f

1
Lời nói đầu:
Trong 4 tiêu chí chấm điểm của IELTS Writing thì chắc chắn tiêu chí
vocabulary là tiêu chí khó cải thiện nhất. Bạn cần cho giám khảo thấy được
kĩ năng sử dụng từ vựng của mình – nó có nghĩa là bạn cần dùng từ vựng
đúng ngữ cảnh, phù hợp với chủ đề mình đang viết về. Ngoài việc thể hiện
được ý, làm quan điểm của mình rõ ràng thì bạn cần cho người đọc thấy
được sophisticated understanding of the language.
Các collocations và academic words sẽ giúp bạn làm được điều này. Trong
cuốn Lean academic words bao gồm 474 từ vựng và cấu trúc học thuật
phù hợp và được dùng nhiều nhất để trả lời cho các yêu cầu của bài essay
task 2. Với mỗi từ đều có giải nghĩa và ví dụ để thấy rõ cách sử dụng đúng
và ngữ cảnh nào dùng sẽ phù hợp. Các từ vựng quan trọng trong sách này
đã được gom với các từ gần nghĩa, kèm theo các ví dụ liên quan trực tiếp
đến các chủ đề của IELTS writing để các bạn mở rộng từ vựng nhanh
nhất.
Bên trang bên là 1 bài essay đạt 8.5 Writing trong kì thi chính thức
của một trợ giảng của mình và các từ màu đỏ là các academic words
có trong cuốn sách này.

2
Some people believe that international aid organizations’ priority is to
maintain a supply of clean water. Others believe that international aid
should be put to better uses (building schools, hospitals, etc,...)
Discuss both views and give your own opinion.

Many people strongly hold onto the belief that ensuring a stable supply of
clean water is the utmost duty of international aid organizations. In this
essay, I will challenge this stream of thought, for I believe that given the
present world’s situation, such action’s justification pales in comparison
to others’.

One might argue that an abundant supply of clean water is the core factor
that decides the development of a nation. This is predicated on the
assumption that without water, barely any civilization could survive within a
short stint of years, let alone thrive for centuries to come. Granted, were
a nation to lack a main influx of water, its agriculture would suffer
severely, which results in scarcity of agricultural products. Consequentially,
the total mass of raw material coming from farming and irrigation would be
insufficient to feed the anchor industries of that nation, indicating its
foreseeable demise.

However, this line of reasoning fails to factor in the fact that in the race
for industrialization, the majority of present-day developing countries can
effortlessly sustain a source of clean water. What these countries are
missing is a qualified human resource that could help their nations make
progress in all fields. As such, I strongly suggest that international funds
should be dedicated to building facilities that would raise the citizen’s
standard of living. More schools should be established to guarantee not
only children’s proper education but also the country’s future; more
hospitals should be built for the sake of the city dwellers’ health, and more
malls and entertainment centers should be erected to satisfy the citizens’
demand for recreation. Only in such an ideal milieu would it be believable
that a nation can thrive in the long-lasting run for industrialization.

In concluding, it is my conviction that global funding can be put to better

uses by being invested in facilities that enhance the standard of living.

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1/ function words ……………………………………………………………..5
2/ “cause” language ……………………………………….…………………15
3/ “harm” language …………………………………………………………..18
4/ “prevent” language ……………………………………………………….26
5/ “result” language ………………………………………………………….30
6/ “worse” language …………………………………………………………36
7/ “enhance” language ………………………………………………………38
8/ “important” language ……………………………………………………..46
9/ “similar” language ……………………………………………………….51
10/ “make it clear” language ………………………………………………..53
11/ “money” language ……………………………………………………….54
12/ “rich” language …………………………………………………………...58
13/ “poor” language ………………………………………………………….60
14/ “allocate” language ……………………………………………………...63
15/ “quantity” language ……………………………………………………..65
16/ “likely” language …………………………………………………………70
17/ “succeed” language ……………………………………………………..72
18/ “add” language …………………………………………………………...76
19/ “understand” language …………………………………………………78
20/ “work hard” language …………………………………………………...81
21/ “independent” language ………………………………………………..85
22/ “start” language ………………………………………………………….88
23/ “difficulty” language …………………………………………………….89
24/ “solution” language ……………….………………………………….....91
25/ “skilled” language ………………………….…………………………..102
26/ “eliminate” language ……….………………………………………….104
27/ “healthy” language ……………………………………………………..108
28/ “worrying” language …………………………………………………...110
29/ “exceed” language ……………………………………………………..111
30/ “increase” language …………….……………………………………..113
31/ “popular” language ……………………….……………………………115
32/ “recover” language …………………………………………………….116
33/ “everywhere” language ………………………………………………..118
34/ “encourage” language …………………………………………………120
35/ “protect” language ……………………………………………………..121
36/ “demanding” language ……………..…………………………………123
37/ “trick” language………………………………………………………… 126
38/ Other important words and phrases …………….…………………. 128

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“function words”

indeedadverb
UK /ɪnˈdiːd/ US /ɪnˈdiːd/
B1 really or certainly, often used to emphasize something:
Indeed, there is more to life than having material things, and this is the attitude that I
believe schools should foster in children instead of promoting social competition
between them.
Evidence suggests that errors may indeed be occurring.
Admittedly, the negative ramifications of student exchange programs are indeed in plain
sight.

tooadverb
UK /tuː/ US /tuː/
all too

used before an adjective or adverb to emphasize a negative meaning:

The holidays flew by all too quickly.
All too often we forgot who we are.
It is all too easy to get caught up in the world of drugs.
Under such an arrangement, it unfortunately becomes all too common for gifted
students to be held back in their studies as their classmates struggle to understand
basic concepts.
Without supervision, young people all too often turn to television for stimulation.

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invariablyadverb
UK /ɪnˈveə.ri.ə.bli/ US /ɪnˈver.i.ə.bli/

C2 always:
The train is invariably late.
AI teachers’ knowledge would be invariably superior to that of their human counterparts.
Movie-theatres which used to be packed are now invariably half-empty

suchnoun
UK /sʌtʃ/ US /sʌtʃ/

as such

in the true or exact meaning of the word or phrase:

There wasn't much vegetarian food as such, although there were several
different types of cheese.

We don't have a secretary as such, but we do have a student who comes in to do

some filing.

This is predicated on the assumption that schooling is a transfer of knowledge from

teacher to learner, and should serve this function as such.

As such, they rightfully earn their salaries and should be admired just as much as any
professional in any field.

Other people condemn this change, saying childish openness about feelings is more
honest and as such, it should be valued.

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suchadjective, pronoun
US /sʌtʃ/
such adjective, pronoun (OF THAT TYPE)

of that or a similar type:

With such evidence, they should have no difficulty getting a conviction.
Such violent measures should not be condoned.
One consequence of such an attitude could be that these adults are unable to work
successfully in teams with other colleagues.
A second negative trait in such people could be impulsiveness.

dueadjective
UK /dʒuː/ US /duː/

due to
B1 because of:
A lot of her unhappiness is due to boredom.

The bus was delayed due to heavy snow.

In addition, many children live in unstable family environments, due to such issues as
unemployment or political turbulence.

Treating adults with complications due to obesity developed in childhood is even more
costly

albeitconjunction
UK /ɔːlˈbiː.ɪt/ US /ɑːlˈbiː.ɪt/ FORMAL

C2 although:
The evening was very pleasant, albeit a little quiet.
He tried, albeit without success.
Albeit a child can access all kinds of information with a tap of his fingers, he also has an
excuse not to think for himself and overcome problems

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merelyadverb
UK /ˈmɪə.li/ US /ˈmɪr.li/

C2 used to emphasize that something is not large, important, or effective

when compared to something else:
The medicine won't cure her - it merely stops the pain.
Thus, having the ability to help others is merely one of the choices that a well-off person
is given.

largelyadverb [ not gradable ]

US /ˈlɑrdʒ·li/

to a great degree, or generally:

My advice was largely ignored.
His early novels went largely unnoticed.
Space investigation is largely an academic pursuit.

nay adverb
UK /neɪ/ US /neɪ/
nay adverb (EVEN MORE) formal
used to introduce a second and more extreme phrase in a sentence when the first
phrase was not strong enough:

It is my pleasure, nay (my) privilege, to introduce tonight's guest speaker

More importantly, when they study online, it is challenging, nay, impossible for them to
verify the source of information, and perhaps, they may be misled or learn the wrong
things as a result.
It would be difficult, nay, impossible to create a parenting course to suit everyone.
The personal nature of excitement, which makes it difficult, nay, impossible to decide
whether an activity is more fun than the other, regardless of the level of challenge
involved.

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timenoun
UK /taɪm/ US /taɪm/

at times
C1 sometimes:
You can be really annoying at times, you know.

Space exploration is a subject which provokes great emotions as well as scientific

interest, and at times the two become somewhat blurred.

Nevertheless, tests must be used sparingly and with caution as they can, at times, be
both damaging and unjust

at all times
continuously:
When you're at the airport, you should make sure you have your luggage with you at all
times.

For example, the app KidCheck uses GPS to tell guardians where their loves ones are
at all times, thus enabling them to find their young one quickly in an emergency.

In some other cities, traffic is congested at all times, and there is the continual sound of
car horns as people try to get wherever they want to go.

at any time
ever:
Parking is not allowed here at any time.

Nowadays, anyone employed by an organization is likely to receive texts or emails from

management or co-workers at any time, and will be expected to reply or take action.
Today, the entire world is at our fingertips, and this can be seen in the way we can
communicate with anyone instantly, anywhere, at any time, and for free.
For example, most people are fortunate enough not to have to call the police or fire
brigade at any time in their lives, but they would not expect a tax reduction for this.

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regardlessadverb
UK /rɪˈɡɑːd.ləs/ US /rɪˈɡɑːrd.ləs/

C1 despite; not being affected by something:

It would be wrong to turn a blind eye to people in need, regardless of where they are in
the world.
We have an obligation to help anyone in peril, regardless of the circumstances.
For example, a positive working atmosphere, enthusiastic colleagues, and an
inspirational boss can make working life much more satisfying, regardless of the
profession.
These old buildings should be preserved and maintained for their cultural value,
regardless of the financial value of the land they lie on.

irrespectiveadverb
UK /ˌɪr.ɪˈspek.tɪv/ US /ˌɪr.əˈspek.tɪv/

C2 without considering; not needing to allow for:

The legislation must be applied irrespective of someone's ethnic origins.
For example, employees who are optimistic and have a positive outlook on life are more
likely to achieve higher job satisfaction irrespective of the job or the workplace they are
in.
Synonym
regardless

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in the light of sth
UK US in light of sth

C1 because of:
In the light of rapid environmental degradation, many people believe that countries need
to join forces to preserve the environment.

In light of the problems we're having, we have no choice but to close the business.

In the light of fiercer competition among companies, consumers today are bombarded
with a barrage of advertisements from businesses trying to promote their products to the
general public

virtuenoun
UK /ˈvɜː.tʃuː/ US /ˈvɝː.tʃuː/

C2 [ C or U ] a good moral quality in a person, or the general quality of

being morally good or an advantage or good thing:
Patience is a virtue.
I wish medical professionals and government ministers would extol the virtues of
sleeping properly.
These important virtues will help them in competitive situations such as job interviews
after they leave school.
Would there be any virtue in taking an earlier train?

by virtue of C2 FORMAL

because of; as a result of:

She succeeded by virtue of her tenacity rather than her talent.

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counterpartnoun [ C ]
UK /ˈkaʊn.tə.pɑːt/ US /ˈkaʊn.t̬ ɚ.pɑːrt/

C1 a person or thing that has the same purpose as another one in a

different place or organization:
Many feel that the contributions old people make to society are more valuable than
those made by their younger counterparts.
Why should women in top managerial positions earn less than their male counterparts?
For example, paper bags, which are biodegradable, require us to continue clearing
forests and also carry a large carbon footprint in the form of transportation as they are
much heavier than their plastic counterparts.

otherwiseadjective [ after verb ]

UK /ˈʌð.ə.waɪz/ US /ˈʌð.ɚ.waɪz/ FORMAL

used to show that something is completely different from what you think it is or
from what was previously stated:
He might have told you he was a qualified electrician, but the truth is quite otherwise.
conjunction
B1 used after an order or suggestion to show what the result will be if you do
not follow that order or suggestion:
I'd better write it down, otherwise I'll forget it.
Call home, otherwise your parents will start to worry.
Many older children, for instance, have a part time job in order to save for something
they would otherwise be unable to afford.
Working at home enables many people to join the workforce who would not otherwise
be able to do so

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reasoningnoun [ U ]
UK /ˈriː.zən.ɪŋ/ US /ˈriː.zən.ɪŋ/

C2 the process of thinking about something in order to make a decision:

The reasoning behind her conclusion is impossible to fault.
This line of reasoning is not sound/ faulty.
However, such reasoning fails to factor in the fact that busy roads are often the most
convenient ones.

soundadjective
UK /saʊnd/ US /saʊnd/

showing good judgment; able to be trusted:

She gave me some very sound advice.
Are these pesticides environmentally sound (= will they not damage the environment)?
Government bonds are a sound investment.

cogentadjective
US /ˈkoʊ·dʒənt/

persuasive and well expressed:

He makes a cogent argument for improving early childhood education.

flimsyadjective
UK /ˈflɪm.zi/ US /ˈflɪm.zi/

A flimsy argument, excuse, etc. is weak and difficult to believe:

When I asked him why he was late, he gave me some flimsy excuse about
having car trouble.
This argument is flimsy at best.

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defectiveadjective
UK /dɪˈfek.tɪv/ US /dɪˈfek.tɪv/

C2 Something that is defective has a fault in it and does not work correctly:
defective brakes
defective eyesight
a defective gene
I think that theory/ argument is defective.

flawnoun [ C ]
UK /flɔː/ US /flɑː/

C1 a fault, mistake, or weakness, especially one that happens while something is

being planned or made, or that causes something not to be perfect:
I returned the material because it had a flaw in it.
There's a fatal flaw in your reasoning.

verb [ T ]
UK /flɔː/ US /flɑː/

to cause something to be not perfect:

A tiny mark flawed the otherwise perfect silk shirt.

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“cause” language
cause verb [ T ]
UK /kɔːz/ US /kɑːz/

to make something happen, especially something bad:

The difficult driving conditions caused several accidents.

[ + obj + to infinitive ] The bright light caused her to blink.

Furthermore, pushing children too hard may backfire, causing children to develop a
negative attitude towards learning, if they fail to cope with stress.
Advertising can affect what they think, as seen above, and this can produce a
consumerist mentality, causing people to equate buying more with increased happiness.
Of course, one might argue that such a ban would lead to tobacco companies going out
of business, causing a large economic loss as well as job losses for workers in those
companies.

contributeverb
UK /kənˈtrɪbjuːt, ˈkɒntrɪbjuːt/ US

to be one of the reasons why something happens:

contribute to/toward/towards sth
The advances in technology that have driven industrialization in developed countries
have certainly contributed to the disappearance of traditional ways of life.
Thus, if more money had been used to subsidize innovative ideas that could potentially
contribute to the battle against climate change, we would not have to dread the looming
end of our own kind to this extent.
As such, it is nigh on impossible to calculate the amount of money, manpower and
resources that a nation would have to contribute to preserving the environment.

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leadverb
UK /liːd/ US /liːd/ led, led UK /led/ US
C2 [ T ] to cause someone to do something, especially something bad:

[ + to infinitive ] The brochure led me to believe that the price included home
delivery.
Advertising leads people to equate buying more with increased happiness.
[ I/T ] to prepare the way for something to happen; cause:

Our insatiable thirst for energy leads to environmental abuses.

In these cases, tourism actually leads to resentment and distrust between nationalities,
not better understanding.
I feel that, within reason, it is healthy to show feelings openly because it leads to
stronger relationships.
International travel may lead to tension between people of different cultures.

give rise to
C2 to cause something:
International support has given rise to a new optimism in the company.
The banning of fast food would give rise to a range of problems.
Human greed is primarily at the core of what gives rise to war, and conflict.

result in sth— phrasal verb with result verb [ I ]

UK /rɪˈzʌlt/ US /rɪˈzʌlt/
to cause a particular situation to happen:
The fire resulted in damage to their property.
[ + -ing verb ] Icy conditions resulted in two roads being closed.
Furthermore, a country with a cleaner environment is likely to attract more foreign
tourists, resulting in job creation in the service sector and an improved standard of living
for many.
Chances are that he would fail to cope with the stress, resulting in him developing a
negative attitude towards studying.

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spurverb [ T ]
UK /spɜːr/ US /spɝː/ -rr-

C2 to encourage an activity or development or make it happen faster:

Rising consumer sales have the effect of spurring the economy to faster growth.
The huge new factory spurred economic growth in the entire region.
Given the convenience of online shopping, it can spur people to buy more, begetting
economic growth.

propelverb [ T ]
UK /prəˈpel/ US /prəˈpel/ -ll-

propel sb into/to/towards sth

to cause someone to do an activity or be in a situation:

The film propelled him to international stardom.
This form of encouragement propels all students to their better-selves.
Perseverance is precisely what propelled him to success.

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“harm” language
undermineverb [ T ]
UK /ˌʌn.dəˈmaɪn/ US /ˌʌn.dɚˈmaɪn/

C2 to make someone less confident, less powerful, or less likely to succeed, or to

make something weaker, often gradually:
The president has accused two cabinet members of workingsecretly to undermine
his position/him.
Criticism just undermines their confidence.
The over reliance on modern communication gadgets can undermine face-to-face
interaction.
Overwork can rapidly lead to physical exhaustion and mental anxiety, which eventually
undermine the victim’s overall wellbeing
This undermines their interpersonal skills and makes them underperform both
academically and socially.

renderverb [ T ]
UK /ˈren.dər/ US /ˈren.dɚ/

C2 FORMAL to cause someone or something to be in a particular state:

[ + adj ] His rudeness rendered me speechless.
New technology has rendered my old computer obsolete.
The manipulative nature of news renders it decidedly influential and clearly very perilous
at the same time.
It is true that changes in the world of work are sudden and very unpredictable, rendering
one unable to work in the same profession for life.
To add further credence to my assertion, I note the possible scenario where computers
render handwriting and physical books unnecessary.
This renders digital games approachable to everyone.
Online news has gained traction to the point where it could render the traditional press
redundant.

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erodeverb [ I or T ]
UK /ɪˈrəʊd/ US /ɪˈroʊd/
C2 to slowly reduce or destroy something:
His behaviour over the last few months has eroded my confidence in his judgment.
erode value/profits/margins Sudden movements in exchange and interest rates can
erode profit margins.
Thus, worldwide dependence on fossil fuels can be expected to erode as alternatives
become more economical.
The rules around relationships are being eroded as young adults make their own
choices about who and when to marry.
This form of crime prevention potentially erodes individual freedoms.

marginalizeverb [ T often passive ]

UK USUALLY marginalise UK /ˈmɑː.dʒɪ.nəl.aɪz/ US /ˈmɑːr.dʒɪ.nəl.aɪz/
to treat someone or something as if they are not important:
Now that English has taken over as the main language, the
country's native language has been marginalized.
These modern communication tools have marginalized physical interaction and face-to-
face conversations.
The advents of modern technologies have marginalized many manual, repetitive and
physically demanding jobs.

undervalueverb [T]
US /ˌʌn·dərˈvæl·ju/
to consider something to have less worth or importance than it really has:
Life experience is undervalued because young people think they know everything, or at
least can learn about everything from the Internet I think perhaps we've
undervalued your talent.
Take, for example, a common workplace situation, where senior staff of are apt to feel
undervalued and disheartened if a newly recruited young individual holds a managerial
position that they strive for and covet for years.

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overlookverb [ T ]
UK /ˌəʊ.vəˈlʊk/ US /ˌoʊ.vɚˈlʊk/

C2 to fail to notice or consider something or someone:

I think there is one key fact that you have overlooked.
No one will be overlooked when we select players for the team.
Yet the capacity of sport to bring individuals and nations together should not be
overlooked.
However, to say that this is the largest issue is to overlook a range of equally pressing
matters, as we will discuss now.

demisenoun [ S ]
UK /dɪˈmaɪz/ US /dɪˈmaɪz/ FORMAL

the end of something that was previously considered to be powerful, such as

a business, industry, or system:
The demise of the company was sudden and unexpected.
the end of the operation or existence of something:
Huge corporate farms have led to the demise of many small, family-owned farms.
Lower productivity may gradually lead to the demise of the company.

havocnoun [ U ]
UK /ˈhæv.ək/ US /ˈhæv.ək/

confusion and lack of order, especially causingdamage or trouble:

The storm wreaked (= caused) havoc in the garden, uprooting
trees and blowing a fence down.
The delay played (= caused) havoc with their travel arrangements.
If we turned a blind eye to species that are on the verge of extinction, this would wreak
havoc on our environment, which would eventually lead to the downfall of the
humankind.

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downfallnoun [ S ]
UK /ˈdaʊn.fɔːl/ US /ˈdaʊn.fɑːl/

(something that causes) the usually sudden destruction of a person, organization,

or government and their loss of power, money, or health:
Rampant corruption brought about the downfall of the government.
In the end, it was the continual drinking that was his downfall.
Most people are predisposed to reading shocking news about robbery, embezzlement,
or the downfall of certain business, and this tendency renders good news unattractive,
regardless of how meaningful a piece of news might be.

detrimentaladjective
UK /ˌdet.rɪˈmen.təl/ US /ˌdet.rəˈmen.t̬ əl/ FORMAL
C2 causing harm or damage:
These chemicals have a detrimental effect/impact on the environment.
Their decision could be detrimental to the future of the company.
Sleep deprivation is detrimental to individuals and to society as a whole

detrimentnoun [ U ]
UK /ˈdet.rɪ.mənt/ US /ˈdet.rə.mənt/ FORMAL
harm or damage:
Are you sure that I can follow this diet without detriment to my health?
She was very involved with sports at college, to
the detriment of (= harming) her studies.
Innovations in communication exist not to the detriment of social relationships, but
rather to their benefit.

