NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: CHM 304

COURSE TITLE: COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

CHM304 COURSE GUIDE

COURSE
GUIDE

CHM304
COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Course Team Dr. I.A. Ogunwande (Developer/Writer) - LASU

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ii
CHM327 COURSE GUIDE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2011

ISBN: 978-058-333-5

All Rights Reserved

CONTENTS PAGE

iii
CHM304 COURSE GUIDE

Introduction………………………………………………………… 1
What you will Learn in this Course………………………………… 1
Course Aim…………………………………………………………. 2
Course Objectives…………………………………………………... 2
Working through this Course……………………………………….. 2
The Course Material………………………………………………… 3
Study Units…………………………………………………….……. 3
Presentation Schedule………………………………………………. 4
Assessment………………………………………………………….. 5
Tutor-Marked Assignment………………………………………….. 5
Final Examination and Grading……………………………….…….. 5
Course Marking Scheme…………………………………………….. 6
Facilitation/Tutors and Tutorials…………………………………… 6
Summary…………………………………………………………….. 7

iv
Introduction

Colour Chemistry and Technology is a second semester course and a

three - credit degree course available to students offering Bachelor of
Science (B.Sc) Chemistry.

Colour Chemistry and Technology is an emerging field of Industrial

Chemistry. The first synthetic dye, Mauveine, was discovered by Perkin
in 1856. Colour, pigment and polymer industry can rightly be described
as a new idea. However, it remains a vibrant, challenging industry
requiring a continuous stream of new products because of the quickly
changing world in which we live. Polymer science is, driven by the
desire to produce new materials for new applications. The success of
materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene is so
enormous that these materials are now manufactured on a huge scale and
are indeed ubiquitous. There is still a massive drive to understand these
materials and improve their properties in order to meet the material
requirements. However, increasingly, polymers are being applied to a
wide range of problems and in developing new materials.

The oil crisis in the early 1970s, which resulted in a steep increase in the
prices of raw materials for colour, dyes, fibres and polymers, led to the
search for more cost-effective materials, both by improving the
efficiency of the manufacturing processes and by replacing tinctorially
weak chromogens such as anthraquinone with tinctorially stronger
chromogens such as (heterocyclic) azo and benzodifuranone. These
themes are still important and ongoing, as they are the current themes of
product safety, quality, and protection of the environment. There is also
considerable activity in colour and dyes for high-tech applications,
especially in the electronics and non-impact printing Industries.

This course guide is primarily a simple description of what the course is

made up of, the materials to be used and how you can work with these
materials. In addition, it advocates some general guidelines on the time
you are likely to spend on each unit of the course in order to complete it
successfully.

What you will Learn in this Course

In this course, you will learn about important chemical materials such as
colour, dyes, pigment, etc. You will also learn how fibres and related
polymers are produced from natural sources and in synthetic forms. In
addition, the applications of colours, dyes, pigments, fibres and
polymers in the environment will be examined. New challenges and
economic importance of chemical material in an emerging economy will
also be discussed.
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Course Aims

The aim of the course is to provide a basic understanding of the nature

of chemical materials and the emerging trend. In addition, it seeks to
address the massive drive to understand these materials and improve
their properties in order to meet material requirements

Course Objectives

To achieve the set aims, the course has a set of objectives. Each of the
unit contained in a specific module has stated objectives which are
included at the beginning of the unit. A clearer understanding of each of
the objectives is a prerequisite for also understanding the contents of the
unit. It is highly essential to reflect, as you work through each unit, on
the objectives.

The main objectives of the course are listed below. By meeting these
objectives, you should have achieved the aims for which the course has
been designed. At the end of this course, you should be able to:

i. explain the concept of colour, pigments, dyes and related

materials
ii. identify each of the colours, dyes and pigments; their properties
and uses. In addition, you should be able to produce colours that
best suited your desired need
iii. explain the relationship and difference between colours, pigment
and dyes
iv. illustrate how fibers and related polymers are produced
v. define the concept of dyeing and pigment technology in relation
to specific materials
vi. describe new challenges in the emerging world of chemical and
material technology
vii. demonstrate the basic mechanism and processes involved in
dyeing and pigment.

Working through this Course

In order to successfully complete this course, you are required to

carefully study each unit along with other recommended textbooks and
materials that may be provided by the National Open University. You
may also need to exploit e-reading such as the internet for further useful
information on the course.

Each unit contains self assessment exercise and at some point in the
course you would be required to submit assignments for grading and
recording purposes. You are also to participate in the final examination

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

at the end of the course. It is recommended that you devote sufficient

time for reading and comprehension. It is highly necessary that you avail
yourself the opportunity of attending the tutorial sessions where you will
be able to compare your understanding of the course contents with your
colleagues.

The Course Materials

The main components of this course are:

1. The Course Guide

2. Study Units
3. Self Assessment Exercise
4. Tutor-Marked Assignments
5. References/Further Reading

Study Units

There are 17 study units in this course as follows:

Module 1 Colour, Pigments and Dyes

Unit 1 Colour and its Features

Unit 2 Types of Colour
Unit 3 Pigments
Unit 4 Organic, Inorganic and Metallic Pigments
Unit 5 The Linkages between Pigments and Dyes
Unit 6 Application of Dyes and Pigments

Module 2 Classification of Dyes and Fibres

Unit 1 Classification of Dyes

Unit 2 Classification of Fibres
Unit 3 Natural Dyes and Dyeing Processes

Module 3 Synthetic Dyes and Fibres

Unit 1 Synthetic Fibres

Unit 2 Polymer Fibres
Unit 3 Polyesters and Polyamide Fibres
Unit 4 Polyurethanes, Cellulose and Polyacrylonitrile
Unit 5 Aramids, Poly (methyl methacrylate) and Polycarbonate

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Module 4 Dyeing Mechanisms

Unit 1 Textile Dyeing Process

Unit 2 Beam Dyeing Machine, Hank Dyeing Machine and Jig
Dyeing Machine
Unit 3 Jet Dyeing Machine

The first unit addresses the nature and concept of colour and related
materials. It focuses on why objects are in colour we see. The second
unit describes in details the different types of colour and their
application in the environment. The third unit is primarily concerned
with the nature and properties of pigments as a class of coloured
materials. The fourth unit addresses the classes of pigments and their
chemical characteristics. The fifth unit deals with the linkages between
pigments and dyes. The sixth unit explains the applications of dyes and
pigments. The seventh unit enumerates the various classes of dyes while
the eighth unit addresses the classification of fibres. The ninth unit is
concerned with the dyeing processes.

Unit10 focuses on the meaning and different types of synthetic fibres.

Unit 11 also addresses the nature and chemical constituents of synthetic
polymers with emphasis on the polyethylene group. Unit 12 discusses
the chemical formation and importance of polyesters and polyamide
fibres, while the 13th unit explains the nature, formation and uses of
Polyurethanes, Cellulose and Polyacrylonitrile. Units 14, 15 and 16
focus on the advances in the instruments and machines employed in the
dyeing processes. The 14th unit explains the textile dyeing process with
emphasis on the continuous, semi-continuous and pad batch dyeing
processes. Unit 15 primarily deals with the workings of beam dyeing
machine, hank dyeing machine and jig dyeing machine. Lastly, the 17th
unit addresses the jet dyeing machine.

Each of the units is made up of one or two weeks’ work consisting of

introduction, objectives, reading materials, self assessment exercise,
conclusion, summary, tutor- marked assignment (TMA), suggestions for
further reading and source materials. The unit directs you to work on
exercises related to the required reading. Together with the TMAs, they
are meant to test your basic understanding and comprehension of the
course materials, which is a prerequisite for achieving the stated aims
and objectives of the course.

Presentation Schedule

The course materials have important dates for the timely completion and
submission of your TMAs and tutorial lessons. You are vividly

iv
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

reminded of the need to promptly submit answers to tutorials and

assignments as at when due.

Assessment

The course assessment consists of three aspects namely the self

assessment exercise, the tutor- marked assignment and the end of course
examination.

It is essential that you attempt all exercises and assignments and submit
appropriately to the course facilitator for grading. Let your answers be
concise and as accurate as possible. You are expected to consult other
materials in addition to your course material to answer the questions.
Kindly note that the tutor- marked assignment constitute only 30 per
cent of the total marks for the course.

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

The TMA is a continuous assessment component of your course. It

accounts for 30 per cent of the total score. You will be given five TMAs
to answer. Three of these must be answered before you are allowed to sit
for the end of the course examination. The TMAs will be given to you
by your facilitator and returned after you have done the assignment.
Note that these assignments are already contained in the assignment file
to be given to you. You may do yourself good by reading and
researching well before you attempt to answer the questions.

You are warned to submit these assignments to the facilitator at the

stipulated time as indicated in the assignment file. However, if for any
reason you are unable to meet the deadline, you are required to intimate
the facilitator of your problem before the due date and seek for an
extension which may be granted or not.

Final Examination and Grading

The end of the course examination for Colour Chemistry and

Technology will be for about three hours with maximum score value of
70 per cent of the total course work. The examination will be made up of
questions which will reflect what you have learnt in the course
materials/further reading. In addition, they may be similar to the self
assessment exercises and the TMAs. The end of the course examination
is intended to cover information from all parts of the course.

Avail yourself the opportunity of the period between the completion of

the course and the beginning of the examination to revise as much as
possible the whole course material, the exercises and assignments.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Course Marking Scheme

Assignment Marks
Assignments 1-5 Five assignments, best three of the five
count at 10% each i.e. 30% of the
course marks
End of course Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of the course materials

Facilitation/Tutorials

There are 17 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You

will be informed appropriately of the name, telephone number and e-
mail address of your facilitator. In addition, the time, dates and location
of the tutorial lessons will be communicated beforehand. You are
required to mail or submit your tutor- marked assignment to your
facilitator, at least two working days, before the scheduled date.

Note that all the submitted assignments will be duly marked by the
facilitator with further comments that can improve on your performance.
The facilitator will from time to time take track record of your
comprehension, progress and difficulty in the course.

Endeavour to attend tutorial lessons at the fixed appointment. It is

probably the only avenue to meet face- to- face and discuss with your
facilitator. This will also afford you the opportunity to ask questions or
seek clarification on seemingly grey areas in the course material. It is
advisable that you have questions and comments for your facilitator
before the due date. An active participation during the tutorial lessons
will be an added advantage to boost your confidence level.

In case any of the situations listed below arises, do not hesitate to

intimate your facilitator using his or her telephone number or e-mail
address:

You do not understand any part of the study or the assigned

readings
You are not skilled enough to attempt the self assessment
exercise
The questions in the TMAs are not clearly understood

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Summary

Colour Chemistry and Technology is a course which is intended to

provide students with the nature and concept of chemical materials that
are indispensable and highly valuable in our environment. Upon
completion of this course therefore, it is expected that you would apply
the knowledge to cause a positive change in our environment.

Accept my best wishes in the course and I do hope that you will benefit
considerably from its application.

vii
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Course Code CHM327

Course Title Colour Chemistry and Technology

Course Team Dr. I.A. Ogunwande (Developer/Writer) - LASU

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

viii
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2011

ISBN: 978-058-333-5

All Rights Reserved

ix
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Colour, Pigments and Dyes………………………… 1

Unit 1 Colour and its Features……………………………… 1

Unit 2 Types of Colour…………………………………….… 11
Unit 3 Pigments………………………………………….…… 20
Unit 4 Organic, Inorganic and Metallic Pigments…………... 28
Unit 5 The Linkages between Pigments and Dyes………….. 36
Unit 6 Application of Dyes and Pigments…………………... 43

Module 2 Classification of Dyes and Fibres………………….. 54

Unit 1 Classification of Dyes…………………………….…. 54

Unit 2 Classification of Fibres………………………….…... 61
Unit 3 Natural Dyes and Dyeing Processes…………….…... 67

Module 3 Synthetic Dyes and Fibres………………….….…… 76

Unit 1 Synthetic Fibres………………………………..…….. 76

Unit 2 Polymer Fibres…………………………………..…… 84
Unit 3 Polyesters and Polyamide Fibres……………..……... 93
Unit 4 Polyurethanes, Cellulose and Polyacrylonitrile……. 100
Unit 5 Aramids, Poly (methyl methacrylate) and
Polycarbonate……………………………………….. 109

Module 4 Dyeing Mechanisms………………………………… 119

Unit 1 Textile Dyeing Process………………………………. 119

Unit 2 Beam Dyeing Machine, Hank Dyeing Machine and
Jig Dyeing Machine………………………………… 126
Unit 3 Jet Dyeing Machine………………………................... 132

x
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 1 COLOUR, PIGMENTS AND DYES

Unit 1 Colour and its Features

Unit 2 Types of Colours
Unit 3 Pigments
Unit 4 Organic, Inorganic and Metallic Pigments
Unit 5 The Linkages between Pigments and Dyes
Unit 6 Application of Dyes and Pigments

UNIT 1 COLOUR AND ITS FEATURES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Colour
3.2 History of Colour
3.3 Where does Colour Come from?
3.4 Electromagnetic Waves and Visible Spectrum
3.5 Wavelength and Frequencies of Colour
3.6 Properties of Colour
3.7 Colour Perception
3.8 Why are Objects the Colour they are?
3.8.1 Reflection and Scattering
3.8.2 Absorption
3.8.3 Transmission
3.8.4 Refraction
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic radiation is characterised by its wavelength (or
frequency) and its intensity. When the wavelength is within the visible
spectrum (the range of wavelengths humans can perceive, approximately
from 380 nm to 740 nm), it is known as "visible light". Most light
sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source's spectrum is
a distribution giving to its intensity at each wavelength. Although the
spectrum of light received by the eye from a given direction determines
the colour sensation in that direction, there are many more possible
spectral combinations than colour sensations. Therefore, one may
formally define a colour as a class of spectra that gives rise to the same

1
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

colour sensation, although such classes would vary widely among

different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the
same species. In each such class, the members are called metamers of
the colour in question.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

explain the history of colour

define colour
identify the different kinds of colour
explain why objects appear the colour they are.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Colour

Colour is simply defined as the light of different wavelengths and

frequencies. Light, however, is just one form of energy that we can
actually see that is made up of photons.

3.2 History of Colour

Some of the early studies and theories about light were done by
Aristotle. He discovered that by mixing two colours, the third is
produced. He did this with a yellow and blue piece of glass, which when
brought together produced green. He also discovered that light travels in
waves. Plato and Pythagoras also studied light. In the 10th century, Al-
Haytham researched into colour and his findings inspired Newton.
During the Middle Ages, Paracelsus reintroduced the knowledge and
philosophy of colour using the power of the colour rays for healing
along with music and herbs. Unfortunately, he was hounded throughout
Europe and ridiculed for his work. Most of his manuscripts were burnt,
but now he is thought of, by many, to be one of the greatest doctors and
healers of his time. A man, it would seem, very much ahead of his time.
Not only do we now use Colour Therapy once again, but, his other
ideas, using herbs and music in healing, can also be seen reflected in
many of the complementary therapies now quite in commonplace.

A pioneer in the field of colour, Isaac Newton, in 1672 published his

first, controversial paper on colour, and forty years later, his work
'Opticks'. Newton passed a beam of sunlight through a prism, when the
light came out of the prism it was not white but was of seven different
colours: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet. The
spreading into rays of these colours was called ‘dispersion’ by Newton
2
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

and he called the different coloured rays the ‘spectrum’. He discovered

that when the light rays were passed again through a prism, the rays
turned back into white light. If one ray was passed through the prism it
would come out the same colour as it went in. Newton concluded that
white light was made up of seven different coloured rays.

3.3 Where Does Colour Come from?

Colour comes from light. We can see seven main colours of the Visible
Spectrum. The retinas in our eyes though have three types of colour
receptors in the form of cones, we can actually only detect three of these
visible colours – red, blue and green. These colours are called additive
primaries. It is these three colours that are mixed in our brain to create
all of the other colours we see. The wavelength and frequency of light
also influences the colour we see. The seven colours of the spectrum all
have varying wavelengths and frequencies. Red is at the lower end of
the spectrum and has a higher wavelength but lower frequency than that
of violet at the top end of the spectrum which has a lower wavelength
and higher frequency.

To physically see this, we need a prism. When light from the sun passes
through a prism, the light is split into the seven visible colours by
refraction. Refraction is caused by the change in speed experienced by a
wave of light when it changes medium.

Fig. 1.1: Colours of Visible Spectrum

Source: www.colourtherapyhealing.com

3.4 Electromagnetic Waves and Visible Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of

electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum of an object is
the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or
absorbed by that particular object. The electromagnetic spectrum
3
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

extends from below frequencies used for modern radio through to

gamma radiation at the short wavelength end, covering wavelengths
from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom.
The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is
thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck
length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.

Generally, electromagnetic radiation (EM) is classified by wavelength

into radio wave, microwave, infrared, the visible region we perceive as
light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behaviour of EM
radiation depends on its wavelength. When EM radiation interacts with
single atoms and molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of
energy per quantum (photon) it carries.

The diagram below shows what small part of the whole electromagnetic
visible spectrum light actually forms.

Fig. 1.2: Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation

Source: www.colourtherapyhealing.com

The amount of energy in a given light wave is proportionally related to

its frequency, thus a high frequency light wave has a higher energy than
that of a low frequency light wave.

E= hν where E= Energy; h=Planck’ constant; v= velocity of light

4
CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Explain briefly the origin of colour.

2. Highlight the content of visible spectrum.

3.5 Wavelengths and Frequencies of Colour

Each colour has its own particular wavelength and frequency. Each
colour can be measured in units of cycles or waves per second. If we can
imagine light traveling in waves like that in an ocean, it is these waves
that have the properties of wavelength and frequency. A wavelength is
the distance between the same locations on adjacent waves.

Each of these waves has a different wavelength and speed of vibration.

Together they form the electromagnetic spectrum. Light travels in
waves.

The frequency of a wave is determined by the number of complete

waves or wavelengths that pass a given point each second. All light
travels at the same speed but each colour has a different wavelength and
frequency. It is these different wavelengths and frequencies that cause
different colours of light to be separate and visible when passing through
a prism. This can be compared to the radio waves which have different
frequencies and wavelengths in which certain stations can only be
listened to at a particular frequency or wavelength. So, colour blue, for
instance, - can only be visible at a particular frequency and wavelength
range. The higher the frequency of a colour, the closer the waves of its
energy.

Higher frequency colours are violet, indigo, and blue while the lower
frequency colours are yellow, orange and red. A high frequency light
wave has a higher energy than that of a low frequency light wave.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.6 Properties of Colour

Each colour has its own properties with its own wavelength and
frequency. Although white could be said to be a colour, it is generally
not included in the scientific spectrum as it is in fact made up of all the
colours of the spectrum, but it is often being referred to as a colour.

Table 1.1: Colour and Relative Property

Colour Wavelength Range (nm) Frequency Range

(THz)
Red 700-635 430-480
Orange 635-590 480-510
Yellow 590-560 510-540
Green 560-490 540-610
Blue 490-450 610-670
Violet 450-400 670-750

(Frequency = Terahertz (one trillion cycles per second); Wavelength =

Nanometers

One meter equals 1,000,000,000 nanometers. One nanometer is about

the length of ten atoms in a row)

3.7 Colour Perception

We see colour with the sensors in the retina of the eye called rods and
cones. The rods are sensitive to low light and the cones, which require a
greater intensity of light, are sensitive to colour. The message is passed
to the optic nerve and then on to the brain.

Fig. 1.3: Colours and Eyes

Source: www.colourtherapyhealing.com

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

The eye picks up colour and light by the rods and cones. It is the Cones
that detect colour. Each cone contains one of three pigments sensitive to
either red green or blue. There are about 120 million rods and about 6 to
7 million cones in the human eye. Rods are more sensitive than the
cones but they are not sensitive to colour, they perceive images as black,
white and different shades of grey. More than one thousand times as
sensitive, the rods respond better to blue but very little to red light.

Each pigment absorbs a particular wavelength of colour. There are short

wavelength cones that absorb blue light, middle wavelength cones that
absorb green light, and long wavelength cones that absorb red light.
When we observe a colour that has a wavelength between that of the
primary colours red, green and blue, combinations of the cones are
stimulated. An example could be that yellow light stimulates cones that
are sensitive to red and green light. The result is that we can detect light
of all colours in the visible spectrum.

People who suffer from colour blindness have less numbers of particular
cones than normal, so they get confused with colours. If we lose our eye
sight, the body adapts and receives colour rays through the skin. It takes
time for the body to adapt, but it has been shown that people, who are
blind, can differentiate between different colours.

3.8 Why are Objects the Colour they are?

Everything we can see has a colour. Around us, in our homes, at work,
in nature, in space - it is universal; everywhere has a colour, of some
sort. The colour of anything we observe depends upon a few factors.
Firstly - Everything is made up of electrons and atoms. Different
materials, objects and items have a different make up of atoms and
electrons. Any object, by its nature, will, when exposed to light, do one
of the following: reflect or scatter light (reflection and scattering),
absorb light (absorption), do nothing (transmission) and refract light
(refraction).

3.8.1 Reflection and Scattering

A lot of objects reflect light to some degree, but something that is

particularly reflective, has more free electrons that are able to pass from
one atom to another with ease. The light energy that is absorbed by these
electrons is not passed onto any other atoms, instead, the electrons
vibrate and the light energy is sent out of the material at the same
frequency as the original light coming in. Smooth surface reflect light
while rough surface scatter it and the angle of incidence is always equal
to angle of reflection.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.8.2 Absorption

When something appears to have no reflection or is opaque, then the

incoming light source frequency is the same as, or very close to the
vibration frequency of the electrons in the given material. The electrons
of the material absorb the energy of the light source, and because the
light is absorbed, the material or object appears opaque - it has very little
or no reflection.

