flash memories (USB drives, SSDs) use solid-state technology.‬

‭Floating Gate and Control Gate Transistors‬

‭●‬ T ‭ echnology Used‬‭: CMOS (complementary metal oxide semi-conductor) NAND‬

‭technology in flash memories.‬
‭●‬ ‭Grid Structure‬‭: Memory cells arranged in a grid; each intersection has a floating gate‬
‭and a control gate.‬

‭‬ S
● ‭ eparation‬‭: A dielectric coating separates the floating gate and control gate.‬
‭●‬ ‭Function‬‭: Floating gate transistor retains charge,‬‭making the memory non-volatile.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bit Values‬:‭‬
‭○‬ ‭"1" when the floating gate is charged.‬
‭○‬ ‭"0" when not charged.‬
‭●‬ ‭Programming‬‭: Voltage applied to the control gate attracts‬‭electrons, which get trapped‬
‭in the floating gate due to the dielectric layer.‬
‭●‬ ‭Memory Retention‬‭: Charge may leak over time (around 12 months); devices should be‬
‭used periodically to retain memory contents.‬

‭Uses of SSDs (Solid-State Drives)‬

‭●‬ R ‭ eplacement for HDDs‬‭: SSDs are used as primary storage devices for computers,‬
‭replacing traditional HDDs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Storage for Devices‬‭: Store files, applications, and‬‭operating systems.‬
‭●‬ ‭Thinner and Lighter Devices‬‭: Enabled the development‬‭of thin and lightweight laptops.‬
‭●‬ ‭Smartphones and Tablets‬‭: Essential for the development of modern smartphones and‬
‭tablets.‬

‭Advantages of SSDs‬

‭‬
● ‭ ore Reliable‬‭: No moving parts, so less chance of‬‭mechanical failure.‬
M
‭●‬ ‭Lightweight‬‭: Suitable for portable devices like laptops.‬
‭●‬ ‭Instant Operation‬‭: No need to spin up like HDDs; faster‬‭start-up.‬
‭●‬ ‭Lower Power Consumption‬‭: Ideal for battery-operated devices.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cooler Operation‬‭: Generates less heat, beneficial for laptops.‬
 ‭‬ C
● ‭ ompact Design‬‭: Thin due to the lack of moving parts.‬
‭●‬ ‭Faster Data Access‬‭: Access time is 0.1 milliseconds (vs. 10 ms for HDDs).‬
‭●‬ ‭Higher Data Transfer Speeds‬‭: Transfers data faster than HDDs.‬

‭Disadvantages of SSDs‬

‭●‬ L ‭ ongevity Issues‬‭: Limited lifespan due to write endurance; rated for about 20 GB of‬
‭write operations per day over three years.‬
‭●‬ ‭Not Ideal for High Write Environments‬‭: Less suitable‬‭for servers or applications with‬
‭many daily write operations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Improving Durability‬‭: Manufacturers are working on increasing SSD durability, making‬
‭them more common for servers and cloud storage.‬

‭Pen Drives (Memory Sticks)‬

‭ mall, portable devices that use solid-state technology for data storage. Connect to‬
S
‭computers through a USB port.‬

‭●‬ ‭Flash Drive vs. Pen Drive‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Flash Drive‬‭: General term for any device using solid-state storage.‬
‭○‬ ‭Pen Drive‬‭: A type of flash drive with a USB connector, used mainly for data‬
‭transfer.‬

‭Uses‬‭:‬

‭‬ T
● ‭ ransporting files between computers.‬
‭●‬ ‭Used as a backing store for music, photos, etc.‬
‭●‬ ‭Acts as a security device (dongle) to prevent software piracy.‬

‭Advantages‬‭:‬

‭‬
● ‭ ompact, lightweight, and portable.‬
C
‭●‬ ‭Robust and durable.‬
‭●‬ ‭Plug-and-play; no extra software needed.‬
‭●‬ ‭Not affected by magnetic fields.‬

‭Disadvantages‬‭:‬

‭‬ N
● ‭ o "write-protect" option (cannot make files 'read-only').‬
‭●‬ ‭Easy to lose due to small size.‬
‭●‬ ‭Risk of data corruption if not removed properly during read/write.‬
‭Memory Cards‬

‭ olid-state technology is used in memory cards. They can be put into a machine that can either‬
S
‭write data to the card or read the card. The cards come in various memory sizes. There are‬
‭many memory card formats available, including:‬

‭SD Cards (S‬‭ecure‬‭D‭i‬gital‬‭)‬

‭‬ U
● ‭ sed in portable devices (e.g., cameras, smartphones, tablets).‬
‭●‬ ‭High-capacity and compact.‬

‭XD Cards (‬‭E‬‭x‭t‬reme‬‭D‭i‬gital‬‭)‬

‭‬ D
● ‭ esigned for digital cameras.‬
‭●‬ ‭Can be read/written by a card reader or camera.‬

‭CFast Cards (C‬‭ompact‬‭Fast)‬

‭‬ S
● ‭ mall, solid-state memory card.‬
‭●‬ ‭No moving parts; no battery needed.‬
‭●‬ ‭Used in high-end digital photo/video cameras.‬

‭Uses:‬

‭‬
● ‭ tore photos in digital cameras.‬
S
‭●‬ ‭Mobile phone storage.‬
‭●‬ ‭Music files in MP3 players.‬
‭●‬ ‭Backup for handheld devices.‬

‭Advantages:‬

‭‬
● ‭ ompact and portable.‬
C
‭●‬ ‭Durable with no moving parts.‬
‭●‬ ‭High data storage capacity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Easy transfer of files between devices.‬

‭Disadvantages:‬

‭‬
● ‭ xpensive per GB compared to hard drives.‬
E
‭●‬ ‭Lower storage capacity than hard drives.‬
‭●‬ ‭Finite read/write cycles.‬
‭●‬ ‭Small size increases risk of loss or damage.‬
‭●‬ ‭May need a separate card reader for some computers.‬
‭Future of Storage Devices‬

‭●‬ ‭Obsolescence of CDs and DVDs:‬

‭○‬ ‭Many computers no longer include CD/DVD drives.‬
‭○‬ ‭USB connectors are now more common for file transfer.‬
‭●‬ ‭Flash Memory:‬
‭○‬ ‭Main method for transferring files between devices.‬
‭●‬ ‭Music Storage:‬
‭○‬ ‭Hard Disk Drives:‬‭Used in sound systems.‬
‭○‬ ‭MP3 Format:‬‭Stored on:‬
‭■‬ ‭Computers/tablets‬
‭■‬ ‭Mobile/smartphones‬
‭■‬ ‭Portable music players (e.g., iPods)‬
‭○‬ ‭Cloud Storage:‬‭Access music from anywhere.‬
‭○‬ ‭Streaming:‬‭Listen via the internet on laptops, smartphones, tablets, etc.‬
‭●‬ ‭Movies and TV:‬
‭○‬ ‭Streaming:‬‭Increasingly popular for movies and TV‬‭shows.‬
‭○‬ ‭Smart TVs:‬‭Can stream content without needing DVD/Blu-ray‬‭players.‬
‭○‬ ‭TVs now act as central computers with internet connectivity.‬