AR3201-WORLD ARCHITECTURE AND URBANISM: EARLY CIVILISATIONS TORENAISSANCE

UNIT III JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM

Judaism and Christianity- Birth and geographic spread. Transformation of the Roman Empire. Early Christian
worship and burial. Church planning-Basilican concept. Byzantine Empire. Centralised plan concept in churches.
Birth and spread of Islam in the first millennium. Outline of building types of Islam. Commonality in forms and
ideas across Southern/ Eastern Europe and Western/ Central Asia.

Introduction

The three most influential monotheistic (belief in the existence of one god,) religions in world history are
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all of which began in the Middle East.

Background in Ancient Judaism

Ancient Judaism shared many elements with other cultures and their religious views. They believed that the
heavens contained gradients of divine powers that directly affected their daily lives. What distinguished ancient
Jews from their neighbours was the command of their God of Israel to make sacrifices (offerings) to him only;
'worship' in this sense meant sacrifices. Jews had distinct ethnic identity markers: circumcision, dietary laws, and
the observance of the Sabbath (suspension of all work every seventh day). An ancient leader, Moses, was
believed to have received a law code directly from God to organize the Jews as a nation under the Law of Moses.
They established a kingdom in Canaan under the auspices of King David and Solomon, who built the Temple in
Jerusalem (1000-920 BCE).

This Three of the world's major religions -- the monotheist traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam -- were all
born in the Middle East and are all inextricably linked to one another. Christianity was born from within the
Jewish tradition, and Islam developed from both Christianity and Judaism. While there have been differences
among these religions, there was a rich cultural interchange between Jews, Christians, and Muslims that took
place in Islamic Spain and other places over centuries.

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Judaism
Judaism developed out of the cultures and beliefs of Bronze Age people who wandered through the deserts of
the Middle East nearly 4,000 years ago. Like all major religions, Judaism spread and was quickly dispersed over a
wide area.
Judaism dates from about 1200 B.C. The first Hebrew (any member of an ancient northern Semitic people that
were the ancestors of the Jews.)was nomads who settled in the land of Canaan near Egypt. Unlike their
polytheistic neighbours, the Jewish patriarchs (“leaders”) and prophets (“inspired” teachers) committed
themselves to one almighty God. They stressed utter obedience to Yahweh in the form of a strict moral code, or
law.

Judaism, monotheistic religion developed among the ancient Hebrews. Judaism is characterized by a belief in
one transcendent God who revealed himself to Abraham, Moses, and the Hebrew prophets and by a religious life
in accordance with Scriptures and rabbinic traditions. Judaism is the complex phenomenon of a total way of life
for the Jewish people, comprising theology, law, and innumerable cultural traditions. Judaism is arising in the
eastern Mediterranean in the second millennium B.C.E. Abraham is traditionally considered to be the first Jew
and to have made a covenant with God. Because Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all recognize Abraham as their
first prophet, they are also called the Abrahamic religions.

Jews call their holy text the Tenakh, which Christians call the “Old Testament.” Within the Tenakh lie the five
books of the Torah, which begins with the creation of the world by God's word. The Torah primarily tells the
story of the early Hebrews and Yawheh's communications to Moses, which established laws on worship and
daily life.

While there was always a small community of Jews in historic Palestine, in 73 C.E. the Roman Empire dispersed
the Jews after an insurrection against Roman authority. Most Jews then lived in Diaspora, as minorities in their
communities, until the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.When Jews from all over the world came to settle in
modern Israel, they found that various subcultures had developed in different areas with distinctive histories,
languages, religious practices, customs, and cuisine.

the history behind the two faiths of Judaism and Christianity and how they developed over years in accordance
to Abraham, the founder of the religions, who encouraged the belief in one god and brought the people to the
Promised Land. Then mosses freed the Israelites from Egypt and entered them into a covenant with god. Conflict
and disagreements drew them apart, which led to their different yet similar beliefs. Both Jewish and Christian
history begins with Abraham, who was the first to believe in one god, the creator of heaven and earth. These
two religions started as one and it was only disagreement in belief that set them on their separate paths.
Abraham’s Story is found in a collection of books, by early teachers of Judaism called as Midrash.

Christianity

Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.8 billion adherents. It is categorized as one of the three
Abrahamic or monotheistic religions of the Western tradition along with Judaism and Islam. 'Christian' is derived
from the Greek christos for the Hebrew messiah ("anointed one"). Christianoi, "followers of the Christ," became
the name of a group who followed the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth in 1st-century Israel and proclaimed him
the predicted messiah of the prophets.
Christianity merged the beliefs of ancient Judaism with elements from the dominant culture of the Roman
Empire. The sacred texts are combined in the Christian Bible: the Jewish Scriptures (now deemed the Old
Testament) and the New Testament (the gospels, the letters of Paul, and the Book of Revelation). This article
surveys the origins of the movement that ultimately became an independent religion.

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Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God and the “Messiah” (meaning “Christ” and “Annointed
One”) who saves the world. This global religion first emerged as a sect of Judaism, and in the beginning
embraced many Judaic views and practices. Within decades of Jesus' death, Christians began distinguishing
themselves from their Jewish neighbors. Much of Christianity's rapid growth in the early years was due to a
Greek‐speaking Jew and Roman citizen named Saul of Tarsas. Later known as St. Paul, he preached extensively
and planted churches in the Middle East, Turkey, and Greece. Because Christians refused to worship the Roman
Emperor as divine, Romans severely persecuted Christians until the 4th century. At that time, Emperor
Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman State. Today, Christianity has grown into an
influential force throughout the world, but especially in the West.

The Bible's (the 66 books of the Judeo‐Christian Scriptures) “New Testament” (new covenant) is a collection of
26 books and letters interpreting portions of the Tenakh from a Christian point of view. The New Testament also
presents a range of unique teachings, such as the writings of St. Paul, which early Christians sent to newly
established churches. The authors of the Gospels, or presentations of Jesus' life and teachings, probably wrote
them decades later, though contemporary Biblical scholarship on this topic remains inconclusive.
Christianity represents the largest of the world's religions and is also more evenly spread around the globe than
any other religion. Christianity claims more than a billion adherents, though Christians belong to many different
denominations (groups with a particular theology and form of organization) that sharply divide the religion. The
three largest Christian denominations are Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism (which
includes such denominations as Methodist, Presbyterian, Episcopalian, and Baptist).

Christianity began in Jerusalem when disciples of Jesus of Nazareth proclaimed that was the expected Messiah.
The movement spread slowly) while Jesus was alive, but after Jesus' death it spread more rapidly. The diffusion
was greatly assisted by Christian preachers and missionaries. It spread first to Samaria (in northern ancient
Palestine), then to Phoenicia to the north-west, and south to Gaza and Egypt.

Afterwards it was adopted in the Syrian cities of Antioch and Damascus, then subsequently in Cyprus, modern
Turkey, modern Greece, Malta and Rome. It spread fast, and numbers quickly grew. Within the first century there
were an estimated million Christians, comprising less than one per cent of the total world population.

But within 400 years over 40 million people, nearly a quarter of the total population, had adopted Christianity.
Imperial sponsorship of Christianity in the fourth century accounted for its rapid increase in influence and
membership. The early spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire was achieved mainly by relocation
diffusion aided by the well-developed system of imperial roads. Christian missionaries like Paul travelled from
town to town spreading the gospel message.