3.8.3 Transmission

This occurs when the energy of the incoming light is either much lower
or much higher than the energy or frequency required to making the
electrons in the particular material vibrate. As a result of this, the
electrons in an object that appears to be transparent, instead of capturing
the light energy, allows the light wave pass through the object/material
unchanged, thus the object/material is transparent to that frequency of
light.

3.8.4 Refraction

If you have ever put a straw in a drink, then you may have noticed that
the straw appears to be bent under the water. The reason for this is
Refraction. If the energy of the incoming light is the same as the
vibration frequency of the electrons in the material, the light is able to
go deep into the material and causes small vibrations in the electrons.
These vibrations are passed on to the atoms by the electrons, and in turn
they send out light waves at the same frequency as the incoming light.
Although this happens extremely quickly, some of the light that is inside
of the material slows down, but the frequency of the light outside the
material remains the same. The result of this is that the light inside the
material is bent. The angle of the distortion (refraction) depends upon
how much the material is able to slow down the light, in this case as in
the image above water.

A good example as to why objects possess a particular colour is shown

in the picture below (of ripe tomatoes). Tomatoes appear to be red
because when ripe, tomatoes contain a carotenoid known as "Lycopene".
Lycopene is a bright red carotenoid pigment, a phytochemical found not
only in tomatoes but also other red fruits. Lycopene absorbs most of the
visible light spectrum, and being red in colour, Lycopene reflects mainly
red back to the viewer, and thus, a ripe tomato appears to be red.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 1.4: Tomato and its Colour

Source: www.colourtherapyhealing.com

Another example is the green leaf or green grass which uses Chlorophyll
to change light into energy. Because of its nature and chemical makeup,
Chlorophyll absorbs the blue and red colours of the spectrum and
reflects the green. The green is reflected back out to the viewer making
the grass and leaves appear green.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Explain in detail why objects possess a particular colour.

2. Mention the relationship between colours and the eyes.
3. What is colour perception?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Colour comes from light which resides mainly in the visible region of
the electromagnetic radiation. This should not be interpreted as a
definitive list – the pure spectral colours form a continuous spectrum,
and how it is divided into distinct colours linguistically is a matter of
culture and historical contingency. (Although people everywhere have
been shown to perceive colours the same way). A common list identifies
six main bands: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Newton's
conception included a seventh colour, indigo, between blue and violet –
but most people do not distinguish it, and most colour scientists do not
recognise it as a separate colour; it is sometimes designated as
wavelengths of 420–440 nm. The intensity of a spectral colour may alter
its perception considerably; for example, a low-intensity orange-yellow
is brown, and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive-green.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

colour comes from light which is the visible portion of the

electromagnetic radiation
there are seven different kinds of colours namely: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet
the intensity of a spectral colour may alter its perception
considerably; for example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is
brown, and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive-green
the colour of anything we observe depends on what happened on
exposure to light source
any object, by its nature, will, when exposed to light, do one of
the following: reflect or scatter light (reflection and scattering),
absorb light (absorption), do nothing (transmission) and refract
light (refraction).

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the concept of colour.

2. What are factors that determine what the colour of objects are?
3. Examine the concept of colour perception.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Bailey, Alice A. (1995). The Seven Rays of Life. New York: Lucis
Publishing Company.

John, C. D. B. (1995). Lines of Light: The Sources of Dispersive

Spectroscopy, 1800-1930. CRC Press.

Judd, D.B. & Wyszecki, G. (1975). Color in Business, Science and

Industry. (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley Series in Pure and Applied
Optics.

Palmer, S.E. (1999). Vision Science: Photons to Phenomenology.

Cambridge: MA, MIT Press.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 2 TYPES OF COLOURS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Colours
3.2 Primary Colours
3.2.1 Additive Primary Colours
3.2.2 Subtractive Primary Colours
3.3 Secondary Colours
3.3.1 Additive Secondary Colours
3.3.2 Subtractive Secondary Colours
3.4 Tertiary Colours
3.5 Colours in the Home
3.5.1 Using Colours in the Home
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The science of colour is sometimes called chromatics. It includes the

perception of colour by the human eye and brain, the origin of colour in
materials, colour theory in art, and the physics of electromagnetic
radiation in the visible range (that is, what we commonly refer to simply
as light). The familiar colours of the rainbow in the spectrum – named
using the Latin word for appearance or apparition by Isaac Newton in
1671 – include all those colours that can be produced by visible light of
a single wavelength only, the pure spectral or monochromatic colours.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

identify the different types of colour

describe the constitution of each type of colour
produce colour combination
determine the kind of colour that best suits a particular
environment
enumerate the use to which colours are subjected.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Types of Colours

There are basically three types, namely primary, secondary and tertiary
colours

3.2 Primary Colour

Contrary to popular belief, there are actually two methods of producing

colours. They are the Additive and Subtractive Colour. To create all
the colours of the rainbow, both processes use primary colours, which
are colours that cannot be created by mixing other colours.

3.2.1 Additive Primary Colours

Additive colours are colours that are associated with emitted light
directly from a source before an object reflects the light. These colours
are red, green and blue. These are the colours we are probably most
familiar with that are associated with television, and computer displays.
If all three of the additive colours were combined together in the form of
light, they would produce white. Some examples where additive primary
colours are used include television, theatrical lighting and computer
monitors. The additive colour theory was first described by James Clark
Maxwell in the mid 1800s. When equal amounts of red, green and blue
light are combined, they produce white light. By adding the colours
together to produce white, we call these additive colours. Red, green and
blue are the "primary" colours of white light. This is called colour by
addition and is a direct way to prove that all of these three colours do
indeed come from white light.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.2.2 Subtractive Primary Colours

Subtractive colours are colours that are associated with reflected light.
In this case the subtractive colours are blue, red and yellow. These are
the colours we are probably most familiar with as primary colours in
school. These colours are associated with the subtraction of light and
used in pigments for making paints, inks, coloured fabrics, and general
coloured coatings that we see and use every day. If all three of the
subtractive primary colours are combined together, they will produce
black. By adding the colours together to produce black, we call these
subtractive colours.

The subtractive primary colours used in the printing process are cyan,
magenta and yellow. Black is also used. All printing processes use
subtractive colours in the form of cyan (blue), magenta (red), yellow,
and sometimes black. This is known as CMYK for short (cyan, magenta,
yellow, black) the K stands for black in the printing process. These
colours: cyan, magenta and yellow are a set of subtractive primaries and
are commonly used by printers. They are commonly referred to as the
'printing primaries'. It is difficult to achieve a good black from just these
colour pigments so printers sometimes also use black. The reason that
printers use this set of primaries as opposed to the painting primaries of
blue, red and yellow, is that they yield far better results. If you are using
these colours for painting however, you will find that mixing them is far
less intuitive than when mixing the painting primaries.

Some examples where subtractive primary colours are used: textiles,

clothes, furnishings, printing, paints and coloured coatings.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. What is colour?
2. Differentiate between additive and subtractive primary colours.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.3 Secondary Colours

If two of the primary colours are mixed together, a secondary colour is

created. As more colours are mixed, the selection of colours grows. The
following colours can be created:

Violet/Purple – mixing of Blue and Red

Orange - mixing of Red and Yellow
Green - mixing of Blue and yellow
Black - mixing of Blue, Red and Yellow

These colours that are created from mixing the primary colours are
called secondary colours.

3.3.1 Additive Secondary Colours

Secondary additive colours are produced by mixing two additive

primary colours together. The additive primary colours are red, green
and blue. When these additive colours are mixed, they produce three
secondary colours. These are: cyan, magenta and yellow.

3.3.2 Subtractive Secondary Colours

Secondary subtractive colours are produced by mixing two subtractive

primary colours together. The additive primary colours are red, green
and blue. When these subtractive colours are mixed, they produce three
secondary colours. These are: Violet/purple, Orange and green.

3.4 Tertiary Colours

Tertiary colours are combinations of primary and secondary colours.

There are six tertiary colours; red-orange, yellow-orange, yellow-green,
blue-green, blue-violet, and red-violet. An easy way to remember these
names is to place the primary name before the other colour. For
instance, the tertiary colour produced when mixing the primary colour
blue with the secondary colour green, is called 'blue-green"

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 2.1: Formation of Colours

Source: www.colourtherapyhealing.com

3.5 Colours in the Home

There are many variations of the basic colours. The paler versions,
which are sometimes more appropriate for covering the walls within our
homes, give us the same qualities as the bold colour but in a gentler
way. When decorating an area - the complementary colours, and their
variations, should be remembered and combined with our main choice
of colour by way of soft furnishings, pictures etc.

It is also helpful to take in to account the aspect of a room. For example,

should you require a calming atmosphere in a north facing room, which
may well be one of the colder rooms in your house, remember to use
some warm colours (i.e. variations of the warm colours of yellow,
orange and red) to avoid the room feeling colder.

3.5.1 Using Colours in the Home

When using colour in the home environment, we all have our own
personal choices. A Particular colour choice can help towards providing
a specific 'feeling' for a space. Below are some suggested uses of colour
in the home, workplace and various environments, and the effects these
colours can produce.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Table 2.1: Colours, Features and Uses

Colour Effect Suggested Area of Use

Violet Calming for body and Places of worship
mind. Entry areas to clinics and
Good for meditation hospitals
and prayer. Festival areas
Enhances purpose and Pale violet in bedrooms.
dignity.
Heightens our
awareness and helps us
to give our very best.
Purifying.
Indigo Sedative Not suitable for areas for
Helps to open up our entertainment but for more
intuition 'quiet' places
The colour of divine Bedrooms
knowledge and the Treatment rooms
higher mind. Some people find indigo is
helpful for studying so this
colour could be used as
part of the decor of a
library or study.
Blue Calming, relaxing and Any rooms except those
healing used for physical activity
Not as sedating as or play.
indigo. Also the colour
of communication.
Green Balancing, harmonising Depending upon the shade,
and encourages can be used for most areas
tolerance and Useful for any rooms
understanding. except those used for
physical activity or play. It
can be used with other
colours/colour as well to
avoid the balanceand
harmony becoming more
like total inactivity and
indecision.
Yellow Stimulates mental Activity rooms
activity Entrance halls
Promotes feeling of Not for bedrooms as
confidence yellow can interfere with
Helpful for study as it sleep since it tends to keep
helps us to stay alert. our minds "switched on"

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Not ideal for areas of

possible stress.
Orange Warming and Any activity area and
energizing creative areas
Can stimulate creativity Not ideal for bedrooms or
Orange is the colour of areas of possible stress.
fun and sociability.
Red Energizing, exciting the Any activity area but red
emotions needs careful choice of
Stimulates appetite. tone and depth and the
space in which it is to be
used as it can make a space
look smaller and can be
claustrophobic or
oppressive. However, used
well, red and its variations
can make a space feel
warm and cosy. Often used
in restaurants.
Magenta Magenta is the eighth Lecture spaces
colour in the colour Chapels halls etc
spectrum and is a Not ideal for play rooms or
combination of red and activity rooms
violet, it combines our
earthly self and spiritual
self, thus balancing spirit
and matter.
It is uplifting and helps
us to gain a feeling of
completeness and
fulfillment.
White White contains all the Any room, but it can be a
colours. It emphasises little intimidating to some.
purity and illuminates Needs to be broken up with
our thoughts, giving us another colour or with
clarity. plants/ornaments/pictures
etc.
Black Black used with another Not ideal as a single
colour enhances the colour, but when used with
energy of that second care,can enhance and
colour complement other colours
Black gives us the in almost any situation.
space for reflection and
inner searching.
Pink This colour soothes and Ideal for a baby's or child's

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

nurtures bedroom.
It helps to dissolve
anger and encourages
unconditional love.
Turquoise Cool and calming and Any room except it is not
good for the nervous ideal for activity areas.
system and immune
system.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Distinguish between secondary and tertiary colours

4.0 CONCLUSION

There are basically three types of colours: namely primary, secondary

and tertiary colours. In addition, both the secondary and the tertiary
colours arise through combinations of some primary colours.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

additive colours are colours that are associated with emitted light
directly from a source before an object reflects the light. These
colours are red, green and blue.
subtractive colours are colours that are associated with reflected
light. By adding the colours together to produce black, we call
these subtractive colours.
the colours that are created from mixing the primary colours are
called Secondary Colours
if the secondary colours are mixed, they produce what are called
Tertiary Colours
use of colour in the home, workplace and various environments
to produce aesthetic, psychological or healing.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Write short notes on the followings:

(a) Primary colours

(b) Secondary colours

2. In a tabular form, compare and contrast the nature and the uses of
violet, magenta and blue colours

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Berlin, B. & Kay, P. (1969). Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and
Evolution, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Judd, D.B. & Wyszecki, G. (1975). Color in Business, Science and

Industry. New York: Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics
(3rd ed.).

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 3 PIGMENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Pigments
3.2 Features of Pigments
3.3 Types of Pigments
3.3.1 Natural and Synthetic Organic Pigments
3.3 Differences among various Types of Pigments
3.4 Natural Pigments
3.4.1 Kinds of Natural Pigments
3.4.2 Annatto Natural Pigments
3.4.3 Plant Pigments
3.4.4 Carotenoid Pigments
3.4.5 Betalain Pigments
3.4.6 Anthocyanin Pigments
3.5 Limitations of Natural Pigments
3.6 Factors Affecting the Selection of Pigments
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Both dyes and pigments appear to be coloured because they absorb some
wavelengths of light preferentially. In contrast with a dye, a pigment
generally is insoluble, and has no affinity for the substrate. Some dyes
can be precipitated with an inert salt to produce a lake pigment, and
based on the salt used they could be aluminum lake, calcium lake or
barium lake pigments.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this, you should be able to:

define what a pigment is

identify types of pigments and their structure
differentiate between the known pigments.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Pigments
Pigments are generally coloured, organic or inorganic solid powder, and
usually are insoluble. They are not affected physically or chemically in
the substrate in which they are incorporated. Pigments can give a full
range of colours.

3.2 Features of Pigments

The pigments are versatile colouring agents that come with all round
features to give credence to their suitability in a variety of mediums.
Some of the striking features are: -*----------------
Excellent light and weather fastness:

A good baking stability that makes them suitable for automotive

and other industrial paints
High tinting strength--
Good over spray fastness when applied in paints
Gives heat stability of around 300° C in the case of Polyolefins
Plastics
Excellent solvent resistance properties
Easily dispersible
Consistency and uniqueness of shades.

3.3 Types of Pigments

a. Inorganic Pigments: Those pigments that are made up of

mineral compounds are known to be Inorganic Pigments. These
minerals are mainly oxides, sulphides of one or more metals. To
impart colours in different compounds, inorganic pigments are
applied.
b. Organic Pigments: In organic pigments, the molecules are made
of carbon atoms along with hydrogen, nitrogen or oxygen atoms.
Organic pigments can be subdivided into two viz. Natural organic
pigments and Synthetic organic pigments.
c. Metallic Pigments: Obtained from the ores of metal

3.3.1 Natural and Synthetic Organic Pigments

i. Natural Organic Pigments - Pigments of this category are

derived from animal and plant products. The use of these
pigments is rare due to their poor light fastness property.
ii. Synthetic Organic Pigments - Pigments of this category are
carbon based and are often made from petroleum products. Under
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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

intense pressure or heat, carbon base molecules are manufactured

from petroleum, acids, and other chemicals and synthetic organic
pigments have been formulated from these molecule. Most of the
synthetic organic pigments except carbon black are not stable and
they will wear away at the time of use as a pigment.

Table 3.1: Comparison between Natural and Synthetic Organic

Pigments
Natural Synthetic Organic Pigments
Organic
Pigments
Miscellane Quinacr Phthalo Peryl Pyrrol Ary- Metal Miscellane
ous: e.g. id- c- e-nes es lamid Complex ous: e.g.
Rose- ones yanines es es: e.g. Dioxazsine-
Madder, Transpar in
Bone ent Danthrone.
Black, Yellow,
Carbon New
Black Gambog
e

3.4 Differences among Types of Pigments

Table 3.2: Property of various Kinds of Pigments
Classical Specialty
Property Inorganic Organic
Organic Organic
Behaviour Pigments Dyestuffs
Pigments Pigments
Very
Opacity Usually high Translucent to Transport
Transparent
Low to Considerably stronger than
Colour Strength Strongest
moderate Inorganic Pigments
Usually Not
Dispersability Good: Often Adequate Poor to good required;
Abrasive Soluble
Usually 5000 0
0 150 C- 0 2500
0 C-
Heat Resistant F; Some 200 200 C- 300 C
3000 C 0
350 C
C
Migration Moderate - Good - Very Poor -
Excellent
resistance Good Outstanding good
Light Fastness
6 to 8 2 to 6 6 to 8 2 to 7
(on a Blue scale
Weather Outstanding Excellent for Good for
Insufficient
resistance for selection Selection selection

Source: www.dyespigments.com.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. What do you understand by the word pigment?

2. List the kinds of pigments you know

3.5 Natural Pigments

Different types of natural pigments are found in different kinds of

natural sources. Some of these pigments are obtained from
insects/animals and others are obtained from plants. Other pigments
belong to cosmetics and have affinity to all such foods and drugs which
require colour additives. Natural pigments are good for use in the
shower gel, bath bombs, bath salts, shampoo, soap, lotion and in many
more other products. These pigments have good quality of bleed
protectiveness in soap and these are also water dispersible. But, these
pigments do not have high intensity in light.

3.5.1 Kinds of Natural Pigments

3.5.2 Annatto Natural Pigments

Annatto natural pigments have reddish-orange colourant. This colourant

is derived from seeds of Achiote trees. Annatto pigments are given
'annatto' as a name because these pigments are derived from Annato
shrubs. The concentration of annatto pigments in the annatto shrubs,
vary from place to place. When the foodstuffs require hues of yellow to
orange, annatto based pigments are used. The main food items in which
annatto dyes are used are: in making cheese (around 50%), fish
processing (around 20%), confectionery (around 10%), dairy products
except cheese (around 20%). Bixin is the major carotenoid of annatto

Bixin

3.5.3 Plant Pigments

Chlorophyll is responsible for the green colour of flowering plants.

Acetone is required for the extraction of plant pigments. Calcium
carbonate must be present for stimulating the extraction process. Any
other mild alkali can also be used for the extraction of plant pigments.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

The alkali is used during the extraction process to neutralize the acid
which liberates from the plant tissues.

Chlorophyll

3.5.4 Carotenoid Pigments

Carotenoid pigments e.g. β-carotene, have colour range from yellow to

red. Mixture of acetone and hexane in the 1:3 ratios is used for the
extraction of carotenoid pigments. The acetone fraction containing the
extracted carotenoid pigments is removed with water. To remove the
hexane residue, the mixture is treated with activated MgO2 in
diatomaceous earth column.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.5.5 Betalain Pigments

Betalains are another type of colour pigments which are also derived
from plants. These pigments are present in two forms. The first is -
cyanin having purple-red colour and are present in high concentration.
The second is -xanthine which is yellow in colours which are obtained
in low concentration. These pigments can easily be extracted from plant
tissues with water as they are highly soluble in water. The extracted
water is then mixed smoothly with ethyl alcohol in 1:1 ratio. The use of
ethanol in the mixture is to reduce the enzymatic action; otherwise the
pigments will be degraded.

Cyanin

Xanthine

3.5.6 Anthocyanin Pigments

Anthocyanin pigments are coloured pigments and these are found in

abundance in plant kingdom. The colours imparted by these pigments
are blue, red and purple. The colour of fruits and flowers are also due to
the colour impartation of these pigments. Anthocyanins are soluble in
water and their extraction from the plant parts is also easy. Slightly acid
mixed water is required for the extraction of these pigments.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.6 Limitations of Natural Pigments

1. Natural pigments are produced by traditional methods.

2. These pigments have lower intensity in comparison to synthetic
pigments.
3. To obtain the same depth like synthetic pigments, natural
pigments require large quantities of raw materials.
4. These pigments are not efficient for colouring of the synthetic
clothes.
5. To ensure adequate wash and light fastness, these pigments
require application with different metallic mordants.
6. Application with few mordants like alumina and iron has adverse
effects on the environment.
7. The liquid waste of natural pigments contains heavy metals
which is much more than the desired limit.

3.7 Factors affecting the selection of Pigments

Factors affecting the choice of a pigment depend on application. The

following broad factors can be taken as a guide:

Hiding efficiency
Colour pH value
Bulking value
Density
Refractive index
Hardness
Oil absorption

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Mention four limitations of natural pigments.

2. Give the names and structures of three common pigments.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Pigments have been known since ages to impact positively as coloured

substances made of both natural and synthetic materials. There are
several factors to be taken into consideration when working with a
pigment.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

pigments are generally described as insoluble colour materials

there are different kinds of pigments, both natural and synthetic
forms
these natural pigments are made of diverse chemical structures
which affects their colouring properties.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between natural and synthetic pigments.

2. Mention four limitations of natural pigments.
3. With structural examples, explain.

a. Betalain pigments
b. Anthocyanin pigments
c. Carotenoid pigments

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Brunello, F. (1973). The Art of Dyeing in the History of Mankind. Neri

Press: Vincenza.

www.dyepigments.com

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 4 ORGANIC, INORGANIC, AND METALLIC

PIGMENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Kinds of Pigments
3.2 Organic Pigments
3.2.1 Categories of Organic Pigments
3.2.2 Features of Organic Pigments
3.3 Inorganic Pigments
3.3.1 Natural Inorganic Pigments
3.3.2 Synthetic Inorganic Pigments
3.3.3 Shortcomings of Inorganic Pigments
3.4 Difference between Organic and Inorganic Pigments
3.5 Metallic Pigments
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are a number of pigments available today. In fact, after the advent
of synthetic pigments there has evolved various types of pigments that
are suited to particular needs and types of industries.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

State the different types of pigments

discuss the features of each type of pigments
identify the differences and similarities between types of
pigments.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of types of Pigments

Inorganic Pigments: Pigments that are made up of mineral compounds

are known as Inorganic Pigments.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Organic Pigments: Organic Pigments are not usually found in nature.

