IGCSE Notes

Prepared By: 0620

Mohtasim
Fuad
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O LEVEL

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Mohtasim Fuad

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IGCSE Requirements

GCE O Level Requirements

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INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

 What is chemistry?

 Chemistry is the study of matter.

 It is the study of how matter behaves, and of how one kind of substance can be changed

into another.

 What is matter?

 Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

 All matter is made up of particles.

 There are three types of particles:

1. Atoms: - It is the smallest particle that cannot be broken down by chemical means.

2. Molecule: - A molecule is a particle of two or more atoms chemically bonded together.

3. Ions: - An ion is an atom or group of atoms that carries an electrical charge.

There are two types of ions:

 Cation: - +ve charged ion (by losing electrons)

 Anion: - -ve charged ion (by gaining electrons)

 What are the different States of Matter?

 Matter exist in three different forms.

 These forms of matter are called States of Matter.

 The states of matter are: -

1. Solids

2. Liquids

3. Gases

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Difference between the three states of matter

State Solid Liquid Gas

Structure

Separation Close together Loosely packed Far apart

Regular Random
Arrangement Random arrangement
arrangement, lattice arrangement

Can vibrate about Can move around Move randomly and quickly in
Motion
fixed position each other all directions

Volume Definite volume Definite volume Indefinite volume

Can diffuse into more diffusible than most diffusible as particles

Diffusion
liquids solids move fast

Compressibility Negligible Negligible High

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Intermolecular
Low Moderate High
space

Intermolecular
forces Strong Moderate Negligible

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Explanations: -

 SOLIDS

 Why does a solid have a fixed shape and volume?

 The particles of a solid are held together by very strong forces of attraction.

 They cannot move about freely.

 They only have enough kinetic energy to vibrate and rotate about their fixed positions.

 Thus, the solid has a fixed shape.

 Why can’t solids be compressed?

 A solid cannot be compressed since its particles are already very close to each other and

they have little or no intermolecular space.

 Thus a solid has a fixed volume.

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 LIQUIDS

 Why do liquids not form a fixed shape?

 According the Kinetic particle theory, the forces of attraction between the particles of a liquid

are weaker than those of a solid.

 The particles of a liquid are not held in fixed positions.

 They are arranged in a disorderly manner and can move freely by sliding over one another.

 The particles of a liquids have more kinetic energy than particles of the same substance in solid

state.

 Why does a liquid have a fixed volume?

 The particles of a liquid are further away from one another than the particles in a solid.

 However, particles of a liquid are still packed quite closely to each other.

(less than solids, more than gas)

 Thus, a liquid cannot be compressed and has a fixed volume.

 GASES

 Why does a gas not have a fixed shape?

 Particles of a gas have a lot of kinetic energy and are not held in fixed positions.

 They can move more rapidly in any direction. Thus, a gas has no fixed shape.

 Why does a gas not have a fixed volume?

 Particles of a gas have a lot more space between them as compared to liquids and solids.

 The large space between the particles of a gas allows the gas to be easily compressed when

pressure is applied.

 The particles can be forced to be closer together and vice versa.

 Thus, since a gas can be compressed and decompressed, it has no fixed volume.

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PHYSICAL CHANGES OF STATE

 Melting: The process during which a solid turn to a liquid at a fixed temperature.

 Melting point: The temperature at which a solid melt.

 Boiling: The process during which a liquid turns to a gas at a fixed temperature.

 Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid turns to gas.

 Evaporation: The process during which a liquid turns to a gas over a range of temperatures

below the boiling point.

 Condensation: The process during which a gas turns to a liquid.

 Freezing: The process during which a liquid turns to a solid on cooling.

 Sublimation: The process during which a solid turns to a gas or vice versa directly without

going through an intermediate liquid phase.

 What is the difference between boiling and evaporation?

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at boiling point Occurs at temperatures below boiling point
Occurs throughout liquid Occurs only at surface of liquid
Occurs rapidly Occurs slowly
Bubbles are seen Invisible

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EXAMPLES:

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THE HEATING CURVE

A→B: Increasing heat energy increases the vibrations of the particles in the solid.
So the temperature of the solid increases.

B→C: The forces of attraction between the particles are weakened enough so that the particles
begin to slide over each other.
The temperature remains constant because the energy supplied is going to overcome the
forces between the particles instead of raising the temperature. The substance melts.

C→D: Increasing the energy increases the motion of particles in the liquid.
So the temperature of the liquid increases.

D→E: The forces of attraction between the particles are weakened enough so that the particles move
well away from each other.
The temperature is constant because the energy supplied is going in to overcome the forces
between the particles instead of raising the temperature.
The substance boils.

E→F: Increasing the energy increases the speed of the gas particles.
So the temperature increases.
The gas particles are far away from each other.

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 What is the Kinetic Theory of Matter?

 The kinetic theory helps to explain the way in which matter behaves.

 The kinetic theory explains that all matter is made from particles

 The theory also explains the physical properties of matter in terms of the movement of its

constituent particles.

The kinetic theory states that:

 All matter is made up of tiny, moving particles, invisible to the naked eye.

 Different substances have different types of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) which have

different sizes.

 The particles move randomly all the time. The higher the temperature, the faster they move on

average.

 Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature.

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 What happens when state changes?

According to the kinetic theory

 If a solid is heated the particles vibrate faster as they gain energy.

 This makes them ‘push’ their neighboring particles further away from themselves.

 This causes an increase in the volume of the solid, and the solid expands.

 Expansion has taken place.

 Eventually, the heat energy causes the forces of attraction to weaken.

 The regular pattern of the structure breaks down.

 The particles can now move around each other.

 The solid has melted.

 The temperature at which this takes place is called the melting point of the substance.