A brief history of Christianity

A tradition holds that the religion was founded by Jesus Christ, a young rebellious rabbi from Nazareth.
Christianity started as an offshoot of Judaism in the first century C.E. Until the emperor Constantine converted
to Christianity in 324 C.E., early Christian communities were often persecuted. It was then that the Roman Empire
became the Holy Roman Empire, and its capital relocated from Rome to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium and
now Istanbul). The development of Christian groups derived from major and minor splits. The three main groups
that became followers of Christ and establish the Christian faith are the Israelis, the Greeks and the romans.

The Orthodox Church and its patriarch split away from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope in 1054 C.E.
because of political and doctrinal differences. In the 16th century, Martin Luther, upset at the corruption of the
Catholic papacy, spearheaded a reformation movement that led to the development of Protestantism.
Christian missionaries proselytize all over the world, and there are large populations of Christians on every
continent on Earth, although the forms of Christianity practiced vary.

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The disagreement between the religions occurred with the coming of Jesus Christ; some believed that he was
the long awaited messiah while others did not. Many converted to this new religion. As Christianity began to
spread opposition to it grew & Christians were persecuted, which continued until 3rd century CE when Emperor
Constantine became a Christian and made Christianity the official religion. As a result of this, Jews withdrew into
their own communities to build a way of life to preserve their identity as Jews. The religion that emergedfrom
this period known as rabbinic Judaism; all modern branches of Judaism descend from this.

Christianity in the Middle East

Many early Christian saints lived in the Middle East. The tradition of asceticism (denial of physical pleasures in
order to come closer to God) developed first in the Middle East, and the monastic tradition has its roots there.
Christians in the Middle East today include Copts, Maronites, Russian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Roman
Catholics, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, Assyrians, and Protestants. These groups have different
liturgical languages, rituals, and customs, and different leaders who direct their faith.

The Coptic Church, the dominant form of Christianity in Egypt, arose from a doctrinal split in the Church at the
Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Egyptian government supports the Copts' rights to worship and maintain their
culture, but there has been some violence against the community by extremist Muslims.

Spread of Christianity:
Paul’s journeys are recounted in the New Testament, Acts of the Apostles chapter 13-28. The letter of Paul, also
part of the newt statement, consist of thirteen letters of Paul wrote on his journeys. With the founding of the
new world, Christianity began to spread Europe and Asia. Among the early missionaries were Catholics who
journeyed to central and South America, seeking to convert native people. Protestants escaping persecution
travelled to North America, bringing with them their beliefs. By 1900, Christianity had spread onto every

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continent. It was a major world religion. Christian missionaries took advantage of the Europe colonization of
India and Africa.

Transformation Roman Empire:

The decline of the Roman Empire is one of the events traditionally marking the end of classical antiquity and the
beginning of the European Middle Ages. The Roman Empire got bigger. New lands people were taken into it; the
conquered people added their gods or religion to the roman pantheon (the name for the multitude of roman
gods).one such new religion was Christianity, the ideas of Christianity spread and the organization of the Roman
Empire helped this in several ways.
 It was relatively easy to move around the empire. The romans built excellent roads with were safe from
robbers.
 There were common languages in the empire, Latin and Greek. This made the spread of the new ideas
quick and easy
 The roman army never had units of soldiers based in their home country, so as not to call the loyalty of
the men into question, many of the units based in Britain were from the Middle East and so Christianity
spread to Britain quite quickly.

Attacks on the Christians went on for a very long time. The leaders were crucified and the Christians had to
worship underground, in catacombs so as to avoid persecution. Christians gained some toleration in the later
empire but it was not until the emperor Constantine that Christianity was truly accepted.

In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the Reformation fostered new churches as Protestants built
their own places of worship. Yet in every century Christians have met in homes in small groups to supplement
their more formal church life. Others, however, have left the established denominations to form independent
house churches. It is this latter development, evident since the mid-twentieth century, which can be called 'the
house church movement'

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Early Christian worship:

The beginning………..
 In the first three centuries of the early Christian church, the
practice of Christianity was illegal and few churches were
constructed.
 In the beginning Christians worshipped along with Jews in
synagogues and in private houses.
 After the separation of Jews and Christians the latter
continued to worship in people’s houses, known as
house churches. These were often the homes of the
wealthier members of the faith.
 Some church buildings were specifically built as church
assemblies, such as that opposite the Emperor Diocletian’s
palace in Nicomedia.

Religious practices: catholic Burial Ritual:

 Sacraments conveyance of the body to the church
 Baptism ceremonial rituals in the church
 Sabbath ceremonial rituals by the graveside.
 Monasticism

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Factors Influencing Architecture

Geographical:
Early Christian architecture was predominantly influenced by existing Roman art & architecture. Christianity was
brought to Rome by Peter, Paul & other disciples where it grew in spite of opposition & became the universal
religion of the Roman Empire. Early Christian architecture spread to other parts but was modified in Egypt, Syria
& North Africa according to local conditions. Byzantium, renamed as Constantinople, after its founder is located
at the junction of Bosporus which connects the Mediterranean Sea & the Black sea. It is also located in the trade
route between Asia & Europe. Byzantine art spread to all parts of the eastern empire such as Greece, turkey &
even to Venice. Roman Empire came to be divided with the western half having its capital at Rome & the Eastern
half having its capital at Constantinople. It was ruled by 2 emperors simultaneously.

Geological:
The ruins of roman buildings mostly provided the building materials for the early Christian churches. Since these
churches were modeled on the roman basilica, the architectural features such as columns & decorative features
like the sculptures, mosaic etc. were taken from old buildings & reworked into the basilican churches. Though
Constantinople didn’t have stone, it became a center for stone work by importing marble, granite & other good
quality stone from all parts of the world.

Climatic:
The hotter climate prevalent in roman provinces such as Egypt & North Africa led to the use of smaller windows
in early Christian churches. The Christians adapted their church form to the climate & culture of eastern
provinces by having a combination of flat roofs & domes with small windows located higher up in the walls.

Religious:
In 323 AD Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. The rise of Christianity & the
speed at which it spread to all parts of the empire is phenomenal & resulted in the building of many basilican
churches. The basic purpose of the church was to shelter the worshippers who had gathered for prayer & rituals.
The Byzantine church was much influenced by the use of domes & arches. The eastern & western churches finally
separated in 1014 AD due to ideological differences. Moreover, after the Eastern Church forbade the use of all
idols & sculpture due to attacks from Muslims, it evolved into the Greek Orthodox Church. These controversies
have vitally affected Byzantine architecture, which is devoid of sculpture, but has paintings.

Historical:
The early Christian period is generally taken from about 300 AD to 600 AD. Byzantine art influenced the church
architecture of Ravenna & Venice very much. Constantinople became a meeting point between the Europeans &
the Asians, which led to a fusion of architectural ideas resulting in a very different style of churches known as the
Byzantine.

From house church to church

 From the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private homes,
often secretly.
 Some Roman churches, such as the basilica of San Clemente in Rome, are built directly over the houses
where early Christians worshipped.
 Other early roman churches are built on the sites of Christian martyrdom or at the entrance to catacombs
where Christians were buried.
 The faith, already spread around the Mediterranean, now expressed itself in buildings.

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 With the victory of the roman emperor, Constantine at the

battle of Milvian Bridge in 312AD, Christianity became a lawful
and then the privileged religion of the Roman Empire.
 Christian architecture was made to correspond to civic and
imperial forms and so the basilica, a large rectangular meeting
hall became general in east and west, as the model for
churches, with a nave and aisles and sometimes galleries and
clerestories.
 While civic basilicas had apses at either end, the Christian
basilica usually had a single apse where the bishop and
presbyters sat in a dais behind the altar.
 The first very large Christian churches were built in Rome and
have their origins in the early 4th century.

