Coastal and Harbour Engineering

IHD4011

Hand outs

Fall 2023
 Table of Contents

1 Waves ...................................................................................................... 1-1

1.1 Small Amplitude Wave Theory ....................................................................... 1-1

1.2 Short Term Wave Analysis .............................................................................. 1-5

1.3 Long Term Wave Analysis............................................................................... 1-5

1.4 Wave Generation .............................................................................................. 1-6

1.5 Wave Refraction and Shoaling ........................................................................ 1-6

1.6 Wave Breaking.................................................................................................. 1-6

1.7 Wave Diffraction............................................................................................... 1-7

2 Water Level Variations ......................................................................... 2-1

2.1 Astronomic Tides .............................................................................................. 2-1

2.2 Storm Surge....................................................................................................... 2-1

2.3 Seiche ................................................................................................................. 2-1

3 Currents in the Marine Environment ................................................. 3-1

3.1 Longshore currents........................................................................................... 3-1

4 Nearshore Sediment Transport............................................................ 4-1

4.1 Longshore Sediment Transport ...................................................................... 4-1

5 Rubble Mound Breakwaters ................................................................ 5-1

5.1 Design of Armour Layer ................................................................................. 5-1

5.2 Design of Secondary Layer .............................................................................. 5-2

5.3 Wave Run-Up .................................................................................................... 5-3

5.4 Overtopping Discharge: ................................................................................... 5-3

5.5 Design of Crest level and width ....................................................................... 5-3

6 Vertical Breakwaters ............................................................................ 6-1

6.1 Wave load by Non-breaking- Sainflou’s formula (H<0.78 d)...................... 6-1
 6.2 Wave load at Breaking waves Minikin's Method (H =0.78d) ....................... 6-2

6.3 Forces by broken waves on seaward structure According to CERC........... 6-3

7 Berths ...................................................................................................... 7-1

7.1 Mooring Forces: ................................................................................................ 7-1

7.2 Berthing Forces (Kinetic / Theoretical approach): ....................................... 7-2

7.3 Cases of loading ................................................................................................ 7-4

 1 Waves

1.1 Small Amplitude Wave Theory

Crest
L
z

x a=H/2
η H
SWL

Trough
z = -d

Fig. 1.1: Sinusoidal Wave and Wave Parameters

a amplitude of the wave,

t time,
k wave number
σ angular wave frequency
L wave length
T wave period
c wave celerity (L/T)
ρ fluid density

2π 2π
k= ; σ= (1.1)
L T

1-1
 Waves

Table 1.1: Common Expressions for Linear Progressive Waves

Deep Shallow
Parameter General
(d/L > 0.5) (d/L < 0.04)
H
1. Water Surface η= cos θ ; θ =(kx- σ t)
2
gT gL gT
2. Celerity C= tanh kd = tanh kd Co = C = gd
2π 2π 2π
2 2
gT gT
3. Wave Length L = CT = tanh kd Lo = L = CT
2π 2π
π H cosh k(z+ d)
4. Horizontal u= cosθ π Ho H g
ek o cosθ cosθ
z
Orbital Velocity T sinh kd uo = u=
T 2 d

π H sinh k(z+ d) π Ho π H z
5. Vertical w= sinθ wo = ek o sinθ
z
w= 1 +  sin θ
Orbital Velocity T sinh kd T T  d

6. Horizontal H cosh k (z+ d) HT g

A= Ho k oz A=
Semi- Axis Ao = e 4π d
2 sinh kd 2

7. Vertical Semi- H sinh k (z+ d) H z

B= B= 1 + 
Axis 2 sinh kd Bo = A o 2 d

p
8. Pressure = - z+ K p η
ρg

9. Pressure
coshk (z+ d)
Kp = K p = ek o
z
Kp = 1
Response Factor cosh kd
1
10. Energy E= ρgH 2
Density 8

11. Group CG = n C (C G )o = C o CG = C
Velocity 2

12. Group 1 2 kd  1
Velocity n= 1 +  no = n =1
2  sinh 2 kd  2
Parameter

13. Wave Power P = ECG EC o

Po = P = EC
2

IHD4011-2023 1-2
 Waves

Table 1.2: Wave Table

d tanh kd d kd sinh kd cosh kd 2 kd Ks

L0 L sinh 2 kd

0.000 0.000 0.0000 0.000 0.000 1.00 1.000 ∞

002 112 0179 112 113 01 0.992 2.12
004 158 0253 159 160 01 983 1.79
006 193 0311 195 197 02 975 62
008 222 0360 226 228 03 967 51