That is the reason why a majority of these pigments are chemically
synthesized. They contain carbon and come with relatively low levels of
toxicity, not providing any major environmental challenge.

Industrial Pigments: These are based on their industrial application.

3.2 Organic Pigments

Raw materials include coal tar and petroleum distillates that are
transformed into insoluble precipitates. Traditionally organic pigments
are used as mass colourants. They are popular in plastics, synthetic
fibres and as surface coatings-paints and inks. In recent years the
organic pigments are used for hi-tech applications that include photo-
reprographics, opto-electronic displays and optical data storage.

3.2.1 Categories of Organic Pigments

a. Monoazo Pigments
b. Diazo Pigments
c. Acid and base dye Pigments
d. Phthalocyanine Pigments: Some of the striking features which
makes it a very useful for a variety of applications are the
following: Light fastness, tinting strength, covering power,
resistance to the effects of alkalies and acids and good stability
e. Quinacridone Pigments: The following are important features of
these pigments; outstanding light fastness, excellent bleed and
heat resistance, bright and vibrant tones, very good tinting value
along with working properties and high transparencies
f. Other polycyclic Pigments

3.2.2 Key Features of Organic Pigments

a. Very good stability to solvents, light, heat, and weathering

b. Good tinctorial strength
c. Cost effectiveness
d. Consistency and unique shades
e. Completely non-toxic
f. Very bright, pure, rich colors
g. Organic pigments shows good color strength

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Mention the source of organic and inorganic pigments.

2. Mention three of the characteristics of organic pigments.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.3 Inorganic Pigments

Inorganic pigments may be obtained from vivid naturally occurring

mineral sources or minerals which have been obtained synthetically.
They are of the type mineral-earth but generally are metallic oxides or
synthetics. Pigments that are of the type Mineral-earth are very simple
and naturally occurring coloured substances. The preparation process is
also simple and consists of the steps of washing, drying, pulverizing and
mixing into a formulation. Inorganic pigments are available in the
market in different forms. These different forms are powder, pastes,
slurries and suspensions. The Inorganic Pigments are again divided into
two sub types.

3.3.1 Natural Inorganic Pigments

Natural inorganic pigments are the earth colours in natural form like
ochers, umbers etc. These colour pigments are extracted from the earth
bed, Iron oxide and hydroxide which are present in the soil. These two
compounds are responsible for the colouration of these colour pigments.
Clay, chalk and silica are also present in these pigments in varying
quantity.

The types of Natural Inorganic Pigments are:

(i) Azurite- Actually these kind of natural inorganic pigments are

copper carbonates having greenish blue shading. Over a very
long period, azurite has been used as a pigment. But, often these
pigments have been replaced by synthetic pigments or used to
paint the expensive ultramarine as under paintings.
(ii) Red earths- These pigments are the most diverse kind of natural
inorganic pigments. These are made from clay and they have a
large amount of iron oxide. The colour varies from dull yellow to
dull deep yellow or from dull orange to dull red or from dull dark
brown to dark brown.
(iii) Yellow earths- These are natural earth containing silica and clay.
These pigments are present in hydrous form of iron oxide. These
pigments also contain gypsum or manganese carbonate. All over
the world, these pigments are available and have been used from
the prehistoric period.

3.3.2 Synthetic Inorganic Pigments

Synthetic inorganic pigments are manufactured in the laboratory. These

pigments consist of metallic compounds like manganese violet; cobalt
blue e.t.c. Synthetic inorganic pigments can also be produced by the
replication of the natural earth colours like mars, red or yellow. As these

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

pigments are manufactured in the laboratory, so they are found in pure

form having fine particles.

Table 4.1: Refractive Index of some of the very Popular Class of

Inorganic Pigments

Refractive
Pigment
Index
TiO2 (rutile) 2.71
TiO2 (Anatase) 2.55
Antimony Oxide 2.20
Zinc Oxide 2.01
Calcium
1.65
Carbonate
Fumed Silica 1.45

Source: www.dyespigments.com

Synthetic organic pigments are mainly derived from some selective

elements atoms. These are as follows:

Chromophore is a pair or group of atoms which creates a complex and

dynamic clouding of the electrons within the respective electron shells
in single atom or more than one atom. These chromophores are
responsible for the colour creation phenomena of the pigment’s
molecules.

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3.3.3 Shortcomings of Inorganic Pigments

Colour that comes from inorganic pigments is comparatively less bright.

These pigments also seemed to be less rich and pure than the organic
pigments. As these pigments have low tinting strength so a large number
of pigments are required to produce the desired effects.

3.4 Differences between Organic and Inorganic Pigments

The differences between organic and inorganic pigments are based upon
three principal factors.

i. Molecular structure of the pigments

Carbon chains or carbon rings are always present in the molecules of the
Organic Pigments. As carbon element is associated with nitrogen and
sulphur elements of the same class of the atomic table, so, sometimes in
the molecules of the organic pigments, the atoms of nitrogen and
sulphur are also found along with the carbon atoms.

Examples: Azo, Phthalocyanine, Diazo and Anthraquinone pigments.

However, in the molecules of the Inorganic Pigments, the cations of

metal are found in an array form with the non-metallic anions. This
arrangement does not allow these pigments to dissolve in the solvent
and plastic. Examples: Iron oxide, yellow, black, red and tan pigments.

ii. Sources

The main sources of organic pigments are plants and plant products.

iii. Exposure

Inorganic pigments are considered better over their organic counterparts.

These inorganic pigments can withstand the impact of sunlight and
chemical much better. .They have also good opacity and thus can protect
other objects by preventing light. These pigments also increase rash
inhibition, abrasion resistance and rigidity to the molecules. These
pigments are available at low cost in respect to the organic pigments.
They are also durable.

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Table 4.2: The Differences between Organic and Inorganic

Pigments

Inorganic
Particulars Organic Pigments
Pigments
Source Minerals Chemically refined oil
Color Often dull Bright
Dyeing/Coloring
Low High
Strength
Opacity Opaque Transparent
Light fastness Very good Vary from poor to good
Insoluble in Have little degree of
Solubility
solvents solubility
Degree of safety May be unsafe Usually safe
Chemical Stability Often sensitive Usually good
Cost Moderate Mostly too expensive
Source: www.dyespigments.com

3.5 Metallic Pigments

Nowadays, metallic pigments are a very popular category of pigments,

as a further classification. Metallic pigments can be of two types:

(i) Aluminium Pigments: Aluminium pigments are further divided

into two categories namely leafing grade and non-leafing grade.
The aluminum pigments are produced from aluminium that has
purity in the range of 99.3-99.97%. The particle has lamellar
shape with 0.1-2 µm in thickness and diameter of 0.5-200 µm.
These pigments found use in automotive topocoats. Some of the
preferred applications of Aluminium pigments are the following:

i. Corrosion protection coats

ii. Reflective paints
iii. In Marine paints (covering coats)
iv. Roof coatings
v. In Heat-proof and highly heat-resistance paints
vi. Chrome effect paints
vii. Aerosols

(ii) Zinc Pigments: Zinc Pigments come in two forms of powder and
dust. Usually the zinc dust is finer as compared to powder and is
spherical in shape. The dust also has a light coating of zinc oxide.

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Table 4.3: Zinc Pigments along with their Applications

Zinc Pigments Application

Zinc dust Chemical applications Metallurgical applications
Zinc phosphate Active ingredient in domestic cleaning products
Zinc oxide Agricultural applications
Rubber industry
Brick kilns
Ceramics
Source: www.dyespigments.com

4.0 CONCLUSION

There a number of pigments in the world today that have serve mankind
in various applications. The use to which pigments are put depends on a
number of factors. The presence of chromophores that absorbs light of
certain wavelength is the most striking feature of individual pigments.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

natural organic pigments are abundant in nature and consist of

carbon and some other elements
inorganic pigments are obtained from naturally occurring mineral
sources or minerals which have been obtained synthetically. They
are of the type mineral-earth but generally are metallic oxides
synthetic inorganic pigments are manufactured in the laboratory.
These pigments consist of metallic compounds like manganese
violet, cobalt blue
metallic pigments are primarily composed of aluminium and zinc

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between organic and inorganic pigments.

2. Write short notes on the following:

a. kinds of natural inorganic pigments

b. Application of aluminium pigments
c. Categories of organic pigments

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lyles, J.N. (1990). The Art and Craft of Natural Dyeing. Knoxville:
University of Tennessee Press.

Viseux, M. (1991). Le cotton L’impression, Thonon-les-Bains Edition

de l’Albaron.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 5 THE LINKAGE BETWEEN PIGMENTS AND

DYES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Dyes
3.2 Features of Dyes
3.3 How Can the Colour of Dyes be Altered?
3.3.1 What Gives Dyes Solubility and Cohesivenes
3.4 Dyeing and Fabric
3.5 Conventional Pigments Dyeing System
3.6 Differences between Dyes and Pigments
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Both dyes and pigments appear to be coloured because they absorb some
wavelengths of light preferentially. In contrast with a dye, a pigment
generally is insoluble, and has no affinity for the substrate. However,
there has been an interchange of usage between the two. Pigment dyeing
is a comparatively recent addition.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

state what makes a dye

identify the types of dyes
differentiate between a dye and pigments
explain how dyes work.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Dyes

A dye can generally be described as a coloured substance that has an

affinity for the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is
generally applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to
improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber.
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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.2 Features of Dyes

At the very basic level, the use of colour in identifying individual

components of tissue sections can be accomplished primarily with dyes.
Although there are other means, Dyes are however, the largest group
that can easily be manipulated to our liking. Dyes are applied to
numerous substrates for example to textiles, leather, plastic and paper in
liquid form. One characteristic of dye is that the dyes must get
completely or at least partially soluble in what it is being put to. The rule
that we apply to other chemicals is similarly applicable to dyes also. For
example, certain dyes can be toxic, carcinogenic or mutagenic and can
be hazardous to health.

3.3 How Can the Colour of the Dyes be Altered?

The answer lies in the modifiers. Colour modifiers like methyl or ethyl
groups can actually alter the colour of dyes. They do so by altering the
energy in the delocalised electrons. It has been found that by addition of
a particular modifier there is a progressive alteration of colour. An
example can be given for methyl violet series.

The following step explains what happens to the colour of the dyes
when modifiers are added

Step A: When no methyl group is added, the original dye

Pararosanil as it is called is red in colour.

Step B: As four methyl groups are added a reddish purple dye

Methyl Violet is got.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Step C: With the addition of more methyl groups a purple blue dye
Crystal Violet is obtained. It has in it six such groups.

Step D: Further addition of a seventh methyl group the dye that is

got is called Methyl green.

3.3.1 What Gives Dyes Solubility and Cohesiveness?

The answer to this riddle lies in substance called Auxochrome.

Auxochromes have the abilty to intensify colours. It is a group of atoms
which attaches to non-ionising compounds yet has to ionise.
Auxochromes are of two types, positively charged or negatively
charged.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. What is a dye?
2. What are the basic features of a dye

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.4 Dyeing and Fabric

This is an application of dyes with respect to the fabrics.

Table 5 .1: Types of Dyes and Fabric

Group Application
Direct Cotton, cellulosic and blended fibres
Vat dyes Cotton, cellulosic and blended fibres
Sulphur Cotton, cellulosic fibre
Organic pigments Cotton, cellulosic, blended fabric, paper
Reactive Cellulosic fibre and fabric
Disperse dyes Synthetic fibres
Acid Dyes Wool, silk, paper, synthetic fibres, leather
Azoic Printing Inks and Pigments
Basic Silk, wool, cotton
Source: www.dyespigments.com

3.5 Conventional Pigment Dyeing System

There is a challenge in pigment dyeing. In the process of pigment dyeing

no actual chemical reaction takes place between the dye and the fabric.
Instead, what happens is that the pigments get seated on the fabric with
the help of binders.

Pigments are not soluble in water and show no affinity for fibre. So,
conventional dyestuff-based dyeing conditions are not feasible for
pigment dyeing. To come to terms with such limitations, a new kind of
pigments have been formulated for use in fibres. These are maintained
in a stable dispersion in the medium of water by anionic surfactants.
This type of pigment is known as pigment resin color (PRC), primarily
used in printing. Some of the popular pigments used in fabrics are given
here.

a. Yellow colour: Acetoacetic acid anilide pigments

b. Red: Azoic pigments
c. Blue or green: Phthalocyanine pigments

A typical process of pigment dyeing for cellulosic textile materials

consists of padding the textile materials with a dye bath. The dye bath
contains anionic or neutral colour dispersions of pigments. Along with
the pigments it also contains anionic binders, acid-liberating catalyst,
anti-migrating agents, and other types of additives. Then, the textile
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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

materials are dried at high temperatures, this cures the film-forming

binders and pigment colours firmly on the textiles.

3.6 Differences between Dyes and Pigments

The major differences between the Dyes and Pigments are highlighted
below

Table 5.2: Differences between Dyes and Pigments

Points of
Dyes Pigments
Difference
They are soluble Pigments are colourants that
Solubility are insoluble in water and
most solvents
Comparatively lesser in
Number Available in large number
number
Product Lower as compared to
Very high
resistance pigments
Lower Dyes are very much Traditionally pigments have
vulnerable. Lights destroy been found to be more
Light coloured objects by lightfast than dyes
fastness breaking open electronic
bonding within the
molecule
Dye molecules are Pigment particles are about
comparatively smaller it's 1-2 microns in size. (1
like comparing a football micron =1/1000 meter). It
Size
(pigment) to say a head of a means that the particles can
pin (dye) be seen under a magnifying
glass
Taking the example of Taking the example of a
dyeing a wood surface, the wood surface pigment
dye and the substrate requires the help of a binder
(wood) that is dyed are for gluing. As it is an inert
chemicals that have certain substance which is merely
features called functional suspended in a
Bonding groups. At the level of carrier/binder
molecules these groups
serve as open pockets of
electrostatic charges (+ or -
). The functional group in
dyes, serve as a point for
attaching the dye to the

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

wood
Structure During application process During application,
during the there is a temporary pigments have the capacity
application alteration in the structure of to retain its particulate or
process the dyes crystalline structure
Pigments impart colours by
Imparting of Dyes can only impart colour
either scattering of light or
Colours by selective absorption
by selective absorption
Taking the example of a In the example of a candle
candle making process, if making as pigments are
the candles are dyed it is coloured particles, they tend
Combustible easily combustible and can to clog a wick when burned.
properties be applied throughout the This makes them
candle undesirable for a candle if it
is coloured throughout and
used for burning
While pigments are
Usually the dyes are organic
Chemical normally inorganic
(i.e. carbon-based)
Composition compounds, often involving
compounds
heavy toxic metals
The dye based printing inks In case of ink based printing
Longevity
do not last as long as the prints made with pigments
factor
pigment inks last longer
Compatible with almost all Owing to the physical
Printing on the substrates that needs to makeup of the pigment inks
substrates be dyed the range for suitable
substrates are limited
Taking the case of printing As compared to dye-based
inks, dye based inks offers a inks, pigment inksets
Colour gamut
wide variety somewhat lags behind, on
the same paper stock
Source: www.dyespigments.com

4.0 CONCLUSION

It could be seen that dyes and pigments are not the same, though they
may be similar in some cases. Interestingly, pigment can be dyed too.
Certain chemical modification explains the reason behind the dyeing
processes.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

a dye can generally be described as a coloured substance that has

an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied
dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution, and may require
a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber
the functional group in dyes, serve as a point for attaching the dye
to the wood
in the process of pigment dyeing no actual chemical reaction
takes place between the dye and the fabric.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are auxochromes? Mention four kinds of auxochrome.

2. In a tabular form, mention five differences between dye and
pigment.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Industrial Dyes, Chemistry, Properties, Applications; Edited by Klaus

Hunger (2003). Wiley-VCH.

Herbst, W. & Hunger, K. (1997). Industrial Organic Pigments.

Weinheim: VCH.

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UNIT 6 APPLICATION OF DYES AND PIGMENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Applications of Dyes and Pigments
3.2 Overview of the Important Applications of Pigments
3.3 Industrial Application of Dyes and Pigments
3.3.1 Colourants for Plastic Industry
3.3.2 CementIndustry
3.3.3 Ceramic Industry
3.3.4 Colourants for Security Printing
3.3.5 Colourants for Cosmetic Industry
3.3.6 Dyes in Medicine
3.3.7 Colourants for Agriculture Industry
3.3.8 Paper Industry
3.3.9 Pigments in Paint Industry
3.3.10 Wire and Cable Industry
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Modern dyes serve more than just being pretty. They have become
indispensable tools for a variety of industries. Today various dyes are
manufactured to meet the requirements of various industries. Dyes are
available in various forms. Examples are dry powders, granules, pastes,
liquids, pellets, and chips. Today the role and application of pigments
have increased.. There would hardly be any industry left where dyes and
pigments do not play any substantial role. The challenge is now to
discover pigments that are capable of not only long-lasting applications
but also are environmentally safe.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

identify the various applications of dyes and pigments

describe the economic importance of dyes and pigments.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Application of Dyes and Pigments

From acting as colourants for plastics, textile dyeing industries and the
highly sophisticated biotechnology industry, dyes are touching lives
everywhere. Dyes and pigments are also used by industries for inks and
tinting. Other industries, where dyes are used in a variety of products
include paper and pulp, adhesives, art supplies, beverages, ceramics,
construction, cosmetics, food, glass, paints, polymers, soap, wax,
biomedicine etc.

3.2 Overview of the Important Applications of Pigments

Paints- A diversified application in the whole gamut of paints that

include decorative and protective coatings, in paints that are oil
and resin based, automotive finishes, emulsion paints, distempers
etc.
Printing inks- Pigments are used in all kinds of printing inks that
includes inks for printing metal foils, lacquers etc.
Pigment finishes for leather and textiles: Colouration application
for popular textiles such as polyesters, nylon etc
Colouration of Plastics- Pigments are used in host of plastic
applications that includes poly vinyl chloride (PVC), rubber and
synthetic polymers, urea-formaldehyde (U-F) and melamine-
formaldehyde moulding powders polystyrene, nylons, polyfins,
phenol-formaldehyde (P-F), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene resins
(ABS).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Give a brief account of the industrial application of dyes and pigments.

3.3 Industrial Application of Dyes and Pigments

3.3.1 Colourants for Plastic Industry

Colour selection is one of the vital things to be considered in the plastics

industry. Colour is an integral part of the plastic material and it should
not be considered as an afterthought. The whole system of colouring has
to deal with using what is called a total systems approach. No doubt the
colour enhances the part's functionality, but it has also the potential to
degrade certain material properties like impact strength, if not properly
applied. The colourants that are used in the plastic industries are the
dyes and pigments. Both dyes and pigments exhibit colour through the
process of visible light absorption and scattering. Typically colour

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

formulations generally have four colourants. Black and white are used
basically to control the value and Chroma, while two coloured pigments
or dyes are applied to establish the Hue. The resulting colour that is
achieved is governed by the laws of subtractive mixing, the same law
that is used in printing and painting.

3.3.2 Cement Industry

Over the years, people have generated interesting effects by mixing

cement and pigments in different ways and in different proportions.
Concrete is derived from cement. For about last one century, pigments
have been used with concrete to give them different colours. When
pigments are mixed with concrete, then actually, these pigments tint the
colour of the paste portion of the concrete.

To ensure a long lasting cement colour shade, the pigment that is being
used in the cement, must have a good quality. These pigments (colour)
are made from both natural and synthetic iron oxide, cobalt, titanium
dioxide and chromium oxide. From iron oxide pigments, red, black and
yellow colour can be obtained. From cobalt pigments, blue colour can be
obtained. White colour and green colour can be obtained from titanium
dioxide and chromium oxide respectively. Other colours like buffs,
brown, tans, coppers, oranges, chocolates and many other colours can be
obtained from the blends of the red, black and yellow coloured iron
oxide pigments. These coloured pigments are: water-wetable, lightfast,
alkali resistant and will not negatively affect the firmness and strength of
the cement. But, one thing we should remember about the concentration
of these pigments in the cement. This concentration should be within the
range of 10% of the weight of the cementation ingredients.

3.3.3 Ceramic Industry

The applications of different pigments on ceramics are brought in

different forms. These applications are as follows:

In Coating Ceramic Materials; Ceramic Glaze; Frits- By

formulating these coating applications of pigments on ceramics,
the end users get attractive looking products with more durability
and utility.
In Glaze development- One of the applications of pigments on
ceramics is to develop leading glazes for various whiteware
ceramics. These include sanitary ware, tile, dinner ware etc.
In preventing Ceramics Corrosion and colour fading- In this
process, by applying pigment coating and protective layer with
other kind of chemicals, the corrosion of the metals can be
prevented. The lasting effect of colours also increases.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

For enforcing the different applications on ceramics, various kind of

special pigments are available. How much of which pigment will be
used depends upon the desired colour intensity. But, the quantity of
pigments that is used for these applications can vary from 1% to 10%.
This variation does not make any noticeable impacts on the substances.
Enamel (colourful) can be produced by colouring the melt during
manufacturing. Enamel can also be generated by mixing colouring stains
during the milling process.

3.3.4 Colourants for Security Printing

In view of the ever increasing threats of the cases involving forgery and
fraud being committed in the financial institutions involving currency,
both dyes and pigments play a vital role in giving cutting edge solutions
to detect and prevent such fraud. Here we will discuss about the
fluorescent dyes as well as about the luminescent pigments as applied in
security applications.

Considerable research over the last decade or more on the study of

fluorescence has borne fruits in the form of development of new
fluorescent dyes. These security dyes are now applied increasingly in the
very sensitive area of security printing. The fluorescent dyes are
providing ways to create and apply effectively controlled”signatures“.
The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) of these dyes is that they are
customized and are printed as patches on different kinds of surfaces.
Each of them has a signature element that is able to identify the patch as
authentic. As the different dye formulas are able to vary their
fluorescence characteristics in various repeatable ways, as a result
unique signatures can be achieved. A very popular Example of a dye
that is used in security printing is that of Coumarin.