Basilica

Early church architecture did not draw its form from Roman basilica, used for meetings, markets and courts of
law that provided a model for the large Christian church and that gave its name to the Christian basilica. Both
Roman basilicas and Roman bath houses had at their core a large vaulted building with a high roof, braced on
either side by a series of lower chambers or a wide arcaded passage.

An important feature of the Roman basilica was that at either end it had a projecting exedra, or apse, a
semicircular space roofed with a half-dome. This was where the magistrates sat to hold court. It passed into the
church architecture of the Roman world and was adapted in different ways as a feature of architecture. It is
rectangular early Christian or medieval church, usually having a nave with clerestories, two or four aisles, one or
more vaulted apses, and a timber roof.

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Basilica typical plan. Types of Apse

A, A, apse 1. Semi-circular (Italian)
B, B’, secondary apse 2. Polygonal (German)
C, high altar 3. Square (English)
G, transept 4. Compound (French)
H, nave
J, J’, aisles

Many basilica churches were erected out of fragments taken from older buildings, and present a curious mixture
of columns, capitals, &c.; others, especially those at Ravenna, exhibit more care, and are noble specimens of
ancient and severe architectural work. The illustration which we give of part of the nave, arcade, and apse of one
of these, Sant’ Apollinare in Classe, shows the dignified yet ornate aspect of one of the most carefully executed
of these buildings

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE- INTRODUCTION

 Early Christian architecture may be taken to have lasted
from about 300 to 600 AD.
 The Early Christians, as Roman craftsmen, continued old
Roman traditions
 Utilized as far as possible the materials from Roman
temples which had become useless for their original
purpose for their new buildings.
 Their churches, modelled on Roman basilicas, used old
columns which by various devices were brought to a
uniform height.
 Early Christian buildings hardly have the architectural
value of a style produced by the solution of constructive
problems.
 Basilican churches had either closely spaced columns
carrying the entablature, or more widely spaced
columns carrying semicircular arches.
 The Basilican church with three or five aisles, covered
by a simple timber roof, is typical of the Early Christian
style as opposed to the vaulted Byzantine church with
its central circular dome placed over a square by means
of pendentives and surrounded by smaller domes.

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 It’s long perspective of oft-repeated columns which carry the eye along to the sanctuary; a treatment
which, combined with the comparatively low height of interiors, makes these churches appear longer
than they really are, as it seen in S. Paolo fuori le Mura, and S. Maria Maggiore .

Features of Early Christian Architecture:

The church building grew out of a number of features of the Ancient Roman
period:
 The house church
 The atrium
 The basilica
 The bema
 The mausoleum centrally planned building
 The cruciform ground floor plan- Latin or Greek cross

Atrium
When Early Christian communities began to build churches they drew on
one particular feature of the houses that preceded them, the atrium, or
courtyard with a colonnade surrounding it. A fine example remains at the
Basilica of San Clemente in Rome and another was built in the Romanesque
period at Sant'Ambrogio, Milan. The descendants of these atria may be seen
in the large square cloisters that can be found beside many cathedrals, and
in the huge colonnaded squares or piazza at the Basilicas of St Peter's in Rome and St Mark's in Venice and the
Camposanto (Holy Field) at the Cathedral of Pisa.

Bema
As numbers of clergy increased, the small apse which contained the altar, or table
upon which the sacramental bread and wine were offered in the rite of Holy
Communion, was not sufficient to accommodate them. A raised dais called
a bema formed part of many large Basilican churches.
This bema extended laterally beyond the main meeting hall, forming two arms so
that the building took on the shape of a T with a projecting apse. From this
beginning, the plan of the church developed into the so-called Latin cross which is
the shape of most Western Cathedrals and large churches. The arms of the cross are
called the transept.

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Mausoleum-Monumental form of tomb.

A mausoleum is a house of the dead, although ii is often as much a symbol as a sepulchre.This term has been
employed for large, monumental, and stately tombs, usually erected for distinguished or prominent individuals.

1) Propylaeum- the entrance building of a sacred precinct, whether church or imperial palace.
2) Atrium- in early Christian, Byzantine, and medieval architecture, the forecourt of a church; as a rule enveloped
by four colonnaded porticoes.
3) Narthex- the entrance hall or porch proceeding the nave of a church.
4) Nave- the great central space in a church. In longitudinal churches, it extends from the entrance to the apse
(or only to the crossing if the church has one) and is usually flanked by side aisles.
5) Side Aisle- one of the corridors running parallel to the nave of a church and separated from it by an arcade or
colonnade.
6) Crossing- the area in a church where the transept and the nave intersect.
7) Transept- in a cruciform church, the whole arm set at right angles to the nave. Note that the transept appears
infrequently in Early Christian churches. Old St. Peter's is one of the few example of a basilica with a transept
from this period. The transept would not become a standard component of the Christian church until the
Carolingian period.
8) Apse- a recess, sometimes rectangular but usually semi-circular, in the wall at the end of a Roman basilica or
Christian church. The apse in the Roman basilica frequently contained an image of the Emperor and was where

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the magistrate dispensed laws. In the Early Christian basilica, the apses contained the "cathedra" or throne of
the bishop and the altar.
9) Nave elevation- term which refers to the division of the nave wall into various levels. In the Early Christian
basilica the nave elevation usually is composed of a nave colonnade or arcade and clerestory.
10) Clerestory- a clear story, i.e. a row of windows in the upper part of a wall. In churches, the clerestory
windows above the roofs of the side aisles permit direct illumination of the nave

Church planning- Basilican concept

 The Early Christian churches adopted the plan of
the roman basilica with the central nave separated from
the aisles on either side & leading up to the semicircular
apse at one end.
 A basilica is a type of building, usually a Christian
church that is typically rectangular with a central nave and
aisles, usually with a slightly raised platform and an apse at
one or both ends.
 Basilican churches either had closely spaced
columns carrying an entablature or widely spaced columns
carrying semicircular arches.
 They had either 2 or 4 aisles flanking the central
nave covered by a simple timber roof. The nave height was
raised above the roof of the aisle to accommodate the
clear storey windows that brought light to the interior.
 The entrance was extended into a quadrangle with a covered passage enclosing the open to sky area.
The interior of the Basilican churches is impressive due to the long perspective that leads up to the
triumphal arch above the altar.
 The Basilican architectural style originated in ancient Rome and was originally used for public buildings
where courts were held, as well as serving other and public functions.
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 Today the term basilica is often used to refer to any large, ornate church building, especially Roman
Catholic and eastern orthodox, even if it does not strictly follow this style.
 The basilica was centrally located in every roman town, usually adjacent to the main forum.as the Roman
Empire adopted Christianity, the major church buildings were typically constructed with this style and
thus it became popular throughout Europe.
Latin cross and Greek cross

Greek cross; Latin cross; rotunda. These terms usually refer to the shape of a church. A Greek cross church has
four arms having the same length. A Latin cross church has the arm of the entrance longer than the other arms.

Greek cross- the plans of SS. Martina e Luca)

Rotunda- the plans of S. Bernardo alle Terme

Greek cross- the plans of SS. Martina e Luca) Latin cross plan- building process of S. Pietro in Vaticano
Rotunda- the plans of S. Bernardo alle Terme
Greek and Latin cross
• Greek cross plan in church architecture- a cross with four
equal arms at right angles.
• Buildings in creased in geometric complexity ,brick and
plaster were used in addition to stone in the decoration of
important public structures, classical orders were used more
freely, mosaics replaced carved decoration, complex domes
rested upon massive piers and window filtered light through
thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors

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Baptistery

In Christian architecture the baptistery or baptistery, may be incorporated

within the body of a church or cathedral and be provided with an altar as a
chapel.