21
endangerverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈdeɪn.dʒər/ US /ɪnˈdeɪn.dʒɚ/
to put someone or something at risk or in danger of being harmed, damaged,
or destroyed:
He would never do anything to endanger the lives of his children.
We must be careful not to do anything that might endanger the economic recovery.

jeopardizeverb [ T ]
UK USUALLY jeopardise UK /ˈdʒep.ə.daɪz/ US /ˈdʒep.ɚ.daɪz/
to put something such as a plan or system in danger of
being harmed or damaged:
She knew that by failing her finals she could jeopardize her whole future.
The rate increase may jeopardize economic recovery.

take its toll ALSO take a toll

to cause harm or suffering:
The constant stress takes its toll on emergency room workers.
The deterioration of nature as of late has undoubtedly taken a heavy toll on Earth’s
inhabitants.

threatenverb
UK /ˈθret.ən/ US /ˈθret.ən/
B2 [ T ] to tell someone that you will kill or hurt them or cause problems if they do
not do what you want:
[ + to infinitive ] They threatened to kill him unless he did as they asked.
C1 [ T ] to be likely to cause harm or damage to something or someone:
Changing patterns of agriculture are threatening the countryside.
Youngsters need to learn how it feels to be racially abused and they must be given the
opportunity to embrace difference and diversity rather than feeling threatened by it.

22
poseverb
UK /pəʊz/ US /poʊz/
pose verb (CAUSE)

C1 [ T ] to cause something, especially a problem or difficulty:

Nuclear weapons pose a threat to everyone.
The mountain terrain poses particular problems for civil engineers.
Over the last twenty years, significant efforts have been made to educate humanity
about the threats modern lifestyles pose to the environment.

threatnoun [ C ]
UK /θret/ US /θret/
B2 a suggestion that something unpleasant or violent
will happen, especially if a particular action or order is not followed:
[ + to infinitive ] Her parents carried out their threat to take away her mobile phone if
her grades didn't improve.
Drunken drivers pose a serious threat (= cause a lot of harm) to other road users.
He says he'll tell the authorities but it's just an empty threat (= it will not happen).
In a response to the perceived threat of terrorism, security measures in many of the
world’s major cities have been increased significantly in recent years.

severeadjective
US /səˈvɪr/

causing great pain, difficulty, damage, etc.; very serious:

a severe earthquake
The family faced severe challenges when he lost his job.
Another point to consider is that large numbers of cars are causing severe pollution,
making the air of our cities unpleasant.

23
undesirableadjective
UK /ˌʌn.dɪˈzaɪə.rə.bəl/ US /ˌʌn.dɪˈzaɪr.ə.bəl/ DISAPPROVING
C2 not wanted, approved of, or popular:
Houses near industrial sites often do not sell so quickly because they are regarded as
undesirable.
People increasingly wanting to purchase extravagant items can be ascribed to various
factors and this trend is definitely undesirable.
Properties in these areas are often left derelict, or are taken over by squatters who then
live in undesirable conditions.

catastrophenoun [ C ]
UK /kəˈtæs.trə.fi/ US /kəˈtæs.trə.fi/
C2 a sudden event that causes very great trouble or destruction:
They were warned of the ecological catastrophe to come.
a bad situation:
The emigration of scientists is a catastrophe for the country.
Losing his job was a financial catastrophe for his family.
A chemical plant leak could cause an environmental catastrophe.
The Vietnamese government, without any hesitation, sent thousands of tons of rice,
millions of dollars, and hundreds of doctors to help Japanese citizens recover from such
a catastrophe.

disasternoun [ C or U ]
UK /dɪˈzɑːstər/ US

an extremely bad situation that can destroy a company’s plans, success,

or ability to operate:
mean/spell disaster for sb A crash in real estate prices would mean financial disaster
for the housing lenders.
This, coupled with the fact that the overall productivity of a country with a large number
of working people getting sick is certain to shrink, will spell disaster for the country.

24
at the expense/ cost of sth
C1 If you do one thing at the expense of another, doing the first thing harms the
second thing:
He had no need to protect their reputation at the expense of his own.
Some workplaces are very relaxed and put an emphasis on work-life balance, whereas
others are more focused on performance at the expense of free time.
Some female rulers are determined to seek vengeance at the cost of their citizens’ lives.

25
“prevent” language

preventverb [T]
US /prɪˈvent/

to stop something from happening or someone from doing something:

The police tried to prevent him from leaving.
Can this type of accident be prevented?
The key objective of video surveillance is to deter criminals and to prevent crime.
This is cheaper than prison, and prevents the damage to the criminal’s family which in
itself could generate further social problems.

avertverb [ T ]
UK /əˈvɜːt/ US /əˈvɝːt/

to prevent something bad from happening:

to avert a crisis/conflict/strike/famine
to avert disaster/economic collapse
Even vigorous housework or heavy gardening can help avert heart disease.

deterrentnoun [ C ]
UK /dɪˈter.ənt/ US /dɪˈter.ənt/

C2 something that deters people from doing something:

Tougher prison sentences may act/serve as a deterrent to other would-be offenders.
Penalties for dangerous drivers can act as a deterrent, meaning that people avoid
repeating the same offence.

26
deterverb [T]
UK /dɪˈtɜː / US -rr-
r

to prevent someone from doing something or to make someone

less enthusiastic about doing something:
deter sb from doing sth High prices deter
many young people from entering the property market.
People said he was foolish to start his own business, but he didn't let that deter him.
Prison sentences can, first and foremost, deter would-be criminals by showing them that
their actions have consequences and serve as the embodiment of justice and fairness
in society.

prohibitverb
UK /prəˈhɪb.ɪt/ US /prəˈhɪb.ɪt/
B2 [ T often passive ] to officially refuse to allow something:

Motor vehicles are prohibited from driving in the town centre.

The government introduced a law prohibiting tobaccoadvertisements on TV.
Parking is strictly prohibited between these gates.
[ T ] to prevent a particular activity by making it impossible:

The loudness of the music prohibits serious conversation in most nightclubs.

restrictverb [ T ]
UK /rɪˈstrɪkt/ US /rɪˈstrɪkt/
C1 to limit the movements or actions of someone, or to limit something
and reduce its size or prevent it from increasing:
measures to restrict the sale of alcohol
The government has restricted freedom of movement into and out of the country.
Having small children really restricts your social life.
to limit yourself to one particular thing or activity:
If I'm driving, I restrict myself to one glass of wine.

27
hinderverb [ T ]
UK /ˈhɪn.dər/ US /ˈhɪn.dɚ/

C2 to limit the ability of someone to do something, or to limit the development of

something:
High winds have hindered firefighters in their efforts to put out the blaze.
Her progress certainly hasn't been hindered by her lack of experience.
A poor diet can hinder mental and physical growth.
I don’t know if these changes are going to help or hinder the team.

hindrancenoun [ C usually singular, U ]

UK /ˈhɪn.drəns/ US /ˈhɪn.drəns/

something that makes it more difficult for you to do something or for something
to develop:
I've never considered my disability a hindrance, but other people have.
Although pursuing a university education has many merits, it may be more of a
hindrance than a help to some people.

interfereverb [I]
US /ˌɪn·tərˈfɪər/

If something or someone interferes with a situation or a process, it spoils it

or prevents its progress:
Even a little noise interferes with my concentration.

(n) interference
Governmental interference in the world of science is fraught with peril.
Mothers and fathers have been raising children without any formal help or official
interference for thousands of years.
There is, however, a danger in too much interference in people’s choice of food.

28
interventionnoun [ C or U ]
UK /ˌɪntəˈvenʃ n/ US
ə

involvement in a difficult situation in order to improve it or prevent it from

getting worse, or an occasion when this is done:
intervention in sth Any intervention in the currency markets has to be followed by
a tightening of monetary policy.
government/regulatory/state
intervention This comprehensive program is aimed at reducing state intervention in
the economy.
Although individuals may be able to help themselves by changing their diets and
activities, it may require government intervention to tackle obesity quickly and on a large
scale.

dissuadeverb [ T ]
UK /dɪˈsweɪd/ US /dɪˈsweɪd/

to persuade someone not to do something:

I tried to dissuade her from leaving.
Undoubtedly, people who watch or read this news are much more likely to avoid drunk
driving and try to dissuade their drunk friends from driving.

29
“result” language

ramificationnoun [ C usually pl ]
US /ˌræm·ə·fɪˈkeɪ·ʃən/

the possible result of a decision or action:

Have you considered all the ramifications of changing careers at this stage of your life?
However, the long-term ramifications of people eating more food from other regions
than locally-produced food could be problematic

repercussionnoun [ C usually plural ]

UK /ˌriː.pəˈkʌʃ.ən/ US /ˌriː.pɚˈkʌʃ.ən/

the effect that an action, event, or decision has on

something, especially a bad effect:
Any decrease in tourism could have serious repercussions for the local economy.
President Kennedy's assassination had far-reaching repercussions.
The repercussions of her comments could be serious.
Many people consume fast food on a daily basis because they are not aware of the
repercussions of their dietary choices.

outcomenoun [ C usually singular ]

UK /ˈaʊt.kʌm/US /ˈaʊt.kʌm/

C1 a result or effect of an action, situation, etc.:

It's too early to predict the outcome of the meeting.
Technology has certainly revolutionized communication between people, but not all of
the outcomes of this revolution have been positive.
An exodus of well-qualified young graduates and workers is often referred to as a ‘brain
drain’, and this is not a desirable outcome for any country.

30
direadjective
UK /daɪər/ US /daɪr/

very serious or extreme:

These people are in dire need of help.
He gave a dire warning that an earthquake was imminent.
This decision will have dire consequences for local people.
Resistance to change can have dire consequences when it comes to our wellbeing, but
a few easy steps can make a big difference to our lifestyle.

graveadjective
UK /ɡreɪv/ US /ɡreɪv/

seriously bad:
a grave situation
grave dangers
It was the gravest political crisis of his career.
If there were no prisons, normal members of society would constantly live under grave
dangers posed by robbers, rapists and murderers, to name but a few.

condoneverb [ T ]
UK /kənˈdəʊn/ US /kənˈdoʊn/

to accept or allow behaviour that is wrong:

If the government is seen to condone violence, the bloodshed will never stop
However, this line of reasoning is not sound because it condones and perpetuates
unhealthy rivalry between people.

31
induceverb [T]
UK /ɪnˈdjuːs/ US
to make something happen or to persuade someone to do something:
The aim of advertising is to induce brand loyalty.
induce sb to do sth Salesmen may make untrue statements to try to induce you
to buy the product.

to cause something to happen:

Pills for seasickness often induce drowsiness.
Diabetes, heart desease and cancer are induced by poor lifestyle choices.
Facebook, on which certain people with certain religions, interests, and demographic
profiles can be targeted easily, was the platform that leaders of the two parties used to
induce and spread violence and provoke conflicts.

problematicadjective
UK /ˌprɒb.ləˈmæt.ɪk/ US /ˌprɑː.bləˈmæt̬ .ɪk/ ALSO problematical, UK /-ɪ.kəl/ US
C1 full of problems or difficulties:
Getting everyone there on time might prove problematic.
However, the long-term ramifications of people eating more food from other regions
than locally-produced food could be problematic.

long-termadjective
UK /ˌlɒŋˈtɜːm/ US /ˌlɑːŋˈtɝːm/

B2 continuing a long time into the future:

Scientists warned of the long-term effects of global warming.
It can be argued that this trend benefits individuals and society alike in the short term
but that it has negative long-term repercussions for the planet as a whole.
Perhaps, a long-term solution is to educate young people about how to be more energy-
efficient, so that the next generation will not take drinking water, forests and fossil fuels
for granted.

32
desirableadjective
UK /dɪˈzaɪə.rə.bəl/ US /dɪˈzaɪr.ə.bəl/

B2 worth having and wanted by most people:

Reducing class sizes in schools is a desirable aim.
It's regarded as a highly desirable job.
The house is in a very desirable area of the city.
This is particularly desirable in today’s job market where we are expected to work with
people from different countries and cultures.
It is undesirable for schools to cover aspects of foreign history and literature.

fruitlessadjective
UK /ˈfruːt.ləs/ US /ˈfruːt.ləs/
If an action or attempt to do something is fruitless, it
is unsuccessful or produces nothing of value:
All diplomatic attempts at a peaceful solution to the crisis have been fruitless.
This very fact renders the effects of increasing the price of petrol on the environment
insignificant and the proposed solution fruitless.

futileadjective
UK /ˈfjuː.taɪl/ US /ˈfjuː.t̬ əl/

(of actions) having no effect or achieving nothing:

Moving large companies, industrial plants and their workers out of cities would be
fundamentally futile in dealing with traffic and accommodation problems.
It's completely futile trying to reason with him - he just won't listen.
All my attempts to cheer her up proved futile.
An ideal society is undoubtedly desirable and consisted of many different elements, but
it is futile, or to be more exact, unrealistic to try to achieve one.

33
reverberateverb
UK /rɪˈvɜː.bər.eɪt/ US /rɪˈvɝː.bɚ.eɪt/
[ I + adv/prep ] If an event or idea reverberates somewhere, it has an effect on
everyone or everything in a place or group:
News of the disaster reverberated around the organization.
The surge in US share prices reverberated across the globe.
Furthermore, the impact of altering crops’ genes to make them immune to their natural
pests would reverberate through the whole food chain, affecting the whole ecosystem,
and our natural habitats.

ripple effectnoun [ C usually singular ]

UK /ˈrɪp.əl ɪˌfekt/US /ˈrɪp.əl ɪˌfekt/

a situation in which
one event produceseffects which spread and producefurther effects:
The bank crash has had a ripple effect on the whole community.

knock-on effectnoun [ C usually singular ]

UK /ˈnɒk.ɒn ɪˌfekt/ US /ˈnɑːk.ɑːn ɪˌfekt/ MAINLY UK

When an event or situation has a knock-on effect, it causes other events

or situations, but not directly:
If one or two trains run late, it has a knock-on effect on the entire rail service.
Advertising has a negative knock-on effect on the environment.
By the very same token, global warming and pollution, arguably the two most severe
environmental problems, are the dreadful knock-on effects stemming from humans
excessively consuming energy.
This would have a knock-on effect on the tourism industry and the economy of the
country as a whole, since its cultural beauty has always been a magnet for tourists.

34
arouseverb [ T ]
UK /əˈraʊz/ US /əˈraʊz/

C2 to cause someone to have a particular feeling:

It's a subject that has aroused a lot of interest.
Our suspicions were first aroused when we heard a muffled scream.
For example, graphics should be incorporated into history lessons to make them more
vivid, which could arouse students’ interest in this subject.

kindleverb [T]
US /ˈkɪn·dəl/

to cause a fire to start burning:

FIG. Great literature kindled their imaginations (= made them work).
Her imagination was kindled by the exciting stories her grandmother told her.
It is exactly what is needed to kindle an interest in nature and history.

pique sb's curiosity, interest,

etc.
to make someone interested in something and want to know more about it:
The noise continued, piquing her curiosity.
The irony is that this often piques a natural curiosity in violence among people.

35
“worse” language

exacerbateverb [ T ]
UK /ɪɡˈzæs.ə.beɪt/ US /ɪɡˈzæs.ɚ.beɪt/

to make something that is already bad even worse:

This attack will exacerbate the already tense relations between the two communities.
This capital allocation is not efficient and may even exacerbate many problems at hand,
such as poverty, and insufficient funding for health care system.
This exacerbates the inequality which already exists within society.
This will surely exacerbate the problem of air and water pollution.

worsenverb [ I or T ]
UK /ˈwɜː.sən/ US /ˈwɝː.sən/

C1 to become worse or to make something become worse:

As the company's financial problems worsened, several directors resigned.
The continued supply of arms to the region will only worsen the situation.
The quality of life in big cities is worsening.
This is worsened by a drastic increase in private vehicle ownership, as we see, for
example in Beijing and Hanoi.

compoundverb
US UK /kəmˈpaʊnd/
[ T often passive ] to make a problem or difficult situation worse:

Putting heavier taxes on this kind of food would compound the struggle of many,
especially those who are from low-income brackets.
His financial problems were compounded when he unexpectedly lost his job.
Severe drought has compounded food shortages in the region.

36
deteriorateverb [ I ]
UK /dɪˈtɪə.ri.ə.reɪt/ US /dɪˈtɪr.i.ə.reɪt/

C1 to become worse:
She was taken into hospital last week when her condition suddenly deteriorated.
The political situation in the region has deteriorated rapidly.
While it is true that there is a much larger selection of food available now, the quality
has deteriorated which makes some food harmful because of the use of processed and
GM products.
Without coordinated measures from national and global organisations, the environment
will continue to deteriorate, leading to a more unstable world for us all.

degenerateverb [ I ]
UK /dɪˈdʒen.ə.reɪt/ US /dɪˈdʒen.ə.reɪt/

to become worse in quality:

Educational standards are degenerating year by year because of a lack of funds.
What was intended as a peaceful demonstration rapidly degenerated into violence.
Their troubled minds degenerate into something worse and violent.

37
“enhance” language

boostverb [T]
UK /buːst/ US

to increase or improve something:

boost profits/prices/rates The industry has exceeded all expectations for
boosting profits and dividends.
boost exports/sales/trade The lower exchange rate is already boosting exports.
boost confidence/morale He was elected on a platform to create jobs and
boost investor confidence.
The effect of these policies would be to encourage spending
boost production/performance/productivity

foundationnoun
UK /faʊnˈdeɪʃən/ US
the basic ideas or structures from which something important develops:
the foundations of sth One of the foundations of democracy is a fair trial.

lay/establish/build the foundations for sth The company says it is 'laying the
foundations for future success'.

firm/solid/strong foundations From firm foundations we

will continue to grow the business.

38
fosterverb [T]
US /ˈfɔs·tər, ˈfɑs-/

to encourage the development or growth of ideas or feelings:

I try to foster an appreciation for classical music in my students.
Public parks and shopping centers help new towns foster a sense of community.
Advertising can foster wealth and economic growth.
Although fostering a competitive attitude in children can benefit them in some work
situations, they need to have cooperation skills to manage many other aspects both in
the workplace and especially in family life.

instillverb [ T ]
US /ɪnˈstɪl/

to put a feeling, idea, or principle gradually into someone’s mind, so that it has
a strong influence on the way the person lives:
My parents instilled in me a love of reading.
It is part of a teacher's job to instil confidence in/into his or her students.
Well maintained, beautifully landscaped parks and outdoor exercise facilities would
instill in residents an obligation to work out.
These disciplinary techniques allow parents to instill responsibility and discipline in their
children without resorting to physical abuse.

catalystnoun [ C ]
UK /ˈkæt.əl.ɪst/ US /ˈkæt̬ .əl.ɪst/

an event or person that causes great change:

The high suicide rate acted as a catalyst for change in the prison system
In return, Japanese government subsidized lots of infrastructural projects that acted as
a catalyst to foster economic growth in Vietnam.
As the catalyst for sales, it is not surprising that all divisions of a society are targeted,
including the very young.

39
underpinverb [T]
UK /ˌʌndəˈpɪn/ US /-dɚ-/-nn-

to give support to something or provide the starting point from which something
can develop:
Falling unemployment was likely to underpin consumer confidence.
These new products are part of a line-up that will underpin the company's recovery.
In the realm of education, students who are more diligent than others often achieve
superior academic results and this underpins a successful career in later life.

stand sb in good stead

If an experience stands a person in good stead, it is or will be of great use to
them:
Getting some work experience now will stand you in good stead (for) when
you apply for a permanent job.
These interpersonal and transferable skills will make them more employable, less
dependent on the health of a certain industry and stand them in good stead when they
enter the workplace.
As a result, their self-reliance and independence can both be bolstered, which will then
stand them in good stead when they are adults.
These are particularly important because they train children to become used to and
function well under pressure and heavy workload, all of which will stand them in good
stead when they enter the job market.

vehiclenoun
UK /ˈvɪə.kəl/ US /ˈviː.ə.kəl/
C2 [ C usually singular ] a way of achieving, producing, or expressing something:

The conference was seen as an ideal vehicle for increased cooperation between
the member states.
In fact, the arts offer people a wide range of entertainment and are an ideal vehicle to
relieve them of stress, contributing greatly to their living standards.
She used her celebrity status as a vehicle to run for political office.

40
pave the way
C2 If something paves the way for/to something else, it makes the other
thing possible:
Scientists hope that data from the probe will pave the way for a
more detailed exploration of Mars

stepping stonenoun
UK /ˈstep.ɪŋ ˌstəʊn/ US /ˈstep.ɪŋ ˌstoʊn/

an event or experience that helps you achieve something else:

I see this job just as a stepping stone to better things.

I hope this job will be a stepping stone to something better.

conduciveadjective
UK /kənˈdʒuː.sɪv/ US /kənˈduː.sɪv/

providing the right conditions for something good to happen or exist:

Such a noisy environment was not conducive to a good night's sleep.
A quiet room is a more conducive atmosphere for studying.

stimulantnoun [ C ]
UK /ˈstɪm.jə.lənt/ US /ˈstɪm.jə.lənt/

something that makes or causes something else to grow or develop:

Tourism has acted as a stimulant to the country's economy.

41
stimulateverb
UK /ˈstɪm.jə.leɪt/ US /ˈstɪm.jə.leɪt/

B2 [ T ] to encourage something to grow, develop, or become active:

The government plans to cut taxes in order to stimulate the economy.

B2 [ I or T ] to make someone excited and interested about something:

The show was intended to stimulate and amuse.
[ + obj + to infinitive ] Good teachers should ask questions that stimulate students to think.

prerequisitenoun [ C ]
UK /ˌpriːˈrek.wɪ.zɪt/ US /ˌpriːˈrek.wə.zɪt/FORMAL

something that must exist or happen before something else can exist or happen:
Passing a written test is a prerequisite for taking the advanced course.
Public support is a prerequisite for/to the success of this project.
They had to agree to certain conditions as a prerequisite of being lent the money.

precursornoun [ C ]
UK /ˌpriːˈkɜː.sər/ US /ˌpriːˈkɝː.sɚ/ FORMAL

something that happened or existed before another thing, especially if it

either developed into it or had an influence on it:
Sulphur dioxide is the main precursor of acid rain.
Biological research has often been a precursor to medical breakthroughs.
Living in a country is a necessary precursor to fully experiencing it.
Consumerism can act as a precursor to resource shortages.