Coming now to Luminescent pigments, these days a new range of

luminescence has been developed that are either excited by ultraviolet
(UV) or infrared (IR) or applied in security printing applications. Here a
few specific uses of the luminescent pigments in the security printing are
discussed.

Security Printing and prevention of counterfeiting- Security

marks and features that are not visible under normal light are
made with Luminescent pigments. They cannot be duplicated
even by the ultra sophisticated photocopiers. They can be easily
verified using a very simple Ultra violet light or a luminescence
sensor. That is the reason why security printing of stamps,
checks, credit cards, licenses etc are done with Luminescent
pigments.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Brand Protection and Security of Products- In applications that

involve product security, luminescent pigments are used in
making tamper evident seals for pharmaceuticals and other
products. When it comes to brand protection, luminescent
pigments and fluorescent dyes are used for proprietary invisible
security marks and features which get printed on products,
packaging and labels.

Property Identification and Prevention of loss- As the invisible

security marks created by luminescent dyes are not visible under
normal conditions, do not deface the property and cannot be
removed they are an ideal forensic tool.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Describe in detail, the application of dye or pigment in a security and

printing industrial.

3.3.5 Colourants for Cosmetics Industry

Dyes have found a wide variety of uses in the cosmetics industry. Be it
the hair dyes or lipsticks or nail polish shampoo everywhere there is
wide use of dyes. Most of the commercial hair dye formulas available
now are complex that use bountiful of ingredients and the formulas also
differ considerably with manufacturers. The dye chemicals that are used
in making hair dyes usually consist of amino compounds, like 4-amino-
2-hydroxytoluene and m-Aminophenol. Pigments of metal oxides, like
titanium dioxide and iron oxide, are also used.

CH3
NH2
OH

OH
NH2
4_amino_2_hydroxyltoluene m_amino phenol

In the category of decorative cosmetics, the majority of colours used are

pigments. It is the inorganic pigments that are popular with cosmetics
but are subject to purity levels of heavy metals. The range of inorganic
pigments used in cosmetics is generally made up of various chemical
types. A few of the popular ones are provided in the table.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

Table 6.1: Applications of Pigments

Pigments Features and applications

Iron Oxides Three basic shades: black, yellow and red, finds use in
liquid foundations, face powders, and blushers.
Chromium Shades range from dull olive green, to a blue green, or
Dioxides bright green, finds use in most categories of cosmetic
preparations but prohibited for use in lip products in the
USA.
Ultramarines Shade range from bright blue to violet, pink and green
also, not allowed for lip products in the USA.
Manganese Shade is purple.
Violet
Iron Blue Colour is dark blue, used in a wide range of applications.
White White pigments have a wide use in all cosmetics, they
Pigments show extremely good covering power, are almost totally
Titanium inert also extremely stable to heat and light.
Dioxide
Zinc Oxide
Mica Mica gives a natural translucence when used as face
powders and powder blushers.
Source: www.dyespigments.com

In addition to this some types of organic pigments are also used along
with water soluble and oil soluble dyes in the cosmetics application.

Some examples of water soluble dyes are given here.

Dye Colours
Carotene PS 300
Annato Hydrosouble
Carmin of Cochineal

Table 6.2: Colour of some Dyes

Dye Colours
Carotene PS 300 Medium yellow
Annato Hydrosouble Sand
Carmin of Cochineal Orchid

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.3.6 Dyes in Medicine

Dyes are now an important ingredient in medical tests. Many of the tests
that are carried out on patients use dye to get accurate results. One such
example is that of Fluorescein angiography. Fluorescein angiography
derives its name from fluorescein, the dye that is used very successfully
for carrying out tests. Angiogram is a very valuable test that gives
information about the circulatory system.

3.3.7 Colourants for Agriculture Industry

Primarily there are three main types of agricultural industries that use
the dye. They are the crop protection industry, fertilizer industry and the
seed dressing industry. The purpose of the dye used here is for colouring
of agricultural chemicals or in the identification process of agricultural
chemicals. The basic selection criteria depend upon the following:

Colour strength of the particular dye

Dye colour
Colour stability
Compatibility of the dye with the particular agent

(i) Fertilizer Industry: Fertilizers are often added with colouring to

differentiate between qualities and to avoid any type of errors in
application. Fertilizers are also coloured for purely marketing
purposes. Usually water based pigment is often used in the
diluted form and is sprayed onto the fertilizer or sometimes
incorporated into a melt.
(ii) Crop Protection Industry: Use of colourants in crop protection
agents of the type insecticide and fungicides helps to clearly
demarcate treated areas from the untreated ones. In addition, the
dye stuffs also help in promoting safety in the handling
techniques. Colouring of pesticides or herbicides is generally
done by mixing chromatic pigments with dry powder
formulations of the agents. Milori blue is a very popular pigment,
which goes well with viticultural fungicides. Other categories of
pigments include lithol rubine, heliogen blue etc., Dyes used in
the crop protection industry are Solvent dyes, Acid dyes or Basic
dyes.
(iii) Seed Dressing Industry: The main objective of colouring the seed
dressings is used for marking and a warning reference. To avoid
any sort of confusion and making sure that it does not end up
being used as fodder. The most important colourant used here is
red with typical concentrations of 600 ppm.

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3.3.8 Paper Industry

Over the years Paper makers have used dyes. Seeing the growth in the
paper industry it can be safely assumed that Dyes for paper industry has
a very promising future. Given below is a comprehensive list of the
various grades of paper that are open to dyeing.

Writing and printing paper

Tissue - Facial, toilet, towel, napkin
Copier papers
Boards/Cover papers
Decorative laminated paper
Packaging grades - corrugated case stuff
Envelope grades
Specialty papers like, label, laundry tag, posters

The dyes that are used include sulphur dyes and cationic direct dyes.
Other than these two popular options, acid dyes and basic dyes are also
used. Sulphur dyes are reduced alkaline solutions.

Coming to the Cationic Direct Dye, some features which make them
suitable towards use in paper are:

An extended conjugation
A planar molecular structure
An excess of positive charge over the negatively charged surface
groups

A typical structure of a cationic direct dye is given here.

OH

Ar N=N +
R NH3
NH Ar
HO3S +
R NH3

Ar = Aromatic

R = Aliphatic

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3.3.9 Pigments in Paints Industry

Pigments are the colouring elements present in the paints. They have a
very special place in the paints industry. The paints industry uses them
from a broad array, which includes specialty pigments to manufacture
paints for a variety of applications. Ranging from automobiles to
buildings to hardware the list is virtually endless.

The paints that employ the wide variety of pigments can be broadly
classified according to application into two types. They are colourants
for the industrial applications and architectural/decorative applications
respectively. The pigment types are:

(i) Earth colour Pigment- Earth colours are derived from natural
sources and are inorganic in nature (i.e. metal oxides). Examples
that can be given of earth colours are: ocher, umber, terra di
siena, bolus, swedish red etc.
(ii) Mineral Pigments- Mineral pigments comprise synthetic
inorganic pigments. They include among others chrome oxide
green, titanium dioxide, iron oxide yellow, red, brown and black,
ultramarine blue, nickel-titanium yellow etc. One of the
disadvantages of mineral pigments is the toxicity and ecological
imbalance.
(iii) Plant Colour Pigments- Plant colours are sourced from natural
organic pigment found in plants. Examples of plant colours can
be given of indigo, alizarin red, woad, reseda, alkanna violet and
saffron.
(iv) Synthetic Pigments- Synthetic Pigments are the most widely
used artificial organic pigments and dyes. They give the
advantage of synthesisation of almost any shade, especially of
pure colour tones and gives dazzling visual effects. Examples are:
azo, dioxazine and phthalocyanin.

3.3.10 Wire and Cable Industry

In the Wire and cable industry, various types of pigments are used to
colour polyolefins. Mainly they are employed for Wire Identification
Methods. As in cables, it can be seen that the colouring done on the
outer layer is governed by a different set of requirements as from the
inner layers. Pigments that are used in the wire and cable industries are
of two types inorganic and organic. Newer alternatives that are coming
in to the market are known as the "mixed-phase metal oxide" pigments.
Examples can be given of, yellow nickel titanates and blue and green
cobalt aluminates. A relatively new entrant is the brilliant yellow
bismuth vanadate. Organic pigments are also used but are not as popular

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because they are more difficult to disperse than inorganic ones leading
to possible loss in mechanical strength.

Table 6.3: Common Pigments and Applications

Pigment Colour Application

Titanium White Used in variety of resins
dioxide
Zinc sulphide White Wide use
Iron oxides Red, yellow, brown, Wide use
and black
Lead chromates and Colours can include Good use
lead chromate bright yellow and
molybdates orange
Cadmium Comes in reds, Excellent for
yellows, oranges and engineering resins
maroons
Chromium oxides Green Shows good heat and
light fastness, variety of
uses
Ultramarines Comes in blue, pink Works in a wide gamut
and violet shades of resins
Source: www.dyespigments.com

4.0 CONCLUSION

It could be seen that the use to which dyes and pigments are employed is
endless. These vary from cosmetic industry to paper making. They have
added value to our day to day living.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

from acting as colourants for plastics, textile dyeing industries

and the highly sophisticated biotechnology industry dyes are
touching lives everywhere
pigments have diversified application in paints, textile, printing
wide variety of options applicable for the usage of dye and
pigment.

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6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Describe in detail, the application of dye or pigment in the following

industries:

i. Paper making
ii. Cosmetic
iii. Security printing
iv. Wire and cable

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Buxbaum,G. (1998). Industrial Inorganic Pigments. VCH, Weinheim.

Klaus Hunger, Peter Mischke, Wolfgang Rieper, Roderich Raue, Klaus

Kunde, Aloys Engel "Azo Dyes” in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry (2005). Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.

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MODULE 2 CLASSIFICATION OF DYES AND FIBRES

Unit 1 Classification of Dyes
Unit 2 Classification of Fibres
Unit 3 Natural Dyes and Dyeing Processes

UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF DYES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Dyes
3.2 Different Classification of Dyes
3.2.1 Chemical classification of Dyes
3.2.2 Industrial Classification of Dyes
3.2.3 Classification Based on the Source of Materials
3.2.4 Classification Based on Applications
3.3 Classification Based on International Trade Commission
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor -Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A dye can generally be described as a coloured substance that has an

affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. At the very basic
level the use of colour in identifying individual components of tissue
sections can be accomplished primarily with dyes. Although there are
other means, dyes are however, the largest groups that can easily be
manipulated to our liking. Dyes are applied to numerous substrates for
example to textiles, leather, plastic, paper in liquid form.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

define what a dye is

describe the several ways for classification of dyes
identify each class of dye with the very unique chemistry,
structure and particular way of bonding.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Dyes

By definition dyes can be said to be coloured, ionising and aromatic

organic compounds which show an affinity towards the substrate to
which it is being applied. It is generally applied in a solution that is
aqueous. Dyes may also require a mordant to improve the fastness of the
dye on the material on which it is applied. A mordant is an element
which aids the chemical reaction that takes place between the dye and
the fiber so that the dye is absorbed.

3.2 Different Classification of Dyes

There are several ways for classification of dyes. It should be noted that
each class of dye has a very unique chemistry, structure and particular
way of bonding. While some dyes can react chemically with the
substrates forming strong bonds in the process, others can be held by
physical forces. Some of the prominent ways of classification is given
hereunder.

a. Organic/Inorganic
b. Natural/Synthetic
c. By area and method of application
d. Chemical classification- Based on the nature of their respective
chromophores.
e. By nature of the Electronic Excitation (i.e. energy transfer
colourants, absorption colourants and fluorescent colourants).
f. According to the dyeing methods

Anionic (for Protein fibre

)
Direct (Cellulose)
Disperse (Polyamide fibres)

3.2.1 Chemical Classification of Dyes

Table 1.1: Chemical Classification of Dyes

Group Uses
Acridine dyes, derivatives of acridine >C=N- Textiles,
and>C=C leather
Anthraquinone dyes, derivatives of anthraquinone Textiles
>C=O and >C=C
Arylmethane dyes

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Diarylmethane dyes, based on diphenyl methane

Triarylmethane dyes, based on triphenyl methane
Azo dyes, based on a -N=N- azo structure
Cyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine
Diazonium dyes, based on diazonium salts
Nitro dyes, based on the -NO2 nitro functional
group
Nitroso dyes, are based on a -N=O nitroso
functional
Phthalocyanine dyes, derivatives of Paper
phthalocyanine >C=N
Quinone-imine dyes, derivatives of quinone Wool and
paper
Azin dyes Leather and
Eurhodin dyes textile
Safranin dyes, derivatives of safranin -C-N=C- -C-
N-C
Xanthene dyes, derived from xanthene -O-C6H4-0 Cotton, Silk
and Wool
Indophenol dyes, derivatives of indophenol >C=N- Colour
and >C=O photography
Oxazin dyes, derivatives of oxazin -C-N=C =C-O- Calico printing
C=
Oxazone dyes, derivatives of oxazone
Thiazin dyes, derivatives of thiazin
Thiazole dyes, derivatives of thiazole >C=N-and - Intermediate
S-0=
Fluorene dyes, derivatives of fluorene
Rhodamine dyes, derivatives of rhodamine
Pyronin dyes
Source: www.dyespigments.com

Yellow azo dye

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. List carefully the different means of classification of dyes.

2. Mention the functional groups present in the azo, thiazole, and
the phthalocyanine types of dyes.

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3.2.2 Industrial Classification of Dyes

Majority of the dyestuff is primarily consumed by the textile industry, so

at this level a classification can be done according to their performances
in the dyeing processes. Worldwide around 60% of the dyestuffs are
based on azo dyes that are used in the textile finishing process. Major
classes of dyes in textile finishing are as listed below;

(a) Acid dyes: They are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied
to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibers
using neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to the fiber is
attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic
groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber. Acid dyes are
not substantive to cellulosic fibers. Most synthetic food colors
fall in this category.
(b) Basic dyes: These are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly
applied to acrylic fibers, but find some use for wool and silk.
Usually acetic acid is added to the dye bath to help the uptake of
the dye onto the fiber. Basic dyes are also used in the colouration
of paper.
(c) Direct or substantive dyeing: This is normally carried out in a
neutral or slightly alkaline dyebath, at or near boiling point, with
the addition of either sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulfate
(Na2SO4). Direct dyes are used on cotton, paper, leather, wool,
silk and nylon. They are also used as pH indicators and as
biological stains.
(d) Mordant dyes: This class of dye requires a mordant, which
improves the fastness of the dye against water, light and
perspiration. The choice of mordant is very important as different
mordants can change the final color significantly. Most natural
dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature
base describing dyeing techniques. The most important mordant
dyes are the synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for
wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for wool, and are
especially useful for black and navy shades. The mordant,
potassium dichromate, is applied as an after-treatment. It is
important to note that many mordants, particularly those in the
heavy metal category, can be hazardous to health and extreme
care must be taken in using them.
(e) Vat dyes: They are essentially insoluble in water and incapable
of dyeing fibres directly. However, reduction in alkaline liquor
produces the water soluble alkali metal salt of the dye, which, in
this leuco form, has an affinity for the textile fibre. Subsequent
oxidation reforms the original insoluble dye. The colour of denim
is due to indigo, the original vat dye.

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(f) Reactive dyes: They utilise a chromophore attached to a

substituent that is capable of directly reacting with the fibre
substrate. The covalent bonds that attach reactive dye to natural
fibers make them among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold"
reactive dyes, such as Procion MX, Cibacron F, and Drimarene
K, are very easy to use because they can be applied at room
temperature. Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing
cotton and other cellulose fibers at home or in the art studio.

3.2.3 Classification Based on the Source of Materials

(a) Natural Dyes: These are dyes obtained from natural sources –
plant, animal or mineral. Roots, nuts and flowers that grow in the
backyard are all sources of colouring pigments known as Natural
Dyes. Many natural dyes had been earlier created and used at
home long before the chemist created dyes in laboratories, there
were dyers who extracted colours from flowers, leaves, roots, the
outer and inner bark of trees as well as their heartwood. A
common example is Indigo.

Indigo

(b) Synthetic Dyes: The first human-made (synthetic) organic dye,

mauveine, was discovered by William Henry Perkin in 1856.
Thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared. Synthetic
dyes quickly replaced the traditional natural dyes. They cost less,
they offered a vast range of new colours, and they imparted better
properties upon the dyed materials.

3.2.4 Classification Based on Application

A number of other classes have also been established, based on

application that includes the following:

(a) Leather Dyes – Used for leather.

(b) Oxidation Dyes – Used mainly for hair
(c) Optical Brighteners – Used primarily for textile fibres and
paper.

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(d) Solvent Dyes – For application in wood staining and production

of coloured lacquers, solvent inks, waxes and colouring oils etc.
(e) Fluorescent Dyes – A very innovative dye. Used for application
in sports good etc.
(f) Fuel Dyes – As the name suggests it is used in fuels
(g) Smoke Dyes – Used in military activities.
(h) Sublimation Dyes – For application in textile printing.
(i) Inkjet Dyes – Writing industry including the inkjet printers
(j) Leuco Dyes – Has a wide variety of applications including
electronic industries and papers.

3.3 Classification based on International Trade Commission

However the most popular classification is the one that is advocated by

the US International Trade Commission. This system classifies dyes into
12 types:

Type 1: Acridine dyes, derivatives of acridine

Type 2: Anthraquinone dyes, derivatives of anthraquinone
Type 3: Arylmethane dyes

- Category 1: Diarylmethane dyes, based on diphenyl methane

- Category 2: Triarylmethane dyes, derivatives of triphenyl
methane

Type 4: Azo dyes, based on -N=N- azo structure

Type 5: Cyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine
Type 6: Diazonium dyes, based on diazonium salts
Type 7: Nitro dyes, based on a -NO2 nitro functional group
Type 8: Nitroso dyes, based on a -N=O nitroso functional group
Type 9: Phthalocyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine
Type 10: Quinone-imine dyes, derivatives of quinone

- Category 1: Azin dyes

Class (a): Eurhodin dyes

Class (b): Safranin dyes, derivatives of safranin

- Category 2: Indamins
- Category 3: Indophenol dyes, derivatives of indophenols
- Category 4: Oxazin dyes, derivatives of oxazin
- Category 5: Oxazone dyes, derivatives of oxazone
- Category 6: Thiazin dyes, derivatives of thiazin

Type 11: Thiazole dyes, derivatives of thiazole

Type 12: Xanthene dyes, derived from xanthene
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- Category 1: Fluorene dyes, derivatives of fluorene

Pyronin dyes

- Category 2: Fluorone dyes, based on fluorone

Rhodamine dyes, derivatives of rhodamine

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Mention four types of dyes and their applications.
2. Enumerate the specific role of a mordant in the dyeing process.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Dyes are applied to numerous substrates for example to textiles, leather,
plastic and paper in liquid form. One characteristic of dye is that the
dyes must get completely or at least partially soluble in the medium
which it is being put to. The rules that apply to other chemicals are
similarly applicable to dyes. For example, certain kind of dyes can be
toxic, carcinogenic or mutagenic and can pose as a hazard to health.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that:

dyes generally can be described as coloured substances that have

an affinity to the substrate to which they are being applied
dyes may also require a mordant to improve the fastness of the
dye on the material on which it is applied
there are different means of classification of dyes, but the most
generally acceptable one is based on the International Trade
Commission, which differentiated dyes into twelve categories.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Dyes are made up of vast arrays of chemical bonding. Discuss
2. Write short notes on dyes obtained from natural source.
3. Mention four types of dyes and their uses.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Colour Index International (3rd ed.). (1999). CD-ROM, Clarinet

Systems Ltd. SDC and AATCC.
Sequin-Frey, M. (1981). “The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Dyes”.
Journal of Chemical Education 58 (4).
Simon, G. (2000). Mauve: How One Man Invented a Color that
Changed the World. Faber and Faber.
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UNIT 2 CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Fibres
3.2 Classification of Fibres
3.3 Natural Fibres
3.3.1 Soft Fibres
3.3.2 Hard Fibres
3.4 Human -Made Fibres
3.5 Extraction of Fibres
3.5.1 Dew Retting
3.5.2 Water Retting
3.6 Natural Fibres
3.6.1 Cotton
3.6.2 Flax or Linen
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Plants which yield fibres have been companion to human kind since
time immemorial. Materials for rope and weaving were collected from
the wild by the earliest peoples; later societies began to care for
particular strands of these plants. Fibres have long been of natural
origin. Human uses for fibres are diverse. They can be spun into
filaments, thread, string or rope. They can be used as a component of
composite materials. They can also be matted into sheets to make
products such as paper or felt. Fibres are often used in the manufacture
of other materials.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

identify the sources of fibres

describe the several ways for classification of fibres
identify some of the plants and trees that gives good natural
fibres.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Fibres

Fibre or fibre is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are

in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. Fibres are of
great importance in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding
tissues togther.

3.2 Classification of Fibres

Fibres used by man come from a wide variety of sources. They are
classified into two broad types namely natural and synthetic fibres.

3.3 Natural Fibres

Natural fibres include those produced by plants, animals, and geological

processes. They are biodegradable over time. They can be classified
according to their origin:

(a) Vegetable Fibres: Vegetable fibres are generally based on

arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin: examples include
cotton, linen, hemp jute, flax, ramie, and sisal. Plant fibres serve
in the manufacture of paper and cloth.
(b) Wood Fibres: Wood fibre, distinguished from vegetable fibre, is
from tree sources. Forms include groundwood, thermomechanical
pulp (TMP) and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps.
Kraft and sulfite, also called sulphite, refer to the type of pulping
process used to remove the lignin bonding the original wood
structure, thus freeing the fibres.
(c) Animal Fibres: They consist largely of particular proteins.
Instances are spider silk, sinew, catgut and hair (including wool).
Polar bear fibres are noted for being hollow.
(d) Mineral Fibres: This comprises of asbestos. Asbestos is the only
naturally occurring long mineral fibre. Short, fibre-like minerals
include wollastinite, attapulgite and halloysite.