This is commonly a detached building, and almost always circular or polygonal.

In some instances the baptistery adjoins the atrium or forecourt; but it soon
became customary to erect detached baptisteries of considerable size. These
generally have a high central portion carried by a ring of columns, and a low
aisle running round, the receptacle for water being in the centre. The origin of
these buildings is not so clear as that of the basilica churches; they bear some
resemblance to the Roman circular temples; but it is more probable that the
form was suggested by buildings similar in general arrangement, and forming part of a Roman bath.

Walls
• These were still constructed according to Roman methods of using rubble or concrete, faced with
plaster, brick, or stone.
• Mosaic decoration was added internally and sometimes also externally on west facades.
• Little regard was paid to external architectural effect.
Openings

• Arcades, doors, and windows were either spanned by a semicircular arch

• Which in nave arcades, often rested directly on the capitals without any entablatures, or were spanned
by a lintel.

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Roofs

• Timber roofs covered the central nave, and

only simple forms of construction, such as
king and queen post trusses, were employed.
• The narrower side aisles were occasionally
vaulted and the
• Apse was usually domed and lined with
beautiful glass mosaics, which formed a fitting
background to the sanctuary.

Columns
• Differ both in design and size, often taken from
earlier Roman buildings. It was natural that
early Christian builders should use materials
and ornament of the pagan Romans.
• Used Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, or
Composite from ancient Roman buildings,
except those in S. Paolo fuori le Mura.
• The carved capital is governed by Roman
pagan precedent and sometimes by that of
Byzantine, and in both the acanthus leaf forms
an important part.

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Formation and Development – Byzantine Architecture

Geographical condition
 By the time Constantine became the Caesar of the Roman Empire, the empire had split in half:
 The Western Roman Empire centered in Rome, speaking Latin.
 The eastern roman empire of Byzantium (Constantinople), today Istanbul.
 Byzantium, “new Rome”, was later renamed Constantinople. The empire endured for more than
a millennium and renaissance era architecture in Europe and following the capture of
Constantinople by ottoman Turks in 1453, leading directly to the architecture of the Ottoman
Empire.
 The early Greek settlers from Manga were led by some Byzia, from whom the name Byzantion was
derived.
 Later it was Romanized to Byzantium. The City of Byzantium was renamed as “Constantinople” the
“God’s Favorite City” in 330, after its imperial founder Constantine.
 It was made as the new capital of Christian Empire. It w is now named as ‘Istanbul’.
 The city is situated between Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea and forms a link to Europe and Asia by
means of a narrow strip of water.
 It has a natural harbor of “Golden Horn” – a deep water inlet which helped to expand commerce and
trade to all parts of Eastern Roman Empire and further carried to Greece, Asia Minor, Russia, N.Africa,
and Venice, which later came under the influence of Byzantine style.
Geological Condition
 The use of lime concrete started in Roman period was continued by the Byzantines.
 They manufactured bricks which they used for the construction of domes.
 Marble was imported from other parts and used for ornamental works.
Climatic Condition
 Byzantines adopted the system of building to suit their needs.
 Hence flat roofs with small openings were adopted in places of hot weather and sheltered arcades
surrounded the open courtyard.
 These with the oriental dome as a symbol of faith became the chief features of this style.
Religious Condition
 In 313, Constantine issued high command at Milan granting to Christians and everybody the free power
to follow the religion of their choice.
 The results were seen at an early date in Palestine where as per the wish of Constantine many churches
were built.
 In the beginning they were of Basilican Christian type but later dome became the prevailing motif of
Byzantine Church.
 Soon there were disputes and differences in the mode of construction of churches between Eastern and
Western Europe.
Social Condition
 Constantine declared Christianity as the State Religion of the Roman Empire in 324 A.D. and founded
Constantinople in 330 A.D.
 It was completed in 6 years time of the old Greek city Byzantium.
 The new city was formed in Roman style with Imperial Palaces, Senate House, and Law-courts etc.
 The forum of Constantine with its splendid columns was the main centre of the Byzantine business
world.

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 Side by side churches were built. The largest one is St. Sophia, Constantinople became the centre of
Byzantine-world, culturally Greek, juridical Roman, officially and passionately Christian.
Historical Condition
 After the death of able ruler Constantine, a line of weak emperors followed and finally the Empire was
divided in 364 A.D.
 Thereafter the other Emperor who rose to prominence was Justinian (527 – 565 A.D).
 As a builder he was second Trajan another Constantine.
 He encouraged many gifted artists.
 He commissioned useful civil works, like schools, hospitals, hostels, theatres, baths, palaces, harbors,
aqueducts and a dozen of churches.
 His code of ‘Civil Laws’ or ‘Justinian Code’ produced a dynamic effect on society.
 The principal buildings of Justinian, a great patron of architecture were unequivocally original and clear.
 He was a man of astonishing energy. His citizens called him ‘the Emperor who never sleeps’.
 Later on many more building activities continued in spite of constant attacks by barbarians from north
and Muslims from the east.
 By 15th Century it could not resist the energy and cannon of the Turks who succeeded and captured it
where Goths, Germans, Huns and Arabs had failed.

Centralized plan concept in churches

In the basilica of Old St. Peters in Rome, longitudinal-plan churches are characterized by a forecourt, the atrium,
leading to an entrance porch, the narthex, which spans one of the building's short ends. Like basilicas, central-
plan churches can have an atrium, a narthex, and an apse.

The Latin cross design essentially adds two lateral extensions (called "transepts") to the original basilica layout,
while the central plan design essentially compresses the basilica into a square (or other shape with rotational
symmetry, e.g. octagon, circle, Greek cross).Longitudinal Plan: Any structure designed with a rectangular shape;
the nave is longer than the transept, and it is symmetrical against an axis.

Central-plan building: any structure designed with a primary central space surrounded by symmetrical areas on
each side; also called a Greek-cross plan. Apse. A domed or vaulted recess or projection on a building especially
the east end of a church.

The building was rectangular in shape, with the long, central

portion of the hall made up of the nave. Here the interior reached
its fullest height. The nave was flanked on either side by a
colonnade that declined the side aisles, which were of a lower
height than the nave.

Because the side aisles were lower, the roof over this section was
below the roofline of the nave allowing for windows near the
ceiling of the nave. This band of windows was called clerestory. At
the far end of the nave, away from the main door, was a semi-circular extension usually with a half dome roof.
This area was the apse, and where the magistrate or other senior officials would hold court.

Because this plan allowed for many people to circulate within a large and awesome, space, the general plan
became an obvious choice for early Christian buildings. The religious rituals, masses and pilgrimages that become

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common place by the middle ages were very different from today’s services. And to understand the architecture
it is necessary to understand how the buildings were used and the components that made up these massive
edifices.

Architectural style incorporated a centralized plan and domes for churches

Byzantine architects, combination of the basilica and symmetrical central-plan (circular or polygonal) religious
structures resulted in the characteristic Byzantine Greek-cross-plan church, with a square central mass and four
arms of equal length. The most distinctive feature was the domed roof.

Byzantine Architecture-Characteristic Features

 The Byzantine architecture is characterized by the noval development of dome to cover square or
polygonal plans of churches and tombs while Romans placed domes only on circular plans.
 This system of placing of the domes was gradual from Roman to Early Christian period.
 But after 2 centuries the system of domical roof became the chief motif of design in Byzantine
architecture.
 The various types of domes used were (i) Simple, (ii) Compound, (iii) Melon Shaped and (iv) Onion
Shaped.