0.010 0.248 0.0403 0.253 0.256 1.03 0.958 1.43

015 302 0496 312 317 05 938 31
020 347 0576 362 370 07 918 23
025 386 0648 407 418 08 898 17

0.030 0.420 0.0713 0.448 0.463 1.10 0.878 1.13

035 452 0775 487 506 12 858 09
040 480 0833 523 548 14 838 06
045 507 0888 558 588 16 819 04

0.050 0.531 0.0942 0.592 0.627 1.18 0.800 1.02

055 554 0993 624 665 20 781 1.01
060 575 104 655 703 22 762 0.993
065 595 109 686 741 24 744 981
070 614 114 716 779 27 725 971

0.075 0.632 0.119 0.745 0.816 1.29 0.707 0.962

080 649 123 774 854 31 690 955
085 665 128 803 892 34 672 948
090 681 132 831 929 37 655 942
095 695 137 858 0.968 39 637 937

0.10 0.709 0.141 0.886 1.01 1.42 0.620 0.933

11 735 150 940 08 48 587 926
12 759 158 0.994 17 54 555 920
13 780 167 1.05 25 60 524 917
14 800 175 10 33 67 494 915

0.15 0.818 0.183 1.15 1.42 1.74 0.465 0.913

16 835 192 20 52 82 437 913
17 850 200 26 61 90 410 913
18 864 208 31 72 1.99 384 914
19 877 217 36 82 2.08 359 916

IHD4011-2023 1-3
 Waves

d tanh kd d kd sinh kd cosh kd 2 kd Ks

L0 L sinh 2 kd

0.20 0.888 0.225 1.41 1.94 2.18 0.335 0.918

21 899 234 47 2.05 28 313 920
22 909 242 52 18 40 291 923
23 918 251 57 31 52 271 926
24 926 259 63 45 65 251 929

0.25 0.933 0.268 1.68 2.60 2.78 0.233 0.932

26 940 277 74 75 2.93 215 936
27 946 285 79 2.92 3.09 199 939
28 952 294 85 3.10 25 183 942
29 957 303 90 28 43 169 946

0.30 0.961 0.312 1.96 3.48 3.62 0.155 0.949

31 965 321 2.02 69 3.83 143 952
32 969 330 08 3.92 4.05 131 955
33 972 339 13 4.16 28 120 958
34 975 349 19 41 53 110 961

0.35 0.978 0.358 2.25 4.68 4.79 0.100 0.964

36 980 367 31 4.97 5.07 091 967
37 983 377 37 5.28 37 083 969
38 984 386 43 61 5.70 076 972
39 986 395 48 5.96 6.04 069 974

0.40 0.988 0.405 2.54 6.33 6.41 0.063 0.976

41 989 415 60 6.72 6.80 057 978
42 990 424 66 7.15 7.22 052 980
43 991 434 73 7.60 7.66 047 982
44 992 443 79 8.07 8.14 042 983

0.45 0.993 0.453 2.85 8.59 8.64 0.038 0.985

46 994 463 91 9.13 9.18 035 986
47 995 472 2.97 9.71 9.76 031 987
48 995 482 3.03 10.3 10.4 028 988
49 996 492 09 11.0 11.0 026 990
0.50 0.996 0.502 3.15 11.7 11.7 0.023 0.990
∞ 1.000 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 0.000 1.000

IHD4011-2023 1-4
 Waves

1.2 Short Term Wave Analysis

The Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of wave heights based on the Rayleigh
distribution can be written as,