In general, natural fibres can be grouped into two categories: soft fibres
and hard fibres.

3.3.1 Soft Fibres

Most soft fibres come from the bast portion of the plant. Also called the
phloem, the bast lies directly under the outer bark or skin. Here the
transport of the products of photosynthesis and the development of

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stabilizing structures take place. Through the process of retting, the bast
is removed from the stems. Hemp, Flax, Jute and Ramie are soft fibres.

3.3.2 Hard Fibres

Hard fibres are comprised not only of the phloem but also partly of the
hardened wood core of the plant, the Xylem. The hardness in the plant's
fibres is caused by the deposit of lignin in the cell walls. Hard fibres
generally come from the leaves of monocot (single seed-leaf) species,
for example Sisal agave, fibre banana and diverse palms.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. List carefully the different types of natural fibres you have

studied.
2. Distinguish a soft fibre from a hard one.

3.4 Human -Made Fibres

These may come from natural raw materials or from synthetic

chemicals. They are of two types:

(a) Many types of fibre are manufactured from natural cellulose,

including rayon, modal, and the more recently developed Lyocell.
Cellulose-based fibres are of two types, regenerated or pure
cellulose such as from the cupro-ammonium process and
modified or derivitized cellulose such as the cellulose acetates.
Fibreglass made from specific glass formulas and optical fibre,
made from purified natural quartz, are also man-made fibres that
come from natural raw materials. Metallic fibres can be drawn
from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or
deposited from more brittle ones such as nickel, aluminum or
iron.
(b) Synthetic fibres are a subset of man-made fibres, which are based
on synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather
than arising from natural materials by a purely physical process.
Such fibres are made from polyamide, nylon, polyethylene (PET)
or PBT polyester, phenol-formaldehyde (PF), polyvinyl alcohol
fibre (PVOH), polyvinyl chloride fibre (PVC), polyolefins (PP
and PE), or acrylic polymers, although pure polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) fibres are used to make carbon fibre by roasting them in a
low oxygen environment. Traditional acrylic fibre is used more
often as a synthetic replacement for wool. Carbon fibres and PF
fibres are noted as two resin-based fibres that are not
thermoplastic, most others can be melted. Aromatic nylons such
as Kevlar and Nomex thermally degrade at high temperatures and

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do not melt. More exotic fibres have strong bonding between

polymer chains (e.g. aramids), or extremely long chains (e.g.
Dyneema or Spectra). Elastomers can even be used, e.g. spandex
although urethane fibres are starting to replace spandex
technology.

3.5 Extraction of Fibres

The extraction of bast fibres from the stems of linen, hemp, ramie, nettle
and many other fibre plants is accomplished through retting. The strings
of fibres in each are glued together and to the outer bark and the inner
wood by pectin. During the retting process, the activity of various fungi,
bacteria and weathering dissolve the pectin and the fibres can be
separated by chemical and/or mechanical means.

3.5.1 Dew Retting

Dew retting takes place directly on the field. The stems of plants are
harvested, gathered in bundles, stacked and left to the elements.
Depending on temperature and weather, retting can take some weeks.

3.5.2 Water Retting

Water retting is done in large basins filled with water. Soaking in water,
the pectin is more quickly dissolved. Earlier in Europe and still today in
developing countries, plant fibres are retted in rivers and streams which
often is the cause for severe water pollution.

3.6 Natural Sources of Fibres

3.6.1 Cotton

Cotton is King, the most produced and most consumed of all natural
fibres. Cotton's soft, flexible qualities and its unique ability to regulate
moisture and warmth make it first choice material for many industries.
Few can deny the fundamental comfort of cotton in its most
recognizable form, 'jeans and T-shirt', simple fashion and skin-friendly
uniform of the American West. Cotton is derived from the plant
Gossypium arboreum L., G. herbaceum L. (Old World Cotton) and
Gossypium barbadense L and G. hirsutum L (New World Cotton). New
world cotton give much higher yields than those from the Old World,
their fibres are finer and generally longer.

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3.6.2 Flax or Linen

In Western Civilisation linen was the most important material made

from plant fibres, from ancient times until the end of the 18th Century.
Finds of archaic linen seeds in Iraq and in southeastern Turkey show
that wild linen Linum bienne was cultivated as early as 9000 years ago.
The living and the dead of Egypt were, for thousands of years, wrapped
in linen.

Linen from the plant Linum usitatissimum L., grows to 120cm. Its short
fibres are found in the stem. Bound together end to end and into bundles
by pectin, linen fibres form strands 60 to 90cm long. Linen is extremely
rip-resistant but not particularly flexible. For the finest of fibres, the
green plant is harvested following its flowering period. When left until
golden, middle-ripe, linen gives stronger fibres and rougher textiles.
Completely ripe and dried when harvested, linen fibre is only useful for
ropes and sackcloth. The extreme parallel order of flax fibres in their
bundles gives linen fabric a characteristic wrinkle.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Fibres are all inclusive natural products. Synthetic fibres can be

produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural fibres,
but natural fibres enjoy some benefits, such as comfort, over their man-
made counterparts.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

fibres are of great importance in the biology of both plants and

animals, for holding tissues together
fibres are divided into tow types namely natural and synthetic or
man- made
fibres are extracted from plants by retting
cotton and Linen or Flax are the two sources of natural fibre
fibres are divided into two major groups- natural and synthetic.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Mention four types of synthetic fibres.

2. Mention the major differences between vegetable and wood fibre.
3. Discuss briefly the method of extraction of fibres.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Industrial Dyes, Chemistry, Properties, Applications; edited by Klaus

Hunger (2003). Wiley-VCH.

Kriger, C. E. & Connah, G. (2006). Cloth in West African History.

Rowman Altamira.

Munro, J.M. (1990). Cotton, Harlow Longman Scientific and Technical.

New York: John Wiley.

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UNIT 3 NATURAL DYES AND DYEING PROCESS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Natural Dyes and Mordant
3.2 Types of Natural Dyes
3.2.1 Natural Dyes Obtained from Plants
3.2.2 Natural Dyes Obtained from Animals
3.2.3 Natural Dyes Obtained from Minerals
3.3 Categories of Natural Dyes
3.4 Natural Dyeing
3.4.1 Some Natural Dyeing Materials
3.4.2 Mordants for Natural Dyeing
3.5 Making Natural Dyes from Plant Sources
3.6 Natural Dyeing Process
3.6.1 Dyeing Process
3.7 Fibre Dyeing
3.8 Dyeing Process of Leather
3.9 Some Dyeing Patterns
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Historically, natural dyes were used to colour clothing or other textiles,

and by the mid-1800, chemists began producing synthetic substitutes for
them. By the early part of this century only a small percentage of textile
dyes were extracted from plants. Lately, there has been increasing
interest in natural dyes, as the public became aware of ecological and
environmental problems related to the use of synthetic dyes. The use of
natural dyes cuts down significantly on the amount of toxic effluent
resulting from the synthetic dye process. Natural dyes generally require
a mordant, which are metallic salts of aluminum, iron, chromium,
copper and others, for ensuring the reasonable fastness of the colour to
sunlight and washing.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

define natural dye

identify categories of natural dye
produce dye from natural plant
identify different sources of natural dye
explain the simple dyeing procedure.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Natural Dyes and Mordant

Natural dyes are a class of colourants extracted from vegetative matter

and animal residues.

A mordant is an element which aids the chemical reaction that takes

place between the dye and the fiber so that the dye is absorbed.

3.2 Types of Natural Dyes

Natural dyes can be sorted into three categories: natural dyes obtained
from plants (e.g. indigo), those obtained from animals (e.g. cochineal),
and those obtained from minerals (e.g. ocher).

3.2.1 Natural Dyes Obtained from Plants

(a) One example of a natural dye obtained from plants is madder,

which is obtained from the roots of the madder plant. The plants
are dug up, the roots washed and dried and ground into powder.
During the 19th century, the most widely available fabrics were
those which had been dyed with madder. Analyses of red fabrics
found in King Tutankhamen’s tomb show that they were dyed
with madder, a plant-based dye. This red was considered brilliant
and exotic. The madder plant continued to be used for dyeing
until the mid-1800s when a synthetic substitute was developed.
(b) Another example of a natural dye obtained from plants is woad.
Until the Middle Ages, Europeans used woad to create a blue
fabric dye. The woad was a shrub that grew abundantly in parts
of Europe. The colouring was in the leaves, which were dried and
ground, mixed with water and made into a paste. This dye was
supplanted by indigo, an ancient shrub well known to the
Egyptians and Indians. Like woad, its colour lay in its leaflets and

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

branches. The leaves were fermented, the sediment purified, and

the remaining substance was pressed into cakes.
(c) Indigo prevailed as the preferred blue dye for a number of
reasons. It is a substantive dye, needing no mordant, yet the
colour achieved is extremely fast to washing and to light. The
manufacture of natural indigo lasted well into the early 1900s. In
1905 Adolf von Bayer (the scientist who also formulated aspirin)
was awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering the molecular
structure of indigo, and developing a process to produce it
synthetically.

3.2.2 Natural Dyes Obtained from Animals

A good example is cochineal, which is a brilliant red dye produced from

insects living on cactus plants. The properties of the cochineal bug were
discovered by pre-Columbian Indians who would dry the females in the
sun, and then ground the dried bodies to produce a rich red powder.
When mixed with water, the powder produced a deep, vibrant red
colouring. Cochineal is still harvested today on the Canary Islands. In
fact, most cherries today are given their bright red appearance through
the artificial colour "carmine", which comes from the cochineal insect.

3.2.3 Natural Dyes Obtained from Minerals

Dyes made with minerals, coloured clays and earth oxides. For example,
Ochre, made from iron ore, is one of the oldest pigments and has been in
use since pre-historic times.
Categories of Natural Dyes

Table 3.1: Categories of Natural Dyes

Colours Chemical Common Names

Classifications
Yellow and Brown Flavone Dyes Weld, Quercitron,
Fustic, Osage,
Chamomile, Tesu,
Dolu, Marigold, Cutch
Yellow Iso-quinoline Dyes Barberry
Orange-Yellow Chromene Dyes Kamala
Brown and Purple- Naphthoquinone Dyes Henna, Walnut,
Grey Alkanet, Pitti
Red Anthraquinone Dyes Lac, Cochineal,
Madder (Majithro)
Purple and Black Benzophyrone Dyes Logwood
Blue Indigoid Dyes Indigo
Neutrals Vegetable Tannins: Wattle, Myrobalan,

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

gallotannins, Pomegranate, Sumach,

ellagitannins and Chestnut, Eucalyptus
catechol tannins

Source: Colour Trend, U.S. Agency for International Development.

3.4 Natural Dyeing

Beautiful bright colours can be obtained by dyeing with natural dyes.

Dyes can be gathered from nature or you can use dyestuff which will
give you any colour under the rainbow.

3.4.1 Some Natural Dyeing Materials

a. Alkanet Root (Alkania tinctoria): This will give colours from

bluish grey to soft burgundy. This plant grows like a weed when
planted.
b. Annato Seed (Bixa Orellana): Will give an orange shade, it is a
good dye for cotton.
c. Brazilwood Dust (Caesalpania echinata): This dye will give
reds. Before using the dust, it is first exposed to the air and
sprinkle with water and alcohol.
d. Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus): The little cochineal bug will
give the most colour when ground into a fine powder. Obtainable
colours are dark burgundy to bright red, soft lilac and pink.
e. Indigo Solution Natural (Saxony blue): Produces a bright blue
and is very easy to use, similar to a chemical dye. All of the dye
will be absorbed in the fiber. It is not very good to dye cotton or
other vegetable fibers.
f. Red Sandalwood (Pterocarpus): This dye is beautiful for
blending. It produces lovely browns and act as good shade
combinations for doll hair.
g. Madderroot (Rubia tinctorum): Is available in two forms: root or
dust. Colour ranges from red to red-brown and oranges. It dyes
cotton well.
h. Loqwood Concentrate (Hematoxylon campechianum): Expected
colours anywhere from magenta's and brown to purples and pink.
A mordant is absolutely needed. The concentrated powder will
give more bluish colours. It dyes cotton well.
i. Osage Orange Dust (Maclura pomifer): Two different colours
can be obtained; bright yellow and gold.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. What is a natural dye?

2. Describe four categories of natural dyes with respect to source
and colour they produced.

3.4.2 Mordants for Natural Dyeing

Mordants are needed to set the colour when using natural dyes. Different
mordants will give different results:

(a) Alum: (AlK2SO4; Aluminum Potassium Sulfate): This is the most

widely used mordant. Be careful not to use too much with wool,
otherwise you will get a sticky feeling that does not come out.
(b) Copper: (CuSO4; Copper Sulfate): This mordant is used to bring
out the greens in dyes. It will also darken the dye colours, similar
to using tin, but is less harsh.
(c) Chrome: (K2Cr2O7; Potassium Dichromate): Chrome brightens
dye colours and is more commonly used with wool and mohair
than with any other fiber. Chrome should not be inhaled and
gloves should be worn while working with chrome. Left over
mordant water should be disposed of at a chemical waste disposal
site and treated as hazardous waste.
(d) Iron: (Fe2SO4; Ferrous Sulfate): Dulls and darkens dye colours.
Using too much will make the fiber brittle.
(e) Glaubersalt: (Na2SO4; Sodium Sulfate): Used in natural dyes to
level out the bath. Also use in chemical dye.
(f) Spectralite: (Thiourea Dioxide): This is a reducing agent for
indigo dyeing.
(g) Tara Powder: (Caesalpinia spinosa): Tara Powder is a natural
tannin product. It is needed for darker colours on cotton, linen
and hemp.
(h) Tartaric Acid: A must for cochineal. This mordant will expand
the cochineal colours.

(i) Tin: (SnCl2; Stannous Chloride): Tin will give extra bright
colours to reds, oranges and yellows on protein fibers. Using too
much will make wool and silk brittle. To avoid this you can add
a pinch of tin at the end of the dying time with fiber that was

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premordanted with alum. Tin is not commonly used with

cellulose fibers.
(j) Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3): Is to be used with indigo powder
for the saxon blue colour. It can also be used to lower the acidity
of a dye bath.

3.5 Making Natural Dyes from Plant Source

There is a simple experiment requires to obtain dyes from plant

materials.

(a) Gathering plant material for dyeing: Blossoms should be in

full bloom, berries ripe and nuts mature. Never gather more than
2/3 of a stand of anything in the wild when gathering plant stuff
for dying.
(b) To make the dye solution: Chop plant material into small pieces
and place in a pot. It is most appropriate to double the amount of
water being added to the plant materials. Bring to a boil, and then
simmer for about an hour. For a stronger shade, allow material to
soak in the dye overnight.

3.6 Natural Dyeing Process

(a) Equipment: The water you use for dyeing should be soft. Most
tap water is too hard, and you should add a softener to it. Rain
water may be an ideal option. The following items are useful for
dyeing; stainless steel pot, strainer, stirrer, wooden spoon,
measuring utensils, like cups and spoons, kitchen scale and
rubber gloves.

(b) Wool Preparation: When working with raw wool fleece, you
must first scour the wool to remove the oil from the fiber. For 1lb
of wool: fill 3-4 gallons of water in a pot with detergent. Put the
wool in and slowly simmer for 45 minutes. Cool, then rinse.

(c) Mordant Directions: Dissolve the mordant in a small amount of

hot water. Add 4-5 more gallons of water, enough to cover 1lb of
wool, and heat to luke warm. Add the wool and simmer 45
minutes to 1 1/2 hours. Cool and rinse.

3.6.1 Dyeing Process

(i) Place wet wool in luke warm dye bath and slowly raise to a
simmer.
(ii) Dyes from flowers, fruits, and tender leaves: simmer 30 minutes -
1 hour

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(iii) Dyes from tough leaves, roots, nut hulls, and bark: simmer 1
minute - 2 hours
(iv) Cool and rinse until the rinse water is clear.
(v) Never agitate the wool or it will felt. Lift and turn it gently in
plenty of water.
(vi) Never shock with extreme changes in water temperature
(vii) Do not wring or twist - squeeze gently to remove excess water. It
is not necessary to cover the pot when simmer in, unless you are
using chrome which is light sensitive.
(ix) Dye entire amount of wool needed for project in one bath
(x) Add white vinegar (1/4 cup per gallon) to rinse water to help
soften the wool.

3.7 Fibre Dyeing

Natural dyes can dye fibres in three main forms:

(a) Direct dyes can colour fibres without other fixing agents, often
after simple extraction from plant material. These include very
fast colours, such as walnut and bark browns, and also dye with
very poor fastness, such as Saffron (Crocus sativus), Safflor
(Carthamus tinctorum) and Pomegranite rinds.
(b) Adjective dyes colour fibres only in combination with a mordant.
The most important mordants are metal salts (aluminum, iron,
copper) and tannins. The ancient dyeing traditions of Egypt,
India, China and Central America all incorporated the use of
these minerals. The practices of mordant-dyeing worldwide are
remarkably similar and such discoveries as the fixative properties
of metal salts were made by many early peoples.
(c) Indigo dyes are a unique form of natural dye, which utilise
particular processes. Complicated dye extraction using
fermentation and even more complicated dyeing practices were
developed in pre-historic cultures of Europe, Asia, Africa and the
Americas, wherever indigo-bearing plants have been found in
nature. Indigo blues can be quite permanent when properly
applied.

3.8 Dyeing Process of Leather

Dyeing Leather substrate is an uphill task. As leather has myriad of

structural differences, grooves, knurls, and folds along with other sorts
of imperfections. Therefore for achieving the target of a level and
uniform dyeing, the dyer needs to be experienced, and have a thorough
knowledge of the dyeing processes, properties and the auxiliaries that
need to be used. Leather dyeing is generally done by two processes.
Drum dyeing and Rub dyeing, with Drum dyeing being predominant. In

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the process of drum dyeing, the application of dyestuffs to the leather is

done by immersing the leather in drums. The drum is then tumbled. This
tumbling allows the leather to be fully penetrated by the dyes. The
ultimate aim of drum dyeing is getting the desired colour, which appears
level and uniform throughout the skins. The leather colourants that are
used is dominated by the acid dyes which accounts for nearly 90% of the
market, followed by metal complex dyes and, cationic dyes to some
extent. The dyes are applied either on the grain or suede side.

3.9 Some Dyeing Patterns

(i) Raw fibres are generally dyed by the dipping process. They are
placed in a perforated metal cylinder that is dipped into a vat full
of dye.
(ii) Velour cloth and furs are often hand-dyed. The dye is applied
with a brush that has been dipped in a dye solution.
(iii) Batik is an ancient method of applying coloured dyes to fabrics,
usually cotton and silk. It originates in Java and now widely used
throughout the world.
(iv) Tie- dyeing, a hand-dyeing technique often practised as a craft,
can be used to create multi-coloured patterns.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. What is a mordant? Mention two types and their features.

2. How would you dye a fabric?

4.0 CONCLUSION

The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin, with
no or very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been
from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and
wood, but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale.
These dyes can dye different shades of materials such as plastic, fibres,
cotton etc.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt about:

the types and nature of natural dyes

sources of natural dyes
the nature and role of mordant in dyeing process
natural dyeing process
simple dyeing process for fibres.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe a simple experiment for the extraction of dye from plant

materials.
2. What is a mordant? Mention two types and their features.
3. In a tabular form, describe four plants and the colour of the dye
they produced.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Freeman, H.S. & Peters, A.T. (2000). Colourants for Non-Textile

Application. Elsevier: Amsterdam.

John, C. & Margaret, C. (2009). Dye Plants and Dyeing. Timber Press.

Kriger, C. E. & Connah, G. (2006). Cloth in West African History.

Rowman: Altamira.

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MODULE 3 SYNTHETIC DYES AND FIBRES

Unit 1 Synthetic Fibres

Unit 2 Polymer Fibres
Unit 3 Polyesters and Polyamide Fibres
Unit 4 Polyurethanes, Cellulose and Polyacrylonitrile
Unit 5 Aramids, Poly (methyl methacrylate) and Polycarbonate

UNIT 1 SYNTHETIC FIBRES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Synthetic Fibres and Synthetic Dyes
3.2 Kinds of Synthetic Fibres
3.3 Properties and Application of Synthetic Fibres
3.4 Kinds of Synthetic Dyes
3.5 Dyes for Man- Made Fibres
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Synthetic or man-made fibres generally come from synthetic materials

such as petrochemicals. But some types of synthetic fibres are
manufactured from natural cellulose, including rayon, modal, and the
more recently developed Lyocell. Cellulose-based fibres are of two
types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cupro-ammonium
process and modified cellulose- the cellulose acetates.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

define synthetic dyes and fibres

differentiate between synthetic dye and fibre
identify each kind of synthetic dye and fibre
identify the properties and applications of synthetic dye and fibre.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Synthetic Fibres

Synthetic fibres are a subset of man-made fibres, which are based on

synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than
arising from natural materials by a purely physical process.

While, Synthetic dyes are man made dyes that impart better properties
upon the dyed materials.

3.2 Kinds of Fibres

(a) Cellulose fibres are a subset of man-made fibres, regenerated

from natural cellulose. The cellulose comes from various sources.
Modal is made from beech trees, bamboo fiber is a cellulose fiber
made from bamboo, soy silk is made from soybeans, seacell is
made from seaweed, etc.

(b) Mineral fibres

Fiberglass made from specific glass, and optical fiber, made from
purified natural quartz, are also man-made fibres that come from
natural raw materials.
Metallic fibres can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper,
gold or silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones,
such as nickel, aluminum or iron.
Carbon fibres are often based on carbonised polymers, but the
end product is pure carbon.