 These domes were placed on square or polygonal plans by means of spherical pendentives, i.e. triangular
curved overhanging surface formed between the adjacent arches.
 Placing of small domes round the large central dome was very effective.
 On account of their great height, eye was directed upwards, as if pointing to the sky or heaven while in
Early Christian Style; eye was directed horizontally along the row of columns to the seat of God.

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 The domes were constructed without

centering with thin radiating bricks or light
weight pumice stones to lessen the side
thrust on supporting walls.
 The use of cement started in the Roman
period continued by the Byzantines.
 The brickwork in concrete was first
completed and allowed to settle before
covering the interior surface with marble
slab.
 The external facades were decorated with
various design patterns in brick-work.
 For brick-work they needed concrete which
they prepared from lime, sand crushed tiles
and bricks.
 Byzantines used the columns decorately as
well as structurally to support the galleries
and semi-circular arches.
 Mouldings were very rare
 The walls were fully covered with marble
mosaics and fresco decoration.
 The Byzantine architecture which is devoid of
sculpture, expressed fully in flat colored glass
mosaics, biblical scenes, group of saints, holy
monogram of Christ over the Church walls,
arches and vaults.

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Dome construction
The most distinctive feature was the domed roof. The dome, which had
always been a traditional feature in the east, became the prevailing motif
of byzantine architecture, which was a fusion of the domical construction
with the classical columnar style.
To allow a dome to rest a square
base, either of two devices was
used: the squinch (an arch in each
corners of a square base that
transforms it into an octagon) or
the pendentive.
Domes of various types were now
placed over square compartments
by means of”pendentives”whereas
in roman architecture domes were
only used over circular or polygonal
structure.
These domes were frequently
constructed of bricks or of some
light porous stone, such as pumice
or even of pottery as at st.vitale, Ravenna.
Byzantine domes and vaults were, it is believed constructed without
temporary support or” centering” by the simple use of large flat bricks and
this is quite distinct system probably derived from eastern methods.

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Typical examples-St. Sophia, Constantinople

Sophia is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey.
From the date of its dedication in 360 until 1453, it served as the cathedral of Constantinople, except between
1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople
of the Western Crusader established Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1934, when
it was secularized. It was opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.

Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered as the epitome of Byzantine architecture. It was built
on order of Emperor Justinian by architects Anthemius & Isadorus during 532 to 537 AD. The interior of the
building is considered to be of great artistic value as it is covered with polychrome marbles, gold mosaics &
porphyry. Though it was converted to a mosque in 1453 by the Ottoman Turks & was used as the principal
mosque till 1935, when it was converted to a museum, it remained as the largest cathedral for 1000 years until
the Seville cathedral was constructed.

The Atrium that formed the approach to the church is in ruins now. The triple portal leads to the outer narthex,
which itself leads to the imposing main narthex, 200’ x 30’ that serves as the entrance. It is a 2 floored space with
the lower floor used by the penitents & the upper floor forming the gallery to the church that was used by
women. The plan of the church comprises of a central space, 107’ square, with 4 massive stone piers supporting
the 4 semicircular arches on which rests the dome, at a height of 180’ above the ground. To the east & west of
this central space are 2 half circles, crowned with semi domes that taken together with the exedras form a great
oval nave, 225’ x 107’. To the north & south of this nave are 2 storied aisles with the upper storey forming the
women’s gallery.

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The aisles to the north & south make the main building into an approximate square, which excluding the apse &
the narthex measures 250’ x 220’. The 2 semi domes on the east & west abut the arches & help to take the thrust
on that axis, while towards the north & south are 4 great buttresses, 60’ x 25’ that serve to take the lateral thrust
in that direction. The dome is carried on pendentives which are concave triangular sections of masonry that solve
the problem of setting the circular base of the dome on a square plan. The pendentive had been never used
before & it not only achieved a pleasing aesthetic quality but also restrained the lateral forces of the dome &
allowed the weight of the dome to flow downwards.

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The exterior is less impressive than the interior since the brick walls have been plastered & painted with red and
white distemper. The actual shape of the domes & semi-domes are visible as there is only a thin coat of lead that
covers them. Though the enormous buttresses & recessed spandrel walls form imposing features of the
elevation, the exterior depends for effect on the massiveness & symmetry of its proportions. However, it lacks
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the dignity that would have been achieved by the addition of a drum to the base of the dome. The minarets were
added by the Muslims when they conquered Constantinople. Like Parthenon of Greece & Pantheon of Rome,
S.Sophia will remain as the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture.

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St. Vitale, Ravenna

 The Church of San Vitale —though it is not of architectural basilica form — is a church in Ravenna, Italy,
one of the most important examples of early Christian Byzantine Art and architecture in Western Europe.
 The church was begun by Bishop Ecclesius in 527, when Ravenna was under the rule of the Ostrogoths,
and completed by the 27th Bishop of Ravenna, Maximian in 548 during the Byzantine Exarchate of
Ravenna.
 Ground plan of the building
 The church has an octagonal plan.
 The building combines Roman elements: the dome, shape of doorways, and stepped towers; with
Byzantine elements: polygonal apse, capitals, and narrow bricks.
 The church is most famous for its wealth of Byzantine mosaics, the largest and best preserved outside of
Constantinople.
 The church is of extreme importance in Byzantine art, as it is the only major church from the period of
the Emperor Justinian I to survive virtually intact to the present day.
 According to legend, the church was erected on the site of the martyrdom of Saint Vitalis.
Mosaic art
 The cross-ribbed vault in the presbytery is richly ornamented with mosaic festoons of leaves, fruit and
flowers, converging on a crown encircling the Lamb of God.
 The crown is supported by four angels, and every surface is covered with a profusion of flowers, stars,
birds and animals, including many peacocks.
 Above the arch, on both sides, two angels hold a disc and beside them a representation of the cities of
Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
 All these mosaics are executed in the Hellenistic-Roman tradition: lively and imaginative, with rich colors
and a certain perspective, and with a vivid depiction of the landscape, plants and birds.
 The apse is flanked by two chapels.
 Jesus Christ appears, seated on a blue globe in the summit of the vault, robed in purple, with his right
hand offering the martyr's crown to Saint Vitale.

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Birth and spread of Islam in the first millennium. Outline of building types of Islam

Islam
The second largest religion in today's world is Islam, which originated from the teachings of the 7th century
prophet Mohammed. His teachings most directly express the will of Allah, the one God of Islam. Moslems, or
followers of the Islamic religion, believe that Allah also spoke through earlier prophets such as Jesus and Moses
before enlightening Mohammed.

Islam means 'submission to God', and this strict monotheistic religion was founded by Mohammed in Medina in
622 (the year taken as the start of the Islamic calendar). By the time Mohammed died in 632, he ruled the whole
of Arabia (in both religious and political terms). Islam spread and expanded mostly by force initially, because
conversion of the mainly Christian populations it encountered usually required political control. Within less than a
hundred years, Arab Muslims had conquered lands over a vast area - stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in
Western Europe to the borders of India, and including Spain, North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia and
Persia. Today's distribution of Islam reflects a significant retreat from this early core emirate or territory,
although the spread of Islam into India, Central Asia, the Sudan and the margins of East Africa has left an
enduring legacy. Islam also has a strong presence in south East Asia.