H   π  H 2 
P   = exp −    (1. 2)
H   4  H  
Using the Rayleigh distribution the following relationships can be derived:

H 0.1 = 1.27 H s H 0.01 = 1.67 H s

(1. 3)
H = 0.63 H s H rms = 0.707 H s

0.8 p
Probability

P
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
H/H

Fig. 1.2: Rayleigh distribution

1.3 Long Term Wave Analysis

Probability that the wave height will exceed H based on the Weibull distribution Q is,
α
  H −γ  
Q = exp −    (1. 4)
  β  

Linearized form is,

1
  1  α
1 γ
ln  = H− (1. 5)
  Q  β β
To extrapolate for a certain return period TR

H TR = γ + β [ln (λTR ) ]
1/ α
(1. 6)

λ is the average number of POT per year

IHD4011-2023 1-5
 Waves

1.4 Wave Generation

Waves are a response to wind speed (U), Fetch (F), Storm duration (t). The Jonswap
method of wave hindcasting uses the following dimensionless expressions.

gF gH mo * gT p gt
*
F = 2
, H mo* = 2
, Tp = , t* = (1. 7)
U U U U
Where Hmo is characteristic wave height (same as significant), Tp is the peak period of the
spectrum. Note that F and H are in metres, t and T are in seconds and U is in m/sec. The
Jonswap relationships are:
1 1 2
*
H mo = 0.0016 ( F * ) 2 ; T p* = 0.286 ( F * ) 3 ; t * = 68.8 ( F * ) 3 (1. 8)

For fully developed sea exists,

* * *
H mo = 0.2433 ; T p = 8.134 ; t = 71,500 (1. 9)

1.5 Wave Refraction and Shoaling

H = Ks Kr Ho (1. 10)

Where the shoaling coefficient Ks can be calculated from,

noCo 1
Ks = = (1. 11)
nC 2n tanh kd
The refraction coefficient Kr is calculated from,

bo
Kr = (1. 12)
b
For straight and parallel contours Snell’s law can be used for the wave direction α,

sin α sin α o
= (1. 13)
C Co
Equation (1.14) can also be simplified to be,

cos α o
Kr = (1. 14)
cos α

1.6 Wave Breaking

Solitary criterion for shallow water,

Hb
γb = = 0.78 (1. 15)
db
Where γb is the breaker index.

IHD4011-2023 1-6
 Waves

1.7 Wave Diffraction

Table 1.3: Diffraction coefficients, for semi-infinite breakwater: function of incident wave angle θo, r/L and θ, (Wiegel, 1962)
Value Value of θ
of r/L 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
ο
θ0 = 15
½ 0.49 0.79 0.83 0.90 0.97 1.01 1.03 1.02 1.01 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.00
1 0.38 0.73 0.83 0.95 1.04 1.04 0.99 0.98 1.01 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 0.21 0.68 0.86 1.05 1.03 0.97 1.02 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
5 0.13 0.63 0.99 1.04 1.03 1.02 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00
10 0.35 0.58 1.10 1.05 0.98 0.99 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
θ0 = 30ο
½ 0.61 0.63 0.68 0.76 0.87 0.97 1.03 1.05 1.03 1.01 0.99 0.95 1.00
1 0.50 0.53 0.63 0.78 0.95 1.06 1.05 0.98 0.98 1.01 1.01 0.97 1.00
2 0.40 0.44 0.59 0.84 1.07 1.03 0.96 1.02 0.98 1.01 0.99 0.95 1.00
5 0.27 0.32 0.55 1.00 1.04 1.04 1.02 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.01 0.97 1.00
10 0.20 0.24 0.54 1.12 1.06 0.97 0.99 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.98 1.00
θ0 = 45ο
½ 0.49 0.50 0.55 0.63 0.73 0.85 0.96 1.04 1.06 1.04 1.00 0.99 1.00
1 0.38 0.40 0.47 0.59 0.76 0.95 1.07 1.06 0.98 0.97 1.01 1.01 1.00
2 0.29 0.31 0.39 0.56 0.83 1.08 1.04 0.96 1.03 0.98 1.01 1.00 1.00
5 0.18 0.20 0.29 0.54 1.01 1.04 1.05 1.03 1.00 0.99 1.01 1.00 1.00
10 0.13 0.15 0.22 0.53 1.13 1.07 0.96 0.98 1.02 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00
θ0 = 60ο
½ 0.40 0.41 0.45 0.52 0.60 0.72 0.85 1.13 1.04 1.06 1.03 1.01 1.00
1 0.31 0.32 0.36 0.44 0.57 0.75 0.96 1.08 1.06 0.98 0.98 1.01 1.00
2 0.22 0.23 0.28 0.37 0.55 0.83 1.08 1.04 0.96 1.03 0.98 1.01 1.00
5 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.28 0.53 1.01 1.04 1.05 1.03 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.00
10 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.21 0.52 1.14 1.07 0.96 0.98 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00
θ0 = 75ο
½ 0.34 0.35 0.38 0.42 0.50 0.59 0.71 0.85 0.97 1.04 1.05 1.02 1.00
1 0.25 0.26 0.29 0.34 0.43 0.56 0.75 0.95 1.02 1.06 0.98 0.98 1.00
2 0.18 0.19 0.22 0.26 0.36 0.54 0.83 1.09 1.04 0.96 1.03 0.99 1.00
5 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.17 0.27 0.52 1.01 1.04 1.05 1.03 0.99 0.99 1.00