 The temperature of a pure melting solid will not rise until it has all melted.

 When the substance has become a liquid there are still very significant forces of attraction

between the particles, which is why it is a liquid and not a gas.

 Solids which have high melting points have stronger forces of attraction between their particles

than those which have low melting points.

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Process Change In terms of Kinetic Theory

1. When a solid is heated, its particles gain

kinetic energy.

2. They vibrate more about their fixed points.

3. This makes the solid expand.

4. At the melting point, the particles vibrate so

much that they break away from their
Melting Solid → Liquid positions so the lattice breaks.
5. They overcome the attractive forces
between the molecules.

6. Solid turns to liquid

1. When a liquid is heated, its particles gain

more and more kinetic energy and move
faster.
2. They collide with each other more often and
bounce further apart
Boiling Liquid →Gas
3. This makes the liquid to expand.

4. At the boiling point, the particles gain

enough kinetic energy to overcome the
forces of attraction between them.
1. Sometimes, a liquid can turn into a gas at a
range of temperatures lower than the
boiling point. This process is called
evaporation.
Evaporation Liquid→Gas

2. Evaporation occurs because some particles

have enough energy to escape as a gas
from the surface of a liquid.

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1. When a gas is cooled down, its particles

lose more and more kinetic energy and
move more slowly.
2. Their collisions are less frequent and with
Condensation Gas → Liquid
less energy
3. This contracts the gas. At condensation
point, the particles come close together and
the gas turns to liquid.

1. When a liquid freezes, its particles lose

kinetic energy.

2. They vibrate less. This contracts the liquid.

3. The particles come closer to each other.

Freezing Liquid → Solid
4. At freezing point, the particles come very
close to each other forming a regular
lattice.
5. Now, the kinetic energy that the particle
possess is not sufficient enough to
overcome the attractive forces between
them.

1. Some solids change directly into a gas

Solid→Gas/
Sublimation without going through the liquid state. This
Gas→Solid
is called sublimation.

2. Sublimation occurs because particles at the

surface of the solid have enough energy to
break away from the solid and escape as a
gas.

3. Iodine and ammonium chloride are

examples

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 What is Gas Pressure?

 Gas particles in a closed container collide with the walls of the container and each other and

exert a pressure each time they collide with it.

 This causes a rise in pressure. Higher the pressure, closer the particles to one another.

 Gas pressure is affected by temperature and volume of a gas.

 When a gas is heated in a closed container, the particles gain kinetic energy and hit the walls of

the container faster and with more force giving rise to pressure.

 Hence, gas pressure increases with increase in temperature.

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 Boyle’s Law

Keeping temperature constant

The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure.
Explanation:

 When the volume of a gas is decreased

 the gas particles come closer to one another and hit the walls of the container more often, giving
rise to pressure.
 Hence, gas pressure increases as volume of the gas decreases. This is also known as Boyle’s
law.
This means
Large volume of gas = low pressure of gas
Small volume of gas = high pressure of gas

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 Charles Law

When we keeping the pressure constant

The volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to the temperature.
Explanation:

 As temperature is increased the volume of a gas increases

 This is because higher the temperature, faster the gas molecules move as they have more
kinetic energy
 Force exerted is greater now.
 Therefore, the volume expands.

This means

Large volume of gas = high temperature of gas

Small volume of gas = low temperature of gas

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 Kinetic Theory of Gases:

 All matter is made up of tiny, microscopic moving particles and each matter has a different type of

particles with different size and mass.

 Particles are in continuous movement. All particles are moving all the time in random directions.

 The speed of movement depends on the mass of the particle, temperature and several other factors.

 Particles in gases do not attract each other.

 Particles in gases are so tiny that their volumes can be ignored.

 When the particles in gases collide they bounce off each other without any overall energy change

 Brownian Motion

 Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a gas)

resulting from their collision with the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid.

 Eg: Pollen grains suspended in water colliding with the water molecules.

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 DIFFUSION
 It is the net random movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a

region of lower concentration,

 down the concentration gradient until they are evenly spread out.

 Points to remember:

 The overall direction of the movement is from where the particles are more concentrated to

where the particles are less concentrated.

 However, the particles are moving randomly, so some are moving from less concentrated to

more concentrated regions as well.

 Generally, diffusion occurs only in liquids and gases because the particles are able to move.

 Diffusion is faster in gases than in liquids

 Diffusion does not occur in solids because the particles are packed closely together. they can

only vibrate about their fixed positions. they cannot move around.

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 Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

1. Temperature – The higher the temperature, the faster diffusion occurs due to increase in kinetic

energy.

2. Concentration - The greater the concentration, the greater the no of particles present in the

solution. There is greater difference in the concentration gradient.

Therefore, greater the rate of diffusion.

3. Molecular mass –

 The rate at which a gas diffuses depends on how heavy it is.

 This is compared using relative molecular mass.

 The greater the relative molecular mass, the heavier the molecule,

so the slower it will move.

 Lower molecular mass means the molecule is lighter, hence it will move faster.

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Experiment: How mass effects the rate of diffusion

 Concentrated HCl gives off fumes of a colorless gas called hydrogen chloride.

 Concentrated ammonia solution gives colorless ammonia gas.

 These gases diffuse along the tube.

 After a few minutes a white ring is seen nearer one end of the tube.

 The molecules of hydrogen chloride and ammonia form a white solid- ammonium

chloride.

 The white ring is nearer to the hydrogen chloride end of the tube

 This shows that HCl is a heavier molecule than Ammonia.