Islam arose in the early seventh century C.E. in the settled desert community of Mecca (in present-day Saudi
Arabia). It developed from both the Judeo-Christian tradition and the cultural values of the nomadic Bedouin
tribes of Arabia.

Islam expanded into areas controlled by the Byzantine Empire (largely Greek-speaking and Orthodox Christian,
but with a diverse population) and the Sassanian Empire (officially Zoroastrian and Persian-speaking, but also
diverse). By the mid-eighth century, Islam had spread west into North Africa and Europe, and east into Central
Asia. Over the centuries, Islam continued to grow in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.

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As Islam expanded, the new Islamic societies adapted and synthesized many of the customs they encountered.
As a result, Muslims in different areas of the world created for themselves a wide array of cultural traditions

Around the year 610, Mohammed, a native of the thriving commercial centre of Makkah received a message
from God (Allah) through the angel Gabriel) as more revelations asked him to proclaim the oneness of God
universally, the Prophet Mohammed’s following grew.

In 622, learning of an assassination plot against him the prophet led his followers to the town of Yatrib, which
was later named Madinat Al Nabi (City of the prophet) and now known simply as Medinah.This was Hijrah or
migration which marks the beginning of the Islamic Calendar.

Within the next few years several battles took place between the followers of Prophet and the pagans of
Makkah. By 628 when Madinah was entirely under the hands of the Muslims the prophet had unified the tribes
so successfully that he and his followers entered Makkah without bloodshed.
Less than 100years of the birth of Islam, the Islamic Empire extended from Spain to parts of India and China.

Principles of Islam

The most important concept of the Islamic system is the unity of Godhead. The unity of godhead is called
as Tawhid ( oneness of God) in Arabic. It is the backbone of Islam and of all Islamic principles. It is the basis of
unification of mankind and the only acceptable way for God for the progress and salvation of human civilisation,
establishing justice, dignity and freedom for all.

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Muslim chronology commences from 622 as the year of herein when Mohammed departed to medina from
Mecca

• Mohammed (622)-conquered medina, Mecca, Jerusalem

• Arabs (640)- conquered Egypt
• Moriah (647-709)-conquered North Africa
• Caliphs( 750) – conquered Damascus,bagndad,persia
• Muslim Suljuq dynasty( 1300)- conquered turkey
• Turks (1566) – conquered Syria, Palestine, Egypt.
• North India conquered by Mohammed gory and Delhi by Qutb-un-din-aibak

Influences on Islamic Architecture

Islamic Architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of
Islam to the present day. Islamic Architectural style developed soon after the time of the prophet Mohammed,
developing from Roman, Egyptian, Byzantine and Persian /Sassanid models.

Evolution of the Building Types from an Arab House

In the early days of Islam (early 7th century) the original Muslim community had no/ specific place of prayer and
the arrangements for communal worship were informal. Differentiating spaces and attributing it with a special
meaning is a universal feature of human culture and societies. Therefore the evolution of a mosque and other
structures such as palaces or madrasas evolved from the planning of an Arab house.

The House
The most striking feature of all Islamic architecture is the focus on interior space as opposed to the outside or
facade. The most of the focus of the inner space is in the Muslim house. Rectangular dwelling units are organized
around an inner courtyard. The façade of this house offers high windowless walls interrupted only by single low
door.

Adaptations to Various Functions

Because of the lack of emphasis on external appearance in Islamic Architecture, a structure – mosque for
example might be hidden from view by secondary, adjacent buildings. If the façade is visible, rarely the façade
gives any indication of structure’s size, shape or function.

Islamic Architecture must be experienced by being entered and seen from within. The thing to be noted in
Islamic Architecture is the absence of specific Architectural forms for specific functions. Most forms in Islamic
Architecture can be adapted to a variety of purposes. In addition structures for a specific function might assume
a variety of forms. The four Iwan (cloister) design has been used for palaces, mosques, schools, caravan serai
(way station for travellers and their animals) and private homes.

In general Islamic Architecture is given to hiding its principal features behind not so revealing exterior. It is an
Architecture that does not change its form easily, for functional demands, but rather tends to adapt functions to
preconceived forms.

Unlike traditional European structures Islamic buildings rarely have displayed an inherent directional or axial
quality. Ex – Temple of Baal at Syria, in this example the structure is approached from a blank longer side walls
than from the decorated walls at narrow ends

The Islamic structure does not strive for symmetry as that of European structures. Thus it is easy to make
additions to original plans for Islamic structures .For example, as families grow it is simple to add new dwellings
to the traditional courtyard complex. So that the whole complex looks like a maze.

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Elements – Enclosed space, defined by walls, arcades and vaults are the important elements of Islamic
Architecture. In general with the exception of the dome and entrance portal decoration in Islamic Architecture is
reserved for the articulation and embellishment of the Interior.

Functional Typology of Islamic Structures

Structures for prayer:

• Neighbourhood mosque (masjid).
• Congregational mosque (Jami or masjid jami).
• Prayer enclosure (musalla or namaz-gah).
• Minaret ( Tower to call for prayer)

Structures for religious education

• Religious college (madrasa).
•
Memorial structures:
• tomb memorial
• Mausoleum (rauza) with charitable functions attached.
• Funerary garden or enclosure (ar rauza).

Residential
• The palaces for the royal house hold Way side resting inns
• Place of rest on way side for travellers-Caravan serai

Commercial
• The Bazaar-The places for selling and buying goods

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Morphological Categories of the Mosque

The mosque plan was developed through a process of change and modification resulting in the emergence of
four main forms reflecting the main periods of Islamic attainment.
• The key building type of the faith was developed form the scheme of an Arab house, with a pillared
verandah around an open courtyard. The original intention was not to provide any specific structure, for
devotional purposes, as prayer could be performed in the open air with nothing between the devotee
and the God.
• But it was natural for man for an enclosed building where worship could be conducted in an appropriate
environment, away from the distractions of everyday life.

Type 1 – Hypostyle Mosque

Earliest and most spread, this had the form of Hypostyle hall consisting of a main hall composed of a number of a
number of parallel aisles defined by arcades of columns and pillars.
The row of pillars and its extension in all directions emphasizes the limitlessness of the space, a symbol of infinity
of the divine. The area near the Mihrab is defined by special treatment emphasizing its sanctity.
The use of the dome in the square in front of the Mihrab and widening of the nave are some of the main spatial
arrangements introduced for this purpose. Further demarcation of the area is defined by some stucco, floral,
geometric and calligraphic decoration with intended meditation messages. Starting from Medina it entered
North Africa, Sicily and Persia and countries of South Asia.

Ex: Hypostyle Hall of the Mosque of the Umayyad, Damascus.

Ex: Hypostyle Hall of the Mosque of Cordoba, Spain

Type 2- Iwan Mosque

Under the patronage of the Suljuq princes, Iran (Persia) developed a new style of mosque known as Iwan
mosque. There was a Sahn or courtyard and on four sides has Iwan (cloisters).Here a high vaulted hall was built
to function as a great entrance leading to the sanctuary, or to the Sahn. The roof of the Iwan is vaulted and
commonly covered with “muqarnas”. The first establishment of this style is in about 890.
Ex: Masjid –I –Jami, Isafahan, the first four Iwan Mosque.

Type 3 – Domed Mosque

Under the Ottomans the mosque evolved from the traditionally horizontal space to a vertical structure rising into
the sky through its domed roof, which was arranged in a number of small domes rising progressively like steps
towards the main dome of the central nave.