(c) Polymer fibres

Polymer fibres are a subset of man-made fibres, which are based on

synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than
arising from natural materials by a purely physical process. These fibres
are made from:

polyamide nylon,
PET or PBT polyester phenol-
formaldehyde (PF) polyvinyl
alcohol fiber (PVA) polyvinyl
chloride fiber (PVC)
polyolefins (PP and PE)
acrylic polyesters, pure polyester PAN fibres are used to make
carbon fiber by roasting them in a low oxygen environment.

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Traditional acrylic fiber is used more often as a synthetic

replacement for wool. Carbon fibres and PF fibres are noted as
two resin-based fibres that are not thermoplastic, most others can
be melted.

aromatic polyamids (aramids) such as Twaron, Kevlar and

Nomex thermally degrade at high temperatures and do not melt.
These fibres have strong bonding between polymer chains
polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely long chains /
HMPE (e.g. Dyneema or Spectra).
elastomers can even be used, e.g. spandex although urethane
fibres are starting to replace spandex technology.
polyurethane fiber

(d) Microfibres: Micro fibres in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber

(such as polyester). Denier and Detex are two measurements of
fiber yield based on weight and length. If the fiber density is
known you also have a fiber diameter, otherwise it is simpler to
measure diameters in micrometers. Microfibres in technical fibres
refer to ultra fine fibres (glass or meltblown thermoplastics) often
used in filtration. Newer fiber designs include extruding fiber that
splits into multiple finer fibres. Most synthetic fibres are round in
cross-section, but special designs can be hollow, oval, star-shaped
or trilobal. The latter design provides more optically reflective
properties. Synthetic textile fibres are often crimped to provide
bulk in a woven, non woven or knitted structure. Fiber surfaces
can also be dull or bright. Dull surfaces reflect more light while
bright tends to transmit light and make the fiber more transparent.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Mention two kinds of synthetic fibres.

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3.3 Properties and Applications of Synthetic Fibres

Table 1.1: Application of Synthetic Fibres

Tensil Elong Initial

e ation
Common Deniers Streng at Modu Apparel and
Polymer Names th Break lus Home-
family and & Trade (gm/9,0 (gm/d (gm/d Furnishing Industrial
type Names 00 m) enier) (%) enier) Applications Applications
Polyamide
s
Polycaprol nylon 6 1.5-5 4.5- 23-43 25-35 hosiery, no significant
actam (textile) 6.8 lingerie, sports applications
(textile garments,
fibre) soft-sided
luggage,
upholstery
Polyhexa nylon 6,6 1.5-5 4.5- 23-43 25-35 hosiery, no significant
methylene (textile) 6.8 lingerie, sports applications
adipamide garments,
soft-sided
(textile luggage,
fibre) upholstery
Polycaprol nylon 6 1.5-5 8.5- 12-17 33-46 no significant tyres, ropes,
actam (industrial) 9.5 applications seat belts,
(industrial parachutes,
fibre fishing lines
and nets,
hoses
Polyhexa nylon 6,6 1.5-5 8.5- 12-17 33-46 no significant tyres, ropes,
methylene (industrial) 9.5 applications seat belts,
adipamide parachutes,
fishing lines
and nets,
(industrial hoses
fibre)
Aramids
Poly-p- Kevlar, 1.0-1.5 25-30 3-6 500- no significant radial tyre
phenylene Twaron, 1,000 applications belts,
tereph- bulletproof
Technora vests,
thalamide reinforcement
for
boat hulls
and aircraft
panels
Poly-m- Nomex, 2-5 3-6 2-30 130- no significant filter bags for
phenylene Conex 150 applications hot stack
isoph- gases, flame-
resistant

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 CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

thalamide clothing
Polyesters
Polethylen Dacron, 1.5-5 4.7- 35-50 25-50 permanent- sewing thread,
e Terylene, 6.0 press clothing, seat belts,
terephtalat Trevira fibre fill tyre yarns,
e insulation, non-woven
carpets fabrics
Polyacrylo
nitrile
Acylic Acrilan, 2-8 2.5- 27-48 25-63 substitute for filters, battery
(>85%) Creslan, 4.5 wool--e.g., in separators,
acrylonitri Courtelle sweaters, substitute for
le hosiery, asbestos
blankets in cement
Modacryli Verel, SEF 2-8 2.5- 27-48 22-56 flame-resistant flame-resistant
c (35- 4.5 clothing-- awnings,
85%) e.g., tents, boat
acrylonitri artificial fur, covers
le children's
sleepwear
Polyolefin
s
Polypropy Herculon, 2-10 5-9 15-30 29-45 upholstery, ropes, nets,
lene Marvess carpets, carpet disposable
backing non-woven
fabrics
Polyethyle
ne
no significant cordage,
Regular 2-10 2-4 20-40 -- applications webbing
High- Dyneema, -- 30-35 2.7- 1,370- no significant reinforcement
Modulus Spectra 3.5 2,016 applications for boat
hulls,
bulletproof
vests
Polyuretha spandex, 2.5-20 0.6- 400- -- stretch fabrics- no significant
ne Lycra 1.5 600 -e.g., for applications
sportswear,
swimsuits

3.4 Kinds of Synthetic Dyes

There are various kinds of synthetic dyes that impart colours on dyed
materials. These are:

a. Acid Dyes: They come in a wide variety of colours, it is fairly

fast to light and to washing. It is named acid dyes because they
work best when applied in an acid bath. It is mainly used on
nylon, silk and wool.

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b. Azoic (or Naphthol) Dyes: This type of dyes is extremely fast to

light, it is commonly used to dye a material red, orange or
maroon. It is mainly used in cotton.
c. Basic Dyes: This type of dye is just fair when it comes to fastness
to light and to washing, however this type can create a brilliant
colour. It is mainly used on natural and acrylic fibres, it is also
sometimes used for wool and silk. This dye is also used to colour
paper. Acetic acid is usually added to the dyebath to help in the
quick penetration of the dye onto the fiber.
d. Chrome (or Mordant) Dyes: This type of dye is fairly fast to
light and to washing, it is especially useful for black and navy
shades. The choice of mordant is very important as different
mordants can alter the final colour significantly, it is important to
know also that many mordants, particularly those in the hard
metal category can be hazardous to health, that is why caution
should be followed when using it. It is mainly used for wool and
silk.
e. Mordant is a chemical that is mixed with the dye and the fiber,
the modern mordants are dichromates and chromium complexes,
that is why it is also called chrome dye.
f. Developed (or Diazo) Dyes are used to treat certain dyed fabrics
to improve their fastness to light and to washing and also to
change fabric's colour. The treatments are used primarily on
cotton. Diazotizing is the treatment which involves the use of
chemical called a developer. It is mainly used on cotton.
g. Direct Dyes this type is one of the easiest to use and has a wide
range of colours, it is not fast to washing, but its fastness is often
improved by more treatment. It is mainly used on cotton, rayon
leather, wool, silk and nylon. It is also used as pH indicators and
as biological stains.
h. Disperse (or Acetate) Dyes this dyes is finely ground in the
presence of dispersing agent, its dyeing rate is greatly influenced
by the dispersing agent used during the grinding. Disperse dyes
were developed because other dyes would not work with acetate
it is also used on different manmade fibres, including acrylic,
acetate, and polyester fibres.
i. Reactive (or Fiber-reactive) Dyes: these types of dye have a
good fastness to light and to washing. Reactive dyes create strong
chemical bonds with the material being dyed which makes it the
most permanent of dyes. This dye is by far the best choice for
dyeing cotton, nylon, wool and other cellulose fibres at home or
in the art studio.
j. Sulphur Dyes: these dyes are especially fast to washing and the
best for material that is washed frequently. Sulphur dyes are
colourless (upon application), but upon exposure to air they are

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

oxidized and turn into their respective colours. They come mainly
in dark, dull colours and used on cotton, linen and rayon.
k. Vat Dyes: This type is superior compared to the other dye when
it comes to its fastness to light and to washing. Vat dyes like
sulphur dyes must be oxidized before their real colour comes out.
This dye is mainly used for cotton, linen, wool and silk. The
indigo colour of blue jeans is vat dye.

3.5 Dyes for Man- Made Fibres

The first man-made fibre to achieve commercial significance was

viscose rayon, in the early 1900s. This is chemically similar to cotton (in
other words it is a cellulosic fibre) and so the dyes already available for
cotton were used on viscose rayon. At the time these were mainly direct,
vat, azoic and sulphur dyes, but since the 1960s fibre-reactive dyes have
come to be widely used on all cellulosic fibres. In the 1930s, when
acetate rayon appeared, the existing dyes were not very suitable, with
the notable exception of the natural dye logwood black, which was
already being used on silk and wool. A new class of dyes eventually to
be called disperse dyes, was developed which allowed a full range of
shades to be successfully applied to acetate rayon.

In the 1940s and 1950s the truly synthetic fibres, such as the polyamides
(nylon), polyesters and acrylics, began to appear commercially. Disperse
dyes proved to be particularly suitable for polyester and so the
importance of this class of dye increased enormously. Because both
fibres and dyes have been modified since then, polyamides are now
dyed mainly with acid dyes, and acrylics mainly with modified basic
dyes.

Over the last twenty to thirty years, developments in dye chemistry have
enabled the man-made fibre to be dyed with better fastness to light and
washing, and in an ever increasing range of colours.

4.0 CONCLUSION

It could be seen that synthetic or man-made fibres generally come from

synthetic materials such as petrochemicals. Like fibres, synthetic dyes
are also man made from various materials such as inorganic and metallic
compounds. Synthetic fibres have wide application especially in
clothing industry and other products being used in our day to day
activities. Dyes also contribute to aesthetics by imparting various
colours depending on convenience.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

polymer fibres are a subset of man-made fibres, which are based

on synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather
than arising from natural materials by a purely physical process
microfibres in technical fibres refer to ultra fine fibres (glass or
melt blown thermoplastics) often used in filtration
reactive dye is by far the best choice for dyeing cotton, nylon,
wool and other cellulose fibres at home or in the art studio
disperse dyes proved to be particularly suitable for polyester, and
the different kinds of synthetic dyes and fibres
the application of synthetic dyes and fibres.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are polymer fibres

2. In a tabular form, mention three of the polymer fibres and their
application.
3. Write short notes on the following:

a. cellulose fibre
b. sulphur dye

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Synthetic Fibres: Nylon, Polyesters, Acrylic and Polyolefins. Edited by
J.E McIntyre.
Woodhead Textiles Series No. 36, Woodhead Publishing Limited,
2009.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 2 POLYMER FIBRES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Polymer Fibres
3.2 Kinds of Synthetic Polymers
3.3 Polyethylene
3.4 Polypropylene
3.5 Poly (vinyl) chloride PVC
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Polymer fibres are a subset of man-made fibres, which are based on

synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than
arising from natural materials by a purely physical process. It is
important to point out that fibres are always made of polymers which are
arranged into crystals. They have to be able to pack into a regular
arrangement in order to line up as fibres. (In fact, fibres are really a kind
of crystal, a really long kind of crystal.). A polymeric fibre is a polymer
whose chains are stretched out straight (or close to straight) and lined up
next to each other, all along the same axis.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

define polymeric fibre

identify the kind of polymeric synthetic fibres
explain the production and applications of polymers made from
olefins.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Polymer Fibres

Polymer fibres are a subset of man-made fibres, which are based on

synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than
arising from natural materials by a purely physical process.

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CHM304 COLOUR CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY

3.2 Kinds of Synthetic Polymers

(i) Olefins

Olefin includes the varieties of polyethylene, polystyrene and

polypropylene. A very light fibre, Olefin particularly resembles wool; it
is soil resistant and is a good heat insulator. Herculon and Vectra are
trade names.

(ii) Acrylics

Acrylics are made from petroleum. They have wool like fibres. It is not
as strong as polyester/nylon but it is soft and warm to handle. It washes
and dry clean well. It is very resistant to UV light but sensitive to heat. It
is moth proof. Modacrylics are also named because they have been
chemically modified to offer good flame resistance. They do not wrinkle
or crease easily. It can shrink with hot heat. Trade names include
(unmodified) Acrilian, Orlon, Verel, Sef, Zefran, and Dynel (which also
comes modified).

(iii) Polyesters

Polyester is a petroleum/oil byproduct. It is very strong and easy to

wash. It dries quickly and has good shape retention. It is shrink and
crease resistant. It is resistant to sunlight, perspiration and moths and has
a low absorbency. A light fibre resembling wool or silk, polyester is
often blended with natural fibres. It is an ideal fibre for sheeting when
mixed with cotton. Dacron, Fortrel, and Kodel are trade names. Dacron
is used as a substitute for the base in cushions and upholstery.

(iv) Polyamide (nylon)

Nylon is made from coal, tar and petroleum. It is a very strong resilient
fibre with high strength and good elasticity. It drapes well and does not
absorb moisture and does not shrink. It tends to attract dirt, but it is easy
to wash and is crease resistant. It has a poor resistance to UV light. It is
one of the first and most useful synthetics. Many types are now
available. It is frequently used in blends. Ace, Antron and Cordura are
familiar trade names. It is used widely in carpeting.

(v) Fibre Blends

Two or more fibres can be combined in one yarn to maximise the

strengths and minimise the weaknesses of each. For example, natural
and artificial fibres can be combined to retain the texture and appearance
of the natural yarn while gaining the durability and dirt resistance of the

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synthetic. Many man-made and synthetic fibres are made to imitate

natural fibres as their processing can provide similar properties usually
at a reduced cost.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Define the word Polymer fibre.

2. Mention three kinds of synthetic polymers.

3.3 Polyethylene

[-CH2-CH2-]n

Polyethylene is probably the polymer you see most in daily life.

Polyethylene is the most popular plastic in the world. This is the
polymer from which grocery bags, shampoo bottles, children's toys, and
even bullet proof vests are made. For such a versatile material, it has a
very simple structure, the simplest of all commercial polymers. A
molecule of polyethylene is nothing more than a long chain of carbon
atoms, with two hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon atom.

Sometimes some of the carbons, instead of having hydrogen attached to

them, will have long chains of polyethylene attached to them. This is
called branched, or low-density polyethylene, or LDPE. When there is
no branching, it is called linear polyethylene, or HDPE. Linear
polyethylene is much stronger than branched polyethylene, but branched
polyethylene is cheaper and easier to make.

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Linear polyethylene is normally produced with molecular weights in the

range of 200,000 to 500,000, but it can be made even higher.
Polyethylene with molecular weights of three to six million is referred to
as ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene, or UHMWPE. UHMWPE
can be used to make fibres which are so strong and are used in bullet
proof vests. Large sheets of it can be used instead of ice for skating
rinks.

Polyethylene is vinyl polymer, made from the monomer ethylene.

Branched polyethylene is often made by free radical vinyl
polymerisation. Linear polyethylene is made by a more complicated
procedure called Ziegler-Natta polymerisation. UHMWPE is made
using metallocene catalysis polymerisation.

But Ziegler-Natta polymerisation can be used to make LDPE, too. By

copolymerising ethylene monomer with a alkyl-branched comonomer
such as one gets a copolymer which has short hydrocarbon branches.
Copolymers like this are called linear low-density polyethylene, or
LLDPE. BP produces LLDPE using a co-monomer with the catchy
name 4-methyl-1-pentene, and sells it under the trade name Innovex¨.
LLDPE is often used to make things like plastic films.

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3.4 Polypropylene

Polypropylene is one of those rather versatile polymers. It serves double

duty, both as plastic and fibre. As a plastic it is used to make things like
dishwasher-safe food containers. It can do this because it is stable to
heat below 160oC. Polyethylene, a more common plastic, will anneal at
around 100oC, which means that polyethylene dishes will warp in the
dishwasher. As a fibre, polypropylene is used to make indoor-outdoor
carpeting, the kind that you always find around swimming pools and
miniature golf courses. It works well for outdoor carpet because it is
easy to make coloured polypropylene, and because polypropylene does
not absorb water, like nylon.

Structurally, it's a vinyl polymer, and is similar to polyethylene, only

that on every other carbon atom in the backbone chain has a methyl
group attached to it. Polypropylene can be made from the monomer
propylene by Ziegler-Natta polymerisation and by metallocene catalysis
polymerisation.

Research is being conducted on using metallocene catalysis

polymerization to synthesise polypropylene. Metallocene catalysis
polymerisation can do some pretty amazing things for polypropylene.
Polypropylene can be made with different tacticities. Most

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polypropylene we use is isotactic. This means that all the methyl groups
are on the same side of the chain, like this:

But sometimes we use atactic polypropylene. Atactic means that the

methyl groups are placed randomly on both sides of the chain like this:

However, by using special metallocene catalysts, it is believed that we

can make polymers that contain blocks of isotactic polypropylene and
blocks of atactic polypropylene in the same polymer chain, as is shown
in the picture:

This polymer is rubbery, and makes a good elastomer. This is because

the isotactic blocks will form crystals by themselves. But because the
isotactic blocks are joined to the atactic blocks, the little hard clumps of
crystalline isotactic polypropylene are tied together by soft rubbery
tethers of atactic polypropylene. Indeed atactic polypropylene would be
rubbery without help from the isotactic blocks, but it will not be very
strong. The hard isotactic blocks hold the rubbery isotactic material
together, to give the material more strength. Most kinds of rubber have
to be crosslinked to give them strength, but not polypropylene
elastomers.

Elastomeric polypropylene, as this copolymer is called, is a kind of

thermoplastic elastomer. However, until the research is completed, this
type of polypropylene will not be commercially available.

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3.5 Poly (vinyl chloride) PVC

Poly (vinyl chloride) is the plastic known at the hardware store as PVC.
This is the PVC from which pipes are made, and PVC pipe is
everywhere. The plumbing in modern day structures is probably PVC
pipe. PVC pipe is what rural high schools with small budgets use to
make goal posts for their football fields. But there's more to PVC than
just pipe. The "vinyl" siding used on houses is made of poly(vinyl
chloride). Inside the house, PVC is used to make linoleum for the floor.
In the seventies, PVC was often used to make vinyl car tops.

PVC is useful because it resists two things that are opposite of each
other: fire and water. Because of its water resistance it is used to make
raincoats and shower curtains, and of course, water pipes. It has flame
resistance, too, because it contains chlorine. When you try to burn PVC,
chlorine atoms are released, and chlorine atoms inhibit combustion.

Structurally, PVC is a vinyl polymer. It is similar to polyethylene, but

on every other carbon in the backbone chain, one of the hydrogen atoms
is replaced with a chlorine atom. It is produced by the free radical
polymerization of vinyl chloride.

PVC was one of those odd discoveries that actually had to be made
twice. It seems around a hundred years ago, a few German entrepreneurs
decided they were going to make loads of cash lighting people's homes
with lamps fueled by acetylene gas. Would you believe it?, right about
the time they had produced tons of acetylene to sell to everyone who
was going to buy their lamps, new efficient electric generators were
developed which made the price of electric lighting drop so low that the
acetylene lamp business was finished. That left a lot of acetylene lying
around.

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So in 1912 one German chemist, Fritz Klatte decided to do something

with it, and reacted some acetylene with hydrochloric acid (HCl). Now,
this reaction will produce vinyl chloride, but at that time no one knew
what to do with it, so he put it on the shelf, where it polymerized over
time. Not knowing what to do with the PVC he had just invented, he
told his bosses at his company, Greisheim Electron, who had the
material patented in Germany. They never figured out a use for PVC,
and in 1925 their patent expired. However, in 1926 the very next year,
an American chemist; Waldo Semon was working at B.F. Goodrich
when he independently invented PVC. But unlike the earlier chemists, it
dawned on him that this new material would make a perfect shower
curtain. He and his bosses at B.F. Goodrich patented PVC in the United
States. Tons of new uses for this wonderful waterproof material
followed, and PVC was a smash hit the second time around.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Propose a simple equation for the production low density

polyethylene
2. Differentiate between polyethylene and polypropylene.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Polymer fibres are a subset of man-made fibres, which are based on

synthetic chemicals. Two or more fibres can be combined in one yarn to
maximize the strength and minimize the weaknesses of each. For
example, natural and artificial fibres can be combined to retain the
texture and appearance of the natural yarn. Olefins, polyesters,
polyamide etc are common examples of synthetic fibres of importance.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

it is well known that fibres are always made of polymers which

are arranged into crystals
polyethylene is probably the polymer you see most in daily life.
Polyethylene is the most popular plastic in the world. This is the
polymer from which grocery bags, shampoo bottles, children's
toys, and even bullet proof vests are made
polypropylene is one of those rather versatile polymers out there.
It serves double duty, both as plastic and fibre
poly (vinyl chloride) is the plastic known at the hardware store as
PVC. It is used in the manufacture of pipes.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is Ziegler-Natta polymerisation?

2. With relevant examples explain the concept ‘Fibres are known to
be polymers.’

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Burke, J. (1978). Connections. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.

Fenichell, S. (1996). Plastic: The Making of a Synthetic Century. New

York: HarperCollins.

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UNIT 3 POLYMERS AND POLYAMIDE FIBRES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Nylons and Polyesters
3.2 Nylons
3.3 Polyesters
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Nylon's first real success came with its use in women's stockings, in
about 1940. They were a big hit, but they became hard to get, because a
year later the United States entered World War II, and nylon was needed
to make war materials, like parachutes and ropes. However, polyesters
can be both plastics and fibres.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

identify materials made of polyester and polyamide fibres

explain the chemical principles involved in the production of
polyester and polyamide fibres
describe the applications of polyester and polyamide fibres.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions of Nylon and Polyester

Nylons are also called polyamides, because of the characteristic amide

groups in the backbone chain.

Polyesters are the polymers, in the form of fibres, which were used back
in the seventies to make wonderful disco clothing.

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3.2 Nylons

Nylons are one of the most common polymers used as a fibre. Nylon is
found in clothing all the time, but also in other places, in the form of a
thermoplastic.