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O LEVEL

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

Mohtasim Fuad

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IGCSE Requirements

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GCE O Level Requirements

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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Basic Units of Measurement

Basic Units SI Unit Symbol Method of Measurement

1. Length Meter m Meter Rule
2. Time Seconds s Stop Watch
3. Mass Kilogram Kg Electronic Balance
4. Temperature Kelvin K Thermometer
5. Amount of Mol Mol
Substance
6. Current Ampere A Ammeter
7. Light Candela
Intensity

Converting units

Unit:

1m= 10dm 1dm=10 cm 1m= 100cm

1m3= 1000dm3 1dm3= 1000cm3 1m3= 1000 X 1000 cm3

cubic meter/ m3 cubic centimeter/ cm3

Absolute uncertainity :- smallest division of the measuring device

𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
% uncertainty x 100
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

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EQUIPMENTS USED FOR MEASUREMENTS

Measuring Length – Temperature –

METRE RULE THERMOMETRE

Smallest division : - 1 mm Smallest division : - 10C

Measuring Time – Measuring Mass –

STOP WATCH TOP PAN BALANCE

Smallest division : - 1 msec Smallest division : - 0.1 g

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Measuring Volume

Apparatus Accuracy
Beaker Can be used to measure 100 cm3, 200 cm3
Accurately measures up to the nearest 10 cm3

Smallest division : - 10 cm3

The smallest division varies

Measuring More accurate than a beaker.
Cylinder Measures upto the nearest cm3
Used to transfer large volume of liquids.

Smallest division : - 1 cm3

The smallest division varies

Burette Accurately measure upto the nearest 0.1 cm3
Used during titration.
To measure variable volumes accurately.
Eg. 1 cm3, 5cm3

Smallest division : - 0.1 cm3

The smallest division varies

Pipette Accurately measure upto the nearest 0.1 cm3
Used during titration
Used to measure fixed/ variable volumes during
titration
eg. 25 cm3

Smallest division : - 0.1 cm3

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Volumetric flask Used to make up solutions of solids in accurate

volumes of liquid.

Graduated gas Used to measure gas volumes

syringe

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Methods of Collecting Gases

Method Description Example

Downward Displacement of
Suitable for collecting gases that are
water. CO2, H2 and Cl2
insoluble or slightly soluble in water.

Downward delivery of gas

Suitable for collecting gases that are

 soluble in water and CO2

 denser or heavier than air.

Upward displacement of air

Upward delivery of gas

Suitable for collecting gases that are

 soluble in water and NH3 , H2.

 is less dense or lighter in air.

Downward displacement of air

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Measuring Rates of Reaction

Measuring the amount of reactant used up

Measuring the amount of product formed

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 MIXTURE – A system of two or more substances that can be separated by physical means.
 COLLOID – systems in which there are two or more phases. One of the phases is distributed
within the other.
 COMPOSITE MATERIALS – Materials which combine the properties of two substances in
order to get the exact properties that are required for a special job.
 FLOCCULATION – the destruction of a colloidal suspension by clumping the dispersed
particles together.
 SOLUBLE – When a solute will dissolve in a solvent, it is soluble
 INSOLUBLE – When a solute will not dissolve in a solvent, it is insoluble
 MISCIBLE – When two liquids form a homogenous layer when mixed together are said to be
miscible.
 IMMISCIBLE – When two liquids form two layers when they are mixed together the layers
are said to be immiscible (don’t mix)

 What is a Solution?

Solution : A mixture formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent.

Solvent

 This is a substance in which a solute dissolve to form a solution.

 It is the liquid part of the reaction.

Solute:

 This a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.

 It is the solid part of the reaction

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Types of Solution

Dilute solution: A solution with small amount of solute/ dm3 .

Concentrated solution: A solution with large amount of solute/ dm3

Saturated solution: A very concentrated solution with the maximum amount of solute that

dissolves in it already dissolved in it.

Solubility:

The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100g of water at a particular temperature.

Solubility increases as temperature increases.

This is due to increase in the intermolecular spaces between the water molecules as the
temperature increases, giving more space for the solute molecules to dissolve.

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PURITY OF A SUBSTANCE

What is a pure substance? Why is purity important?

A pure substance has no particles of any other substance mixed with it.

Purity is very important when making new medicinal drugs, getting vaccines, manufacturing baby
food etc.

The purity of a substance can be checked using the following methods

I. Melting and Boiling point

II. Chromatography

When a substance is pure:

 They have definite, sharp melting and boiling points.

 They are different for every substance so we can identify a substance based on their
melting and boiling points.
 Chromatography – if it is a pure substance, it will produce only one well-defined spot
on the chromatogram

When a substance contains an impurity:

 its melting point falls and its boiling point rises

 it melts and boils over a range of temperatures.
 Chromatography – if it is a impure substance, it will produce multiple well-defined spot
on the chromatogram

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CHROMATOGRAPHY

CHROMATOGRAPHY – A technique used to separate mixtures of dissolved substances

Chromatography is based on the principle where molecules in mixture applied onto the surface or
into the solid, and fluid stationary phase (stable phase) is separating from each other while
moving with the aid of a mobile phase.

The factors effective on this separation process include molecular characteristics related to
adsorption (liquid-solid), partition (liquid-solid), and affinity or differences among their molecular
weights.

Because of these differences, some components of the mixture stay longer in the stationary phase,
and they move slowly in the chromatography system, while others pass rapidly into mobile phase,
and leave the system faster.

Three components form the basis of the chromatography technique.

I. Stationary phase: This phase is always composed of a “solid” phase or “a layer of a

liquid adsorbed on the surface a solid support”.
II. Mobile phase: This phase is always composed of “liquid” or a “gaseous component.”
III. Separated molecules

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What is Paper Chromatography?

Paper-chromatography is a technique to separate a mixture of soluble solutes in materials such as

dyes and inks.