IHD4011-2023 1-7
 Waves

Value Value of θ
of r/L 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
10 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.20 0.52 1.14 1.07 0.96 0.98 1.01 1.00 1.00
θ0 = 90ο
½ 0.31 0.31 0.33 0.36 0.41 0.49 0.59 0.71 0.85 0.96 1.03 1.03 1.00
1 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.28 0.33 0.42 0.56 0.75 0.96 1.07 1.05 0.99 1.00
2 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.26 0.35 0.54 0.69 1.08 1.04 0.96 1.02 1.00
5 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.27 0.53 1.01 1.04 1.05 1.02 0.99 1.00
10 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.13 0.20 0.52 1.14 1.07 0.96 0.99 1.01 1.00
θ0 = 105ο
½ 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.41 0.49 0.59 0.72 0.85 0.97 1.01 1.00
1 0.20 0.20 0.24 0.23 0.27 0.33 0.42 0.56 0.75 0.95 1.06 1.04 1.00
2 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.35 0.54 0.83 1.08 1.03 0.97 1.00
5 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.17 0.27 0.52 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.02 1.00
10 0.07 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.20 0.52 1.14 1.07 0.97 0.99 1.00
θ0 = 120ο
½ 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.26 0.31 0.35 0.41 0.50 0.60 0.73 0.87 0.97 1.00
1 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.27 0.33 0.43 0.57 0.76 0.95 1.04 1.00
2 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.26 0.36 0.55 0.83 1.07 1.03 1.00
5 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.27 0.53 1.01 1.04 1.03 1.00
10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.20 0.52 1.13 1.06 0.98 1.00
θ0 = 135ο
½ 0.24 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.42 0.52 0.63 0.76 0.90 1.00
1 0.18 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.28 0.34 0.44 0.59 0.78 0.95 1.00
2 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.26 0.37 0.56 0.84 1.05 1.00
5 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.17 0.28 0.54 1.00 1.04 1.00
10 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.13 0.21 0.53 1.12 1.05 1.00
θ0 = 150ο
½ 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.33 0.38 0.45 0.55 0.68 0.83 1.00
1 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.22 0.24 0.29 0.36 0.47 0.63 0.83 1.00
2 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.22 0.28 0.39 0.59 0.86 1.00
5 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.18 0.29 0.55 0.99 1.00
10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.10 0.13 0.22 0.54 1.10 1.00

IHD4011-2023 1-8
 2 Water Level Variations

2.1 Astronomic Tides

The following are some of the commonly used datums,

HAT Highest Astronomical Tide

MHWS Mean High Water Springs
MHWN Mean High Water Neaps
MSL Mean Sea Level
MLWN Mean Low Water Neaps
MLWS Mean Low Water Springs
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide

2.2 Storm Surge

For simple problems, the equations can be reduced to a one-dimensional computation,

dS ζ (U cos φ )
2
= ( 2.1)
dx gD
where S is the storm surge (the setup of the water level by the wind), x is the direction over
which the storm surge is calculated, ζ is a constant (=3.2x10-6), U is the wind speed, φ is
the angle between the wind direction and the x-axis and D is the depth of water (=d+S).