42
facilitateverb [ T ]
UK /fəˈsɪl.ɪ.teɪt/ US /fəˈsɪl.ə.teɪt/ FORMAL

C1 to make something possible or easier:

The new ramp will facilitate the entry of wheelchairs.
The current structure does not facilitate efficient work flow.
To facilitate learning, each class is no larger than 30 students.

tailorverb [ T ]
UK /ˈteɪ.lər/ US /ˈteɪ.lɚ/

to make or prepare something following particular instructions:

We tailor any of our products to your company's specific needs.

to adjust something to suit a particular need or situation:

Their services are tailored to clients’ needs.

bolsterverb [ T ]
UK /ˈbəʊl.stər/ US /ˈboʊl.stɚ/

to support or improve something or make it stronger:

More money is needed to bolster the industry.
She tried to bolster my confidence/morale (= encourage me and make
me feel stronger) by telling me that I had a special talent.
They need to do something to bolster their image.
Greater use of techonology can bolster economic growth.

43
enhanceverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈhɑːns/ US /ɪnˈhæns/

C1 to improve the quality, amount, or strength of something:

These scandals will not enhance the organization's reputation.
It's things like this that enhance the quality of life.
The latest revelation certainly won't enhance her image.

enrichverb
UK /ɪnˈrɪtʃ/ US /ɪnˈrɪtʃ/
C1 [ T ] to improve the quality of something by adding something else:

Fertilizer helps to enrich the soil.

My life was greatly enriched by knowing her.
These trips give students the opportunity to enrich their
independent studies in geography and history.
The presentations could be enriched with more digital media.

honeverb [T]
US /hoʊn/
to direct something such as an ability to make it more effective:

He helps performers hone their skills as

dancers and singers.

44
cultivateverb [ T ]
UK /ˈkʌl.tɪ.veɪt/ US /ˈkʌl.tə.veɪt/

C2 to try to develop and improve something:

She has cultivated an image as a tough negotiator.
At the same time, school is a place where kids can and should be encouraged to
cultivate their overall characters.
The best way to cultivate good energy habits is to impose regulations.

If you cultivate a relationship, you make

a special effort to establish and develop it, because you think it might be useful to
you:
The new prime minister is cultivating relationships with East Asian countries.

yieldverb
UK /jiːld/ US /jiːld/

C2 [ T ] to supply or produce something positive such as a profit, an amount of

food or information:
an attempt to yield increased profits
The investigation yielded some unexpected results.
Favourable weather yielded a good crop.
Therefore, forcing people to act in a more environmentally-friendly way would not yield
concrete results.

45
“important” language

vitaladjective
UK /ˈvaɪ.təl/ US /ˈvaɪ.t̬ əl/

B2 necessary for the success or continued existence of

something; extremely important:
She had found out some information of vital importance.
The kidney plays a vital role/part in the removal of waste products from the blood.
[ + that ] It's absolutely vital that you do exactly as I say.
It is equally vital that teachers lacking the necessary abilities are re-trained or
dismissed.
[ + to infinitive ] It is vital to get medical supplies to the area as soon as possible.

significantadjective
UK /sɪɡˈnɪf.ɪ.kənt/ US /sɪɡˈnɪf.ə.kənt/
B2 important or noticeable:
There has been a significant increase in the number of women students in recent years.
The talks between the USA and the USSR were very
significant for the relationship between the two countries.
Those who sleep significantly more than their peers may be criticized as lazy under-
achievers.

primaryadjective
UK /ˈpraɪ.mər.i/ US /ˈpraɪ.mer.i/
B2 more important than anything else; main:
The Red Cross's primary concern is to preserve and protect human life.
The primary causes of people wasting valuable resources are their ignorance about
how to recycle and what harm it is doing to the planet.

46
paramountadjective
UK /ˈpær.ə.maʊnt/ US /ˈper.ə.maʊnt/ FORMAL

C2 more important than anything else:

-There are many priorities, but reducing the budget deficit is
paramount/is of paramount importance.
-Everybody agrees that education is the paramount issue.
It seems simplistic to say that music is paramount ‘for all children”

fundamentaladjective
UK /ˌfʌn.dəˈmen.təl/ US /ˌfʌn.dəˈmen.t̬ əl/

C2 forming the base, from which everything else develops:

We need to make fundamental changes to the way in which we treat our environment.
It's one of the fundamental differences between men and women.
The school is based on the fundamental principle that
all children should reach their full potential.
Diversity is of fundamental importance to all ecosystems and all economies.

C2 more important than anything else:

Some understanding of grammar is fundamental to learning a language.
Cars are a fundamental source of urban air pollution.

basicsnoun [ plural ]
UK /ˈbeɪsɪks/ US

things that people need to learn, know, or do before they can achieve something:
Success is achieved by focusing on the basics- quality, innovation, and customer care.
learn/master the basics (of sth) It shouldn't take long to learn the basics of the
new software.
It often takes a child or weeks to understand the basics of a certain sport and months or
even years of practice to really master the skills needed to play the sport well.

47
salientadjective
UK /ˈseɪ.li.ənt/ US /ˈseɪ.li.ənt/ FORMAL

The salient facts about something or qualities of something are the most
important things about them:
She began to summarize the salient features/points of the proposal.
The article presented the salient facts of the dispute clearly and concisely.
Perhaps an even more salient point is that our current way of living is unsustainable.

corenoun
UK /kɔːr/ US /kɔːr/

C2 [ S or U ] the basic and most important part of something:

The lack of government funding is at the core of the problem.
most important or most basic:
They are cutting back production of some of their core products.

core value, belief, issue, etc.

a value, belief, etc. that is basic and more important than any other:
The final status negotiations would focus on the core issues of the peace process.

radicaladjective
UK /ˈræd.ɪ.kəl/ US /ˈræd.ɪ.kəl/
C1 relating to the most important parts of something or
someone; complete or extreme:
We need to make some radical changes to our operating procedures.
-During bad economic times, radical steps may
be necessary to restore the confidence of the consumer.
This radical shift has had both positive and negative repercussions.
Whether this is for better or worse, it is difficult to argue television has not radically
changed the lifestyle of ordinary people.

48
backbonenoun
UK /ˈbæk.bəʊn/ US /ˈbæk.boʊn/

the backbone of sth

the most important part of something, providing support for everything else:
Farming is the backbone of the country's economy.
The written word has been the backbone of civilization since humanity’s earliest days.
The family unit is still the backbone of society.

cornerstonenoun [C]
US /ˈkɔr·nərˌstoʊn/

something of great importance on which everything else depends:

Funds for the school system were the cornerstone of his budget proposal.
All the parties to the dispute agree that ready access to the law is a cornerstone
of democracy.
In most countries, the family unit is still the cornerstone of society.
This advertising does a lot to encourage spending, which acts as a cornerstone for the
development of any economy.

urgentadjective
UK /ˈɜː.dʒənt/ US /ˈɝː.dʒənt/

B1 very important and needing attention immediately:

He's got to sign that paper - will you tell him it's urgent?
The most urgent thing in a fire is to make sure everyone is out of the building.
Many people are in urgent need of food and water.

(adv)urgently
There is the possibility that exploration might lead to the discovery of natural resources
on other planets which we urgently require

49
pressingadjective
US /ˈpres·ɪŋ/

urgent or needing to be dealt with immediately:

a pressing need/issue
Although there are many pressing issues in the world today, preservation of the
environment for future generations is an extremely important concern.
Other people, however, feel such spending on arts and culture is wasteful and neglects
a nation’s more pressing needs.

decidingadjective [ before noun ]

UK /dɪˈsaɪ.dɪŋ/ US /dɪˈsaɪ.dɪŋ/
C2 A deciding event or action is more important than the rest because
the final result, decision, or choice is changed by it:
The environmental argument was a deciding factor.
The chairperson always has the deciding vote.
Glennon scored the deciding goal in the final minute of the match.

sheeradjective
UK /ʃɪər/ US /ʃɪr/

C1 [ before noun ] used to emphasize how very great, important,

or powerful a quality or feeling is; nothing except:
The suggestion is sheer nonsense.
His success was due to sheer willpower/determination.
It was sheer coincidence that we met.
I've got where I am through sheer hard work.

50
“similar” language

by the same token

C2
used to mean that something you are about to say is also true, for the
same reasons as what has just been said:
I don't think that prices will go up but, by the same token, I don't see them going down
either.
By the very same token, learning about the Battle of Dien Bien Phu thoroughly, they
would understand that much blood has been shed and millions of lives have been
sacrificed so that the sovereignty of their fatherland could be ensured.
By the very same token, science subjects where the vast majority of students are men
would experience the same problem.

a fine line
ALSO a thin line

a very small difference between two things that may seem different:
There’s sometimes a very thin line between love and hate.
As a comedian, I’m always walking that fine line
between humor and sarcasm (= finding a balance between them).
There’s a fine line between legitimate state intervention and the abuse of state power.

akinadjective [ after verb ]

UK /əˈkɪn/ US /əˈkɪn/

having some of the same qualities:

They speak a language akin to French.
In that moment she was certain she saw something in his eyes - something akin to
remorse.

51
tantamountadjective
UK /ˈtæn.tə.maʊnt/ US /ˈtæn.t̬ ə.maʊnt/ FORMAL
tantamount to sth

being almost the same or having the same effect as something, usually
something bad:
Her refusal to answer was tantamount to an admission of guilt.

Allowing animals to go extinct is tantamount to paving the way for our own extinction.

Deciding what is illegal to say and what is not is almost entirely subjective and
tantamount to taking away the freedom of speech

52
“Make it clear” language

elucidateverb [ I/T ]
FML US /ɪˈlu·sɪˌdeɪt/

to explain or make clear:

[T] I hope my book will elucidate the complex issues we face.
This elucidates why standardized tests are unfair.

testamentnoun
UK /ˈtestəmənt/ US

[ C or U ] proof that something exists or is true:

be (a) testament to sth These positive results are a testament to the strength of
the technology sector.
This is a testament to why parenting courses are an ideal vehicle to dispel such
misconceptions.
These examples are a testament to how technology establishes communities and
promotes interaction among people.
[ C usually sing ] He is a walking testament to the value of hard work.

shed light on something

to help to explain a situation:
Experts hope the plane’s flight recorders will shed light on the cause of the crash.
This example sheds light on why strict regulations on design and placement of buildings
are necessary.
This sheds light on why rewarding students with the best academic results can be
counter-productive.

53
“money” language

budgetadjective [ before noun ]

UK /ˈbʌdʒ.ɪt/ US /ˈbʌdʒ.ɪt/

B2 very cheap:
a budget holiday/hotel/price

verb [ I or T ]
to calculate how much money you must earn or save during
a particular period of time, and plan how you will spend it:
With housing costs rising, prospective homeowners will need to budget very carefully.
be budgeted for sth Over $3 million has been budgeted for medical research.

noun
B2 [ C ] the amount of money you have available to spend:
an annual budget of £40 million
work on/draw up/establish a budget Corporate planners are busy drawing up a
budget for the next fiscal year.
Fourth quarter results will be factored into the budget.
a project/departmental/corporate budget
an annual/monthly/quarterly budget
For example, schools can invite financial experts to talk to these young people about
how to manage their own budget and avoid getting into debt.
Finally, longer longevity means a higher state pension and subsidy for their healthcare,
which adds pressure to the state budget.

54
fundingnoun [ U ]
UK /ˈfʌn.dɪŋ/ US /ˈfʌn.dɪŋ/

C1 money given by a government or organization for an event or activity:

Alisha is trying to get funding for her research.
They received state funding for the project.
The basic lack of government funding is at the core of the problem.
Perhaps the main cause is the lack of investment or funding for infrastructure in the
form of high-capacity public transport and increased road space for private vehicles.

fundsplural noun
US /ˈfʌndz/

money, often money for a specific purpose:

To attract more people to use these means of transportation, state funds should be
allocated to making them affordable to the masses.
The government should support the funds for the arts.
Providing developing countries with specialized skills is much more constructive than
providing funds.

fundverb [ T ]
UK /fʌnd/ US /fʌnd/

C1 to provide the money to pay for an event, activity, or organization:

The company has agreed to fund my trip to Australia.
The new college is being privately funded (= money for it is not
being provided from taxes).
Many innovative ideas that can change our habitat for the better are woefully
underfunded.

55
subsidizeverb [ T ]
UK USUALLY subsidise UK /ˈsʌb.sɪ.daɪz/ US /ˈsʌb.sə.daɪz/

to pay part of the cost of something:

£50 would help to subsidize the training of an unemployed teenager.
The refugees live in subsidized housing provided by the authorities.
All private universities are subsidized by the government.
He raises the question as to whether the fine arts should be subsidized by public funds.
They receive free or subsidized housing.

meansnoun
UK /miːnz/ US /miːnz/ PLURAL means

B2 [ C ] a method or way of doing something:

They had no means of communication.
We need to find some other means of transportation

C2 [ plural ] money, for example from an income, that allows you to buy things:
[ + to infinitive ] He has the means to buy half the houses in the street if he wanted to.

live beyond your means

to spend more money than you receive as income

live within your means

to spend less money than you receive as income

a man/woman of means: a rich man/woman

56
financeverb [ T ]
UK /ˈfaɪ.næns/ US /ˈfaɪ.næns/

B2 to provide the money needed for something to happen:

The city council has refused to finance the project
Noun
[ U ] UK ALSO financing money borrowed from an investor, bank, organization, etc.
in order to pay for something:
raise/get/obtain finance Other ways of raising finance include equity release on
a home and flexible mortgages.
arrange/provide/offer finance for sth The state-owned bank provides finance
for buying homes.
require/need/seek finance All of these strategies required finance.

the wherewithalnoun [ S ]
UK /ˈweə.wɪ.ðɔːl/ US /ˈwer.wɪ.ðɑːl/

the money necessary for a particular purpose:

I'd like to buy a bigger house, but I don't have the wherewithal.
[ + to infinitive ] Poor families lack the wherewithal to hire good lawyers.
Most people don’t have the wherewithal to travel.

57
“rich” language
wealthyadjective
UK /ˈwel.θi/ US /ˈwel.θi/

B2 rich:
He's a very wealthy man.
With their natural resources, they are potentially a very wealthy country.

the wealthy = rich people = the rich

Previously, owning such items meant buying overpriced designer clothes and, therefore,
it was only accessible to the wealthy and the privileged.

The less wealthy often feel resentful and insecure about their place in life.

privilegenoun
UK /ˈprɪv.əl.ɪdʒ/ US /ˈprɪv.əl.ɪdʒ/

C1 [ C or U ] an advantage that only one person or group of people has, usually

because of their position or because they are rich:
be a privilege doing/to do sth It's been a pleasure and a privilege to work with you all.
have the privilege of doing sth I had the privilege of studying at one of the
country's leading businesss chools.
for the privilege of doing sth Advertisers
often subsidize entire TV productions or movie marketing campaigns for the privilege
of featuring their brands.
enjoy/earn a privilege It is possible that the company will
one day command a premium rating, but the market clearly believes it has to earn that
privilege.
Granted, one may argue that elite students have applied themselves to their studies,
and therefore deserve the praises and privileges.

58
prosperitynoun [ U ]
UK /prɒsˈper.ə.ti/ US /prɑːˈsper.ə.t̬ i/

C1 the state of being successful and having a lot of money:

A country's future prosperity depends, to an extent, upon
the quality of education of its people.
The war was followed by a long period of peace and prosperity.
We need to drive growth and create jobs and prosperity.
economic/future prosperity

richesnoun [ plural ]
UK /ˈrɪtʃ.ɪz/ US /ˈrɪtʃ.ɪz/

C2 a large amount of money or valuable possessions:

She donated a sizeable portion of her riches to children's charities.

a large quantity of a valuable natural substance:

The country has great oil/mineral riches.
They plundered the rainforest for its natural riches.

lucrativeadjective
UK /ˈluː.krə.tɪv/ US /ˈluː.krə.t̬ ɪv/

C2 (especially of a business, job, or activity)producing a lot of money:

The merger proved to be very lucrative for both companies.

59
“poor” language

destituteadjective
UK /ˈdes.tɪ.tʃuːt/ US /ˈdes.tə.tuːt/

without money, food, a home, or possessions:

The floods left thousands of people destitute.

impoverishverb [ T ]
UK /ɪmˈpɒv.ər.ɪʃ/ US /ɪmˈpɑː.vɚ.ɪʃ/ FORMAL

to make someone very poor:

The new law is likely to further impoverish single parents.
He was made to pay a ruinous fine that impoverished his family.

to make something weaker or worse in quality:

Excessive farming had impoverished the soil.
Our cultural heritage would be impoverished by the absence of Mozart.

disadvantagedadjective
UK /ˌdɪs.ədˈvɑːn.tɪdʒd/ US /ˌdɪs.ədˈvæn.t̬ ɪdʒd/

C1 not having the standard of living conditions, education, etc. that most
people have:
A new educational programme has been set up
for economically disadvantaged children.
Synonym
deprived

60
underprivilegedadjective
UK /ˌʌn.dəˈprɪv.əl.ɪdʒd/ US /ˌʌn.dɚˈprɪv.əl.ɪdʒd/

without the money, possessions, education, opportunities, etc. that

the average person has:
Children from an
underprivileged family background are statistically more likely to become involved in cri
me.

the underprivileged

POLITE PHRASE FOR poor people:

The charity raises money for holidays for the underprivileged.

poverty-strickenadjective
UK /ˈpɒv.ə.tiˌstrɪk.ən/ US /ˈpɑː.vɚ.t̬ iˌstrɪk.ən/

A poverty-stricken person or place is suffering from the effects of

being extremely poor:
Some beggars are neither poverty-stricken nor homeless.
There are few jobs for the peasants who have flooded into the cities from the poverty-
stricken countryside in search of work.

economizeverb [ I ]
UK USUALLY economise UK /iˈkɒn.ə.maɪz/ US /iˈkɑː.nə.maɪz/

to try to save money by reducing the amount that you are spending:
You could economize on food by not eating in restaurants all the time.
A lot of companies are trying to economize by not taking on new staff.

61
frugaladjective
UK /ˈfruːɡəl/ US

careful to use only as much money, food, etc. as is necessary:

He built up his savings by being very frugal.
frugal habits/living/lifestyle
frugal energy/water use

62
“allocate” language

allocateverb [T]
UK /ˈæləkeɪt/ US

to give a particular amount of time, money, etc. to someone or something, so that

it can be used in a particular way:
allocate sth for sth We have allocated €50,000 for printing and mailings.
allocate sth to sb/sth They allocated 3% of the advertising budget to newspaper ads.
allocate capital/funds/money We need to
allocate capital and resources more effectively.
allocate time Salespeople should allocate time for work in each area of their business.

deployverb [ T ]
UK /dɪˈplɔɪ/ US /dɪˈplɔɪ/

to use something or someone, especially in an effective way:

The company is reconsidering the way in which it deploys its resources/staff.
My job doesn't really allow me fully to deploy my skills/talents.

divertverb [T]
UK /daɪˈvɜːt/ US

to use something such as money for a purpose that is different from the main one
or the one that was originally planned:
divert sth to sb/sth Mutuals tend to pay out more than quoted insurers because they
do not have to divert a chunk of their profits to shareholders.
divert sth from sth to/into sth The company is to
divert resources from its traditional retail interiors operation into its furniture business.

63
directverb [T]
UK /dɪˈrekt, daɪˈrekt/ US

to control or be in charge of an activity, organization, etc.:

She directs a large charity.
They've appointed someone from outside the organization to direct the fiscal review.

to aim something in a particular direction, or at

a particular person or group of people:
direct sth toward(s) sb This sales promotion is directed toward retail customers.
direct sth to sth/sb Please direct concerns and queries to the project administrator.
Any future donations will be directed to the housing fund.
We need to direct the board's attention to this matter immediately.

channelverb [ T ]
UK /ˈtʃæn.əl/ US /ˈtʃæn.əl/ -ll- or US USUALLY -l-

C2 to direct something into a particular place or situation:

Ditches were constructed to channel water away from the buildings.
If she could only channel all that energy into something useful.
A lot of money has been channelled into research in that particular field.

64
“quantity” language

barragenoun
UK /ˈbær.ɑːʒ/ US /bəˈrɑːʒ/

a barrage of sth

a great number of complaints, criticisms, or questions suddenly directed at

someone:
The film received a barrage of complaints about the amount of violence in it.
He faced a barrage of questions over his handling of the problem.

abundancenoun [ S or U ]
UK /əˈbʌn.dəns/ US /əˈbʌn.dəns/ FORMAL

the situation in which there is more than enough of something:

There was an abundance of food at the wedding.
We had wine in abundance.
For example, the abundance of natural resources such as land, wildlife forestry and
water bodies means that a comparatively simple life can be lived at a subsistence level.
(adj) abundant
It is a region with abundant natural resources.

multitudenoun
UK /ˈmʌl.tɪ.tʃuːd/ US /ˈmʌl.tə.tuːd/ FORMAL
a multitude of
a large number of people or things:
The city has a multitude of problems, from homelessness to drugs and murder.
This case has raised a multitude of questions.

65
proliferationnoun [ U ]
UK /prəˌlɪf.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/ US /prəˌlɪf.əˈreɪ.ʃən/ FORMAL

the fact of something increasing a lot and suddenly in number or amount:

The past two years have seen the proliferation of TV channels.
The proliferation of wireless and broadband services is continuing.
The Internet encouraged the proliferation of Web-only retail companies.
The proliferation of industrial parks and manufacturing plants have driven air pollution to
alarming levels/ hazardous levels.
The proliferation of CCTV cameras can act as an alternative to police patrols.

countless adjective
UK /ˈkaʊnt.ləs/ US /ˈkaʊnt.ləs/
C1
very many, or too many to be counted:
There are countless arguments against this ridiculous proposal.
I've heard it played countless times on the radio.
While countless people are living in extreme conditions or on one or two meals a day, it
is selfish of affluent people to buy expensive things in lieu of helping those who are in
need.
There are countless websites offering entertainment, news, videos, on-demand TV and
music streaming, many of which are free

overwhelmingadjective
US /ˌoʊ·vərˈhwel·mɪŋ, -ˈwel·mɪŋ/

very great or strong:

An overwhelming majority voted in favor of the proposal.
I felt an overwhelming sense of relief when the semester was over.
Another cause is the increasing cost of living in many countries, meaning that the cost
of day to day life (in addition to fees) can be almost overwhelming for students.
It is often said that modern life presents us with an overwhelming number of choices.