To separate the different colored dyes in a sample of black ink,

A spot of the ink is put on to a piece of chromatography paper.

This paper is then set in a suitable solvent.

As the solvent moves up the paper, the dyes are carried with it and begin to separate (due to
different solubilities of solutes in the solvent, absorbed to different degrees by the chromatography
paper).

As a result, they are separated gradually as the solvent moves up the paper.

Numerical measurements (retardation factors) known as 𝑅𝑓 values can be obtained from

chromatograms.

An 𝑅𝑓 value is defined as the ratio of the distance travelled by the solute (for example P, Q or R) to
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
the distance travelled by the solvent. 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

*Colourless substances can be made visible by spraying the chromatogram with a locating agent.
The locating agent will react with the colourless substances to form a coloured product.

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Example :-

 Chromatography of Coloured Substances

Separating the colours that make black ink

A spot of the ink is placed onto a piece of

chromatography paper; the paper is then put into a

suitable solvent- such as water.

As the solvent moves up the paper, the dyes become

carried with it and begin to separate.

They separate due to them having differences in

solubility in the solvent.

They are absorbed in different amounts by the

chromatography paper.

They separate as they move up the chromatography paper.

The end product of chromatography is called a chromatogram.

 Chromatography of colourless substances

The substances on which you perform chromatography do not need to be coloured.

Colourless substances are made visible by covering them in a locating agent. (Ninhydrin)

The locating agent will react with the colourless substances to form a coloured product.

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Uses of chromatography:

1. separate components in a sample.

2. identify number of components in sample.
3. identify components in a sample.
4. determine the purity of a sample.

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METHODS OF PURIFICATIONS
determine the purity of a sample.

If one of the
solid is magnetic magnet

solid/solid
sublimation
mixtures

solvent
extraction

filtration

insoluble solid decantation

centrifugation
solid/liquid
separating mixtures
techniques
Evaporation and
If solid required
crystallisation
soluble solid
Simple
If liquid required
Distillation

Fractional
miscible liquid
Distillation
liquid/liquid
mixtures
Immiscible Separating
liquid Funnel

gas/gas mixtures diffusion

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Solid/solid mixtures:
1. By a magnet:

This method is used to separate a mixture of two solids.

One of the solids must be magnetic.

Example: Sand and iron fillings.

Method:

 Pour the mixture in a dish.

 Introduce the magnet just above the mixture.
 The iron fillings will be attracted to the magnet.
 The sand will be left behind.

2. By sublimation:

This method is used to separate a mixture of two solids.

One of the solid undergoes sublimation.

Method:

 The solids can be easily separated by heating the mixture using a Bunsen burner.
 One of the solids will undergo sublimation.
 The other will be left behind.

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3. By solvent extraction:

This is used to separate two solids in a mixture.

One of the solids in the mixture is water soluble and the other solid is insoluble.

Example: Sand and salt.

Method:

 The mixture is put in a beaker and water is added to it.

 The mixture is stirred on gentle heating to make salt dissolve into water quickly.
 Then the mixture is filtered using a filtration process.
 The residue will be the insoluble sand the filtration will be the salt solution.
 The sand is dried and collected.

Sugar can be obtained from crushed sugar cane by adding water. The water dissolves the sugar
from the sugar cane. This is called solvent extraction.

Also some substances present in grass – such as chlorophyll- can be removed from crushed grass
by using a powerful solvent called ethanol

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Solid/liquid mixtures:

A. SEPARATING INSOLUBLE SOLIDS:

I. FILTRATION

FILTRATION: A process to get back the insoluble solid from solution.

FILTRATE: The liquid that passes through the filter paper during filtration

RESIDUE: The solid which remains in the filter paper

Method:

1. The insoluble solid and the solvent in present in a beaker.

2. A filter funnel is taken and a filter paper is placed on it.
3. The sample is then poured through the filter funnel.
4. The insoluble solid remains on the filter paper and is called the residue.
5. The remaining liquid or solution passes through the filter funnel and into the conical flask.
This is known as the filtrate.

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 This method is used when an insoluble solid needs to be separated from liquid. Sand can be
separated from a mixture with water by filtering through a filter paper.
 The filter contains microscopic holes that allow the small water molecules through but trap all
the larger sand molecules. It acts like a sieve. The sand is called the residue on the filter paper
and the filtrate is the liquid that is allowed to pass through the filter paper.

II. DECANTATION

DECANTING: The process for the separation of

 a liquid and a solid mixture such as a suspension or,

 mixtures of immiscible liquids by pouring

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Method:

 Let us think about cooking rice. It is easy to separate the

cooked rice from the water by pouring off all the water.

This is called decanting.

 Decanting is often used to separate an insoluble solid that

may have settled at the bottom of the container from a

liquid.

 Here you can see a clear liquid being decanted from an

undissolved solid in the conical flask.

III. CENTRIFUGE

CENTRIFUGING: The separation of the components of a mixture by rapid spinning.

The denser particles are flung to the bottom of the container tubes.

The liquid can then be decanted off.

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Method:

 Put the mixture in a test tube,

 Place the test tube in the centrifugation machine,
 Start the machine.
 The centrifugation force will make the mixture separate into two layers, the liquid at the top,
and solid at the bottom.
 They are then separated by decantation.
 It is often used when the solid particles are too small that
they spread out in the solution and form a suspension.
 They do not settle to the bottom of the container (as
heavier particles would under the force of gravity).
 The technique of centrifuging involves the suspension
being spun around very fast in a centrifuge so that the
solids get flung to the bottom of the tube
 The pure liquid is decanted after the solids have been forced to the bottom of the tube.
 This method is extensively used to separate plasma from blood cells.