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In this type the infinity is expresses through verticality and hence the dome became the dominating skyline of
the mosques probably influenced by Hagia Sofia. Further this mosque stressed the main dome and confirmed
the symbol of one God. (Through it interior space which is perceived as one unit).
Variety of Ottoman Mosques: There was variety in Ottoman mosques based on the style and number of domes
employed.Ex: Suleymaniya Mosque (1549-1557) master piece of Sinan. The second figure of the Ottoman mosque
is the pointed slender minaret which differs from the rest of the Muslim world.

Type 4 – Moghul Mosques

Moghul mosques are a successful combination of all the above styles, consisted of a Hypostyle hall for rituals,
covered with flat roof incorporating large onion shaped dome and large porch recalling the Persian Iwan as seen
in the Delhi’s Jami Masjid.( 1644-1658)

The Elements of a Typical Mosque in India

• There was a rectangular open space or Sahn, the four sides being enclosed by pillared verandah or Iwan
with a fountain tank in the centre for ablutions. One of the cloisters of the courtyard were expanded into
a pillared hall or sanctuary, with a wall at the back containing the recessed alcove or Mihrab indicating
Qibla the direction of the prayer .On the right side of the Mihrab stands the minbar or pulpit .
• An elevated platform from where muezzin calls for prayer, usually takes the form of the minaret.
• The sanctuary portion where the minbar was kept eventually became the principal feature. To produce
the Structural effect two important elements were added to the sanctuary. A screen was thrown across
in the front to form the sanctuary façade and a dome was raised from the nave portion of the sanctuary.

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Evolution of Mausoleum /Tomb

Under the Seljuk patronage Seljuk patronage the mausoleum saw considerable patronage. This type of building
evolved from early funerary monuments which were first erected to honour the Ummayad rulers in the 8th
century. However under Saljuks it took a new dimension hosting the remains of important people not only rulers
but also religious scholars.
Seljuk Mausoleums display great diversity of forms involving octagonal, cylindrical (also called as tower) and
square shaped topped with the dome. (Mainly Persia) or conical roof (especially Anatolia) these monuments can
be found free standing in cemeteries or attached to particular buildings connected with the deceased such as
mosques or Madrassas.
Due to the religious, social or political importance of the people buried in these tombs, the mausoleums were
often decorated with symbolic designs depicting paradise awaiting the soul of the founder.
Large amount of Calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran, connected with death and paradise and sometimes
good life and works of the deceased were also expressed
Cylindrical
In Central Asia and Persia the earliest Saljuq towers were cylindrical type which seem to be derived from the
earlier tower tombs found in this area. (Iran)The example shown is a monument built for Shams Al Maali Qabus
978-1012 consisting of a cylinder supported by 10 buttresses planned by rotating a square five times within the
circle, and had a conical roof.

Square Mausoleums
As for as the square mausoleums, the Seljuqs derived from the example especially the tomb of Ismail, the
Samanid ruler at Bukara. This was built in square plan supported by semi-circular buttresses at corners and
domed roof with dog teeth décor and four small projections (dome lets) were planted at the corner of the roofs.
The tomb is famous for its brick decoration which exceeded in quality and richness those found in Great Mosque
of Samarra.

Octagonal and Cylindrical shapes topped with conical roof were the most popular in Anatolia. The famous
octagonal museum with twelve sides is the Doner Kumbet tomb built around 1275. It consists of two storeys the
lower floor the burial place while the upper floor is a prayer room. The most important feature of the building is
its baroque style ornaments which decorate the exterior of the first floor.

The Tomb in India

• The art of building tombs in India eventually produced some of the most superb examples. Only the
pyramid of pharaohs and few other funerary monuments have excelled in size and architectural
splendour of the Islamic mosques in India.

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• The tomb usually consists of a single compartment or tomb chamber known as Huzrah or Estanah in the
centre of which is the cenotaph or Zarih, the whole structure is roofed by a dome. In the ground
underneath the building there is a crypt which is the mortuary chamber called the maqbara or taqana,
with the grave or qabr in the middle.
In the western wall of the tomb chamber there is generally a Mihrab, but some of the larger mausoleums also
include a mosque in a separate building the whole contained in a single enclosure called rauza, after the garden
(ar – rauza) at Medina in which enshrined the prophet’s tomb.

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Madrasa
• For more the three centuries Muslims used the mosque for praying as well as for learning. Gradually it
was extended to a house where the teacher was living especially in Persia and was called as Madrassa
During the eleventh century madrassa emerged as a separate building often adjoining a mosque. The
schools taught scientific subjects besides theology closely resembling a modern university.
• There were generally four types of madrassas based on the taught subjects and the levels attained.
Regular madrassas including taught subjects like science, religion and language. They were equivalent to
primary schools, which enabled them to higher madrassas.
• Darulkarra was a high school teaching proficiency in Arabic and reading and reciting Quran.
• Darul hadis madrassa was specialized in teaching the science of Hadith and consisted of authentic
sayings of the prophet Mohammed.
• Medical Madrassa did not appear till the reign of Sulyman the magnificent.
• Madrassa was founded and maintained by prince, sultan and the nobles who could meet to afford the
expenses for free education.

Caravan serai
• Caravanserai was a roadside inn where travellers could rest and recover from the day’s journey.
• Caravanserais supported the flow of commerce, information and people across the network of trade
routes covering Asia, North Africa and South Eastern Europe.
• Most typically caravan serai was a building with a square or rectangular walled exterior with a single
portal wide enough to permit large or heavily laden beats such as camels to enter.
• The courtyard was always open to sky , and the inside walls of the enclosure were fitted with a number
of identical stalls , bays , niches or chambers to accommodate merchants and their servants , animals and
merchandise.
• It contained mosque,shops,stable,barn and sleeping rooms

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• Caravan serais provided water for human and animal consumption, washing and ritual ablutions. They
also kept fodder for animals and had shops for travellers where they could acquire new supplies.
• Caravan serais in addition there were shops where the merchants could dispose some of their goods.
They are like modern day service stations along the roadways but free of service.

Bazaar
• At a later stage the charitable function of Caravan serais, ceased to exist and were converted to whole
sale markets selling particular type of goods.
• They are like modern day service stations along the roadways but free of service.
• The second major commercial building is called the bazaar or bedesten.The word comes from Bezetan
which means a cloth market, a market selling textiles.
• The Bedesten evolved around the traditional suq neighbouring the main mosque.
• It is a covered hall raised on pillars and surmounted by domes.
• It is a longitudinal building two bay or three bay wide and upto eight bay long pierced with two
accessible gates.
• Bedesten provided a safe and protected place for merchants, according to kuran like primitive banks, of
safe keeping of their goods.

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• Bedesten was usually locked at nights and was protected by caretakers.(security men)
• This market hall where goods are sold are aligned in large wooden crates with lids open during business
hours and closed at the end of the day.
• These run along both side walls allowing pedestrian movement in the middle.
• Good such as silk, jewellery and spices and other valuable products are sold here.
• Sometimes shops were opened along the external walls of the Bedesten providing more commercial
space as seen in Buyuk Bedesten built in Istanbul in 1470 which had 44 shopping cells inside and 64
outside.
• The example of Kapali carsi which consists of two market halls of Mehmud II and Suleiman the
magnificent shows that the Bedesten cover an area of up to 30 hectares incorporating numerous
shopping alleys and khans.