66
vastadjective [ -er/-est only ]
US /væst/

extremely large:
The vast majority of our students – nearly 90 percent – graduate within four years.
Smartphones allow unprecedented access to a vast array of data from which we can
learn.
Abolishing admission charges to museums would be vastly expensive in terms of state
subsidies, and would surely have little impact on visitor numbers.

influxnoun [ C usually singular ]

UK /ˈɪn.flʌks/ US /ˈɪn.flʌks/

C2 the fact of a large number of people or things arriving at the same time:
Turkey is expecting an influx of several thousand refugees over the next few days.
The town’s economy depends on the summer influx of tourists.

sufficeverb [I]
US /səˈfɑɪs/ FML

to be enough:
The problems were of global importance, and only an international effort would suffice
to deal with them.
Although changes to the environment do require a substantial amount of effort and
resources, I believe that the collective effort of each and every one of us would surely
suffice to make a positive change to the environment.

67
insufficientadjective
UK /ˌɪn.səˈfɪʃ.ənt/ US /ˌɪn.səˈfɪʃ.ənt/

C1 not enough:
insufficient information/time
[ + to infinitive ] There was insufficient money to fund the project.
This capital allocation is not efficient and may even exacerbate many problems at hand,
such as poverty, and insufficient funding for health care system.
Countless studies have found a link between insufficient sleep and poor health.

inadequate adjective
UK /ɪˈnædɪkwət/ US

too small in amount:

inadequate funds/incomes/pensions
Too many of us are retiring on hopelessly inadequate incomes.
The sedentary lifestyle which these games encourage, meaning that youngsters may
incline to obesity or inadequate development.

scantadjective [ before noun ]

UK /skænt/ US /skænt/
very little and not enough:
The government pays scant attention to the needs of the poor.
She shows scant regard for the truth

laxadjective
UK /læks/ US /læks/
without much care, attention, or control:
The subcommittee contends that the authorities were lax in investigating most of
the cases.
Security at the airport seemed lax.

68
lacknoun [U]
US /læk/

a condition of not having any or enough of something, esp.

something necessary or wanted:
a lack of ambition/confidence/knowledge
a lack of money
serious/severe lack of sth Many of these communities are having to cope with
a severe lack of resources.
"Lack of time" is frequently cited as the reason for poor-quality work.

povertynoun [ U ]
UK /ˈpɒv.ə.ti/ US /ˈpɑː.vɚ.t̬ i/

a poverty of sth FORMAL

a lack of something or when the quality of something is extremely low:

There is a disappointing poverty of creativity in their work.

equivalentadjective
UK /ɪˈkwɪv.əl.ənt/ US /ɪˈkwɪv.əl.ənt/

C1 having the same amount, value, purpose, qualities, etc.:

She's doing the equivalent job in the new company but for more money.
Is $50 equivalent to about £30?

69
“likely” language

proneadjective
UK /prəʊn/ US /proʊn/

be prone to sth/do sth

C2 likely to suffer from an illness or show a particular negative characteristic:

I've always been prone to headaches.
He was prone to depression even as a teenager.
Punishment should never be violent in any way because it teaches the child that the
answer to a problem is to beat someone and this could result in a young person that is
prone to violence.

susceptibleadjective
UK /səˈsep.tə.bəl/ US /səˈsep.tə.bəl/

easily influenced or harmed by something:

She isn't very susceptible to flattery.
These plants are particularly susceptible to frost.
What is more, the sedentary lifestyles they lead also make them susceptible to many
health problems, such as obesity, depression and cardiovascular diseases, to name but
a few.

70
predisposeverb [ T ]
US /ˌprid·ɪˈspoʊz/

to influence someone to behave or think in a particular way or to have

a particular condition:
Individualism predisposes many people to look for individual
solutions to social problems.
Your family history can help a doctor determine if you are predisposed
to developing heart disease.

indifferentadjective
UK /ɪnˈdɪf.ər.ənt/ US /ɪnˈdɪf.ɚ.ənt/

C2 not thinking about or interested in someone or something:

Why don't you vote - how can you be so indifferent (to what is going on)?
He found it very hard teaching a class full of indifferent teenagers.

reluctantadjective
UK /rɪˈlʌk.tənt/ US /rɪˈlʌk.tənt/

C1 not willing to do something and therefore slow to do it:

[ + to infinitive ] I was having such a good time I was reluctant to leave.
Many parents feel reluctant to
talk openly with their children.
She persuaded her reluctant husband to take a trip to Florida with her.

71
“succeed” language

flourishverb
US /ˈflɜr·ɪʃ, ˈflʌr-/

[I] to grow or develop successfully:

Parts of the city continue to flourish.
This is the perfect environment for our company to flourish and expand in.
Thanks to a lot of effort and the support of local people, the business flourished.
The only way to make money from writing and music will be though things like celebrity
endorsements, and mediocrity will flourish.

thriveverb [I]
UK /θraɪv/ US thrived, thrived, US ALSO throve, thriven

to grow, develop, and become successful:

Industries such as water, telecoms, and insurance have been thriving.
thrive on sth Some employees thrive on the challenge of intense workloads.

bear fruit FORMAL

C2 If something that someone does bears fruit, it produces successful results:

Eventually her efforts bore fruit and she got the job she wanted.

72
achievementnoun [ C or U ]
UK /əˈtʃiːv.mənt/ US /əˈtʃiːv.mənt/

B1 something very good and difficult that you have succeeded in doing:
An Olympic silver medal is a remarkable achievement for one so young.
Many people’s feelings of job satisfaction come from their professional achievements,
the skills they learn, and the position they reach, rather than the money they earn.
It gives you a sense of achievement if you actually make it to the end of a
very long book.

accomplishmentnoun
UK /əˈkʌm.plɪʃ.mənt/ US /əˈkɑːm.plɪʃ.mənt/

[C] something that is successful, or that is achieved after a lot of work or effort:
Getting the two leaders to sign a peace treaty was his greatest accomplishment.
There are at least as many celebrities whose accomplishments make them excellent
role models for young people.
He has endeavored to become a certified doctor, achieved a number of
accomplishments in his field.

attainverb [ T ]
UK /əˈteɪn/ US /əˈteɪn/ FORMAL

C1 to reach or succeed in getting something:

He has attained the highest grade in his music exams.
We need to identify the best ways of attaining our objectives/goals.

73
milestonenoun [ C ]
UK /ˈmaɪl.stəʊn/ US /ˈmaɪl.stoʊn/ UK

an important event in the development or history of something or in

someone's life:
He felt that moving out of his parents' home was a real milestone in his life.
We’ve been married now for 20 years, a real milestone.

fulfillverb [ T ]
US /fʊlˈfɪl/

to do something as promised or intended, or

to satisfy your hopes or expectations:
She said the president had failed to fulfill his campaign promises.
He stayed an extra semester to fulfill his graduation requirements.
At the age of 45, she finally fulfilled her ambition to run a marathon.
Happiness is difficult to define because it is particular to each individual, but I believe
that our basic needs for shelter, food and company need to be fulfilled before we can
experience it.

fruitionnoun [ U ]
UK /fruːˈɪʃ.ən/ US /fruːˈɪʃ.ən/ FORMAL

an occasion when a plan or an idea begins to happen, exist, or be successful:

None of his grand plans for a TV series ever came to fruition.
Greater understanding between people of different cultures has always come to fruition
after conflicts have been resolved.

74
breakthroughnoun [ C ]
UK /ˈbreɪk.θruː/ US /ˈbreɪk.θruː/

B2 an important discovery or event that helps toimprove a situation or provide an

answer to a problem:
Scientists are hoping for a breakthrough in the search for a cure for cancer.
A major breakthrough in negotiations has been achieved.
Given the fact that many groundbreaking breakthroughs in AI technology have been
made recently, some people believe that AI will even permeate future classrooms where
the presence of teachers will no longer be needed.

headwaynoun
UK /ˈhed.weɪ/ US /ˈhed.weɪ/

make headway = make progress

to make progress or get closer to achieving something:

I'm trying to learn to drive, but I'm not making much headway (with it).

Little headway has been made so far in the negotiations.

If poor countries have a clear intent to restore the damaged environment, they still face
tremendous difficulties in making headway due to the lack of adequate technologies

fruitnoun
UK /fruːt/ US /fruːt/

the fruit/fruits of sth

C2 the pleasant or successful result of workor actions:
This book is the fruit of 15 years' research.

It's been hard work, but now the business is running smoothly you can sit back
and enjoy the fruits of your labours.

75
“add” language

augmentverb [ T ]
UK /ɔːɡˈment/ US /ɑːɡˈment/ FORMAL

to increase the size or value of something by adding something to it:

He would have to find work to augment his income.
In reality, virtual interaction augments social relationships rather than undermines them.
We should supplement police patrols with coordinated action elsewhere in the state.

supplementverb [ T ]
UK /ˈsʌp.lɪ.ment/ US /ˈsʌp.lə.ment/

C2 to add something to something to make it larger or better:

He supplements (= adds to) his income by working in a bar at night.
Some vegetarians like to supplement their diets with iron.

noun [ C ]
C2 something that is added to something else in order to improve it
or complete it; something extra:
The doctor said she should be taking vitamin supplements.
The money I get from teaching evening night classes provides a
supplement to my main income.
The internet can be judged a useful supplement to this, if used carefully and under
supervision.

76
substituteverb
UK /ˈsʌbstɪtjuːt/ US

[T] to use something different or new instead of another thing:

substitute sth for sth Industry must reduce fuel consumption by
substituting alternative fuels for fossil fuels.
The government expects natural gas to substitute for oil exports in the future.
substitute sth with sth It takes time to substitute local brands
with your own brand names.

incorporateverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈkɔː.pər.eɪt/ US /ɪnˈkɔːr.pɚ.eɪt/

C2 to include something as part of something larger:

Suggestions from the survey have been incorporated into/in the final design.
Perhaps the most effective and most immediate solution would be for employers to
incorporate a fixed amount of free time into their workers’ schedules.
Some people think that more lessons on computer skills should be incorporated into
school curriculum.

77
“understanding” language

understanding noun
UK /ˌʌn.dəˈstæn.dɪŋ/ US /ˌʌn.dɚˈstæn.dɪŋ/
understanding noun (KNOWLEDGE)
B2 [ U ]
knowledge about a subject, situation, etc. or about how something works:

She doesn't have any understanding of politics/human nature/what it takes to be a

good manager.
My understanding of the agreement (= what I think it means) is that they
will pay $50,000 over two years.

C1 [ C ]
an informal agreement between people:
It took several hours of discussion before they could come to/reach an understanding.

graspverb [ T ]
UK /ɡrɑːsp/ US /ɡræsp/

C1 to quickly take something in your hand(s) and hold it firmly:

Rosie suddenly grasped my hand.

If you grasp an opportunity, you take it eagerly:

We must grasp every opportunity to strengthen economic ties with other countries

C1 to understand something, especially something difficult:

I think I managed to grasp the main points of the lecture.
The government has acknowledged that homelessness is a problem but it has failed to
grasp the scale of the problem.

78
insightnoun [ C or U ]
UK /ˈɪn.saɪt/ US /ˈɪn.saɪt/

C1 (the ability to have) a clear, deep, and sometimes sudden understanding of a

complicated problem or situation:
It was an interesting book, full of fascinating insights into human relationships.
The documentary offers an insight into the everyday lives of millions
of ordinary Russian citizens.
The fight for the leadership gave a fascinating insight into the group's dynamics.
Her books are full of perceptive insights into the human condition.

profoundadjective
UK /prəˈfaʊnd/ US /prəˈfaʊnd/
C2 felt or experienced very strongly or in an extreme way:
His mother's death when he was aged six had a very profound effect on him.
The invention of the contraceptive pill brought about profound changes in the lives of
women.

C2 showing a clear and deep understanding of serious matters:

profound truths/wisdom
The review that I read said that it was "a thoughtful and profound film".
"Dying is easy - it's living that's the problem." "That was very profound of you, Steven."

versedadjective
UK /vɜːst/ US /vɝːst/ FORMAL
be versed in sth

to know a lot about a particular subject or be experienced in a particular skill:

I'm not sufficiently versed in XML to understand what you're saying.

Being equally versed in both national and international news is important.

79
reflectionnoun
US /rɪˈflek·ʃən/

C1 [ C usually singular ] a sign or result of something:

The fact that soldiers are on the streets is a reflection of how terrified the government is.
For example, the treatment of minority groups is often seen as a reflection of the moral
standards and level of development of a society.

C2 [ C or U ] FORMAL serious and careful thought:

On reflection (= after considering it), I decided I had been wrong.
After 30 years as a judge, her reflections on/about justice were well worth listening to.

80
“work hard” language

tenaciousadjective
UK /təˈneɪ.ʃəs/ US /təˈneɪ.ʃəs/

holding tightly onto something, or keeping an opinion in a determined way:

The baby took my finger in its tenacious little fist.
There has been tenacious local opposition to the new airport.

striveverb [ I ]
UK /straɪv/ US /straɪv/strove or strived, striven or strived

C2 to try very hard to do something or to make something happen, especially for

a long time or against difficulties:
[ + to infinitive ] Mr Roe has kindled expectations that he must now strive to live up to.
In her writing she strove for a balance between innovation and familiar prose forms.
It would be wrong and impractical for countries to strive for independence from other
countries in terms of food production.
Equality is an excellent goal for society to strive for.
Senior staff of are apt to feel undervalued and disheartened if a newly recruited young
individual holds a managerial position that they strive for and covet for years

aspireverb [ I ]
UK /əˈspaɪər/ US
to want something very much or hope to achieve something or be successful:
aspire to sth Most of his students aspired to a career in business.
aspire to do sth We aspire to become full-service providers to our clients.

81
covetverb [ T ]
UK /ˈkʌv.ɪt/ US /ˈkʌv.ət/ FORMAL

to want to have something very much, especially something that belongs to

someone else:
She always coveted power but never quite achieved it.
The Booker Prize is the most coveted British literary award.

endeavorverb [ + to infinitive ]
FML CDN BR endeavour US /ɪnˈdev·ər/

to try to do something:
I endeavored to explain the legal consequences of his action.
(n) This philanthropic endeavor helped instill in me an understanding of the challenges
other people face in their day to day lives.
forge ahead with sth Regardless of the uncertainty, she plans to forge ahead with
her career.

drivenadjective
UK /ˈdrɪvən/ US

if someone is driven, all their effort is directed

towards achieving a particular result:
He is a driven man - capable of anything.
Children who are driven to be the best often succeed in life.
For instance, school children are often driven to exercise in an attempt to emulate
superstars, such as Cristiano Ronaldo.
It seems to me that some people are more driven and persistent as students or workers
simply because they have found a subject or job that they truly enjoy.

82
applyverb
US /əˈplɑɪ/

apply yourself C2

If you apply yourself to something, you work hard at

it, directing your abilities and efforts in a determined way so that you succeed:
You can solve any problem if you apply yourself.
It is essential for parents and teachers to force young people to apply themselves to
their studies in an effort to increase the odds of success.
That way, every student, those with best performance included, is motivated to apply
themselves harder.
In other words, rather than choosing to get a job, some young people would opt for
doing a degree to which they would only half-heartedly apply themselves.

exertverb
UK /ɪɡˈzɜːt/ US /ɪɡˈzɝːt/

[T] to use something such as authority, power, influence, etc. in order to make
something happen:
If you were to exert your influence they might change their decision.
Some managers exert considerable pressure on their staff to work extra hours without
being paid.

exert yourself

to make a mental or physical effort:

I was too tired to exert myself.

83
diligentlyadverb
UK /ˈdɪl.ɪ.dʒənt.li/ US /ˈdɪl.ə.dʒənt.li/ APPROVING

in a way that is careful and uses a lot of effort:

He worked diligently to prepare himself for this three-week tournament.
She diligently completed each task she was given.

diligentadjective
UK /ˈdɪl.ɪ.dʒənt/ US /ˈdɪl.ə.dʒənt/

APPROVING careful and using a lot of effort:

a diligent student
Leo is very diligent in/about his work.
Their lawyer was extremely diligent in preparing their case.

sacrificeverb
UK /ˈsæk.rɪ.faɪs/ US /ˈsæk.rə.faɪs/

C1 [ T ] to give up something that is valuable to you

in order to help another person:
Many women sacrifice interesting careers for their families.
We should be happy to live in a society in which men and women have equal
opportunities, and in which women are not put under pressure to sacrifice their careers.
This type of addiction can have effects ranging from lack of sleep to problems at school,
when homework is sacrificed for a few more hours on the computer or console.

84
“independent” language

self-supportingadjective
UK /ˌself.səˈpɔː.tɪŋ/ US /ˌself.səˈpɔːr.t̬ ɪŋ/
earning or having enough money to pay for your
activities without receiving financial help from other people:
The vast majority of students here are self-supporting.

self-sufficientadjective
UK /ˌself.səˈfɪʃ.ənt/ US /ˌself.səˈfɪʃ.ənt/
C2 able to provide everything you need, especially food, for yourself without
the help of other people:
The programme aims to make the country self-sufficient in food production and
to cut energy imports.
They were busy with growing vegetables and all the other chores of a self-
sufficient rural life.
able to take care of yourself, to be happy, or to deal with problems,
without help from other people:
She's a very self-sufficient young woman.

self-reliantadjective
UK /ˌself.rɪˈlaɪ.ənt/ US /ˌself.rɪˈlaɪ.ənt/APPROVING

C2 not needing help or support from other people:

Single parents have to be self-reliant and inventive.
People who choose to live alone may become more independent and self-reliant than
those who live with family members.
Elderly people should be encouraged to be as self-reliant as possible, as this boosts
their self-esteem and may guard against mental decline in old age.

85
fend for yourself
— phrasal verb with fend UK /fend/US /fend/ verb

C2 to take care of and provide for yourself without depending on anyone else:
Now that the children are old enough to fend for themselves, we can go away
on holiday by ourselves.
Children generally do not know how to fend for themselves in a place where machines
cannot support them.

autonomynoun [ U ]
UK /ɔːˈtɒn.ə.mi/ US /ɑːˈtɑː.nə.mi/

the right of an organization, country, or region to

be independent and govern itself:
Demonstrators demanded immediate autonomy for their region.
The universities want to preserve their autonomy from central government.

the ability to make your own decisions without being controlled by anyone else
While some people believe that it would be better if students are forced into certain key
subject areas, others think that they should have the autonomy to study the course of
their choice.

86
“discourage” language
disincentivenoun [C]
UK /ˌdɪsɪnˈsentɪv/ US /-ṱɪv/

something that makes a person or organization less willing to do something:

A culture of corruption is a disincentive to investment and trade.
serve as/act as a disincentive High severance costs can act as a disincentive
to hire new workers.
a disincentive (for sb) to do sth The tax on large pensions could be a disincentive
to save for retirement.
a disincentive to doing sth Working on a fixed-fee basis is a disincentive
to agreeing to act for certain clients.

discourageverb [T]
US /dɪˈskɜr·ɪdʒ, -ˈskʌr-/
to cause someone to feel less confident or less hopeful:
She sometimes got discouraged about her social life, which was going nowhere,
she felt.
B2 to prevent or try to prevent something happening or someone doing
something, by making things difficult or unpleasant, or by showing disapproval:
a campaign to discourage people from smoking

encumberverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈkʌm.bər/ US /ɪnˈkʌm.bɚ/ FORMAL
to weigh someone or something down, or to make it difficult for someone to do
something:
Today, thankfully, women tennis players are not
encumbered with/by long, heavy skirts and high-necked blouses.
A criminal history can encumber ex-offenders when they look for a job.

87
“Start” language

embark on/upon sth

— phrasal verb with embark UK /ɪmˈbɑːk/ US /ɪmˈbɑːrk/ verb [ I ]FORMAL

to start something new or important:

We're embarking upon a new project later this year.
I believe there are major advantages for most students in taking a period of time away
from education before embarking on a degree course.

initiateverb [ T ]
UK /ɪˈnɪʃ.i.eɪt/ US /ɪˈnɪʃ.i.eɪt/

C2 FORMAL to cause something to begin:

Who initiated the violence?
Hague initiated a series of reforms of the Conservative Party.
Some of the orders are initiated directly on the trading floor.
The council initiates its own studies and carries out research at
the request of private organizations.

88
“difficulty” language

hardshipnoun [ C or U ]
UK /ˈhɑːdʃɪp/ US

a condition that causes difficulty or suffering, for example, being without a job or
enough money:
financial/economic hardship The price of cooking gas increased five-
fold, worsening the economic hardship.
extreme/real/severe hardship
The Commission does not believe that the proposed rule change will pose an undue
hardship on venture capital firms.

adversitynoun [ U or C ]
UK /ədˈvɜː.sə.ti/ US /ədˈvɝː.sə.t̬ i/

a difficult or unlucky situation or event:

She was always cheerful in adversity.
The road to happiness is paved with adversities.
If the government chose to do this, it would only lead to greater poverty and families
facing further hardship.

plightnoun [ S ]
UK /plaɪt/ US /plaɪt/

C2 an unpleasant condition, especially a serious, sad, or difficult one:

the plight of the poor/homeless
Few of us can be unmoved by the plight of the refugees.