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B. SEPARATING SOLUBLE SOLIDS:

I. EVAPORTATION & CRYSTALLIZATION

To get back the soluble solid from the solution.

Evaporation

 If the solid has dissolved in the liquid we cannot fiter or use a centrifuge.
 We heat the liquid so that the liquid evaporates and leaves the solid behind.
 This techinque is commonly used to obtain salt from salty water.

Crystallization

CRYSTALLIZATION - the process in which crystals are formed from a liquid

 Solids can be formed from their solvents by letting crystals form due to evaporation.
 Solids tend to be less soluble at lower temperatures.
 Heat a solution of a substance to evaporate some of the water to form a saturated solution.
 Leave the solution to cool, crystals will form as the temperature falls.
 Remove the crystals from the solution by filtering, rinse with distilled water and let it dry on
filter paper.

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DISTILLATION – The process of boiling a liquid then condensing the vapour produced back into a

liquid. It is used to purify liquids and to separate mixtures of liquids.

 Distillation is the process of boiling a liquid and condensing the vapour.

 Distillation is a technique to separate a solvent from a solution.
 Heat the solution in the flask. As it boils, water vapour rises into the condenser,
leaving salt behind.
 The condenser is cold, so the vapour condenses to water in it.
 The water drips into the beaker. It is called distilled water. It is almost pure.
 A Pure solvent can be separated from a solution by simple distillation,

DISTILLATION

SIMPLE DISTILLATION FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

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II. SIMPLE DISTILLATION

To get back the LIQUID OR SOLVENT from the solution.

Method:

Steps taken during distillation

1. The thermometer should be placed beside the side arm of the distillation flask. It should not
be dipped into the solution. This ensures that he thermometer measures the boiling point of
the substance that is being distilled.
2. The condenser consists of two tubes : an inner tube and an outer water jacket. Cold running
water is allowed to enter the water jacket from the bottom of the condenser and leave from
the top.
3. The condenser slopes downwards so that the pure solvent formed can run into the reveiver.
4. If the distillate is volatile, the receiver can be put in a large container filled with ice. This helps
to keep the temperature of the distillate low so that it remains in the liquid.

GEL – A mixture formed between a solid and a liquid in which the solid forms a network which traps
the liquid so it cannot flow freely .

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Liquid/liquid mixtures:
 SEPARATING MISCIBLE LIQUIDS
I. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

Method:

 This is used to separate a mixture of liquids from each other.

 It makes use of their different boiling points. It is used to separate a mixture of ethanol and
water.
 Heat the mixture in the flask. At about 78°C, the ethanol begins to boil.
 Some water evaporates too.
 A mixture of ethanol and water vapours rises up the column.
 The vapours condense on the glass beads in the column, making them hot.

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 When the beads reach about 78°C, ethanol vapour no longer condenses on them. Only the
water vapour does. So water drips back into the flask.
 The ethanol vapour goes into the condenser.
 There it condenses. Pure liquid ethanol drips into the beaker.
 Eventually, the thermometer reading rises above 78 °C – a sign that all the ethanol has gone.
So you can stop heating. You’re left with water in the flask.

Uses of Fractional Distillation

Fractional distillation of petroleum

The fractional distillation is carried out in a tower that is kept very hot at the base, and cooler
towards the top. Petroleum is pumped in at the base. The compounds start to boil off. Those with
the smallest molecules boil off first, and rise to the top of the tower. Others rise only part of the way,
depending on their boiling points, and then condense.

Fractional distillation in production of ethanol

The ethanol is made by fermentation, using sugar cane or other plant material. It is separated from
the fermented mixture by fractional distillation.

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 SEPARATING IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS

I. SEPARATING FUNNEL

This is used to separate liquid/liquid mixtures and gas/liquid and gas/gas mixtures.

It makes use of their different densities.

Method:

 Pour the mixture of oil and water into the funnel, making sure the tap is closed.
 Support the funnel on a retort stand. Place a beaker underneath the separating funnel.
 Let the oil and water separate completely, this might take a while.
 The denser substance (water in this case) sinks to the bottom.
 Open the tap to let the denser substance (water) drain into the beaker.
 Turn the tap off before the top layer of water runs out.
 Place another beaker to drain the layer of water and oil until all that is left in the funnel
is oil.

EMULSION – The apparent mixing of two immiscible liquids by the use of an emulsifier which
breaks down one of the liquids into tiny droplets. The droplets of the liquid float suspended in the
other liquid so that they do not separate out into different layers.

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FOAM – a mixture formed between a gas and a liquid. The has forms tiny bubbles in the liquid but
does not dissolve in it.

Gas/gas mixtures:
According to Density: Diffusion

According to Solubility: Solvent Extraction

According to Temperature: Liquefaction

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QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

PRACTICALS

TEST FOR TEST FOR TEST FOR

CATION ANIONS GASES

BY
FLAME TEST
SOLUBILITY

TEST FOR CATIONS

 We can test an unknown substance to identify the positive ion present.

 An alkali is used to do this

 Particular tests are used to identify negative ions are called anions.

 To find the type of anion present in an unknown compound a variety of tests is used.

 When all the test are completed for both cations and anions we can identify the

unknown compound.

 Further tests can also be carried out to confirm our conclusions.

 The whole process of finding out what elements are present in a compound is called

qualitative analysis.

 Many compounds look similar in the laboratory.

 If there is a white powder it could be sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate or aluminium

oxide.

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 Even colored compounds may appear colorless when they are dissolved at low

concentration in aqueous solution. For example: iron (II) sulfate has light green

crystals but when dissolved in water it appears colorless unless you make a very

concentrated solution.