Character of Islamic architecture in terms of structure materials and method of construction

Pointed arch and domes
• The Islamic architecture was in general arcuated system of construction.
• Characteristic feature in Muslim Architecture is the use of the pointed arch and horse shoe arch.
• The origin of arch can be traced back to the Byzantium and Sassanid Empire.
• The use of pointed arch is as typical of Islamic Architecture as it was for Gothic.
• Most masonry structures were in arched vaulted or dome forms continuing the roman and byzantine
building traditions.
• Cements, plaster and stucco were used for bas- relief carving and highly decorative muqarnas technique
employed in domes, vaults and arches.
• Muqarnas take the form of small pointed arches, stacked in tiers projecting on the underside of arches,
vaults and domes.
• Muqarnas is the Arabic word for stalactite vault, developed around the middle of 10th century in north
eastern Iran .It involves three dimensional – architectural decorations composed of niche like elements
arranged in tiers.
• Lead working, bronze casting and the use of iron were well established techniques.
• Domes, roofs and steeples were often weathered in lead.
• Iron was used in tie bars, and grills.
• Decorative marble slabs, grills and plate tracery and mosaics were common place.
• Timber structures were used in forested areas such as Indonesia and Malaya, including the construction
of early domes in timber.

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Materials
• Brick making was universal in alluvial planes.
• In stone bearing areas the art of selecting and quarrying stone was established.
• Marble was available due to trade if not available locally.
• A rich variety of stones is found in areas from Asia Minor and Egypt to northern India and techniques of
working them and building in masonry has highly developed before the advent of Islam.
• Brick – for the structure (Eg: Tomb at samara , IRAQ)
• Stone – Red sand stone
• Marble – In the form of relief and inlay work, decorative marble slabs, grills, plate tracery.
• Polychrome Stones – Inlay work (Dome of rock, Jerusalem).
• Mosaic – coloured external surfaces of Islamic arch (Great mosque, Damascus)
• Lime – for mortar and plaster (Great mosque of Jibla south of sana).
• Stucco – In plaster
• Wood – Timber played important structural role in the history of Muslim building.
• Gold Plating – For ornamental use in religious and secular building. Screen wall in the (Taj Mahal)) was
proposed to be in gold.
• Glass – glass manufactures was sufficiently advanced to provide window glass.
• Lead / Bronze – lead working and bronze casting and use of iron (dome construction).

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Principles of Islamic planning

 Symmetry was a strong concept in all Islamic buildings. Ex: Garden Plans.
 Plans: The plans were usually geometric in shape-Square, Rectangular being predominately used. (Ex:
Damascus, Qairwan).
 Division into bays: The plan was normally divided into nine bays.(Ex: Ak Serai, Samarqand)
 Axis: A strong axial planning resulting in symmetry. (Ex:- Caravanserai, KARAJ – IRAN,
 Octogon:The use of octagon in tomb architecture and other mosques was prevalent. EX: Dome of Rock,
Jerusalem format at samara).
 Power Architecture: Begins, primarily, with military and defensive architecture. Resulting in structures,
such as citadels walled cities, moats. (Ex: ALHAMBRA, Spain).

Decoration in Islamic architecture

Islamic decoration and weightlessness

Islamic Decoration does not emphasise the actual mechanics of the building, the balance and counter balance of
loads and stresses. Instead, the Islamic architectural tradition aims at a visual negation (concealing) of reality of
weight and the necessity of support.

The use the following means in decoration to achieve

weightlessness of the structure.

• They range from the use of mosaic and painted

decoration to tiles – especially luster and painted
polychrome.
• Openwork, pierced walls and even supporting
pillars.
• Designs of geometric and abstract shapes, floral
patterns, and a variety of calligraphic styles in
small to monumental single words serve as
religious images and decoration.

These decorative elements adds on to the non-directional quality of planning, and continuous merging of spaces
without any specific direction or focus. (Through the bays, arches, columns doorways and cupolas).
If one moves towards the end of the wall the patterns allow them to look beyond the visual limitations of the
wall

• Decoration is a major unifying factor in Islamic Architecture. Decoration has linked buildings and objects
from all over the Islamic world – from Spain to China to Indonesia. The decoration in Islamic Architecture
is more important than the form of the structure.
• The decorative principles are pan Islamic and applicable to all types of buildings and objects at all times.
Though the objects and art differ in quality of execution and style the same ideas, forms and designs
constantly occur.
• Decoration contributes to the creation of continuous space that is the hall mark of Islamic Architecture.
• They are often patterned in the same manner as the walls and in the floors they actually reproduce the
carpets. The tomb of Itimad Ud dawla in Agra for example has an inlaid marble floor that reproduces the
design of Mughal carpets.

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Illusion of 3d in decoration

• Islamic design may be restricted to two dimensions but that very

character implies three dimensional possibilities. For example the
interlacing designs accompanied by variations in colour and
texture create the illusion of different planes.
• Through the use of reflecting and shining materials and glazes,
the repetition, the repetition of designs and contrasting of
textures and manipulation of planes, Islamic decoration becomes
complex and intricate.
• This concept of art rests on a basic foundation of calligraphy and
geometry. Apart from this two it also relies upon the floral
motifs.

Additional layers of water and light

Water and light are also of great importance to Islamic Architecture as they generate additional layers of pattern,
like that of surface decoration and thereby they transform the space.

Space and decoration

Space is defined by surface and since surface is articulated by decoration there is an intimate connection in
Islamic Architecture between the space and decoration. Many devices typical of Islamic Architectural decoration
– for example the muqarnas ( a honeycomb decoration that can reflect and refract light ) are explained to
dissolve the barriers between those elements of the buildings that are structural (load –bearing) and those that
are ornamental ( non – load bearing)

Calligraphy

Calligraphy is considered as one of the most important of Islamic

arts. Nearly all Islamic buildings have some type of surface
inscription in the stone, stucco, marble mosaic and painting. The
inscription may be a verse from the Quran, lines of poetry or names
or dates.
Inscriptions are most often used as a frame along and around the
main elements of buildings like portals and cornices. An inscription
also may be contained in a single panel .Sometimes single words
such as Allah are repeated and arranged into patterns over the
entire surface of the walls.

Geometry

• Islamic artists developed geometric patterns to a degree of complexity and sophistication previously
unknown.
• Geometric patterns have always had a particular appeal to Muslim designers and craftsmen. They convey
a certain aura of spirituality, or at least otherworldliness, without relating to any specific doctrine. In an
Islamic context they are also quite free of any symbolic meaning. Above all they provide craftsmen with
the opportunity to demonstrate his skill and subtlety of workmanship, and often to dazzle and intrigue
with its sheer complexity
• These patterns show the Islamic interest in repetition, symmetry and continuous generation of pattern.
• The skill of the Islamic designers is demonstrated by the integration of geometry with optical effects of
balancing of positive and negative areas and skilful use of colour and tone values.
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• These geometric designs contributed to the

integration between parts and whole of the building
complex, the exterior and interior spaces and their
furnishings.
• Geometrical designs, being free of any symbolic
meaning (which is the case in Islamic art), could convey
a general aura of spirituality without offending religious
sensibilities. In addition, the purity and orderliness of
patterns and symmetries could evoke a sense of
transcendent beauty which, at best, would free and
stimulate the intellect (rather than trap it in the illusions
of mere representation).

Light
• For many Muslims (and non-Muslims), light is the symbol of
divine unity. In Islamic architecture, light functions decoratively
by modifying other elements (of decoration) or by originating
patterns. For example the light passing through pierced lace
stone work creates a corresponding pattern in the floor. Light
passing through the structure makes the structure look very
light lessening the mass.
• Light thus can add a dynamic quality to architecture, extending
patterns, forms and designs into the dimensions of time.
• The combination of light and shade creates contrasts of planes
and gives texture to sculpted Stone or brick works.

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