89
challengenoun
UK /ˈtʃælɪndʒ/ US

[ C or U ] a job, duty, or situation that is difficult because you must use a lot
of effort, determination, and skill in order to be successful:
accept/face/meet a challenge After significant losses last year,
the company now faces the challenge of trying to repair its reputation with investors.
be/pose/present a challenge The weakness of the dollar could pose a challenge to the
company's expansion plans.
As a software developer he enjoys the challenge of working with cutting-
edge technology.
She was getting bored at work and felt she needed a new challenge.
Finding time to do the work has proven a real challenge.
a big/major/serious challenge

struggleverb
UK /ˈstrʌɡ.əl/ US /ˈstrʌɡ.əl/

B2 [ I ] to experience difficulty and make a very great effort in order to do

something:
[ + to infinitive ] The dog had been struggling to get free of the wire noose.
I've been struggling to understand this article all afternoon.
Research suggests that a small percentage of young people struggle to adapt to their
new environment and suffer from severe culture shock.
Most scientists agree that those who fail to achieve a healthy balance between work
and recreation often struggle with deteriorating health and are prone to psychological
distress, such as anxiety or depression
(n)
Uniforms, then, remove these social struggles so that these young learners may
develop academically.

90
“solution” language

mitigateverb [ T ]
UK /ˈmɪt.ɪ.ɡeɪt/ US /ˈmɪt̬ .ə.ɡeɪt/ FORMAL

to make something less harmful, unpleasant, or bad:

It is unclear how to mitigate the effects of tourism on the island.
This can be attributed to a host of reasons and this essay will suggest several viable
solutions to mitigate the situation.
There are various measures that governments and individuals could take to prevent, or
at least mitigate, climate change.

alleviateverb [ T ]
UK /əˈliː.vi.eɪt/ US /əˈliː.vi.eɪt/ FORMAL

to make something bad such as pain or problems less severe:

The drugs did nothing to alleviate her pain/suffering.

defuseverb [T]
US /dɪˈfjuz/

to make a difficult or dangerous situation calmer:

The two groups will meet next week to try to defuse the crisis/situation/tension.

remedyverb [ T ]
UK /ˈrem.ə.di/ US /ˈrem.ə.di/ FORMAL

to do something to correct or improve something that is wrong:

This mistake must be remedied immediately.

91
curbverb [T]
UK /kɜːb/ US

to control or limit something that is not wanted:

The Government should act to curb tax evasion.
We will have to curb expenses.
Many other measures are much more acceptable to curb congestion.
In London, for example, the introduction of a congestion charge for drivers has helped
to curb the traffic problem.
As such, perhaps a better measure to curb fatalities from traffic accidents should be for
the government to launch awareness campaigns about the matter rather than
administering more stringent laws on drivers.
noun [ C ]
a limit on something that is not wanted:
curb (on sth) The legislature has put a curb on outsourcing state contract work.

curtailverb [ T ]
UK /kəˈteɪl/ US /kɚˈteɪl/
to stop something before it is finished, or to reduce or limit something:
to curtail your holiday/spending
With all the snow, our daily walks have been severely curtailed.
He had to curtail his speech when time ran out.
Many people find this intrusive and feel that the recording of their movements is a form
of state control that curtails their individual freedom.
When a person is working long hours, and thinking about work even outside that time,
the ability to relax is severely curtailed.

92
tackleverb [T]
UK /ˈtækl/ US

to try to deal with something:

The first thing the new government must do is to tackle inflation.

tackle a crisis/question/problem
I felt that the whole subject was too sensitive to tackle.

to talk to someone about a difficult situation, usually because you disagree with
them:

addressverb [T]
UK /əˈdres/ US

to deal with a particular problem or need:

It is time to address the budget deficit.
address a problem/issue How does the organization address the problems identified?
address a need He was impressed with the business plan because it addressed
a real need.

tackle sb on/about sth I was determined to tackle my boss on the way I had
been treated.

overcomeverb
UK /ˌəʊ.vəˈkʌm/ US /ˌoʊ.vɚˈkʌm/ overcame, overcome
B2 [ I or T ] to defeat or succeed in controlling or dealing with something:

Juventus overcame Ajax in a thrilling game.

to overcome difficulties/obstacles/problems/resistance
Eventually she managed to overcome her shyness in class.
However, with some tact and diplomacy, these issues can usually be overcome.
There are many measures that the government can take to overcome this epidemic.

93
rectifyverb [T]
UK /ˈrektɪfaɪ/ US

to deal with a problem or mistake so that it no longer exists:

How do we rectify the alarming fall in stock market performance?
rectify a problem/situation/mistake The CEO and upper management pledged to take
the necessary steps to rectify the situation.
be rectified Marketing strategies appear to have been weak and this must be rectified
to facilitate growth.

measurenoun
UK /ˈmeʒər/ US

[ C, usually plural ] a way of achieving something, or a method for dealing with

a situation:
These measures were designed to improve car safety.
We will introduce measures to reduce noise levels in the factory.
The company will need to take further measures to cut costs.
austerity/cost-cutting measures It had taken a series of cost-
cutting measures, including closing one of its two plants.
drastic/draconian/radical measures

holisticadjective
UK /həˈlɪs.tɪk/ US /hoʊlˈɪs.tɪk/

dealing with or treating the whole of something or someone and not just a part:
My doctor takes a holistic approach to disease.
Ecological problems usually require holistic solutions.

94
adoptverb [T]
UK /əˈdɒpt/ US

to start to use a new method, system, law, etc.:

Many European businesses are now adopting a management style closer to that of the
US.
adopt an approach/strategy/policy According to the inspector-general's report,
the airline industry needs to adopt a more consistent approach.
adopt a measure/system/plan Companies involved in public takeovers should adopt
more stringent measures to investigate information leaks.
adopt a resolution/regulation/solution The Security Council adopted
a resolution promising economic aid to the region.

combatverb [ T ]
UK /kəmˈbæt/ US /ˈkɑːm.bæt/ -tt- or -t-

C2 to try to stop something unpleasant or harmful from happening or increasing:

to combat crime/terrorism/inflation/disease/climate change
The government is spending millions of dollars in its attempt to combat drug abuse.
I have to combat this constant desire to eat chocolate.

work wonders
to cause improvements or have a very good effect:
A little flattery can work wonders.

95
crusadenoun
UK /kruːˈseɪd/ US /kruːˈseɪd/

[C] a long and determined attempt to achieve something that

you believe in strongly:
They have long been involved in a crusade for racial equality.
a moral crusade against drugs.
The enormity of the crusade to help everyone in the world should never stop us or any
government from participating in.

verb [ I ]
to make an effort to achieve something that you believe in strongly:
She crusaded against sex and violence on television.

campaignnoun [ C ]
UK /kæmˈpeɪn/ US /kæmˈpeɪn/

C1 a planned group of especially political, business, or military activities that

are intended to achieve a particular aim:
The protests were part of their campaign against the proposed building development in
the area.

launch/mount/start a campaign The university has launched a campus-wide

campaign to reduce use of fossil fuels.
verb [ I ]

C1 to organize a series of activities to try to achieve something:

[ + to infinitive ] They've been campaigning for years to get him out of prison.
He's spending a lot of his time at
the moment campaigning for/on behalf of the Conservative Party.
Campaign for/against sth They're busy campaigning against the building of a
new motorway near here.

96
schemenoun [C]
UK /skiːm/ US

an officially organized plan or system:

a scheme to do sth The firm is lead developer on a scheme to construct 800 homes.
devise/come up with a scheme They have devised a scheme
that allows entrepreneurs to benefit from each other's success.
introduce/launch/set up a scheme
run/operate a scheme Tesco runs a scheme to help managers spot talent.
a job-creation/training scheme
a government/management scheme
an incentive/mentoring scheme
investment/savings schemes

initiativenoun
UK /ɪˈnɪʃ.ə.tɪv/ US /ɪˈnɪʃ.ə.t̬ ɪv/

C1 [ C ] a new plan or process to achieve something or solve a problem:

The peace initiative was welcomed by both sides.

mountverb
UK /maʊnt/ US /maʊnt/

C2 [ I ] to gradually increase, rise, or get bigger:

The children's excitement is mounting as Christmas gets nearer.
They worked harder and harder as the debts mounted.
As the excitement mounted, the children became noisier.
C2 [ T ] to organize and begin an activity or event:
to mount an attack/campaign/challenge/protest
to mount an exhibition/display

97
awarenessnoun [ U ]
UK /əˈweə.nəs/ US /əˈwer.nəs/

C1 knowledge that something exists, or understanding of a situation or subject at

the present time based on information or experience:
Public awareness of the problem will make politicians take it seriously.
Environmental awareness has increased dramatically over the past decade.
customer/public/consumer
awareness Assessment procedures reveal how effectively the brand translatescustome
r awareness into purchases and retention.
awareness of sth Recent campaigns have led to a dramatic increase in awareness
of environmental issues.
build/increase/raise awareness The guidelines are
an important tool for raising awareness about current management thinking.
increasing/growing/heightened awareness Employees are using
a heightened awareness of work flow and demand to cut waste, eliminate cost,
and boost quality.

abolishverb [ T ]
UK /əˈbɒl.ɪʃ/ US /əˈbɑː.lɪʃ/

B2 to end an activity or custom officially:

I think bullfighting should be abolished.
National Service was abolished in the UK in 1962.
The government ought to abolish the tax altogether.
The government is planning to abolish subsidies to farmers.

98
viableadjective
UK /ˈvaɪ.ə.bəl/ US /ˈvaɪ.ə.bəl/

C2 able to work as intended or able to succeed:

In order to make the company viable, it
will unfortunately be necessary to reduce staffing levels.
I am afraid your plan is not commercially/economically/financially/politically viable.
Instead, governments should adopt more viable solutions to reduce accidents.
Child-minding and after-school childcare are often used in these cases, and if managed
properly, these can be perfectly viable alternatives.

feasibleadjective
UK /ˈfiː.zə.bəl/ US /ˈfiː.zə.bəl/

C1 able to be made, done, or achieved:

With the extra resources, the project now seems feasible.
With lower executive salaries, it might become feasible to introduce higher minimum
wages, and everybody would be better off.
abolishing university fees is not feasible for most countries and could be a waste of
country’s resources.
[ + to infinitive ] It may be feasible to clone human beings, but is it ethical?

plausibleadjective
UK /ˈplɔː.zə.bəl/ US /ˈplɑː.zə.bəl/

C2 seeming likely to be true, or able to be believed:

a plausible explanation/excuse
reducing the need for people to travel is plausible.
As this shows, the cancelling of public holidays and redirection of funds is an
implausible suggestion.

99
restrictionnoun
UK /rɪˈstrɪkʃən/ US

[ C, usually plural ] an official limit or control on

what people or companies are allowed to do, or on what can happen:
impose/place/put restrictions on sth This practice imposes unneccessary restrictions
on employment.
ease/lift/tighten restrictions on sth Chinese officials called on the U.S.
to ease restrictions on exporting high-tech goods to China.
advertising/trade restrictions
export/import restrictions
financial/investment restrictions

regulateverb [ T ]
UK /ˈreɡ.jə.leɪt/ US /ˈreɡ.jə.leɪt/

C1 to control something, especially by making it work in a particular way:

[ + question word ] Her mother strictly regulates how much TV she can watch.
The government has introduced new laws to regulate the sale of firearms.
(n) regulation (countable)
Another tactic that governments could use would be to create stricter regulations for the
companies that produce the packaging for household products.

implementverb [T]
UK /ˈɪmplɪment/ US

to put a plan into action = enact

to implement a plan/policy/measure The corporation has implemented a
new compensation plan for its sales force.
to implement a change/program/recommendation

100
resort to something
US/rɪˈzɔrt ˌtu, -tə/
— phrasal verb with resort verb

to do or use something because it is the only thing available:

There’s hope the countries will reach a settlement without resorting to armed conflict.
This allows parents to instill responsibility and discipline in their children without
resorting to physical abuse.
Granted, one might argue that men are generally more aggressive by nature and
therefore they often resort to violence to achieve what they want.

first resort

used for talking about the first thing that you think of doing or using in
a situation:
Diplomacy ought to be our first resort.

I'm not advocating detention as a first resort.

last resort

used for talking about something that you only think of doing or using if all other
methods fail:
Experts say warning labels are a last resort when a hazard can't be designed out of
a product.

101
 “Skilled” language

aptitudenoun [ C or U ]
UK /ˈæp.tɪ.tʃuːd/ US /ˈæp.tə.tuːd/
a natural ability or skill:
My son has no/little aptitude for sport.
We will take your personal aptitudes and abilities into account.

prowessnoun [ U ]
UK /ˈpraʊ.es/ US /ˈpraʊ.es/ FORMAL
great ability or skill:
athletic/sporting prowess
He's always boasting about his sexual prowess.
They will realize that superficial characteristics like physical beauty or sporting prowess
may not be the only ones to bring happiness in a relationship.

skilledadjective
UK /skɪld/ US
having the special abilities and experience to do a particular job well:
skilled employees/staff/workers The temporary visas are available for
skilled foreign workers.
skilled negotiators/politicians/professionals
be skilled at/in doing sth The highly-successful supermarket giant is skilled
at obtaining products cheaply.

skilled work needs to be done by someone who has had special training:
skilled labour/work This is highly skilled work - it can't be done by people we pull off
the street.

102
competentadjective
UK /ˈkɒm.pɪ.tənt/ US /ˈkɑːm.pə.t̬ ənt/

C1 able to do something well:

a competent secretary/rider/cook
I wouldn't say he was brilliant but he is competent at his job.

masterverb [T]

UK /ˈmɑː.stər/ US /ˈmæs.tɚ/

to learn how to do something well:

to master a technique
She lived in Italy for several years but never quite mastered the language.
He quickly mastered the art of interviewing people.

adeptadjective
UK /əˈdept/ US /əˈdept/

having a natural ability to do something that needs skill:

She's very adept at dealing with the media.
He’s adept at making people feel at ease.

ableadjective
UK /ˈeɪ.bəl/ US /ˈeɪ.bəl/
C2 intelligent or good at what you do:
an able child/student/secretary
This problem is now being looked at by some of the ablest minds/scientists in
the country.

103
“eliminate” language

precludeverb [T]
US /prɪˈklud/ FML

to prevent something or make it impossible:

Although your application was not accepted, it doesn’t preclude
the possibility of your applying again later.

confineverb
UK /kənˈfaɪn/ US /kənˈfaɪn/

C2 [ T ] to limit an activity, person, or problem in some way:

Let's confine our discussion to the matter in question, please!
Please confine your use of the phone to business calls.
By closing the infected farms we're hoping to confine the disease to the north of
the region (= stop it from spreading to other areas).

C2 [ T usually passive ] to keep someone closed in a place, often by force:

The hostages had been confined for so long that they couldn't cope with
the outside world.

stifleverb
UK /ˈstaɪ.fəl/ US /ˈstaɪ.fəl/
[ T ] to prevent something from happening, being expressed, or continuing:

She stifled a cough/yawn/scream/sneeze.

I don't know how I managed to stifle my anger.
We should be encouraging new ideas, not stifling them.
It is the responsibility of schools to encourage learning, not to stifle it.

104
impedeverb [ T ]
UK /ɪmˈpiːd/ US /ɪmˈpiːd/FORMAL

to make it more difficult for something to happen or more difficult for someone to
do something:
Although he's shy, it certainly hasn't impeded his career in any way.
Shortages of medicine were impeding the effort to control diseases.
Others, such as practitioners of the Jain religion, believe that consuming or otherwise
harming other living beings impedes the liberation of one’s soul.
To add further credence to my assertion, I note that new parents tend to lack important
child-rearing skills, and this can severely impede the development of the child

avoidverb [T]
UK /əˈvɔɪd/ US

to try to prevent something bad from happening:

Clearly, having adequate holiday periods will allow workers to avoid serious illnesses
and diseases, especially stress-related ones.
Undoubtedly, people who watch or read this news are much more likely to avoid drunk
driving or try to dissuade their drunk friends from driving.

avoid doing sth

Finally, companies should allow their employees to work flextime to avoid traveling to
and from work during rush hours.

refrainverb [ I ]
UK /rɪˈfreɪn/ US /rɪˈfreɪn/ FORMAL
C2 to avoid doing or stop yourself from doing something:
We refrained from talking until we knew that it was safe.
Please refrain from talking during the lecture.
Those who refrain from consuming animal products believe that not only are they
making healthier choices, but they are benefiting the world at large.

105
dispelverb [T]
US /dɪˈspel/ -ll-
to remove fears, doubts, or false ideas, usually by
proving them wrong or unnecessary:
We need to dispel the myths and establish real facts.
They can also dispel any ideas that teenagers may have about criminals leading
glamorous lives.
This is a testament to why parenting courses are an ideal vehicle to dispel such
misconceptions.

eradicateverb [ T ]
UK /ɪˈræd.ɪ.keɪt/ US /ɪˈræd.ɪ.keɪt/ FORMAL
C2 to get rid of something completely or destroy something bad:
The government claims to be doing all it can to eradicate corruption.
The disease that once claimed millions of lives has now been eradicated.
Poverty is yet to be eradicated.
There is no guarantee that this country could distribute food from other areas to quench
the thirst and eradicate the hunger of people living in such places.
It is hoped in the years to come that global generosity increases and that extreme
poverty is eradicated.

excludeverb [ T ]
UK /ɪkˈskluːd/ US /ɪkˈskluːd/

C1 to prevent someone or something from entering a place or taking part in

an activity:
I feel that modest charges are justifiable, and indeed useful, in our efforts to broaden
access and improve our museums, provided that nobody is excluded on the grounds of
cost.
If public libraries were not funded and disappeared as a result, countless people who
rely primarily on those places to enrich their mind would be woefully excluded from the
pursuit of knowledge.

106
exclusionnoun
UK /ɪksˈkluːʒən/ US
the act of not allowing someone or something to take part in an activity or
to enter a place:
her exclusion from the list of Oscar nominees
the exclusion of disruptive students from school
socia exclusion
to the exclusion of

not allowing someone or something else to be included:

Under this ruling, an individual could create a corporation of which he was
the sole director, to the exclusion of all other stakeholders.

A second problem must be the rather anti-social nature of people focusing all their
thoughts on a device, to the exclusion of others around them, who may need help or
guidance as much as basic courtesy.

However, by focusing on this topic to the exclusion of others we run the risk of
neglecting a range of other, equally grave challenges.

107
“healthy” language

healthyadjective
UK /ˈhel.θi/ US /ˈhel.θi/
A2 strong and well:
She's a normal, healthy child.
Eating fruit and vegetables is part of a healthy lifestyle.
Employees should maintain a healthy balance between work and personal life.

C2 successful and strong:

a healthy business/industry/economy
Sound macroeconomic and regulatory policies are essential to a
healthy financial sector.

fitnessnoun [ U ]
UK /ˈfɪt.nəs/ US /ˈfɪt.nəs/

B1 the condition of being physically strong and healthy:

I'm trying to improve my fitness by cycling to work.
-how suitable someone or something is:
His fitness for the new position is not in question.
[ + to infinitive ] Many people are concerned about her fitness to govern.

well-beingnoun [ U ]
UK /ˌwelˈbiː.ɪŋ/ US /ˌwelˈbiː.ɪŋ/
C1 the state of feeling healthy and happy:
People doing yoga benefit from an increased feeling of well-being.
Seeing her grandchildren gave her a sense of well-being.

108
strengthnoun
UK /streŋθ/ US /streŋθ/

a good characteristic:
She's well aware of her strengths and weaknesses as an artist.
His greatest strengths are his determination and resilience.

at full strength

at the best level of ability possible:

He is not expected to be at full strength for the rest of the season.

with the complete number of people who are usually in a group:

Staff cuts have meant that we haven't been working at full strength for a year.

109
“Worrying” language
startlingadjective
UK /ˈstɑː.təlɪŋ/ US /ˈstɑːr.t̬ əlɪŋ/

surprising and sometimes worrying:

startling results
He made some startling admissions about his past.
The planet’s resources are being depleted at a startling pace.

alarmingadjective
UK /əˈlɑː.mɪŋ/ US /əˈlɑːr.mɪŋ/

C1 causing worry or fear:

alarming news
There has been an alarming rise in the rate of inflation.

notoriousadjective
UK /nəʊˈtɔː.ri.əs/ /nəˈtɔː.ri.əs/ US /noʊˈtɔːr.i.əs/

C1 famous for something bad:

one of Mexico's most notorious criminals
The company is notorious for paying its bills late.
(adv) notoriously
To look for a supporting example, one need look no further than Hanoi, whose roads
are notoriously narrow.

110
“exceed” language

exceedverb [ T ]
UK /ɪkˈsiːd/ US /ɪkˈsiːd/

C1 to be greater than a number or amount, or to go past an allowed limit:

The final cost should not exceed $5,000.
The success of our campaign has exceeded our wildest expectations.
She was found guilty on three charges of exceeding the speed limit.

outperformverb [ T ]
UK /ˌaʊt.pəˈfɔːm/ US /ˌaʊt.pɚˈfɔːrm/

to do well in a particular job or activity compared to others of a similar type:

The company has consistently outperformed its rivals this season.
Technology stocks are outperforming the rest of the market.

surpassverb [ T ]
UK /səˈpɑːs/ US /sɚˈpæs/ FORMAL

C2 to do or be better than:
The book's success has surpassed everyone's expectations.
The director has really surpassed himself (= done better than he has done before) with
this new film.

111
supersedeverb [ T ]
UK /ˌsuː.pəˈsiːd/ US /ˌsuː.pɚˈsiːd/

to replace something, especially something older or more old-fashioned:

Most of the old road has been superseded by the great interstate highways.

to replace something older, less effective, or less important or official:

Wireless broadband could supersede satellite radio one day.

outstripverb [T]
US /ˌɑʊtˈstrɪp/ -pp-

to be or become greater than something or someone in amount, degree,

or success:
Car dealers worry that demand will outstrip their supply.

to be more successful than expected:

outstrip expectations/forecasts/predictions Group sales were up 6% to $5.8 billion,
outstripping Wall Street expectations of $5.47 billion.

to grow or develop more quickly than something else:

Credit card complaints outstrip all other bank-related grievances.
outstrip supply/demand/inflation Supplies of goods and services are
outstripping demand.