 So how can we identify a substance in solution? One way to do this is to use aqueous

sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia. These alkalis can be used to identify positive

ions in compounds. Positive ions are often called cations because they move to the

cathode when an ionic solution is electrolysed.

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 FLAME TESTS

A flame test can be used to identify some cations, especially those in compounds containing

elements from Groups I and II.

The procedure is:

 Clean a platinum or nichrome wire by dipping it in concentrated hydrochloric acid.

 Place a sample of the compound on the end of the wire.

 Hold the wire on the edge of a non-luminous (blue) Bunsen fame.

 Note any change in the colour of the flame

The typical flame test colours for some metal ions are shown in the table.

Metal ion Flame colour

Lithium (Li+) red

Sodium (Na+) yellow

Potassium (K+) lilac

Copper(II) (Cu2+) blue-green

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 SOLUBILITY TEST FOR CATIONS

The procedure for identifying an unknown cation is:

 If you have a solid that you want to identify it is best to dissolve it in little water first and

use this aqueous solution for the test.

 Put a small amount of the solution you want to identify into a test tube.

 Add a few drops of aqueous sodium hydroxide.

 Observe the color of any precipitate formed.

 Add excess aqueous sodium hydroxide and shake the test tube.

 Record whether or not the precipitate dissolves, and any color changes.

 Repeat the above steps by using ammonia.

 Record whether or not the precipitate dissolves, and any color changes.

Sodium hydroxide and ammonia react in a similar way with some of the ions.

However, these two alkalis is used to distinguish the colourless solutions containing aluminum and

zinc ions.

If the alkalis are not in excess the precipitates formed are metal hydroxides. The equations for all

these reactions are similar.

The aluminium and zinc ions dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide because they form soluble

aluminates and zincates

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COLOR OF RESULT WITH EXCESS RESULT WITH EXCESS

ION
PRECIPITATE AQUEOUS NAOH NAOH AQUEOUS AMMONIA AMMONIA

Forms white precipitate Forms white precipitate

Zn 2+
2+ -
Soluble
2+ -
Soluble
Zn + 2OH →Zn(OH)2 Zn + 2OH →Zn(OH)2

Forms white precipitate Forms white precipitate

WHITE Al 3+
Soluble Insoluble
Al3+ + 3OH- →Al(OH)3 Al3+ + 3OH- →Al(OH)3

Forms white precipitate

Ca 2+
Insoluble Forms no precipitate
Ca2+ + 2OH- →Ca(OH)2

Forms a grey green Forms a grey green

Cr3+ precipitate precipitate

Soluble Insoluble

Cr3+ + 3OH-→Cr(OH)3 Cr3++ 3OH-→Cr(OH)3

GREEN
Forms a grey green Forms a grey green

Fe2+ precipitate precipitate

Insoluble Insoluble

Fe2+ + 2OH- →Fe(OH)2 Fe2++ 2OH-→Fe(OH)2

Forms a reddish brown Forms a reddish brown

RED Fe3+ precipitate precipitate

Insoluble Insoluble

Fe3+ + 3OH-→Fe(OH)3 Fe3+ + 3OH-→Fe(OH)3

Forms a light blue Forms a light blue

BLUE Cu2+ precipitate precipitate

Insoluble Soluble
2+ - 2+ -
Cu + 2OH →Cu(OH)2 Cu + 2OH →Cu(OH)2

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When a solution containing ammonium ions is heated with sodium

NH4+ hydroxide solution, ammonia gas is given off. This turns red litmus blue.

NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) → NH3 (g) + H2O(l)

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TEST FOR ANIONS:

1. Identifying chlorides, bromides and iodides

 We call the simple ions of the Group VII elements halides.

 Chlorides, bromides and iodides are all halides.

 Halides can be identified using aqueous silver nitrate.

 The procedure is as follows.

To a small volume of the halide solution in a test tube:

I. add an equal volume of dilute nitric acid

II. add a few drops of aqueous silver nitrate

III. observe the colour of the precipitate.

Chlorides give a white precipitate. Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

Bromides give a cream precipitate Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s)

Iodides give a pale yellow precipitate Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s)

Confirmatory test for halide ions:

Dilute ammonia Concentrated ammonia

Cl¯ Soluble Soluble

Br¯ Insoluble Soluble

I¯ Insoluble Insoluble

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2. Identifying carbonate ion

 The identification of carbonates makes use of the test for carbon dioxide.

 The procedure is:

I. We add dilute acid to the unknown compound.

II. The unknown compound can be either a solid or a solution.

III. If a carbonate is present we will see effervescence (bubbles of gas)

IV. We test to see if the gas given off is carbon dioxide using limewater.

3. Identifying nitrate ion

 The identification of nitrates makes use of the test for ammonia.

 The procedure is:

I. Put an aqueous solution of the unknown compound into a test tube.

II. Add aqueous sodium hydroxide,

III. Test the gas given off with a piece of damp red litmus paper placed at

the mouth of the test tube.

IV. If ammonia is given off, the litmus paper will turn blue.

V. SO the compound is likely to be a nitrate.

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4. Identifying sulfates

 Barium chloride or barium nitrate solution is used to test for sulfates.

 The procedure is:

I. Put an aqueous solution of the unknown compound into a test tube.

II. Add an equal volume of dilute hydrochloric acid and then add an aqueous

solution of a soluble barium salt. This can be barium chloride or barium nitrate.

III. If a white precipitate is formed the compound is a sulfate.

IV. The equation for this reaction is:

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)

5. Identifying sulfites

 The identification of sulfites makes use of the test for sulphur dioxide.

 To test for the presence of a sulfite ion, we add dilute hydrochloric acid and warm

gently.

 A gas is evolved.