Nylons are also called polyamides, because of the characteristic amide

groups in the backbone chain. Proteins, such as the silk nylon, are also
polyamides. These amide groups are very polar, and can hydrogen bond
with each other. Because of this, and because the nylon backbone is so
regular and symmetrical, nylons are often crystalline and make very
good fibres.

The nylon below is called nylon 6,6, because each repeat unit of the
polymer chain has two stretches of carbon atoms, each being six carbon
atoms long. Other nylons can have different numbers of carbon atoms in
these stretches.

Nylons can be made from diacid chlorides and diamines. Nylon 6,6 is
made from the monomers adipoyl chloride and hexamethylene diamine

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The industrial synthetic methods make use of the reaction of adipic acid
with hexamethylene diamine;

Another kind of nylon is nylon 6. It is similar to nylon 6,6 except that it

only has one kind of carbon chain, which is six atoms long. It's made by
a ring opening polymerization.

3.3 Polyesters

Polyesters are the polymers, in the form of fibres, that were used in the
seventies to make wonderful clothing. But since then, the nations of the
world have striven to develop more tasteful uses for polyesters, like
those nifty shatterproof plastic bottles that hold our favorite refreshing
beverages. Another place you find polyester is in balloons. The common
ones used to make water balloons are made of natural rubber. It’s
actually the fancy ones we use in the hospital. These are made of a
polyester film made by DuPont called Mylar. The balloons are made of
a sandwich, composed of Mylar and aluminum foil. Materials like this,
made of two kinds of material, are called composites. Polyesters have
hydrocarbon backbones which contain ester linkages, hence the name.

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The structure in called poly (ethylene terephthalate), or PET for short,

because it is made up of ethylene groups and terephthalate groups.

The ester groups in the polyester chain are polar, with the carbonyl
oxygen atom having a somewhat negative charge and the carbonyl
carbon atom having a somewhat positive charge. The positive and
negative charges of different ester groups are attracted to each other.

This allows the ester groups of nearby chains to line up with each other
in crystal form, which is why they can form strong fibres. The inventor
who first discovered how to make bottles from PET was Nathaniel
Wyeth.

There is a new kind of polyester that is been used for jelly jars and
burnable bottles. It is poly(ethylene naphthalate), or PEN. In the big
industrial plants where polyester is produced, it is normal to start off
with a compound called dimethyl terephthalate. This is reacted with
ethylene glycol in a reaction called transesterification. The result is bis-
(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalate and methanol. But if we heat the reaction
to 210 oC the methanol will boil away.

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Then the bis-(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalate is heated up to a balmy 270

o
C, which reacts further to give the poly(ethylene terephthalate) and,
oddly, ethylene glycol as a by product.

But in the laboratory, PET is made by other reactions. Terephthalic acid

and ethylene glycol can polymerize to make PET when heated with an
acid catalyst. It is also possible to make PET from terephthoyl chloride
and ethylene glycol. This reaction is easier, but terephthoyl chloride is
more expensive than terephthalic acid, and even more dangerous.

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There are two more polyesters in the market that are related to PET.
There is poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) and poly(trimethylene
terephthalate) (PTT). They are usually used for the same type of things
as PET, but in some cases these perform better.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Differentiate between a nylon and a polyester.

2. What are the main chemical functional groups in both nylon and
polyester?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Polyesters can be both plastics and fibres while nylon is mainly made up
of fibres. They both contained repeating units of the corresponding
monomeric unit. Nylons are also called polyamides, because of the
characteristic amide groups in the backbone chain. There are different
kinds of these products which have impacted positively to human life.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

nylons are some of the most common polymers used as fibre.

Nylon is found in clothing all the time, but also in other places, in
the form of a thermoplastic
nylons are also called polyamides, because of the characteristic
amide groups in the backbone chain
polyesters are the polymers, in the form of fibres
the commonly use forms of polyesters are: poly (ethylene
terephthalate), or PET, poly (ethylene naphthalate), or PEN
there are two more polyesters in the market that are related to
PET. They are poly (butylene terephthalate) (PBT) and poly
(trimethylene terephthalate) PTT. They are usually used for the
same type of things as PET, but in some cases these perform
better.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between PET and PEN.

2. Propose a simple laboratory procedure for the manufacturing of
nylon 6.

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Synthetic Fibres: Nylon, Polyester, Acrylic, Polyolefin: Edited by J E

McIntyre, Woodhead Textiles Series No. 36, Woodhead
Publishing Limited (2009).

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UNIT 4 POLYURETHANES, CELLULOSE AND

POLYACRYLONITRILE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Polyurethane, Cellulose and
Polyacrylonitrile
3.2 Polyurethanes
3.2.1 Spandex
3.3 Cellulose
3.4 Polyacrylonitrile
3.5 Polymers and Applications
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

If you are sitting on a padded chair right now, the cushion is more than
likely made of polyurethane foam. Cellulose is one of many polymers
found in nature. Wood, paper, and cotton all contain cellulose. Cellulose
is an excellent fibre.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

identify the substances making up a polyurethanes

define cellulose and its compositions
discuss the nature, properties and uses of polyacrylonitrile.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Polyurethane, Cellulose and

Polyacrylonitrile

Polyurethanes are the most well known polymers used to make foams.
Polyurethanes are more than foam.
Cellulose is made of repeat units of the monomer glucose.

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Polyacrylonitrile is a vinyl polymer, and a derivative of the acrylate

family of polymers.
3.2 Polyurethanes

Polyurethanes are the single most versatile family of polymers there is.
Polyurethanes can be elastomers, and they can be paints. They can be
fibres, and they can be adhesives. A wonderful bizarre polyurethane is
spandex. Of course, polyurethanes are called polyurethanes because in
their backbones they have a urethane linkage.

The structure above shows simple polyurethane, but polyurethane can be

any polymer containing the urethane linkage in its backbone chain.

More sophisticated polyurethanes are possible, for example

Polyurethanes are made by reacting diisocyanates with di-alcohols;

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Sometimes, the dialcohol is replaced with a diamine, and the polymer

we get is a polyurea, because it contains a urea linkage, rather than a
urethane linkage. But these are usually called polyurethanes, because
they probably would not sell well with a name like polyurea.

Polyurethanes can hydrogen bond very well and thus can be very
crystalline. For this reason they are often used to make block
copolymers with soft rubbery polymers. These block copolymers have
properties of thermoplastic elastomers.

3.2.1 Spandex

One unusual polyurethane thermoplastic elastomer is spandex, which

DuPont sells under the trade name Lycra. It has both urea and urethane
linkages in its backbone. What gives spandex its special properties is the
fact that it has hard and soft blocks in its repeat structure. The short
polymeric chain of a polyglycol, usually about forty or so repeats units
long, is soft and rubbery. The rest of the repeat unit, the stretch with the
urethane linkages, the urea linkages, and the aromatic groups, is
extremely rigid. This section is stiff enough that the rigid sections from
different chains clump together and align to form fibres. Of course, they
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are unusual fibres, as the fibrous domains formed by the stiff blocks are
linked together by the rubbery soft sections. The result is a fibre that acts
like an elastomer! This allows us to make fabric that stretches for
exercise clothing and the like.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. What are polyurethanes?

2. Mention two uses of the polyurethanes

3.3 Cellulose

Cellulose is one of many polymers found in nature. Wood, paper, and

cotton all contain cellulose. Cellulose is an excellent fibre. Wood,
cotton, and hemp rope are all made of fibrous cellulose. Cellulose is
made of repeat units of the monomeric glucose. This is the same glucose
which the body metabolizes in order to live, but you cannot digest it in
the form of cellulose. Because cellulose is built out of a sugar monomer,
it is called a polysaccharide

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Cellulose has an important place in the story of polymers because it was

used to make some of the first synthetic polymers, like cellulose nitrate,
cellulose acetate, and rayon.

Another cellulose derivative is hydroxyethylcellulose. It differs from

plain old regular cellulose in that some or all of the hydroxyl groups of
the glucose repeat unit have been replaced with hydroxyethyl ether
groups

These hydroxyethyl groups get in the way when the polymer tries to
crystallize. Because it cannot crystallize, hydroxyethylcellulose is
soluble in water. In addition to being a great laxative, it's used to thicken
shampoos as well. It also makes the soap in the shampoo less foamy,
and helps the shampoo clean better by forming colloids around dirt
particles.

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Normally, particles of dirt are insoluble in water. But a chain of

hydroxyethylcellulose can wrap itself around a dirt particle. This mass
can be thought of as a snack cake, with the polymer chain as the cake
and the dirt as the creamy filling. This snack cake is soluble in water, so
by wrapping around the dirt like this, the hydroxyethylcellulose tricks
the water into accepting the dirt. In this way, the dirt gets washed away
instead of being deposited back onto your hair.

3.4 Polyacrylonitrile

Polyacrylonitrile is used for very few products an average consumer

would be familiar with, except to make another polymer, carbon fibre.
Homopolymers of polyacrylonitrile have been uses as fibres in hot gas
filtration systems, outdoor awnings, sails for yachts, and even fibre
reinforced concrete. But mostly copolymers containing polyacrylonitrile
are used as fibres to make knitted clothing, like socks and sweaters, as
well as outdoor products like tents. If the label of some piece of clothing
says "acrylic", then it is made out of some copolymer of
polyacrylonitrile. Usually they are copolymers of acrylonitrile and
methyl acrylate, or acrylonitrile and methyl methacrylate:

Also, sometimes we make copolymers of acrylonitrile and vinyl

chloride. These copolymers are flame-retardant, and the fibres made
from them are called modacrylic fibres.

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But the slew of copolymers of acrylonitrile does not end there as well.
Poly(styrene-co-acrylonitrile) (SAN) and poly(acrylonitrile-co-
butadiene-co--styrene) (ABS), are used as plastics.

SAN is a simple random copolymer of styrene and acrylonitrile. But

ABS is more complicated. It's made by polymerizing styrene and
acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. Polybutadiene has
carbon-carbon double bonds in it, which can polymerize, too. So we end
up with a polybutadiene chain with SAN chains grafted onto it.

ABS is very strong and lightweight. It is strong enough to be used to

make automobile body parts. Using plastics like ABS makes
automobiles lighter, so they use less fuel, and therefore they pollute less.

ABS is a stronger plastic than polystyrene because of the nitrile groups

of its acrylonitrile units. The nitrile groups are very polar, so they are
attracted to each other. This allows opposite charges on the nitrile
groups to stabilize each other. This strong attraction holds ABS chains
together tightly, making the material stronger. Also the rubbery
polybutadiene makes ABS tougher than polystyrene.

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Polyacrylonitrile is a vinyl polymer, and a derivative of the acrylate

family of polymers. It is made from the monomer acrylonitrile by free
radical vinyl polymerization.

3.5 Polymers an Application

Table 4.1: Plastics and Fibre Polymers

Polymers used as plastics Polymers used as fibres

Polypropylene Polypropylene
Polyesters Polyesters
Polystyrene Polyethylene
Polycarbonate Kevlar and Nomex
PVC Polyacrylonitrile
Polyethylene Cellulose
Poly(methyl methacrylate) Polyurethanes

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. What are the chemical constituents of cellulose and

polyarylonitrile.
2. Differentiate between Spandex and ABS.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Polyurethanes can be fibres, and they can be adhesives. These block

copolymers have properties of thermoplastic elastomers. Cellulose is
one of many polymers found in nature. Wood, paper, and cotton all
contain cellulose. Cellulose is an excellent fibre. Cellulose has an
important place in the story of polymers because it was used to make
some of the first synthetic polymers, like cellulose nitrate, cellulose
acetate, and rayon.

Polyacrylonitrile is a vinyl polymer, and a derivative of the acrylate

family of polymers. It is made from the monomer acrylonitrile by free
radical vinyl polymerization. SAN is a simple random copolymer of
styrene and acrylonitrile. But ABS is more complicated. It is made by
polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

polyurethanes are the most well known polymers used to make

foams
cellulose is made of repeat units of the monomer glucose
polyacrylonitrile is a vinyl polymer, and a derivative of the
acrylate family of polymers
poly (styrene-co-acrylonitrile) (SAN) and poly(acrylonitrile-co-
butadiene-co--styrene) (ABS), are copolymers of
polyacrylonitrile which are used as plastics.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Polyurea (b) SAN (c) ABS

2. What are the functions of hydroxyethylcellulose

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Synthetic Fibres: Nylon, Polyesters, Acrylic and Polyolefins; Edited by

J.E McIntyre, Woodhead Textiles Series No. 36, Woodhead
Publishing Limited, 2009.

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UNIT 5 ARAMIDS, POLY

(METHYLMETHACRYLATE) AND
POLYCARBONATE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Aramids, Poly (methyl methacrulate) and
Polycarbonate
3.2 Aramids
3.3 Poly (methyl methacrylate), PMMA
3.4 Polycarbonate
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The diverse nature of polymers allow for diverse applicable usage of the
materials produced from them.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to state:

the meaning of aramids, Kevlar and Nomex

the meaning of poly (methyl methacrulate) and Polycarbonate
the chemical structures of these polymers and their uses.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions of Aramids, Poly (methyl methacrylate) and

Polycarbonate

Aramids are a family of nylons, including Nomex® and Kevlar®.

Poly (methyl methacrylate), which lazy scientists call PMMA, is a clear

plastic, used as a shatterproof replacement for glass.

Polycarbonate, or specifically polycarbonate of bisphenol A, is a clear

plastic used to make shatterproof windows, lightweight eyeglass lenses

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3.2 Aramids

Aramids are a family of nylons, including Nomex® and Kevlar®.

Aramids are used in the form of fibers. They form into even better fibers
than non-aromatic polyamides, like nylon 6,6.

Kevlar® is used to make things like bullet proof vests and puncture
resistant bicycle tyres. It is also possible to produce bullet proof bicycle
tyres from Kevlar® if one felt the need. Blends of Nomex® and Kevlar®
are used to make fireproof clothing. Nomex® is what keeps the monster
truck and tractor drivers from burning to death should their fire-
breathing rigs breathe a little too much fire. Polymers play another part
in the monster truck show in the form of elastomers from which those
giant tires are made. Nomex®-Kevlar® blends also protect fire fighters.

Kevlar® is a polyamide, in which all the amide groups are separated by

para-phenylene groups, that is, the amide groups attach to the phenyl
rings opposite to each other, at carbons 1 and 4.

Nomex®, on the other hand, has meta-phenylene groups, that is, the
amide groups are attached to the phenyl ring at the 1 and 3 positions.

Kevlar® is a very crystalline polymer. It took a long time to figure out

how to make anything useful out of Kevlar® because it would not
dissolve in anything. So processing it as a solution was out. It would not
melt below 500 oC, so melting it down was out, too. Then a scientist
named Stephanie Kwolek came up with a brilliant plan.

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Aramids are used in the form of fibers. They form into even better fibers
than non-aromatic polyamides, like nylon 6,6. They have the ability to
adopt two different shapes, or conformations. The two shapes below are
the same compound, in two different conformations. The one on the left
is called the trans conformation, and the one on the right is the cis-
conformation.

In Latin, trans means "on the other side". So when the hydrocarbon
groups of the amide are on opposite sides of the amide bond, the bond
between the carbonyl oxygen and the amide nitrogen, it's called a trans-
amide. Likewise, cis in Latin means "on the same side", and when both
hydrocarbon groups are on the same side of the amide bond, we call it a
cis-amide.

The same amide molecule can twist back and forth between the cis- and
trans- conformations, given a little bit of energy.

The same cis- and trans-conformations exist in polyamides, too. When

all the amide groups in a polyamide, like nylon 6,6 for example, are in
the trans conformation, the polymer is fully stretched out in a straight
line. This is exactly what we want for fibers, because long, straight, fully
extended chains pack more perfectly into the crystalline form that makes
up the fiber. But sadly, there is always at least some amide linkages in
the cis-conformation. So nylon 6,6 chains never become fully extended.

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But Kevlar® is different. When it tries to twist into the cis-conformation,

the hydrogens on the big aromatic groups get in the way! The cis
conformation puts the hydrogens just a little closer to each other than
they want to be. So Kevlar® stays nearly fully in the trans-
conformation. So Kevlar® can fully extend to form beautiful fibers.

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When Kevlar® tries to form the cis-conformation, there's not enough

room for the phenyl hydrogens. So only the trans-conformation is
usually found.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Distinguish chemically between Kevlar and Nomex

2. Mention two uses of each of the aramids.

3.3 Poly (methyl methacrylate), PMMA

Poly (methyl methacrylate), or PMMA, is a clear plastic, used as a

shatterproof replacement for glass. The barrier at the ice rink which
keeps hockey pucks from flying in the faces of fans is made of PMMA.
The chemical company Rohm and Haas makes windows out of it and
calls it Plexiglas. Ineos Acrylics also makes it and calls it Lucite. Lucite
is used to make the surfaces of hot tubs, sinks, and the ever popular one
piece bathtub and shower units, among other things.

When it comes to making windows, PMMA has another advantage over

glass. PMMA is more transparent than glass. When glass windows are
made too thick, they become difficult to see through. But PMMA
windows can be made much thicker and they are still perfectly
transparent. This makes PMMA a wonderful material for making large
aquariums, whose windows must be thick in order to contain the high

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pressure due to millions of gallons of water. In fact, the largest single

window in the world, an observation window at California's Monterrey
Bay Aquarium, is made of one big piece of PMMA which is 54 feet
long, 18 feet high, and 13 inches thick (16.6 m long, 5.5 m high, and 33
cm thick).

PMMA is also found in paint. Acrylic "latex" paints often contain

PMMA suspended in water. PMMA does not dissolve in water, so
dispersing PMMA in water requires another polymer to make water and
PMMA compatible with each other. But PMMA is more than just plastic
and paint. Often lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids tend to get really
viscous and even gummy when they get really cold. This is a real pain
when you are trying to operate heavy equipment in really cold weather.
But when a little bit PMMA is dissolved in these oils and fluids, they do
not get viscous in the cold, and machines can be operated down to -100
o
C (-150 oF), that is, presuming the rest of the machine can take that
kind of cold!

PMMA is a vinyl polymer, made by free radical vinyl polymerization

from the monomer methyl methacrylate.

3.4 Polycarbonate

Polycarbonate, or specifically polycarbonate of bisphenol A, is a clear

plastic used to make shatterproof windows, lightweight eyeglass lenses,
and similar products. General Electric makes this stuff and sells it as
Lexan.

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Polycarbonate gets its name from the carbonate groups in its backbone
chain. It is known as polycarbonate of bisphenol A because it is made
from bisphenol A and phosgene. This starts out with the reaction of
bisphenol A with sodium hydroxide to get the sodium salt of bisphenol
A.

The sodium salt of bisphenol A is then reacted with phosgene, a right

nasty compound which was a favorite chemical weapon in World War I,
to produce the polycarbonate.

But there is another polycarbonate. This is the polycarbonate that is used

to make ultra-light eyeglass lenses. For people with really bad eyesight,
if the lenses were made out of glass, they would be so thick that they
would be too heavy to wear. But this new polycarbonate changed all
that. Not only is it a lot lighter than glass, but it has a much higher
refractive index. That means it bends light more than glass.

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It has two allyl groups on the ends. These allyl groups have carbon-
carbon double bonds in them. This means they can polymerize by free
radical vinyl polymerization. Of course, there are two allyl groups on
each monomer. The two allyl groups will become parts of different
polymer chains. In this way, all the chains will become tied together to
form a cross linked material. The carbonate-containing groups (shown in
blue) form the cross links between the polymer chains (shown in red).
This cross linking makes the material very strong, so it would not break
nearly as easily as glass will. This is really important for kids' glasses!

There is a fundamental difference in the two types of polycarbonate

described here. Polycarbonate of bisphenol A is a thermoplastic. This
means it can be molded when it is hot. But the polycarbonate used in
eyeglasses is a thermoset. Thermosets do not melt, and they can't be
remolded. They are used to make things that need to be really strong and
heat resistant.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Propose a short equation for the preparation of poly (methyl

methacrylate).
2. What are the striking features of a polycarbonate used in
eyeglasses?

4.0 CONCLUSION

It has been clearly shown how new scientific discovery has brought an
improvement into the nature and uses of polymers either as plastics or
fibres.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

aramids are a family of nylons, including Nomex® and Kevlar®

kevlar® is a polyamide, in which all the amide groups are
separated by para-phenylene groups, that is, the amide groups
attach to the phenyl rings opposite to each other, at carbons 1 and
4. Kevlar® stays nearly fully in the trans- conformation
nomex®, on the other hand, has meta-phenylene groups, that is,
the amide groups are attached to the phenyl ring at the 1 and 3
positions
poly (methyl methacrylate), or PMMA, is a clear plastic, used as
a shatterproof replacement for glass
there is a fundamental difference in the two types of
polycarbonate described here. Polycarbonate of bisphenol A is a
thermoplastic. But the polycarbonate used in eyeglasses is a
thermoset.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Distinguish between Kevlar and Nomex.

2. Propose a simple laboratory step for the synthesis of
polycarbonates.
3. Mention four uses of each of the aramids.

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Synthetic Fibres: Nylon, Polyesters, Acrylic and Polyolefins; Edited by

J.E McIntyre, Woodhead Textiles Series No. 36, Woodhead
Publishing Limited, 2009.