112
“increase” language

surgenoun [C]
UK /sɜːdʒ/ US /sɝːdʒ/

C1 a sudden and great increase:

There has been a surge in house prices recently.
With the surge in popularity of the internet, seismic changes have taken place in work
patterns.
verb [ I ]
C1 to increase suddenly and strongly:
The company's profits have surged.

soarverb
UK /sɔːr/ US /sɔːr/
C2 [ I usually + adv/prep ] to rise very quickly to a high level:
All night long fireworks soared into the sky.
Temperatures will soar over the weekend, say the weather forecasters.
House prices soared a further 20 percent.

skyrocketverb [ I ]
UK /ˈskaɪˌrɒk.ɪt/ US /ˈskaɪˌrɑː.kɪt/

to rise extremely quickly or make extremely quick progress towards success:

Housing prices have skyrocketed in recent months.

113
accelerateverb
UK /əkˈsel.ə.reɪt/ US /əkˈsel.ɚ.eɪt/

C2 [ I ] When a vehicle or its driver accelerates, the speed of the vehicle increases:
I accelerated to overtake the bus.
Opposite
decelerate

C2 [ I ] If a person or object accelerates, he, she, or it goes faster.

C1 [ I or T ] to happen or make something happen sooner or faster:

Inflation is likely to accelerate
this year, adding further upward pressure on interest rates.
They use special chemicals to accelerate the growth of crops.

exponentialadjective
UK /ˌek.spəˈnen.ʃəl/ US /ˌek.spoʊˈnen.ʃəl/

FORMAL An exponential rate of increase becomes quicker and quicker as the thing
that increases becomes larger:
We are looking for exponential growth in our investment.
There has been an exponential increase in the world population this century.

114
“popular” language

fadnoun [C]
US /fæd/

a style or activity that suddenly becomes popular but which usually does
not stay popular for very long:
He thought computers would be just a fad.

voguenoun [ S or U ]
UK /vəʊɡ/ US /voʊɡ/

a fashion or general liking, especially one that is temporary:

In the 1920s, short hair for women became the vogue.
The postwar vogue for tearing down buildings virtually destroyed the city's architecture.
The short hemline is very much in vogue (= fashionable) this spring.

tractionnoun [ U ]
UK /ˈtræk.ʃən/ US /ˈtræk.ʃən/

the fact of an idea, product, etc. becoming popular or being accepted:

In our digital age, it takes less time for new words and phrases to gain traction than it
did in the past.

115
“Recover” language

recoververb [ I or T ]
UK /rɪˈkʌv.ər/ US /rɪˈkʌv.ɚ/

to become completely well again after an illness or injury:

It took her a long time to recover from/after her heart operation.
He never really recovered from the shock of his wife dying.

to become successful or normal again after being damaged or having problems:

It took a long time for the economy to recover after the slump.
The Vietnamese government, without any hesitation, sent thousands of tons of rice,
millions of dollars, and hundreds of doctors to help Japanese citizens recover from such
a catastrophe.

revitalizeverb [ T ]
UK USUALLY revitalise UK /ˌriːˈvaɪ.təl.aɪz/ US /ˌriːˈvaɪ.t̬ əl.aɪz/
to give new life, energy, activity, or success to something:
Japanese investment has revitalized this part of Britain.
to revitalize a city/the economy

reviveverb [ I or T ]
UK /rɪˈvaɪv/ US /rɪˈvaɪv/

C2 to come or bring something back to life, health, existence, or use:

to revive someone's hopes/confidence/fortunes
My plants revived as soon as I gave them some water.
A hot shower and a cup of tea will revive you.
Traditional skills are being revived.

116
invigorateverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈvɪɡ.ər.eɪt/ US /ɪnˈvɪɡ.ɚ.eɪt/

to make someone feel fresher, healthier, and more energetic:

We were invigorated by our walk.
to give new energy or strength to someone or something:
They argued that a cut in the tax rate would invigorate the economy.

117
“everywhere”

pervasiveadjective
UK /pəˈveɪ.sɪv/ US /pɚˈveɪ.sɪv/ FORMAL

present or noticeable in every part of a thing or place:

The influence of Ho Chi Minh is pervasive in her books.

As modern technology becomes more powerful and pervasive in the world of business,
those in employment will find work increasingly difficult.

The pervasive presence of advertising can create a growing demand for consumer
goods, and as a result, greater amounts of waste are being produced through
production and consumption of goods.

rampantadjective
UK /ˈræm.pənt/ US /ˈræm.pənt/

(of something bad) getting worse quickly and in an uncontrolled way:

rampant corruption
I believe that the rampant use of machines has actually made everyday life more
complicated.
He said that he had encountered rampant prejudice in his attempts to get a job.
Disease is rampant in the overcrowded city.

118
permeateverb [ I usually + adv/prep, T ]
UK /ˈpɜː.mi.eɪt/ US /ˈpɝː.mi.eɪt/ FORMAL
to spread through something and be present in every part of it:
Dissatisfaction with the government seems to have permeated every section of society.
A foul smell of stale beer permeated the whole building.
The table has a plastic coating which prevents liquids from
permeating into the wood beneath.

pervadeverb [ T ]
UK /pəˈveɪd/ US /pɚˈveɪd/ FORMAL
When qualities, characteristics, or smells pervade a place or thing,
they spread through it and are present in every part of it:
The film movie is a reflection of the violence that pervades our culture.

prevalentadjective
UK /ˈprev.əl.ənt/ US /ˈprev.əl.ənt/

existing very commonly or happening often:

These diseases are more prevalent among young children.
Trees are dying in areas where acid rain is most prevalent.

ubiquitous adjective
formal or humorous
UK /juːˈbɪk.wɪ.təs/ US /juːˈbɪk.wə.t̬ əs/

seeming to be everywhere:
Leather is very much in fashion this season, as is the ubiquitous denim.
The Swedes are
not alone in finding their language under pressure from the ubiquitous spread of English
.
The mobile phone, that most ubiquitous of consumer-electronic appliances, is about
to enter a new age.

119
“Encourage” language
incentivizeverb [ T ]
UK USUALLY incentivise UK /ɪnˈsen.tɪ.vaɪz/ US /ɪnˈsen.t̬ ə.vaɪz/

to make someone want to do something:

incentivize sb to do sth
We need to incentivize our sales managers to achieve these targets.
Headquarters has incentivized employees with free offers of tickets to sporting events.

empowerverb [T]
UK /ɪmˈpaʊə / US
r

to give someone official or legal authority, or the freedom or confidence to do

something:
empower sb (to do sth) We empower our sales staff to make decisions without always
having to consult their supervisor.
The main function of schools should be to educate young people as individuals,
nurturing their talents, and empowering them to succeed later in life, rather than to turn
them into fruitful citizens and workers.
be empowered to do sth The Legislature is empowered to make law, subject to the
Governor's right of veto.
This communications skills course aims to make people feel empowered.

rewardingadjective
UK /rɪˈwɔːdɪŋ/ US
something that is rewarding gives you a feeling of satisfaction and pleasure:
a rewarding career/job/role
more/less/the most rewarding What is the most rewarding aspect of your work?
I found taking care of my frail grandmother to be a rewarding and fulfilling experience
rather than a burden or chore.

120
“protect” language
preserveverb [ T ]
UK /prɪˈzɜːv/ US /prɪˈzɝːv/

B2 to keep something as it is, especially in order to prevent it from decaying or

being damaged or destroyed:
to preserve the environment
We want to preserve the character of the town while improving the facilities.

[S] an activity that only one person or a particular type of person does or
is responsible for:
Owning racehorses is the preserve of the rich.
Sport used to be a male preserve.

guardverb [ I or T ]
UK /ɡɑːd/ US

to protect something from being known, found, harmed, or taken:

guard (sth) against sth The firewall guards the computer against viruses or
other harmful programs.

safeguardverb [ T ]
UK /ˈseɪf.ɡɑːd/ US /ˈseɪf.ɡɑːrd/
to protect something from harm:
The union safeguards the interests of all its members.

to protect children or adults who could be hurt emotionally or physically:

Extensive background checks on staff are carried out to safeguard children in schools.

121
safeguard against sth
— phrasal verb with safeguard UK /ˈseɪf.ɡɑːd/US /ˈseɪf.ɡɑːrd/ verb [ T ]

to do things that you hope will stop something unpleasant from happening:
A good diet will safeguard against disease.

(n) safeguard
Some economic growth should be encouraged as long as there are safeguards
intended to ensure fair distribution of wealth and reduce the negative impact on the
environment.

122
“demanding” language
strenuousadjective
UK /ˈstren.ju.əs/ US /ˈstren.ju.əs/

C2 needing or using a lot of physical or mental effort or energy:

He rarely does anything more strenuous than changing the channels on the television.
His doctor advised him not to do any strenuous exercise.
Strenuous efforts were
made throughout the war to disguisethe scale of civilian casualties.

arduousadjective
UK /ˈɑː.dʒu.əs/ US /ˈɑːr.dʒu.əs/

difficult, needing a lot of effort and energy:

an arduous climb/task/journey

backbreakingadjective
UK /ˈbækˌbreɪ.kɪŋ/ US /ˈbækˌbreɪ.kɪŋ/

needing a lot of hard, physical effort and making you feel extremely tired:
Digging the vegetable garden was backbreaking work.

laboriousadjective
UK /ləˈbɔː.ri.əs/ US /ləˈbɔːr.i.əs/

needing a lot of time and effort:

a laborious task

123
drudgerynoun [ U ]
UK /ˈdrʌdʒ.ər.i/ US /ˈdrʌdʒ.ɚ.i/
hard boring work:
the drudgery of housework

toil noun [ U ]
UK /tɔɪl/ US /tɔɪl/

hard work, especially work that makes you feel physically tired:

Lindi has achieved her comfortable life only after years of hard toil.
He rested from the backbreaking toil of putting in fences.

taxingadjective
UK /ˈtæk.sɪŋ/ US /ˈtæk.sɪŋ/

difficult or needing a lot of thought or effort:

I just need an entertaining read for the beach - nothing too taxing.

demandingadjective
UK /dɪˈmɑːn.dɪŋ/ US /dɪˈmæn.dɪŋ/

B2 needing a lot of time, attention, or energy:

She's a very demanding child.
a demanding job/task
She's hoping to find a job which is more demanding intellectually.
Police work is physically demanding and stressful.

124
burdensomeadjective
UK /ˈbɜː.dən.səm/ US /ˈbɝː.dən.səm/ FORMAL

causing difficulties or work:

a burdensome task

undergoverb [ T ]
UK /ˌʌn.dəˈɡəʊ/ US /ˌʌn.dɚˈɡoʊ/

C1 to experience something that is unpleasant or something that involves

a change:
She underwent an operation on a tumour in her left lung last year.
Playing board games is undergoing a revival in popularity.
It is certainly true that the position of women in society has undergone a dramatic
change in the past twenty years.
People who take part in extreme sports are usually required to undergo appropriate
training so that the dangers are minimized.

vainadjective
UK /veɪn/ US /veɪn/
C2 unsuccessful; of no value:
The doctors gave him more powerful drugs in the vain hope that he might recover.
FORMAL It was vain to pretend to himself that he was not disappointed.

in vain
C1 unsuccessfully:
I tried in vain to start a conversation.

All the police's efforts to find him were in vain.

125
“trick” language
lureverb [ T ]
UK /lʊər/ US /lʊr/

C2 to persuade someone to do something or go somewhere by offering them

something exciting:
She was lured into the job by the offer of a high salary.
He had lured his victim to a deserted house.
Supermarket chains try to lure customers with price discounts.

enticeverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈtaɪs/ US /ɪnˈtaɪs/

to persuade someone to do something by offering them something pleasant:

The adverts entice the customer into buying things they don't really want.
People are being enticed away from the profession by higher salaries elsewhere.
[ + to infinitive ] A smell of coffee in the doorway enticed people to enter the shop.

Sway
Swindle

driveverb
US /drɑɪv/ PAST TENSE drove US/droʊv/ , PAST PARTICIPLE driven US/ˈdrɪv·ən/

C1 [ U ] energy and determination to achieve things:

We are looking for someone with drive and ambition.
[ + to infinitive ] He has the drive to succeed.
Later on in life the sex drive tends to diminish.
C1 [ T ] to force someone or something into a particular state, often
an unpleasant one:
Recent events have driven the stock market to lows not seen in ten years.

126
misleadingadjective
UK /ˌmɪsˈliː.dɪŋ/ US /ˌmɪsˈliː.dɪŋ/

B2 causing someone to believe something that is not true:

misleading information/statements
Adverts must not create a misleading impression.

127
Other important words

ensureverb [ T ]
US ALSO insure UK /ɪnˈʃɔːr/ US /ɪnˈʃʊr/

B2 to make something certain to happen:

The airline is taking steps to ensure safety on its aircraft.
[ + (that) ] The role of the police is to ensure (that) the law is obeyed.
One might argue that by forcing people to choose particular university subjects,
governments can ensure that any knowledge and skill gaps in the economy are
covered.
Thus, it is morally right - nay, a responsibility - for a society to ensure the well-being of
each and every member living in it.
Thus, the news industry should continue it practice to ensure its profitability.

factor in something
— phrasal verb with factor verb

to consider information, esp. as something that might influence a result:

The impact of overpopulation completely pales in comparison with that of human greed
when we factor in what causes most problems facing humans.
This line of reasoning is not sound because it fails to factor in the fact that profound
understanding often results after conflicts are resolved.

128
factornoun [ C ]
UK /ˈfæk.tər/ US /ˈfæk.tɚ/

B2 a fact or situation that influences the result of something:

People's voting habits are influenced by political, social and economic factors.
Heavy snow was a contributing factor in the accident.
Price will be a major/crucial factor in the success of this new product.
The economy is regarded as the decisive/key factor in the outcome of the election.

backfireverb [ I ]
UK /ˌbækˈfaɪər/ US /ˌbækˈfaɪr/

(of a plan) to have the opposite result from the one you intended:
Her plans to make him jealous backfired on her when he started dating her best friend.

driving forcenoun [ C, usually singular ]

UK US

someone or something that has the power to make things happen:

a driving force behind/for/in sth The explosion in stock market wealth has been
an important driving force behind consumer spending.
Trade is the driving force for sustained economic prosperity.
Women are definitely a driving force in the industry, she said.

129
tastenoun
UK /teɪst/ US /teɪst/

a taste for sth

C2the fact of liking or enjoying something:
Photo sharing applications like Instagram can bring together a group of individuals who
have the same taste in fashion.

Allowing people to design and construct their houses according to their own tastes and
preferences dangerous.

People’s taste in music tends to change as they get older

tastes B2 [ plural ]
the things a person likes:
I have expensive tastes (= I like expensive things).

B2 [ S ] a short experience of something:

I had a taste of office work during the summer and that was enough.
By allowing children to dress as they please, schools can give them a taste of adult
social reality

heinousadjective
UK /ˈheɪ.nəs/ US /ˈheɪ.nəs/ FORMAL

very bad and shocking:

a heinous crime

130
apprehensiveadjective
UK /ˌæp.rɪˈhen.sɪv/ US /ˌæp.rəˈhen.sɪv/
feeling worried about something that you are going to do or that is going
to happen:
I'm very apprehensive about tomorrow's meeting.
I've invited a lot of people to the party, but I'm a little apprehensive that no one will
come.
A further reason to be apprehensive about adverts is that they create greed.
I am both fascinated by developments in artificial intelligence and apprehensive about
its possible negative effects.

depriveverb [ T ]
UK /dɪˈpraɪv/ US /dɪˈpraɪv/
B2 to take something, especially something necessary or pleasant, away from
someone:
He claimed that he had been deprived of his freedom/rights.
You can't function properly when you're deprived of sleep.
Some parents deprive themselves of many pleasures so that their children can have
the best of everything.
More and more animals are on the verge of extinction as deforestation deprives them
of their natural habitat.
If you deprive a child of affection, they can become very withdrawn.

pale in comparison
ALSO pale beside sth/sb

to seem much less serious or important when compared with someone or

something else:
I thought I was badly treated but my experiences pale in comparison with yours.
While the disadvantages of student exchange programs are clear, they pale in
comparison with the aforementioned benefits.

131
elementnoun
UK /ˈel.ɪ.mənt/ US /ˈel.ə.mənt/

B2 [ C ] a part of something:
List the elements that make up a perfect dinner party.

an element of sth
C2 a small amount of an emotion or quality:
There was certainly an element of truth in what she said.

Don't you think there's an element of jealousy in all of this?

We walked quietly up to the door to preserve the element of surprise.

An obvious step would be to restore some element of state funding to courses.

All sports involve some element of risk.

optimaladjective
UK /ˈɒptɪməl/ US

the best or most effective possible in a particular situation:

Companies benefit from the optimal use of their resources and personnel.
We have found that our workers reach their optimal level of performance around 11
a.m.
Many societies still feel the nuclear family is the optimal familial arrangement.
Student accommodation is the optimal choice for these undergraduates

132
inevitableadjective
UK /ɪˈnev.ɪ.tə.bəl/ US /ˌɪnˈev.ə.t̬ ə.bəl/

C1 certain to happen and unable to be avoided or prevented:

In fact, education and healthcare facilities are superior and more widely available in
cities, so it is inevitable that people migrate to cities to benefit from these public services

When you're working such long hours, it's inevitable

that your marriage will start to suffer.

accommodatingadjective
UK /əˈkɒm.ə.deɪ.tɪŋ/ US /əˈkɑː.mə.deɪ.t̬ ɪŋ/

used to describe a person who is eager or willing to help other people, for
example by changing his or her plans:
I'm sure she'll help you - she's always very accommodating.
The most effective measure is for the government to educate the general population,
especially employers, to be more accommodating of ex-offenders.

nurtureverb [T]
US /ˈnɜr·tʃər/

to feed and care for a child, or to help someone or

something develop by encouraging that person or thing:
As a record company director, his job is to nurture young talent.
As conventional schools are far from ideal places to nurture individuals with special gifts
and needs, allowing them to pursue their passions elsewhere would ensure that they
can reach their fullest potential.

133
well-roundedadjective
US/ˈwelˈrɑʊn·dɪd/

having or providing experience and knowledge in a number of different areas:

Some experts say that home-schooled children may not receive a well-
rounded education.
Individuals will often become more mature and well-rounded and appreciate how
fortunate they are to have the chance to study.

In the past, schools and academic institutions tended to focus on giving their pupils and
students a well-rounded education.

copeverb [ I ]
UK /kəʊp/ US /koʊp/

B2 to deal successfully with a difficult situation:

It must be really hard to cope with three young children and a job.
I don’t really believe that being unhappy is a consequence of fame but I do think that it
may be very difficult to cope with having a lot of money and fame.
Local infrastructure can also fail to cope with large numbers of visitors, leading to
pollution and litter.
Many school-leavers are not actually mentally mature enough to cope with university
life.

life-changingadjective
UK /ˈlaɪfˌtʃeɪn.dʒɪŋ/ US /ˈlaɪfˌtʃeɪn.dʒɪŋ/

having an effect that is strong enough to change someone's life:

a life-changing decision/moment
Lots of life-changing inventions were made by either individuals or private firms rather
than state-run ones

134
realmnoun [C]
US /relm/

an area of interest or activity:

the economic/political realm
the realm of art/literature/music
In the realm of education, we expect hard workers to diligently follow instructions, pass
their exams, achieve good grades and take their first steps on the path to a successful
career.

entitleverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈtaɪ.təl/ US /ɪnˈtaɪ.t̬ əl/

B2 to give someone the right to do or have something:

Being unemployed entitles you to free medical treatment.
The elderly may be entitled to a state pension and will probably require expensive
medical treatment.

be entitled to do sth He was not entitled to receive any compensation under

his employment contract.
He was not entitled to receive any compensation.
We should all be entitled to express ourselves in whichever way we want.

take sth with a pinch of salt

UK US take sth with a grain of salt
to not completely believe something that you are told, because you think it
is unlikely to be true:
You have to take everything she says with a pinch of salt, because
she tends to exaggerate.
In particular, when it comes to the tabloid press, people know that they have to take
what they read with a grain of salt.

135
taxpayernoun
UK /ˈtæksˌpeɪ.ər/ US /ˈtæksˌpeɪ.ɚ/

C2 [ C ] a person who pays tax

the taxpayer

C2 [ S ] all the people who pay tax to the government

Taxpayers should not have to pay for the failure of private companies.
For example, ageing Canadians increasingly depend on free public health care that is
funded by taxpayers.
The main obstacle would appear to be the number of recipients of healthcare compared
to the taxpayers are who need to fund it.

normnoun [ C usually plural ]

UK /nɔːm/ US /nɔːrm/
C1 an accepted standard or a way of behaving or doing things that
most people agree with:
Europe's varied cultural, political and ethical norms
accepted social norms

the norm
C1 a situation or type of behaviour that is expected and considered to be typical:
One child per family is fast becoming the norm in some countries.

Finland, where school children are not given homework, regularly top international
educational league tables and outperform nations where setting homework is the norm.

136
shoulderverb
UK /ˈʃəʊl.dər/ US /ˈʃoʊl.dɚ/

shoulder the blame, burden, responsibility, cost, etc.

to accept that you are responsible for something bad or difficult:

It is women who mainly shoulder responsibility for
the care of elderly and disabled relatives.

Teachers cannot be expected to shoulder all the blame for poor exam results.

Not having to shoulder the financial burdens that come with taking unpaid leave,
mothers can focus entirely on providing a healthy home environment for their new baby.

It is true that parents shoulder a huge responsibility and that raising children is by no
means an easy task.

(n)

If these resources are not replenished, the responsibility will fall on the shoulders of
future generations, which is a burden that could make these people less competitive
globally.

collaborateverb [ I ]
UK /kəˈlæb.ə.reɪt/ US /kəˈlæb.ə.reɪt/

C1 to work with someone else for a special purpose:

Two writers collaborated on the script for the film.
A German company collaborated with a Swissfirm to develop the product.