 A piece of filter paper soaked in acidified potassium manganate(VII) is placed

above the test tube containing the acid and sulfite.

 If sulfur dioxide is present, it turns acidified potassium manganate(VII) from purple

to colourless.

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TEST FOR GASES

Before a gas can be identified at first it has to be collected.

 We can use a gas syringe to collect any gas.

 But it is easier to identify a gas if we collect it in a test tube.

 After collecting the gas in the test tube you put a bung on the tube so that the gas

does not escape before you identify it.

The way the gas would be collected depends on:

1. The Density Of The Gas – Is it heavier or lighter than air?

2. The Solubility Of The Gas In Water – is it soluble or insoluble in water?

Gas Solubility in water Density compared to air

Ammonia Extremely soluble Less dense

Carbon dioxide Slightly soluble Dense
Chlorine Soluble Dense
Hydrogen Not soluble Less dense
Hydrogen chloride Very soluble Dense
Oxygen Very slightly soluble Slightly dense
Sulfur dioxide Very soluble Dense

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COLLECTING GASES

Method Description Example

Downward Displacement of
Suitable for collecting gases that are
water. CO2, H2 and Cl2
insoluble or slightly soluble in water.

Downward delivery of gas

Suitable for collecting gases that are

 soluble in water and CO2

 denser or heavier than air.

Upward displacement of air

Upward delivery of gas

Suitable for collecting gases that are

 soluble in water and NH3 , H2.

 is less dense or lighter in air.

Downward displacement of air

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1. Identifying Hydrogen:

 You put a lighted splint at the mouth of the test tube.

 If the gas is hydrogen it burns with a squeaky ‘pop’ sound.

 The hydrogen is reacting it with oxygen in the air to cause a small explosion when a

flame or spark is present.

2. Identifying Oxygen:

 You put a glowing splint into the test tube.

 If the gas is oxygen the splint will relight.

 The splint is made of wood and wood is a fuel.

 Fuels burn better in oxygen then in air – there is no nitrogen to dilute the oxygen.

 So the splint will burn much better in pure oxygen so much so that the glowing splint

will relight.

3. Identifying Ammonia: Using the litmus test

 A piece of damp litmus paper is held at the mouth of the test tube.

 If the gas is alkaline it will turn red litmus paper blue.

 The gas is almost certainly ammonia if there is a strong sharp smell as well.

4. Identifying chlorine

 Chlorine is a poisonous green gas.

 So if chlorine is going to be released the experiment should be carried

out in a fume cupboard.

 Put a damp litmus paper or universal indicator paper at the mouth of the

test tube.

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 The indicator paper turns white it is bleached.

5. Identifying carbon dioxide:

 If a gas given off in a reaction is carbon dioxide, we can bubble it through limewater.

 If carbon dioxide is present, the limewater turns milky or cloudy.

 A simpler way to test for carbon dioxide is to simply put a drop of limewater on the end

of a flattened glass rod and hold it above the reaction mixture.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

 Limewater is a solution of calcium hydroxide.

 This solution is colourless. But when you bubble carbon dioxide

through it, a fine white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed:

 Carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide. So it reacts with a base to form

a salt and water.

 If you bubble the carbon dioxide through the limewater for too long the limewater goes

colourless again. This is because the calcium carbonate dissolves to form soluble calcium

hydrogen carbonate.

6. Identifying sulfur dioxide

 Sulfur dioxide is a colourless gas should be carried out in a fume cupboard.

 An acidified solution of potassium manganate(VII), which is purple in colour, is used to

test for sulfur dioxide.

 When sulfur dioxide is bubbled through acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII), the

solution turns from purple to colourless.

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We can tell if gas is acidic or alkaline by holding a piece of damp litmus paper at

the mouth of the test tube.

 If the gas is alkaline it will turn red litmus paper blue.

 If the gas is acidic it will turn blue litmus paper red.

TEST FOR WATER

BLUE PINK

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

IGCSE Requirements

Mohtasim Fuad 1

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

Mohtasim Fuad 2

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

GCE O Level Requirements

Mohtasim Fuad 3

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

 What is an atom?

Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that have the chemical properties of that element and

can participate in a chemical reaction.

 What is an element?

• An element is a chemical substance that is made up of only one kind of atom.

Example: Sodium is an element. It is made up of only Sodium atoms.

• Elements are represented by chemical symbols. Each element has a unique symbol consisting

of one or two letters.

• Classification of Elements

• Metals

• lies to the left of the zigzag line.

• Non-metals

• lies to the right of the zigzag line.

➢ Metalloids

• Elements on both sides of the zigzag line

Mohtasim Fuad 4

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 The Periodic Table

 Most elements are either METALS or NON-METALS.

 Metals and non-metals are separated by a zigzag line in the periodic table.

 In the periodic table, the metals are arranged in groups 1 and 2 on the left hand side or as

TRANSITION METALS in the MIDDLE of the periodic table.

 In the periodic table, the non - metals are arranged in groups 4 to 8 which lies on the right hand

side of the periodic table.

 METALLOID elements are in between the metal and non-metal elements. They

have some of the typical properties of metals and some of the typical properties of

non-metals.

 Silicon and germanium are metalloids and are often termed SEMICONDUCTORS.

Metals and non-metals have quite different physical properties and chemical

properties.

Mohtasim Fuad 5

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

 Metals

Most elements are metals. 88 elements to the left of the stair step line are metals or metal like

elements.

➢ Physical Properties of Metals: Appearance

• Lusterous (shininess)

• High density (heavy for their size)

• High melting point and boiling points

• Ductile (most metals can be drawn out into thin wires)

• Malleable (most metals can be hammered into thin sheets)

• Good conductors of heat and electricity

➢ Chemical properties of Metals: How they react with other substances

• Easily lose electrons

• Corrode easily. Corrosion is a gradual wearing away.