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MODULE 4 DYEING MECHANISMS

Unit 1 Textile Dyeing Process

Unit 2 Beam Dyeing Machine, Hank Dyeing Machine and Jig
Dyeing Machine
Unit 3 Jet Dyeing Machine

UNIT 1 TEXTILE DYEING PROCESS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Dyeing Process
3.2 Batch Dyeing
3.3 Continuous Dyeing Process
3.3.1 Semi Continuous Dyeing
3.4 Pad Batch Dyeing
3.4.1 Workings of Cold Pad Dyeing Process
3.4.2 Special Features of Pad Batch Dyeing Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In every sphere of industrial activity colour is needed. Dyeing machine

is the device that is used by different industries for imparting colours.
From paper to plastic to textiles everywhere there is use of Dyeing
Machinery. According to the need of each type of substrate, different set
of machines are put to use. The applications of these machinery give an
impetus to the products related to dyeing. However, rising energy prices
is having a knock-on effect on manufacturing expenditure for dyeing
machinery. Therefore, there will be greater interest globally in
machinery that have a lower energy consumption along with heat
recovery systems that are able to preheat the incoming cold feed water.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to state the:

types of dyeing machine

mechanism and operation of the batch dyeing process
type and mechanism of continuous dye process.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Types of Dyeing Process

There are different types of dyeing machine depending on convenience

and choice of materials to be dyed. Today computers are used to control
and monitor all aspects of dyeing. Over the last twenty to thirty years,
developments in dye chemistry have enabled the man-made fibre to be
dyed with better fastness to light and washing, and in an ever increasing
range of colours.

3.2 Batch Dyeing Process

Batch Dyeing Process is the most popular and common method used for
dyeing of textile materials. Batch dyeing is also sometimes referred to as
Exhaust dyeing. This is because in this process, the dye gets slowly
transferred from a comparatively large volume dye bath to the substrate
or material that is to be dyed. The time taken is also longer.

The dye is meant to 'exhaust' from dye bath to the substrate. In batch
processes, textile substrates can be easily dyed at any stage of their
assembly into the desired textile product. This includes fiber, yarn,
fabric or garment. Some type of batch dyeing machines can function at
temperatures only up to 1000oC. For example cotton, rayon, nylon, wool
etc. can be dyed at 1000oC or lower temperatures, while polyester and
some other synthetic fibers are dyed at 1000 oC or even higher
temperatures. There are three general types of batch dyeing machines.
The first, is the one where there is circulation of fabric. Second, is the
one where the dye bath gets circulated while the material that is being
dyed remains stationary, and finally the third, where both the bath and
material to be dyed gets circulated. Examples of dyeing machines that
utilises batch dyeing process are Beck, Jet, Jigs, Beam Package dyeing
machines etc.

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Fig. 1.1: Image Showing Popular Machines Utilising the Batch Dyeing
Method

Source: www.dyespigments.com.

3.3 Continuous Dyeing Process

The working of a continuous dyeing process is described here. The

textile substrates are fed continuously into a dye range. The speed can
vary between 50 to 250 metres per minute. According to Industry
estimates continuous dyeing is a popular dyeing method and accounts
for around 60% of total average yardage of the products that are dyed.

A continuous dyeing process typically consists of the following. Dye

application, dye fixation with heat or chemicals and finally washing.
Continuous Dyeing has been found to be most suitable for woven
fabrics. Mostly continuous dyeing is designed for blends of polyester
and cotton. The step of padding plays a key role in the operation of
continuous dyeing. Sometimes nylon carpets are also dyed in continuous
processes, but the design ranges for them is unlike that for flat fabrics.
Warps are also dyed in continuous process. Very good examples of such
warp dyeing are long chain warp dyeing and slather dyeing using indigo.

A continuous dye range has been found useful and economically

sustainable for dyeing long runs of a given shade. One important factor
that separates continuous dyeing from batch dyeing is the tolerance
factor for colour variation. That is more for continuous dyeing as
compared to batch dyeing. This is so because of two reasons (a) the
speed of the process; (b) presence of a large number of process variables

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which affects dye application. The process that is illustrated below is

designed for dyeing of blended fabric of polyester and cotton.

Fig 1.2: Schematic Diagram of a Continuous Dyeing Machine

Source: www.dyespigments.com

Some of the popular methods in continuous dyeing process are Pad-

steam, Wet-steam, thermosol dyeing, TAK dyeing, space dyeing, and
pad-steam dyeing, long chain warp dyeing etc.

3.3.1 Semi-Continuous Dyeing

In the process of semi-continuous dyeing that consists of pad-batch, pad-

jig, pad-roll, the fabric is first impregnated with the dye-liquor, in what
is called a padding machine. Then it is subjected to batch wise treatment
in a jigger. It could also be stored with a slow rotation for many hours.
In the pad-batch this treatment is done at room temperature while in
pad-roll it is done at increased temperature by employing a heating
chamber. This helps in fixation of the dyes on to the fibres. After this
fixation process, the material in full width is thoroughly cleansed and
rinsed in continuous washing machines. There is only one point of
difference between continuous and semi-continuous dyeing process: in
semi-continuous dyeing, the dye is applied continuously by padding.
The fixation and washing remain discontinuous. Liquor ratio in semi-
continuous dyeing is not of much importance and is not taken as a
parameter. One of the widely used techniques for semi-continuous
dyeing process is the Pad Batch Dyeing. A schematic diagram is given
here for the semi-continuous dyeing process.

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The following table shows some of the important machinery for semi-
continuous and continuous dyeing processes.

Table 1.1: Main Features of Continuous and Semi-Continuous

Processes

Make up Process Equipment

Padding Machine
Rope Continuous for Piece in rope
form
Woven and
Pad batch (or
Knitted Padding Machine+
carp-o-roll
Fabric, tufted Washing Machine
Open for carpet)
carpet
width Pad batch (or
Padding Machine+
Semi carp-o-roll
Washing Machine
Continuous for carpet)

Padding Machine+
Pad -jig Jigger+ Washing
Machine

Padding Machine+
Pad stream Steamer+ Washing
Machine
Continuous
Padding Machine+
Pad Dry Stenter frame+
Washing Machine

Source: www.dyespigments.com

3.4 Pad Batch Dyeing

Pad Batch Dyeing is one of the widely used techniques for semi-
continuous dyeing process. It is mainly used in the dyeing of cellulosic
fibre like cotton or viscose (knit and woven fabric) with reactive dyes.
Pad batch dyeing is a textile dyeing process that offers some unique
advantages in the form of versatility, simplicity, and flexibility and a

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substantial reduction in capital investment for equipment. It is primarily

a cold method that is the reason why it is sometimes referred to as the
cold pad batch dyeing.

3.4.1 Workings of a Cold Pad Dyeing Process

The technique or process used in pad-batch dyeing starts with saturating

first the prepared fabric with pre-mixed dye liquor. Then it is passed
through rollers. The rollers, or padders, effectively force the dyestuff
into the fabric. In the process, excess dye solution is also removed. After
removal of excess dye stuff the fabric is subsequently "batched". This
batching is done by either storing it in rolls or in boxes. It takes a
minimum of 4-12 hours. The batches are generally enclosed by plastic
films. This prevents absorption of carbon dioxide and water evaporation.
Finally as the reaction is complete the fabrics are washed. This is done
by becks, beams, or any other washing devices.

3.4.2 Special Features of Pad Batch Dyeing Process

1. Significant cost and waste reduction as compared to other

conventional dyeing processes.
2. Total elimination of the need for salt and other specialty
chemicals. For example there is no need for anti-migrants,
leveling agents and fixatives that are necessary in conventional
dye baths.
3. Optimum utilization of dyes that eliminates specialty chemicals
cuts down chemical costs and waste loads in the effluent. All this
results in a formidable reduction in wastewater treatment costs.
4. Excellent wet fastness properties.
5. Pad batch dyeing cuts energy and water consumption owing to
low bath ratio (dye: water) required for the process. This is
because unlike other dyeing processes it does not function at high
temperatures.
6. A uniform dye quality is achieved with even colour absorbency
and colour fastness.
7. As compared to rope dyeing, pad batch dyeing produces much
lower defect levels.
8. In pad batch dyeing, qualities like high shade reliability and
repeatability are common. This is because of high reactivity dyes
with rapid fixation rate and stability.
9. Lastly pad batch dyeing can also improve product quality. The
fabric undergoing the cold pad batch dyeing process is able to
retain a uniformly coloured appearance. It shows added luster and
gives a gentle feel. The fabric gives a brighter look in shades.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

It could be seen that the understanding of the dyeing mechanism has

significantly improved the type of materials resulting from the dyeing
processes.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

today computers are used to control and monitor all aspects of

dyeing
developments in dye chemistry have enabled the man-made fibre
to be dyed with better fastness to light and washing, and in an
ever increasing range of colours
a continuous dyeing process typically consists of the following.
Dye application, dye fixation with heat or chemicals and finally
washing
pad Batch Dyeing cuts energy and water consumption owing to
low bath ratio (dye: water) required for the process
pad Batch Dyeing is mainly used in the dyeing of cellulosic fibre
like cotton or viscose (knit and woven fabric) with reactive dyes.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe the mechanism of batch dyeing process.

2. Enumerate the advantages of pad batch dyeing process over other
types in the same category.

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Industrial Dyes, Chemistry, Properties, Applications; edited by Klaus

Hunger (2003). Wiley-VCH.

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UNIT 2 BEAM DYEING MACHINE, HANK DYEING

MACHINE AND JIG DYEING MACHINE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Beam Dyeing Machine
3.3 Batch Dyeing
3.3.1 Features of Beam Dyeing Machine
3.3.2 Advantages of Beam Dyeing Process
3.4 Hank Dyeing Machine
3.4.1 Features of Hank Dyeing Machine
3.5 Jig Dyeing Machine
3.5.1 Types of Jig Dyeing Machine
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There is no dirt in the type of Textile dyeing machinery that is available

these days to a modern dyeing house. Most of these machinery utilise
latest advancement in the dyeing technology to give high capacity
dyeing along with uniformity and smooth finishes. For our convenience,
we have enumerated below some of the popular categories of dyeing
machines although no claim is made here that this list is fully
exhaustive.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

discuss the mechanism of bean dyeing machine

identify the main features and process of hank dyeing machine
describe the process of jig dyeing machine.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions

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There are still some more efficient dyeing processes which are
highlighted below:
3.2 Beam Dyeing Machine

The beam dyeing machine operates with the same principle as that of
package dyeing machine. It can be effectively used to dye yarn or fabric.
The process works like this: fabric or yarn in open width is rolled on to a
perforated beam. The beam then subsequently slid into a vessel that is
closed and pressurized. The colour impregnates the fabric as the dye
liquor is allowed to go on circulating through the perforations in the
beam. Usually the beam machines are designed in such a manner so as
to hold a single beam or multiple beams in a batch.

3.3 Batch Dyeing

3.3.1 Features of Beam Dyeing Machine

a. Able to adjust water level in accordance to fabric volume.

b. Even dyeing and superior dyeing quality.
c. Optimized circulation system along with high performance
pumps.

3.3.2 Advantages of Beam Dyeing Machine

i. The fabric is put under controlled tension, and is wound on to a

perforated beam. This results in elimination of creases from the
fabric. It also ensures total control of dimensions of the roll of
fabric.
ii. The fabric is held in a fixed position during the process of dyeing.
This actually means that there is no application of mechanical
action on to the fabric. As shown in the figure, there is no
movement of the fabric as the hydrostatic pressure of the pump
forces the dye liquor through the fabric roll.

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Fig .2.1: Schematic Diagram of a Beam Dyeing Machine

Source: www.dyespigments.com

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Describe the features of a Beam Dyeing Machine.

2. Mention two of its advantages.

3.4 Hank Dyeing Machine

Hank dyeing machine is mostly used for dyeing of patterned wool

carpets. There are mainly four types of Hank Dyeing machines used.
They are the following: single stick Hussong-Type Machines, the
double-stick machine, double-stick cabinet machine, and lastly circular
carrier machine. Out of this four, the first category of Hussong-Type
Machines is the most popular one.

In the Hussong type machines, a hank needs to be hung on removable

sticks, from the underside of the dyeing vessel lid. The lid is then
vertically lowered onto the dyeing vessel. The dyeing vessel consists of
a simple box that has a perforated false bottom. A reversible impeller,
which is placed vertically in a weir chamber at one corner of the
machine, is used for circulating liquor. Heat is generated by closed
steam coils located beneath the false bottom. While on the smaller
machines heat is generated by live steam injection.

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3.4.1 Features of Hank Dyeing Machine

a. Temperature control is done by electro-mechanical or

programmable logic controllers.
b. Machine capacities can range from 10 kg sample machines -1 ton
machines.
c. Yarn loads up to 4000 kg can be dyed by coupling together of
machines.
d. Typical liquor ratios are 1:15 to 1:25.

Fig. 2.2: Schematic Diagram of a Hank Dyeing Machine

Source: www.dyespigments.com

3.5 Jig Dyeing Machine

A Jig Dyeing machine is an efficient dyeing technique. It is also known

by the name of jigger. Jig Dyeing machine processes fabrics in open
width to avoid creasing problems in fabric dyeing. The process works
like this. The Jig Dyeing machine operates by transferring the fabric
back and forth. This happens from roller to roller via the medium of a
dye bath that is located at the base of the machine. As soon as the
second roller gets full, the direction of movement of fabric can be
reversed. In Jig dyeing, the duration of the process is measured on the
basis of the number of passages or ends of the fabric passing through the
dye bath from roller to roller. The end in dyeing parlance is known as
the passing of fabric through dye liquor from one roller to the other.

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Fig. 2.3: Some Features of a Jig Dyeing Machine

Source: www.dyespigments.com

3.5.1 Types of Jig Dyeing Machine

a. Atmospheric Jigs- Atmospheric jigs operate at atmospheric

temperatures and pressures. These machines are applied for
natural fibres. Here the temperature limit is typically 1000.
Centigrade.
b. High Temperature Jigs- A high temperature jig functions in the
same way as an atmospheric jig, but comes with the addition of a
pressure vessel that is designed to function at 1300C. The
pressure vessel also helps in having a close control of the dyeing
temperature. Typically it is applied for dyeing synthetic fibres.

4.0 CONCLUSION

It could be seen that high technological advancement has produced

machinery that are of high quality and gives smooth finishes and
beautiful fabrics.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

the beam dyeing machine can be effectively used to dye yarn or

fabric
hank dyeing machines are mostly used for dyeing of patterned
wool carpets
jig Dyeing machine processes fabrics in open width to avoid
creasing problems in fabric dyeing.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. With the aid of a simple diagram, describe the operation of a

Hank dyeing machine.
2. Enumerate the advantages of both Jig dyeing and Beam dyeing
machines.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Industrial Dyes, Chemistry, Properties, Applications; Edited by Klaus

Hunger (2003).Wiley-VCH.

www.dyespigments.com

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UNIT 3 JET DYEING MACHINE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Jet Dyeing Machine
3.2 Types of Jet Dyeing Machine
3.3 Overflow Dyeing Machine
3.3.1 Functions of Overflow Dyeing Machine
3.3.2 Advantages of Overflow Dyeing Machine
3.4 Soft Flow Dyeing Machine
3.4.1 Key Features of Soft Flow Dyeing Machine
3.4.2 Types of Soft Flow Dyeing Machine
3.5 Air Flow Dyeing Machine
3.5.1 Advantages of Air Flow Dyeing Machine
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the textile industry a variety of machines are used for dyeing. Some
of these machines with minor operational modifications can easily
accommodate new types of dyes and take advantage of the latest
advances made in the dyeing equipment technology.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

explain the mechanism of Jet dyeing process

state the types of Jet dyeing machine
state advantages of Jet dyeing process.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Jet Dyeing Machine

In the Jet dyeing machine the reel is completely eliminated. A closed

tubular system exists where the fabric is placed. For transporting the
fabric through the tube a jet of dye liquor is supplied through a venturi.
The Jet creates turbulence. This helps in dye penetration along with

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preventing the fabric from touching the walls of the tube. As the fabric
is often exposed to comparatively higher concentrations of liquor within
the transport tube, a small quantity of dye bath is needed in the bottom
of the vessel. This is just enough for the smooth movement from rear to
front. Aqueous jet dyeing machines generally employs a driven winch
reel along with a jet nozzle.

Fig. 3.1: Features of a Jet Dyeing Machine

Source: www.dyespigments.com.

3.2 Types of Jet Dyeing Machine

In deciding the type of dyeing machine the following features are

generally taken into consideration for differentiating. They are the
following.

Shape of the area where the fabric is stored i.e. long shaped
machine or J-box compact machine
Type of the nozzle along with its specific positioning i.e. above
or below the bath level.

3.3 Overflow Dyeing Machine

Overflow Dyeing Machines are designed for use in delicate knitted and
woven fabrics that are made up of natural as well as synthetic fibres.
They are also extensively used in the production of carpets. The main
difference between jet and overflow machines is that in jet machines the
fabric gets transported by a bath that flows at high speed through the
nozzle, while in Overflow Dyeing Machine it is the gravitational force
of the liquor overflow that is responsible for fabric transportation.

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Fig. 3.2: Schematic Diagram of an Overflow Dyeing Machine

Source: www.dyespigments.com

3.3.1 Functioning of an Overflow Dyeing Machine

A typical Overflow Dyeing Machine works like this. A winch that is not
motor driven usually is located in the top side of the machine where the
fabric is hung. A longer length of textile is made to hang from the exit
side of the winch as compared to the inlet side. By applying the force of
gravitation the longer length of textile is pulled downward more strongly
than the shorter one. Consequently the fabric is soaked in the bath
without any sort of tension.

3.3.2 Advantages of Overflow Dyeing Machine

No evaporative losses- As the dyeing vessel is closed, there is no

evaporative losses stemming from the dye bath. Further,
depending on the situation the temperature may be raised to more
than 1000oC.
No build up of steam condensate in the dye bath- The latest
technology implies that the dye bath gets heated by a heat
transducer which is steam driven. This technology apart from
being very efficient ensures that there is no build up of steam
condensate in the dye bath.

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Low liquor ratios- Dyeing is conducted at relatively low liquor

ratios, e.g. 10:1 and may be lesser resulting in substantial savings
in water and energy.
Excellent dye liquor contact- Excellent dye liquor contact with
the fabric rope results in better and more improved level dyeing.
Computer control- The machines are operated by computers and
hence, operator error is eliminated.

3.4 Soft-flow Dyeing Machine

In the soft flow dyeing machine water is used for keeping the fabric in
circulation. The conventional difference of this equipment from a
conventional jets that operates with a hydraulic system is that the fabric
rope is kept circulating during the whole processing cycle (right from
loading to unloading). There is no stopping of liquor or fabric
circulation for usual drain and fill steps.

The principle working behind the technique is very unique. There is a

system for fresh water to enter the vessel via a heat exchanger to a
special interchange zone. At the same time the contaminated liquor is
channeled out through a drain without any sort of contact with the fabric
or for that matter the new batch in the machine.

3.4.1 Key Features of Soft Flow Dyeing Machine

a. Significant savings in processing time.

b. Savings in water that is around 50%.
c. Excellent separation of different streams results in optimum heat
recovery and a distinct possibility of further use or a dedicated
treatment.

3.4.2 Types of Soft Flow Dyeing Machine

A few of the commercially popular brands along with their particular

technical specifications are discussed here. The categories are not
exhaustive as such:

(a) Multi Nozzle Soft Flow Dyeing Machine

Technical features:

Very low Liquor ratio - around 1:1 (Wet Fabric)

Can reach high temp. up to 140°C
Easily dye 30 to 450 g/mt.sq. of fabrics (woven & knitted fabrics)
Number of very soft-flow nozzles

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No pilling effect
Wide capacity

Fig. 3.3: Features of Multi Nozzle Soft Flow Dyeing Machine

Source: www.dyespigments.com

(b) High Temperature High Pressure Soft flow Dyeing Machine

Technical features:

Compact body made of stainless steel.

High efficiency heat exchanger for quick heating/cooling.
Compact body made of stainless steel.
Heating rate - around 4°C/Min up to 900°C - around 3°C/Min up
to 135°C At steam pressure of 6 Bar.
Cooling Rate- around 4°C/ Min At water pressure of 4 Bar and
15°C.
Maximum working temp is 135°C.
Maximum working pressure of 3.2 Bar.
Control manual as well as automatic.
Heavy duty stainless steel pump.

3.5 Air Flow Dyeing Machine

This is another development of the very popular jet dyeing machines.

The main difference between the Air Flow Machine and Jet Dyeing
machine is that the airflow machine utilises an air jet instead of the
water jet for keeping the fabric in circulation. Typically the fabric is
allowed to pass into the storage area that has a very small amount of free
liquor. This results in a reduction in consumption of water, energy and
chemicals. The bath level is always under the level of the processed
textile. Here the fabric does not remain in touch with the liquor (the bath
used is below the basket that holds the fabric in circulation). This

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invariably means that the bath conditions can be altered without having
any impact on the process phase of the substrate.

3.5.1 Advantages of Airflow Dyeing Machine

a. Completely Separated circuit for liquor circulation without

getting in touch with the textile
b. Bath less Dyeing operation
c. Rinsing process offers all the added benefits of continuous
processing as it is no longer a batch operation
d. Extremely low liquor ratio
e. Virtually nonstop process
f. Comparatively lesserenergy requirement due to faster
heating/cooling and optimum heat recovery from the hot
exhausted dye liquors
g. Reduction in consumption of the chemicals (e.g. salt) dosage of
which is based on the amount of dye bath
h. Lesser water consumption savings up to 50% from the
conventional Jet dyeing machines
i. Sensitivity towards ecology
j. Economical operation
k. More safety while dyeing

4.0 CONCLUSION

There are three types of Jet dyeing mechanisms which are Overflow
Dyeing Machine, Soft-flow Dyeing Machine and Airflow Dyeing
Machine, which differs in the mode and shape of materials being dyed.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt that:

in the Jet dyeing machine the reel is completely eliminated, thus

requiring small quantity of dye bath
overflow Dyeing Machines are designed for use in delicate
knitted and woven fabrics that are made up of natural as well as
synthetic fibres. They are also extensively used in the production
of carpets
the main difference between the Air Flow Dyeing Machine and
Jet Dyeing machine is that the airflow machine utilises an air jet
instead of the water jet for keeping the fabric in circulation.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Compare and contrast the advantages of Soft and Air flow dyeing
machine.
2. Mention the types of Jet flow dyeing machine.

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Industrial Dyes, Chemistry, Properties, Applications; Edited by Klaus

Hunger (2003). Wiley-VCH.

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