137
commuteverb
UK /kəˈmjuːt/ US /kəˈmjuːt/

C1 [ I ] to make the same journey regularly between work and home:

It's exhausting commuting from Brighton to London every day.

a daily/weekly commute Cutting out the daily commute is the

most obvious attraction of teleworking.
Firstly, many people prefer home-working, saying they function more effectively
because they can relax, without the pressure and waste of the long commute.

imminentadjective
UK /ˈɪm.ɪ.nənt/ US /ˈɪm.ə.nənt/
C2 coming or likely to happen very soon:
imminent disaster/danger
He gave a dire warning that an earthquake was imminent.
Among the dangers that humans face, global warming and rising sea levels are two of
the most imminent.

entailverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈteɪl/ US /ɪnˈteɪl/ FORMAL

to make something necessary, or to involve something:

Such a large investment inevitably entails some risk.
Employers in these industries are more likely to employ people with a good working
knowledge of the job and what it entails.
It is also a problem that replacing our current energy supply will entail expensive
research and development, which, in turn, involves government cooperation.
This kind but firm approach will achieve more than harsh punishments, which might
entail many negative consequences unintended by the parents.
[ + -ing verb ] Repairing the roof will entail spending a lot of money.

138
reinforceverb [ T ]
UK /ˌriː.ɪnˈfɔːs/ US /ˌriː.ɪnˈfɔːrs/

C1 If something reinforces an idea or opinion, it provides more proof or

support for it and makes it seem true:
The final technical report into the accident reinforces the findings of initial investigations.
His behaviour merely reinforced my dislike of him.
One might argue that homework allows children to reinforce the lessons learned in class
and to develop a strong work ethic.
The choice of living at school is reinforced by the fact that it fosters personal growth in
ways that are otherwise not possible if students choose to live at home.

at your fingertips
C2 If you have information at your fingertips, you can get it and use it very easily:
He has all the latest statistics at his fingertips.
Today, the entire world is at our fingertips; we can communicate with anyone instantly,
anywhere, at any time, and for free.
Today’s youth, or digital natives, don’t know what it means to write letters to friends,
research a topic in the library, or even build a fire; they simply open their laptops and
the world is at their fingertips

139
perennialadjective
UK /pəˈren.i.əl/ US /pəˈren.i.əl/

lasting a very long time, or happening repeatedly or all the time:

The film "White Christmas" is a perennial favourite.
We face the perennial problem of not having enough money.
Some leisure activities become fashionable for a short time and then disappear when a
new trend comes along, whereas others seem to be perennially popular.

integrateverb
UK /ˈɪn.tɪ.ɡreɪt/ US /ˈɪn.t̬ ə.ɡreɪt/

C1 [ I or T ] to mix with and join society or a group of people, often changing to

suit their way of life, habits, and customs:
Ex-prisoners may not be able to integrate back into society because of their criminal
history/past/record.
It's very difficult to integrate yourself into a society whose culture is so different
from your own.
Children are often very good at integrating into a new culture.

engrossedadjective
UK /ɪnˈɡrəʊst/ US /ɪnˈɡroʊst/

C2 giving all your attention to something:

She was so engrossed by/in the book that she forgot the cookies in the oven.
They were so engrossed in/with what they were doing that they didn't hear me come in.

140
immerseverb
UK /ɪˈmɜːs/ US /ɪˈmɝːs/

immerse yourself in sth

to become completely involved in something:

She got some books out of the library and immersed herself in Jewish history
and culture.

diminishverb [ I or T ]
UK /dɪˈmɪn.ɪʃ/ US /dɪˈmɪn.ɪʃ/

C1 to reduce or be reduced in size or importance:

I don't want to diminish her achievements, but she did have a lot of help.
What he did has seriously diminished him in many people's eyes.
We've seen our house diminish greatly/sharply/substantiallyin value over the last
six months.
Although widespread use of the traditional radio may diminish into the future, it is a
device that will never disappear completely.

slakeverb [ T ]
UK /sleɪk/ US /sleɪk/ LITERARY
to satisfy a feeling of being thirsty or of wanting something:
After our long game of tennis, we slaked our thirst with a beer.
I don't think Dick will ever manage to slake his lust/thirst for power.

141
representverb
UK /ˌrep.rɪˈzent/ US /ˌrep.rɪˈzent/

C2 [ T ] to speak, act, or be present officially for another person or people:

They chose a famous barrister to represent them in court.
Union officials representing the teachers met the government today.

C2 [ T ] to show or describe something or someone:

[ + -ing verb ] The statue represents St. George killing the dragon.
This new report represents the current situation in our schools.
He represents himself as an expert, but he knows nothing.
Secondly, a change can represent a break with the past and an old routine which has
become boring and predictable.
Climate change represents a major threat to life on Earth, but some people argue that
we need to accept it rather than try to stop it.

acknowledgeverb [ T ]
UK /əkˈnɒl.ɪdʒ/ US /əkˈnɑː.lɪdʒ/
C1 to accept, admit, or recognize something, or the truth or existence of
something:
She acknowledged having been at fault.
[ + -ing verb ]
[ + that ] She acknowledged that she had been at fault.
It has to be acknowledged that pupils who receive extra tuition are likely to succeed.
It is widely acknowledged that there has been a drastic increase in the number of
overweight people.
Historians generally acknowledge her as a genius in her field.
[ + obj + to infinitive ] She is usually acknowledged to be one of our best artists.

142
fragileadjective
UK /ˈfrædʒaɪl/ US /ˈfrædʒəl/
easily harmed, damaged, or broken:
The fragile economy is under the pressure of floods at home
and rising oil prices abroad.
The changes would be disastrous for the fragile recovery of the
UK's oil and gas industry.
Such a large volume of travellers every year can cause environmental problems to
fragile habitats and historical sites.

predicateverb [ T ]
UK /ˈpred.ɪ.keɪt/ US /ˈpred.ɪ.keɪt/ FORMAL

to say that something is true:

[ + that ] It would be unwise to predicate that the disease is caused by
a virus before further tests have been carried out.

be predicated on sth

If an idea or argument is predicated on something, it depends on the existence or

truth of this thing:
The sales forecast is predicated on the assumption that the economy will grow by
four percent.

This is predicated on the assumption that schooling is a transfer of knowledge from

teacher to learner, and should serve this function as such.

143
genuineadjective
UK /ˈdʒen.ju.ɪn/ US /ˈdʒen.ju.ɪn/

B2 If something is genuine, it is real and exactly what it appears to be:

genuine leather
If it is a genuine Michelangelo drawing, it will sell for millions.

C1 If people or emotions are genuine, they are honest and sincere:

He's a very genuine person.
While some people are attracted to the latest fashionable hobby, others choose their
pastimes for more genuine reasons.
It is my genuine belief that, if the so-called “unhealthy food” were not allowed in
shops, this would only compound many people’s struggle.

inadvertentadjective
UK /ˌɪn.ədˈvɜː.tənt/ US /ˌɪn.ədˈvɝː.t̬ ənt/
not intentional:
All authors need to be wary of inadvertent copying of other people's ideas.
Inadvertently: not intentionally:
He inadvertently deleted the file.

Finally, people driving expensive cars and wearing designer clothes and watches often
appear on the media and the internet, and this inadvertently encourages people to buy
these things to keep up with the fad of the day.

144
deliberatelyadverb
UK /dɪˈlɪb.ər.ət.li/ US /dɪˈlɪb.ɚ.ət.li/

B2 intentionally:
I'm sure he says these things deliberately to annoy me.
It is believed that the building was set on fire deliberately.

contemporary
UK /kənˈtem.pər.ər.i/ US /kənˈtem.pə.rer.i/ adjective
B2 existing or happening now:
contemporary music/literature/art/fashion
Some people believe that printed newspapers are no longer needed in our
contemporary society.
There are two distinct causes of this contemporary crisis, in our sedentary lifestyles and
our poor-quality diets.

noveltynoun
UK /ˈnɒv.əl.ti/ US /ˈnɑː.vəl.t̬ i/

C2 [ U ] the quality of being new and unusual:

The novelty of these toys soon wore off and the children became bored with them.
In Britain in the 1950s, television still had novelty value.
In turn, these prices may be the result of novelty or rarity value, or connected to
imaginary medicinal properties, for example in the illegal trade for bear and gorilla body
parts.

C2 [ C ] something that has not been experienced before and so is interesting:

Tourists are still a novelty on this remote island.
Many introverts are genuinely perplexed by the apparent need of others to constantly
search for novelty.

145
inappropriateadjective
UK /ˌɪn.əˈprəʊ.pri.ət/ US /ˌɪn.əˈproʊ.pri.ət/

C1 unsuitable:
His casual behaviour was wholly inappropriate for such a formal occasion.
I think it would be inappropriate (for you) to invite her to a party so soon after her
husband's death.
Finally, you need to be careful how you behave because if a video of inappropriate
behaviour was posted on social media, it could be detrimental to your career.

extinctadjective
UK /ɪkˈstɪŋkt/ US /ɪkˈstɪŋkt/
C1 not now existing:
Many tribes became extinct when they came into contact with Western illnesses.
A lot of trades have become extinct because of the development of technology.
In my observation, if certain keystone animals and plants went extinct, causing mass
extinctions, the costs of managing the resulting changes to the environment would be
substantial and far outweigh the amount of money going into preserving them.

exploitverb [T]
US /ɪkˈsplɔɪt/
to use something for your own benefit:
The two companies joined forces to exploit the potential of the Internet.

to use someone unfairly for your own advantage:

Factories here are coming under criticism for exploiting workers.
The first thing to highlight is that top sports-stars are role models to their supporters and
it is easy for them to exploit vulnerable followers.
This could be done by exploiting solar, wind and tidal power, all of which are unlimited
and clean sources of energy that are largely underdeveloped in lieu of trying to reduce
fuel consumption

146
tragicadjective
UK /ˈtrædʒ.ɪk/ US /ˈtrædʒ.ɪk/

B2 very sad, often involving death and suffering:

His friends were deeply shocked and saddened by the tragic news of his death.
The bomb explosion resulted in a tragic loss of life.
As a result, the number of tragic deaths in car crashes could be expected to drop.
Reporting tragic deaths caused by dangerous driving, or cases of cold-blooded
murderers, to name but a few, can equip the general public with much-needed
knowledge that can safeguard them against countless problems in life.
It is tragic that the theatre has had to close.

reversenoun
UK /rɪˈvɜːs/ US /rɪˈvɝːs/

the reverse

C2 the opposite of what has been suggested:

You might think that people who don't worry about their diet are fatter and
more unhealthy; in fact, the reverse is true.

Whatever official news broadcasts claimed, he believed the reverse.

progressivelyadverb
UK /prəˈɡres.ɪv.li/ US /prəˈɡres.ɪv.li/
gradually:
My eyesight has got progressively worse over the years.

147
culpritnoun [ C ]
UK /ˈkʌl.prɪt/ US /ˈkʌl.prɪt/

someone who has done something wrong:

Police hope the public will help them to find the culprits.

a fact or situation that is the reason for something bad happening:

Children in this country are getting much too fat, and sugar and sweets are
the main culprits.
The soaring rate of car owners as of late has been the main culprit for the increasingly
bad air quality.
Although it is arguably impossible to pinpoint a single cause for the recent rise in global
crime, the main culprits are thought to be poverty and political oppression.

perpetuateverb [ T ]
UK /pəˈpetʃ.u.eɪt/ US /pɚˈpetʃ.u.eɪt/ FORMAL

to cause something to continue:

Increasing the supply of weapons will only perpetuate the violence and anarchy.
The aim of the association is to perpetuate the skills of traditional furniture design.
The movie perpetuates stereotypes of small-town life.
Homework does have an important role to play in children’s schooling and should be
perpetuated.
However, this line of reasoning is not sound because it condones and perpetuates
unhealthy rivalry between people.

permanentadjective [ not gradable ]

US /ˈpɜr·mə·nənt/

lasting for a long time or forever:

Are you looking for a temporary job or something permanent?
He entered the United States in 1988 as a permanent resident with a green card.
It would leave a permanent scar on the landscape, ruining it for future generations, who
may not forgive our vandalism.

148
(adv) permanently
It is not uncommon to read reports of undereighteens locked in their bedrooms almost
permanently, unwilling to eat properly because of their gaming obsession.

stem from sth

— phrasal verb with stem UK /stem/ US /stem/ verb [ T ] -mm-

C1 to start or develop as the result of something:

Her problems stem from her difficult childhood.
Their disagreement stemmed from a misunderstanding.
Accidents stem from not only bad driving but also overgrown bushes, a lack of road
signs and subpar standards of roadways.
Only an extremely small number of convictions actually stem from monitoring people’s
private messages, compared to the overall population.

ariseverb [ I ]
UK /əˈraɪz/ US /əˈraɪz/ arose, arisen

C1 FORMAL to happen:
Should the opportunity arise, I'd love to go to China.
Could you work on Saturday, should the need arise (= if it were to be necessary)?
Are there any matters arising from (= caused by) the last meeting?
Problems arise when kids leave school.
When the opportunity arose, he decided to take it.
Although difficulties may arise if younger people feel they have few options or rights, a
culture containing a significant number of younger individuals will generally be happier,
healthier and more prosperous.
Various measures can be taken to tackle the problems that are certain to arise as the
populations of countries grow older.

149
deriveverb
UK /dɪˈraɪv/ US /dɪˈraɪv/

derive sth from sth

C1 to get something from something else:

Language is yet another avenue through which so much understanding can be derived.

She derives great pleasure/satisfaction from playing the violin.

Many people derive their self-worth from their work.

I didn't derive much benefit from school.
She derived great satisfaction from helping other people.
Pessimism leads people to worry about unreasonable things and feelings, causing them
to waste time and derive much less satisfaction from their work.

alternativenoun [ C ]
UK /ɒlˈtɜː.nə.tɪv/ US /ɑːlˈtɝː.nə.t̬ ɪv/
B2 something that is different from something else, especially from what is usual,
and offering the possibility of choice:
an alternative to coffee
There must be an alternative to people sleeping on the streets.
Cinema tickets can be horrendously expensive and parents in particular are reluctant to
spend on luxuries when there are cheaper alternatives.
Reliable alternatives to animal experimentation may not always be available.

150
alternativeadjective
UK /ɒlˈtɜː.nə.tɪv/ US /ɑːlˈtɝː.nə.t̬ ɪv/

B2 US ALSO alternate An alternative plan or method is one that you can use if you
do not want to use another one:
The opposition parties have so far failed to set out an alternative strategy.
An alternative venue for the concert is being sought.
They believe that the benefits to humans do not justify the suffering caused, and that
scientists should use alternative methods of research.

prospectiveadjective
UK /prəˈspek.tɪv/ US /prəˈspek.tɪv/

prospective buyers, employers, parents, etc.

C1 people who are expected to buy something, employ
someone, become parents, etc.:
We've had three sets of prospective buyers looking at the house.

Many prospective parents have jobs and busy schedules, and they may not be willing or
able to attend regular parenting classes.

The key function of advertising is to supply prospective customers with information

about all the alternatives available to them.

recreationaladjective
UK /ˌrek.riˈeɪ.ʃən.əl/ US /ˌrek.riˈeɪ.ʃən.əl/
C2 connected with ways of enjoying yourself when you are not working:
recreational activities/facilities/interests
Recreational fishing is allowed on the river.
They provide recreational opportunities for all age groups.
recreational use of the seashore
The region was transformed into a recreational and cultural resource.

151
evidentadjective
US /ˈev·ɪ·dənt/

easily seen or understood; obvious:

It quickly became evident that someone had broken in.
Her sophistication is evident from the way she dresses.
It became evident during the interview that he was not suitable for the job.

guidancenoun [ U ]
UK /ˈɡaɪ.dəns/ US /ˈɡaɪ.dəns/

B2 help and advice about how to do something or about how to deal with
problems connected with your work, education, or personal relationships:
I've always looked to my father for guidance in these matters.
careers guidance.
While adolescents are often indifferent to the guidance given by older people, I imagine
that most of them would be extremely keen to hear the stories of an ex-offender.
Teenagers who are bringing up children may not have all the skills required to raise
their children; guidance through training schemes may be beneficial.

relevantadjective
UK /ˈrel.ə.vənt/ US /ˈrel.ə.vənt/

B2 connected with what is happening or being discussed:

Education should be relevant to the child's needs.
Similarly, experts in pedagogy need to assess the course-books and websites used to
ensure that they are relevant and appropriate.
The point is highly relevant to this discussion.
I'm sorry but your personal wishes are not relevant (= important) in this case.

152
concentrateverb [ I or T ]
UK /ˈkɒns ntreɪt/ US
ə

to give all of your attention to one particular activity, subject, or problem:

concentrate on sth
The corporation is selling off its restaurant chain to concentrate on its core retailing
business.
concentrate on doing sth
The new firm will concentrate on managing money for institutional investors.
concentrate your efforts/attention/resources on sth
Many wine producers have concentrated their efforts on producing less wine, but of
a higher quality.

to bring or come together in a large number or amount in one particular area:

Most of the country’s population is concentrated in the cities.
For example, in big concentrated cities like Shanghai, there simply is not the space for
individuals to exercise safely.

boastverb
UK /bəʊst/ US /boʊst/

C2 [ T not continuous ] to have or own something to be proud of:

Ireland boasts beautiful beaches, great restaurants, and friendly locals.
Education quality is yet another benefit people who move to areas boasting higher
standards of living can reap.
Most large cities today boast numerous public transit options, available to residents for
a reasonable fee.
Today, select areas of the world boast well-established film industries.

153
exerciseverb
UK /ˈeksəsaɪz/ US

[ I or T ] to do physical activities to make your body strong and healthy:

This product is aimed at people who exercise on a regular basis.

[T] to use something such as a right or choice:

exercise a right/power/choice
The landlord may exercise his right to review the rent.
exercise power/control/influence (over sth)

prioritizeverb [ I or T ]
UK USUALLY prioritise UK /praɪˈɒr.ɪ.taɪz/ US /praɪˈɔːr.ə.taɪz/

to decide which of a group of things are the most important so that you
can deal with them first:
You must learn to prioritize your work.
The appearance and beauty of a city, although always desirable and worthy of pursuit,
should never be prioritized over the safety of its residents.
Parents need to prioritize more time for their teenage children, even if this means
reducing the number of hours they work

rolenoun [ C ]
UK /rəʊl/ US /roʊl/

B2 the position or purpose that someone or something has in

a situation, organization, society, or relationship:
What is his role in this project?
Schools play an important role in society.
The youth of a nation play a critical role in a country’s future.
The role artists play in modern society is an often-debated topic.

154
exposurenoun
UK /ɪkˈspəʊ.ʒər/ US /ɪkˈspoʊ.ʒɚ/
C1 [ C or U ] the fact of experiencing something or being affected by it because of
being in a particular situation or place:
You should always limit your exposure to the sun.
Even a brief exposure to radiation is very dangerous.
Similarly, any exposure to international literature is likely to require the teaching of a
foreign language or the use of translations.
Excessive exposure to advertising may trigger impulse buying.

requireverb [T]
UK /rɪˈkwaɪər/ US FORMAL
to make it officially necessary for someone do something:
require sb to do sth Health and safety regulations require
all staff to wear protective clothing.
require that The contract requires that we notify our sponsors of
all changes in project specification.
The company is required by law to make regular tax returns.

to need something:
This project will require massive investment.
The proposed new measures require approval by the board.

155
responsibilitynoun
UK /rɪˌspɒnsəˈbɪləti/ US

[ C or U ] something that it is your job or duty to deal with:

responsibility to do sth As a board member, I have a responsibility to ask questions.
responsibility towards sb We have a special responsibility towards our employees.
responsibility for sth She will now assume responsibility for the Logistics Division.
take/delegate/share responsibility

[U] blame for something that has happened:

responsibility for sth I accept responsibility for the problems.
The company denies responsibility for the disaster.

[ plural ] the things you are in charge of in your job:

Those who survive redundancy may feel compelled to take
on increasing responsibilities.

burdennoun [ C ]
UK /ˈbɜː.dən/ US /ˈbɝː.dən/

C1 something difficult or unpleasant that you have to deal with or worry about:
the burden of responsibility
My elderly mother worries that she's a burden to me.
Buying a house often places a large financial burden on young couples.
verb [ T ]
to trouble someone with something difficult or unpleasant:
I don't want to burden you with my problems.

156
offerverb [T]
UK /ˈɒfə / US
r

to ask someone if they would like to have something or if they would like you to
do something:
offer sb sth They offered me a key role on the project.
offer sb a job/promotion She was offered a job in Singapore but turned it down.
offer sb a chance/opportunity The cable provider offers advertisers
the chance to buy ads that run only in specific neighborhoods.
offer sth to sb The airline company offers cheap flights to airline staff.
offer to do sth Some grain dealers were offering to buy cash grain from farmers, but
only at a discount.

meritverb [ T ]
UK /ˈmer.ɪt/ US /ˈmer.ɪt/ FORMAL

C2 If something merits a particular treatment, it deserves or

is considered important enough to be treated in that way:
This plan merits careful attention.
The accident merited only a small paragraph in the local paper.

noun [ C or U ]

C1 FORMAL the quality of being good and deserving praise:

an entertaining film with little artistic merit
Her ideas have merit.
Brierley's book has the merit of being both informative and readable.

the merits of sth

the advantages something has compared to something else:
We discussed the merits of herbal tea.

157
practicenoun
UK /ˈpræk.tɪs/ US /ˈpræk.tɪs/

C2 [ C or U ] something that is usually or regularly done, often as a habit, tradition,

or custom:
What can European companies learn from Japanese business practices?
It's common practice in the States to tip the hairdresser.
This is a cruel practice that should be banned immediately.
What is standard practice (= what is usually done) in a situation like this?

climatenoun [ S or U ]
UK /ˈklaɪmət/ US

C2 the type of situation that exists at

a particular time, including the feelings and opinions that are common:
political/business/social climate Most companies favour a stable business climate
over such inducements as capital-expenditure grants and tax holidays.
in the current climate
I don't think we should expand our business in the current economic climate.
The organizational climate here is pleasant and non-threatening.

emphasisnoun [ C or U ]
UK /ˈem.fə.sɪs/ US /ˈem.fə.sɪs/PLURAL emphases UK/ˈem.fə.siːz/ US/ˈem.fə.siːz/

B2 the particular importance or attention that is given to something:

I think we should put as much emphasis on preventing disease as we do on curing it.
Schools here put/place/lay great emphasis on written work and grammar.
Korea, Japan and many other countries still place tremendous emphasis on the setting
of homework, and these countries are also ranked very high worldwide.
Finally, an emphasis on national literature and history gives educators a narrower
teaching scope, making curriculum design an easier task.