2.3 Seiche
The wave length of the fundamental mode of the oscillation (a standing wave) for a closed
basin is twice the effective basin length (B). In general, the wave length is 2B/(1+nh) for
the nh harmonic. For an open ended basin (open coast), the fundamental wave length is 4
times the effective length of the shelf (B) over which the storm surge was initially set up.
In general, for the nh harmonic it is 4B/(1+2nh).

2-1
 3 Currents in the Marine Environment

3.1 Longshore currents

Longshore currents are generated by obliquely approaching breaking waves. This current
(Vy) has its maximum close to the breaker line (see Fig. 3.1).

 AX + C1 X 1P1 0 ≤ X 1 < 1
V1 =  1 ( 3.1)
 C2 X 1
P2
1 ≤ X1 < ∞

x Vy
X1 = ; V1 = ( 3.2)
xb Vbo
Where x is the offshore distance from the shore. For a mixing coefficient P=0.1, A = 1.333,
P1 = 2.5, P2 = -4, C1 = -1.0256, C2 = 0.3077

5π sin α o
Vbo = γ b gd b tan β ( 3.3)
16 f c co
Where fc is the friction coefficient (0.01) and tanβ is the beach slope.

0.6

0.5

0.4
V1

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 X1 2

Fig. 3.1: Distribution for longshore current over the surf zone (P=0.1).

3-1
 4 Nearshore Sediment Transport

Coastal
hinterland Coastal Area

Coast Shore or Littoral Zone

beach

Backshore Foreshore or
Dunes
Beach Face

MHWL
MSL
MLWL

Closure
depth

Beaker Zone
Nearshore Zone Offshore
Zone

Fig. 4.1: Definition of coastal terms (SPM, 1984).

4.1 Longshore Sediment Transport

The Kamphuis (1991) formula includes more parameters and can provide better estimates
for the littoral drift. This formula can be written as,

Qs = 6.4 * 104 H sb2 Top1.5 mb0.75 D −0.25 sin 0.6 2α b

(4.1)
where m is the beach slope, D is the grain size (m), and the subscript p denotes the peak
wave period.

4-1
 5 Rubble Mound Breakwaters

The design of the mound cross section includes the following:

• weight of armour (primary cover layer)and the under layers units, and
• Thickness of the primary layer and the number of units.
• crest elevation and width,

5.1 Design of Armour Layer

a) weight of armour (primary cover layer)

Hudson Formula”

W50 = γa H3/{KD (Sa-1)3 Cot θ} (5.1)

Where:
W50 weight of individual armor unit, natural rocks or artificial concrete unit
H design wave height
γa unit weight of armor unit material
= 2.65 t/m3 for rocks
= 2.40 t/m3 for concrete
γw = 1.025 t/m3
Sa specific gravity of armor material, γa/ γw
θ angle between seaward structure slope and horizontal,
KD armor unit stability coefficient
D50 = {W50/ γa}1/3 (5.2)
Dmax 4.000 D50
D85 1.960 D50
D15 0.400 D50
Dmin 0.125 D50

b) Thickness of armour layer(ta)

Ta = n K∆[W50/γrock]⅓ (5.3)

ta = thickness of layer
n = number of layers of protection units
K∆ = layer coefficient

c) Placement density Nr

Nr = A.n.K∆ [1- P%/100].[γu/W]2/3 (5.4)

Nr = number of units for a given surface area
A = Surface area
P% = Percentage of average porosity of layer