158
superioradjective
UK /suːˈpɪə.ri.ər/ US /səˈpɪr.i.ɚ/

C1 better than average or better than other people or things of the same type:
She was chosen for the job because she was the superior candidate.
For babies, breastfeeding is superior to bottle-feeding.
Well-rested employees have superior levels of concentration to their sleep-deprived
colleagues.

C1 a person or group of people who

are higher in rank or social position than others:
I will pass your complaint on to my superiors.

engage in sth— phrasal verb with engage verb

UK /ɪnˈɡeɪdʒ/ US /ɪnˈɡeɪdʒ/ formal
C2
to take part in something:
Students may not have the opportunity to engage face-to-face with their teachers, and
this could have a negative impact on peer support, discussion and exchange of ideas.

Parents need to encourage their children to go outside and play or to engage in a sport.

Students can avoid wasting time and are more likely to be successful in their careers if
they engage in some sort of employment as soon as they finish high school

159
shiftverb [ I/T ]
US /ʃɪft/

to change direction or move from one person, position, or place to another:

[T] He tried to shift the blame onto his sister.

If you shift your emphasis or attitude, you change it:

[T] Our attention has shifted from baseball to the election.

to change an opinion, idea, etc.:

shift focus/emphasis/attention
shift (sth) away from sth They have shifted the emphasis of the business away
from traditional manufacturing.
shift (sth) towards sth The company has shifted towards a
more flexible marketing mix.

a movement or change in something:

a shift in sth There's been a major shift in strategy.
a shift away from/towards sth The shift towards specialisation favours smaller firms.

revolutionizeverb [T]
UK ALSO revolutionise UK /ˌrevəlˈuːʃənaɪz/ US

to make a big change or improvement to the way something works or looks, or to

the way that people do a particular activity:
Electronic cash systems have revolutionized the way that people around
the world pay for goods and services.
revolutionize an industry/business/workplace The company has invested $200
million, in a move aimed at revolutionizing the electric car industry.

160
treatverb [T]
UK /triːt/ US

to behave towards or think of someone or something in a particular way:

treat sb/sth as sth We must treat employees as allies in achieving change.
treat sb/sth equally/fairly/unfairly It very hard to prove that the company had been
treated unfairly.
treat sb/sth like sth The company treated their initial public offering more like
a marketing opportunity than a capital-raising exercise.

appreciateverb
UK /əˈpriː.ʃi.eɪt/ US /əˈpriː.ʃi.eɪt/

B2 to recognize how good someone or something is and to value him, her, or it:
There's no point buying him expensive wines - he doesn't appreciate them.

C2 [ T ] to understand a situation and realize that it is important:

We appreciate the need for immediate action.
[ + that ] I appreciate that it's a difficult decision for you to make.
[ + question word ] I don't think you appreciate how much time I spent preparing this meal.

[I] to increase in value:

The value of our house has appreciated by 50 percent in the last two years.
Our house has appreciated (in value) by 50 percent in the last two years.

161
accessibleadjective
UK /əkˈsesəbl/ US

able to be easily got or used:

be accessible to sb The website is accessible to all users.

able to be reached or entered:

The studios are fully accessible to people with disabilities.
Our building is wheelchair accessible.
to be accessible by car/road/public transport

easy to understand:
The material is accessible and does not require specialist knowledge.

accessibilitynoun [U]
UK /əkˌsesəˈbɪləti/ US

the ability to get something easily:

We aim to improve the accessibility of our service to young people.
Features have been added to enhance the accessibility of the website.
Two new roads are being built to increase accessibility to the town centre.

the ability to reach or enter a place or building:

The new offices provide better accessibility for wheelchairs.

the fact of a person being willing to see people and of being friendly and easy
to talk to:
He is known for his accessibility and personal involvement in the day-to-day running of
the business.

162
identitynoun [ C or U ]
UK /aɪˈden.tə.ti/ US /aɪˈden.t̬ ə.t̬ i/

B2 who a person is, or the qualities of a person or group that make them different
from others:
In prison people often suffer from a loss of identity.
I think my job gives me a sense of identity.
These communities had a strong sense of identity, due to their shared customs and
beliefs.

pacenoun [ C or U ]
UK /peɪs/ US
the speed at which something happens or is done:
a fast/rapid pace
a slow/leisurely/sustainable pace
Their economy is expanding at an increasing pace.
They are struggling to keep up with the pace of change in the industry.

force the pace

to make things happen more quickly or to force other people to do things more
quickly:
New technologies are forcing the pace of globalization.

stintnoun [C]
US /stɪnt/

a period of time spent doing a particular job or activity:

He took up boxing during his stint in the army.
As a teenager I had a brief stint working at McDonal’s.

163
foraynoun [ C ]
UK /ˈfɒr.eɪ/ US /ˈfɔːr.eɪ/
a short period of time being involved in an activity that is different from
and outside the range of a usual set of activities:
She made a brief foray into acting before becoming a teacher.
Thus, it is understandable why many do not support their country’s foray into
international sporting.

correlationnoun [ C or U ]
UK /ˌkɒr.əˈleɪ.ʃən/ US /ˌkɔːr.əˈleɪ.ʃən/
a connection or relationship between two or more facts, numbers, etc.:
There's a correlation between smoking and cancer.
It is believed that there is a correlation between the increased consumption of these so-
called unhealthy food and drinks and the increased rates of people suffering from self-
preventable diseases caused by overeating such as obesity and diabetes.

adolescentnoun [ C ]
UK /ˌæd.əˈles.ənt/ US /ˌæd.əˈles.ənt/
C2 a young person who is developing into an adult
Adolescents should be required to engage in voluntary work in their free time.
Adolescents should be required to engage in volunteer community work in their free
time.

walks of life
various levels of social position or achievement:
In my work I see people from all walks of life.
Young people should be taught to respect people from other walks of life.

164
beneficialadjective
UK /ˌben.ɪˈfɪʃ.əl/ US /ˌben.əˈfɪʃ.əl/
B2 helpful, useful, or good:
The improvement in sales figures had a beneficial effect/influence on the company as
a whole.
A stay in the country will be beneficial to his health.
The psychiatric team decided that it would not be beneficial to keep her in hospital.
Breast-feeding is extremely beneficial to the health of newborn babies.
From our point of view, we do not see how these changes will be beneficial to
the company.

reap the benefit, reward, etc.

C2 to get something good as a result of your own actions:
She studied every evening and reaped
the benefit at exam time.
We sold them most of their modern weapons and now we are reaping the bitter harvest.

disposalnoun [ U ]
UK /dɪˈspəʊ.zəl/ US /dɪˈspoʊ.zəl/

B2 the act of getting rid of something, especially by throwing it away:

waste disposal
the disposal of hazardous substances

at sb's disposal B2 FORMAL

available to be used by someone:
I would take you if I could, but I don't have a car at my disposal this week.

Having sold the house she had a large sum of money at her disposal (= to spend as
she wanted).

165
upskillverb [ I or T ]
UK /ʌpˈskɪl/ US /ʌpˈskɪl/

to learn new skills or to teach workers new skills:

The program is aimed at people working in IT who want to upskill.
We are upskilling the team.

externaladjective
UK /ɪkˈstɜːnəl/ US

coming from outside a company, organization, or country:

an external applicant/candidate
external developments/events/forces A number of
external developments help to explain why the country's economy under-
performed compared to others.
External demand for the products of industrial countries may decline in the longer term.

internaladjective
UK /ɪnˈtɜː.nəl/ US /ɪnˈtɝː.nəl/

B2 inside the body:

He sustained injuries to his arms, legs, and several internal organs.

inside a person's mind:

The internal struggle with his conscience continued.
She didn't want to be left alone with her dark internal thoughts.

166
spherenoun [ C ]
UK /sfɪər/ US /sfɪr/
C1 a subject or area of knowledge, work, etc.:
the political/ educational sphere
exchanges with other countries, particularly in cultural, scientific, and economic spheres

an area in which the power or interests of a country or an organization are

of greatest importance

Many international developments are outside of a government’s sphere of influence.

crisisnoun [ C or U ]
UK /ˈkraɪsɪs/ US PLURAL crises /ˈkraɪsiːz/

a situation that is extremely difficult or dangerous, when there are

many problems:
a major/serious/global crisis
an economic/financial/political crisis
a looming/impending/growing crisis This matter needs to be discussed, in the light of
the looming pensions crisis.
cause/create a crisis The ban, fortunately, did not create a crisis in the dairy industry.
face a crisis The industry is facing a serious staffing crisis.
a crisis arises/occurs/deepens This article examines how the debt crisis arose,
address/resolve/solve a crisis A mediator has been called in to resolve the crisis.
The country's leadership is in crisis.

167
lossnoun
UK /lɒs/ US

[ C or U ] a situation in which you no longer have something or have less of

something, or the process that causes this:
The loss of jobs in the convenience food industry seems inevitable.
loss of earnings/income/pay She received compensation for loss of earnings through
the illness.
a loss in sth The new road will cause losses in economic value to
many local properties.

C2 [ S ] a disadvantage caused by someone leaving or by something being taken

away:
It would be a great loss to the department if you left.

authoritynoun
UK /ɔːˈθɒr.ə.ti/ US /əˈθɔːr.ə.t̬ i/

C1 [ C ] a group of people with official responsibility for a particular area of activity:

the health authority
the local housing authority

the authorities [ plural ]

the group of people with official legal power to make decisions or

make people obey the laws in a particular area, such as the police or
a local government department:
I'm going to report these potholes to the authorities.

C2 [ C ] an expert on a subject:
She's a world authority on 19th-century Irish history.
Today's speaker is one of the nation's leading authorities on fund-raising for non-profit
groups.

168
manifestverb [ T ]
UK /ˈmæn.ɪ.fest/ US /ˈmæn.ə.fest/ FORMAL
to show something clearly, through signs or actions:
The workers chose to manifest their dissatisfaction in a series of strikes.
The illness first manifested itself in/as severe stomach pains.
Lack of confidence in the company manifested itself in a fall in the share price.

adjective
easily noticed or obvious:
His manifest joy in music is evident as soon as he starts to speak.
manifest relief
manifest lack of interest

productivitynoun [U]
US /ˌproʊ·dʌkˈtɪv·ɪ·t̬ i, ˌprɑd·ək-/
the rate at which a person, company, or country does useful work:
A pleasant working environment increases productivity.
productivity increases/improves/goes up Studies show that if
a working environment is pleasant, productivity increases.
increase/improve/boost productivity
an increase/decrease/fall in productivity

phenomenonnoun [ C ]
UK /fəˈnɒm.ɪ.nən/ US /fəˈnɑː.mə.nɑːn/ PLURAL phenomena UK /-ə/ US
C1 something that exists and can be seen, felt, tasted,
etc., especially something unusual or interesting:
Gravity is a natural phenomenon.
Do you believe in the paranormal and other psychic phenomena?
There's evidence to suggest that child abuse is not just a recent phenomenon.

169
enjoyverb [ T ]
UK /ɪnˈdʒɔɪ/ US /ɪnˈdʒɔɪ/

C2 to have something good or lucky:

Even though he's 86, he enjoys excellent health.

exorbitantadjective
UK /ɪɡˈzɔː.bɪ.tənt/ US /ɪɡˈzːɔr.bə.t̬ ənt/

Exorbitant prices, demands, etc. are much too large:

The bill for dinner was exorbitant.
The hotel charges were exorbitant.

stunningadjective
UK /ˈstʌn.ɪŋ/ US /ˈstʌn.ɪŋ/

B2 extremely beautiful or attractive:

a stunning dress
a stunning view over the bay of Saint Tropez

unpopularadjective
UK /ʌnˈpɒp.jə.lər/ US /ʌnˈpɑː.pjə.lɚ/

B2 not liked by many people:

Night flights from the airport are unpopular.
The president is becoming increasingly unpopular.

170
forenoun
UK /fɔːr/ US /fɔːr/

to the fore

to public attention or into a noticeable position:

Various ecological issues have come to the fore since the discovery of the hole in the
earth's ozone layer.

embraceverb
UK /ɪmˈbreɪs/ US /ɪmˈbreɪs/

C1 [ T ] FORMAL to accept something enthusiastically:

This was an opportunity that he would embrace.
We are always eager to embrace the latest technology.
Corporate America quickly embraced the Web as a new vehicle for advertising.
We can choose to embrace change or try to avoid it.
Households should embrace green energy in domestic activities and transportation.

shapeverb [ T ]
UK /ʃeɪp/ US /ʃeɪp/

C2 to decide or influence the form of something, especially a belief or idea, or

someone's character:
Many people are not able to shape their own destinies.
My relationship with my father played a major part in shaping my attitude towards men.
He was very influential in shaping the country's economic policy/strategy.

171
pursuitnoun
UK /pəˈsjuːt/ US /pɚˈsuːt/

[ C usually plural ] an activity that you spend time doing, usually when you are
not working:
I enjoy outdoor pursuits, like hiking and riding.
I don't have much opportunity for leisure pursuits these days.

C2 [ U ] the act of trying to achieve a plan, activity, or situation, usually over

a long period of time:
the pursuit of happiness/ knowledge
The company is ruthless in its pursuit of profit.

depictverb [ T ]
UK /dɪˈpɪkt/ US /dɪˈpɪkt/

C2 to represent or show something in a picture or story:

Her paintings depict the lives of ordinary people in the last century.
In the book, he depicts his father as a tyrant.
[ + -ing verb ] People were shocked by the advertisement which depicted a
woman beating her husband.

proponentnoun [C]
US /prəˈpoʊ·nənt/

a person who supports an idea, plan, or cause; advocate.

Long a proponent of government health insurance, he pointed out that millions
of Americans have no health insurance at all.

serveverb
172
UK /sɜːv/ US /sɝːv/
C1 [ I or T ] to help achieve something or to be useful as something:

An official investigation would not serve any useful purpose.

The judge said that the fine would serve as a warning to other drivers.
In the absence of anything better the settee could serve as a bed for a couple of nights.
[ + to infinitive ] Nothing serves to explain the violent fighting we have seen recently.

173
broadenverb
UK /ˈbrɔː.dən/ US /ˈbrɑː.dən/
C1 [ T ] to increase the range of something:

They've introduced all sorts of new elements to that programme in order to

broaden its appeal.
I hoped that going to college might broaden my horizons (= increase the range of
my knowledge and experience).

broaden the/your mind

to make someone understand more and know more about

different subjects, ideas, places, etc.:
They say that travel broadens the mind.

The Internet can give children opportunities to broaden their minds.

undertakeverb [ T ]
UK /ˌʌn.dəˈteɪk/ US /ˌʌn.dɚˈteɪk/undertook, undertaken

C1 FORMAL to do or begin to do something, especially something that will take

a long time or be difficult:
Students are required to undertake simple experiments.

C2 FORMAL to promise that you will do something:

She undertook not to publish the names of the people involved.
[ + to infinitive ]
[ + that ] The government undertook that the buildings would not be redeveloped.

174
drasticadjective
UK /ˈdræs.tɪk/ US /ˈdræs.tɪk/

C1 (especially of actions) severe and sudden or having very noticeable effects:

drastic measures
Many employees have had to take drastic cuts in pay.
(of a change) severe and sudden; extreme:
In the desert there’s a drastic change in temperature from day to night.

cater for sb/sth

MAINLY UK US USUALLY cater to sb/sth
— phrasal verb with cater UK /ˈkeɪ.tər/ US /ˈkeɪ.t̬ ɚ/ verb [ I or T ]

C1 to provide what is wanted or needed by someone or something:

The club caters for children between the ages of four and twelve.
Schools often fail to cater for the needs of gifted children.
It is a resort that clearly caters for the well-off.
This section of the bookstore caters for minority interests.

equateverb [ T always + adv/prep ]

US /ɪˈkweɪt/

to consider as the same, or to connect in your mind:

People sometimes equate money with happiness.

forcenoun
UK /fɔːs/ US /fɔːrs/

combine/join forces

175
C2 to work with someone else in order to achieve something that you both want
In the light of rapid environmental degradation, many people believe that countries need
to join forces to preserve the environment.

collectiveadjective [ before noun ]

UK /kəˈlek.tɪv/ US /kəˈlek.tɪv/
of or shared by every member of a group of people:
a collective decision/effort
collective responsibility/leadership

176
manipulateverb [ T ]
UK /məˈnɪp.jə.leɪt/ US /məˈnɪp.jə.leɪt/

MAINLY DISAPPROVING to control something or someone to your advantage,

often unfairly or dishonestly:
Throughout her career she has very successfully manipulated the media.
The opposition leader accused government ministers of manipulating
the statistics to suit themselves.
Because many of these advertisements successfully manipulate the viewer’s lifestyle
and opinions, I feel their influence is profound.

criticizeverb
UK USUALLY criticise UK /ˈkrɪt.ɪ.saɪz/ US /ˈkrɪt̬ .ɪ.saɪz/
B2 [ I, T often passive ] to express disapproval of someone or something:
The government is being widely criticized in the media for failing to limit air pollution.
We'll get nowhere if all you can do is criticize.
Education should never be about indoctrinating children to believe certain sets of beliefs
and ideas, but educating them to be individual thinkers who can criticize and challenge
the values and traditions of society.

bondverb [ I or T ]
UK /bɒnd/ US /bɑːnd/

C2 to develop a close connection or strong relationship with someone, or to make

someone do this:
The aim was to bond the group into a closely knit team.
The hospital gives mothers no quiet private time in which to bond with their babies.
At the same time, they create strong emotional bonds with their classmates and others
of a similar age.

177
subparadjective
ALSO sub-par UK /ˌsʌbˈpɑːr/ US

used to describe something that is below average, or below what is expected:

The economy posted sub-par annual growth of less than 2% for four straight quarters.
Does he deserve such a generous retirement package, considering the
company's subpar performance?
The new chairman is attempting to revamp operations after years of subpar results at
the company.
This is because accidents not only stem from bad driving but also subpar standards of
roadways.

contaminateverb [ T ]
UK /kənˈtæm.ɪ.neɪt/ US /kənˈtæm.ə.neɪt/

to make something less pure or make it poisonous:

Much of the coast has been contaminated by nuclear waste.
The food which had been contaminated was destroyed.

enableverb [ T ]
UK /ɪˈneɪ.bəl/ US /ɪˈneɪ.bəl/

B2 to make someone able to do something, or to make something possible:

[ + to infinitive ] Computerization should enable us to cut production costs by half.

178
neglectverb [ T ]
UK /nɪˈɡlekt/ US /nɪˈɡlekt/
C1 to not give enough care or attention to people or things that
are your responsibility:
to neglect your appearance/the house
He neglects that poor dog - he never takes him for walks or gives him any attention.
She's been neglecting her studies this semester.
He rather neglected his children in favour of his career.
She's been neglecting the housework.
The government is neglecting its duty to protect the vulnerable.

neglect to do sth
C2 to not do something, often because you forget:
I'd neglected to give him the name of the hotel where I'd be staying.

He neglected to mention the fact that we could lose money on the deal.

quality of lifenoun [ U ]
US/ˈkwɑl·ɪ·t̬ i əv ˈlɑɪf/

the level of satisfaction and comfort that a person or group enjoys:

Our quality of life improved tremendously oncewe finished paying for our kid’s college
education.

way of life
B1 the manner in which a person lives:
Sleeping in doorways, begging for food and money - it's not an enviable way of life.
She loved travel, meeting people from other cultures and finding out about their way
of life.

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erraticadjective
UK /ɪˈrætɪk/ US

something that is erratic is not regular, certain, or organized in its movement or

behaviour:
The erratic behaviour of the stock market is making investors nervous.
an erratic schedule
She can be very erratic; one day she is friendly and the next she'll hardly speak to you.

adjacentadjective
UK /əˈdʒeɪ.sənt/ US /əˈdʒeɪ.sənt/ FORMAL

C2 very near, next to, or touching:

They work in adjacent buildings.
They lived in a house adjacent to the railway.

embodimentnoun
UK /ɪmˈbɒd.i.mənt/ US /ɪmˈbɑː.di.mənt/
the embodiment of sth

someone or something that represents a quality or an idea exactly:

He was the embodiment of the English gentleman.

She was portrayed in the papers as the embodiment of evil.

thinkverb
UK /θɪŋk/ US /θɪŋk/thought, thought

think long and hard ALSO think twice

C1 to think very carefully about something:

Think long and hard before you make any important decisions.

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I know it's exciting, but you should think twice before you spend that much money on
a vacation.

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mirrornoun
UK /ˈmɪr.ər/ US /ˈmɪr.ɚ/

be a mirror of sth

to represent or show something honestly:

The movie is a mirror of daily life in wartime Britain.

verb [ T ]
to represent something honestly:
Our newspaper aims to mirror the opinions of ordinary people.

to be very similar to something:

Her on-screen romances seem to mirror her experiences in her private life.

frivolousadjective
US /ˈfrɪv·ə·ləs/

(of people) behaving in a silly and foolish way, or (of activities or objects) silly or
unimportant:
I’m very frivolous – I just like to have fun.
With our justice system there are a lot of frivolous cases that go to court.

mediumnoun [ C ]
UK /ˈmiː.di.əm/ US /ˈmiː.di.əm/
C2 PLURAL media or mediums a method or way of expressing something:
the broadcasting/print medium
They told the story through the medium of dance.

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stigmanoun
UK /ˈstɪɡ.mə/ US /ˈstɪɡ.mə/
[ C usually singular, U ] a strong feeling of disapproval that most people in
a society have about something, especially when this is unfair:
There is no longer any stigma to being divorced.
Being an unmarried mother no longer carries the social stigma that it used to.
There’s a stigma associated with low-income food programs.

infuseverb
UK /ɪnˈfjuːz/ US /ɪnˈfjuːz/
[ T + prep ] to fill someone or something with an emotion or quality:

The pulling down of the Berlin Wall infused the world with optimism.
The arrival of a group of friends on Saturday infused new life into the weekend.

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