5-1
 Rubble Mound Breakwaters

5.2 Design of Secondary Layer

Rock armor, W50 =Warmour /10 - Warmour /15
Filter Criteria
(D15)armor/(D85)secondary ≤ 5 (5.5)

5.1. Design Core

W50 =Warmour /200 - Warmour /6000

Filter Criteria
(D15) secondary/(D85)core ≤ 5

Table 5.1 Suggested KD No-Damage Criteria and Minor Overtopping

Structure Trunk Structure Head

Armor Units n Placement KD KD Slope

Break Non Br. Break Non Br.
Cot θ
Wave wave Wave wave
2.9 3.2 1.5
Quarry Stone
2 random 3.5 4 2.5 2.8 2
Rough angular
2 2.3 3

Tetrapod & 5.9 6.5 1.5

2 random 7.2 8.3
Quadrapod 5.5 5.1 2
15 16.5 2 to 3
Dolos 2 random 22 25
13.5 16 3
Modified Cube 2 random 6.8 7.3 - 5

Table 5.2 Layer Coefficient and Porosity (KΔ)

Layer Coefficient Porosity (p')

Armour Unit n Placement
KΔ %
Quarry stone
2 1.15 31
(rough)
Cube
2 1.1 47
(modified)
random
Tetrapod 2 1.04 50
Quadrapod 2 0.95 49
Dolos 2 1 63
Quarry stone graded random - 37

IHD4011-2023 5-2
 Rubble Mound Breakwaters

5.3 Wave Run-Up

ζ = tan θ (5.7)
aζ 2π H
R = Hd (5.6) d
1 + bζ gT 2

Armour Unit Wave run- up

coefficient
a b
Quarry Stones 0.77 0.361
5
Tetrapods 1.01 0.910
0
Quadripods 0.59 0.350
0
Tribars 1.81 1.570
0

5.4 Overtopping Discharge:

 h − d 
  
tanh − 1 
 0.217
−  
 α  R 
Q = g Q* H 3 e   
(5.8)
o d
α = 0.06 - 0.0143 ln (sin Θ)
h = structure height
d = water depth
R = wave run-up
ζ = surf similarity
Q0* = Overtopping coefficient ≈ 0.02
Q = Overtopping discharge, in m3/sec/m
for Pedestrians Q≤ 0.1 L/sec/m

5.5 Design of Crest level and width

Crest level (CL) = Design Water Level (DWL) + Run -up(R)
Crest width (B) ≥ 3 K∆ [W50 /γa]1/3

IHD4011-2023 5-3
 Rubble Mound Breakwaters

Typical cross section of rubble mound Breakwater

IHD4011-2023 5-4
 6 Vertical Breakwaters

6.1 Wave load by Non-breaking- Sainflou’s formula (H<0.78 d)

y C = the height of clapotis crest (above the bottom) = d + Δh+ H i
y t =the height of clapotis trough (above the bottom) = d + Δh - H i

Δh = rise above the still water level (m) =

πH i 2 2πd
Coth
γH i L L
Pdy =
cosh kd

Resultant forces and moments (Trough wave)

yt (γd − Pdy )
FT =
2

yt (γd − Pdy ) γd 2
FNet = − +
2 2

yt2 (γd − Pdy ) γd 3

MO = − +
6 6

7-1
 Vertical Breakwaters

Wave force and moment for low height wall

crest is above the top of the wall. Wave overtopping of vertical
walls provides a reduction in the total force and moment
yc − b a
=
a
yc γd + Pdy
 b 
a =γd + Pdy 1 − 
b yc
 yc 

FC =
' b
(γd + Pdy ) + a = b (γd + Pdy ) 2 − b 
[ ]
2 2  yc 
γd + p1 FC\ b  b 
rf = =  2 −  ⇒ FC\ = r f FC
FC y c  yc 
M C\ =rm M C
2
 b   2b 
rm =    3 − 
 yc   yc 
6.2 Wave load at Breaking waves Minikin's Method (H =0.78d)

Hb ds
Pm = 101 γ L D ( D+ds )
D

Where
Hb = wave height at moment of breaking (m)
ds = water depth (m)
LD = wave length in depth D
D = depth at one wave length away from the structure

6-2
 Vertical Breakwaters

6.3 Forces by broken waves on seaward structure According to CERC

(H>0.78 d)

hc=0.7Hb
Pd = ½ γdb
F Total = Fdy + Fstatic

6-3
 Vertical Breakwaters

Design of composed type breakwater

Design of Rubble Base:

γ r H 3d
W= 3
N s (S r − 1) 3
Where :
W = weight of individual armour stone
γ r = unit weight of armour stone
N r = stability number

Sr = γ r = specific gravity of armour stone

γw
γ w = unit weight of water
 (1− K ) 
2
  −1.5
h'
 1 − K h '  + 1.8 e
1

N s = max 1.8, 1.3 1 K 3 H1
3

  K 3 H1  
  3  
4π h'
K= L sin 2  2π Bm 
Sh 4π h'  L' 
L
L` : is the wave length at h` at the berm location and,

Bm : berm width = 0.4 d

6-4
 7 Berths

7.1 Mooring Forces:

𝑇𝑝 = 𝑆𝑓 × [�𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝐹𝑔 � + 𝐹𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 + 𝐹𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ]

Where

Tp : tugboat bollard pull

Sf : tugboat bollard pull factor (~1.35)

Fg : gust factor (1.2)

Fwave : Wave forces acting on the ship

Fwind : Wind forces acting on ship

Fcurrent : Current forces acting on the ship

1
𝐹𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜌 𝐶 𝐴 𝑈 |𝑈 |
2 𝑤 𝐷𝐶 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Where

𝝆𝒘 : Water density (kg/m3)

CDC : Current drag Coefficient ~ 0.07 for longitudinal wind, and 0.22 for the transverse
wind

Ac : Area of the ship exposed to currents (below sea surface, m2)

Uc : Current speed (m/s)

1
𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌 𝐶 𝐴 𝑈 |𝑈 |
2 𝑎 𝐷𝑤 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤
Where

𝝆𝒂 : Air density (kg/m3)

CDW : Wind drag Coefficient (~0.7)

Ac : Area of the ship exposed to wind (projected area above sea surface, m2)
 Berths

Uw : Wind speed (m/s)

7.2 Berthing Forces (Kinetic / Theoretical approach):

C H C E C c C s M d Vs2
Ef =
2
Where

Ef : Energy Fenders absorb (kNm)

V : the approach velocity of the ship (m/sec),
Md : Displacement tonnage of fully loaded ship (t)
CC : Cushion Effect Factor (0.9)
Cs : Softening effect factor (1)
CH : Hydrodynamic mass factor
= 1.5 for depths higher than or equal to 1.5 draft
= 1.8 for 1.5 draft> depth > 1.1 draft

Figure 1: Eccentricity Effect Factor as a function in r/L and ϕ

7-2
 Berths

Figure 2: a) Force reaction deflection curves and b) Energy absorption capacity-

deflection curves for ϕ1850/1000; L=2000mm, ϕ1400/800; L=2000mm, and ϕ1750/1000;
L=2000mm fenders.

7-3
 Berths

7.3 Cases of loading

Case Loading Condition Loads

1 Normal D+H+F+L

2 Seismic D + H + F + 0.7E

3 Seismic D + H + F + 0.525E + 0.75L

4 Extreme D + H + F + L + 0.5Lm

Where

D : Dead load

H : Earth pressure

F : Fluid forces

L : Live loads

E : Earthquake forces

Lm: Mooring loads

Factors of Safety
Case of loading Factor of Safety
Normal loading condition
Overturning 1.5
Sliding 1.75
Bearing Capacity 2.5
Global Stability 1.5
Extreme Condition
Overturning 1.2
Sliding 1.5
Bearing Capacity 2
Global Stability 1.2
Seismic Condition
Overturning 1.15
Sliding 1.15
Bearing Capacity 1.75
Global Stability 1.1

7-4