(Example: silver tarnishing and iron rusting)

 Metalloids

Elements on both sides of the zigzag line have properties of both metals and nonmetals.

These elements are called metalloids.

➢ Physical Properties of Metalloids:

• Solids

• Can be shiny or dull

• Ductile

• Malleable

• Conduct heat and electricity better than nonmetals but not as well as metals
Mohtasim Fuad 6

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

 Non metals

Non-metals are found to the right of the stair step line. Their characteristics are opposite to those of

metals.

➢ Physical properties of non-metals:

• Non lusterous (dull appearance)

• Low density

• Low melting point and boiling point

• Brittle (breaks easily)

• Not ductile

• Not malleable

• Poor conductor of heat and electricity

➢ Chemical properties of non-metals

• Tend to gain electrons

• Since metals tend to lose electrons and nonmetals tend to gain electrons, metals and nonmetals

like to form compounds with each other. These compounds are called ionic compounds.

• When two or more non-metals bond with each other, they form a covalent compound.

Mohtasim Fuad 7

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Difference in properties between metals and non-metals.

• Physical Properties

Metals Non-metals

1. Shiny appearance Dull appearance

2. Solid at room temperature and pressure Either gases or volatile liquids or solids with

except Mercury low melting at room temperature and pressure

3. They are malleable (can be hammered They are brittle is solids

into different shapes) and ductile (can be

made into wires)

4. Sonorous (makes a ringing sound when non- sonorous

struck)

5. High melting and boiling point Low melting an boiling point

6. Good conductors of heat and electricity Bad conductors of heat and electricity

• Chemical properties

Metals Non-metals

1. When metals react, they form positive ions When non-metals react, they form negative ions

by losing electrons by gaining electrons.

2. Metal oxides are basic Non-metal oxides are acidic

3. Metals react with acids to give off hydrogen Non-metals do not react with acids

gas

4. Metals do not react with bases Non-metals react with bases

Mohtasim Fuad 8

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

 What is a molecule?

A molecule is a group of two or more atoms of the same type held together by covalent bonds.

• What are the types of molecules?

a) Monoatomic molecules – one atom makes up a molecule. Example: noble gases, Helium, Argon

b) Diatomic molecules – two atoms join together to make up a molecule. Example: 𝐶𝑙2 , 𝐵𝑟2

c) Triatomic molecule – three atoms join together to form a molecule. Example : Ozone, 𝑂3

d) Polyatomic molecule – four or more atoms join together to form a molecule Example : 𝑃4 , 𝑆8

Mohtasim Fuad 9

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

 What are compounds?

A compound is a pure substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined together in a

fixed ratio.

Compound Elements present Ratio

Sodium chloride , NaCl Sodium and Chlorine 1:1

Hydrogen chloride, HCl Hydrogen and Chlorine 1:1

Carbon dioxide, 𝑪𝑶𝟐 Carbon and Oxygen 1:2

Aluminium Oxide, 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 Aluminium and Oxygen 2:3

Differences between a molecule and a compound.

Molecule Compound

A molecule is formed when atoms of the same type A compound is formed when two or more different

are joined together. Example: All the diatomic atoms join together. Example: NaCl

molecules like 𝑯𝟐 , 𝑶𝟐 , 𝑵𝟐

Is Carbon dioxide a molecule or a compound?

Carbon dioxide is a compound as carbon is an element that reacts with oxygen molecule and a

new substance is formed.

Mohtasim Fuad 10

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➢ How do we know whether a compound is formed or not ?

CHEMICAL CHANGE – A permanent change in which a new substance is formed.

The signs of a chemical change

1. One or more new chemical substances are formed.

• Iron + sulfur → iron (II) sulfide

• + means reacts with

• → means to form.

• The new substances usually look different from the starting substances.

• For example sulfur is yellow, but iron (II) sulfide is black.

2. Energy is taken in or given out, during the reaction.

• Energy was needed to start off the reaction between iron and sulfur, in the form of heat

from the hot metal rod. But the reaction gave out heat once it began – the mixture

glowed brightly.

• Types of reactions:

− Exothermic reactions – Energy is released from the reaction

− Endothermic reactions – Energy is absorbed/ taken in by the reaction

• Energy was needed to start off the reaction between iron and sulfur, in the form of heat

from the hot metal rod. But the reaction gave out heat once it began – the mixture

glowed brightly. This is an example of an exothermic reaction.

3. The change occurring during a reaction is usually difficult to reverse.

• You would need to carry out several reactions to get the iron and sulfur back from iron

sulfide.

A chemical change is usually called a chemical reaction.

Mohtasim Fuad 11

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

➢ Chemical formula of a compound

CHEMICAL FORMULA – A shorthand method of representing the chemical elements and compounds

The chemical formula of a compound is written by putting together the chemical symbols of the

elements that make up the compound.

A compound can be represented by a chemical formula.

The chemical formula states

• The types of atoms present in the compound.

• The ratio of the different atoms present in the compound.

General rules to follow when we write the chemical formula of a compound

General rule Examples

For many compounds that contain both metallic • calcium oxide CaO

and non-metallic elements, • sodium chloride NaCl

the symbol of the metallic element is written first • magnesium carbonate 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3

The number of atoms is written as a subscript, to • water (𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑟 2𝐻𝑂)

the right of the atom’s symbol

It is not necessary to write the subscript 1 • water (𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝐻2 𝑂1)

The oxygen atom is usually written at the end of • water (𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑂𝐻2 )

the formula.

For example,

• the chemical formula of water is H2O. It states that

• Hydrogen and Oxygen are present in the compound

• The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1

Mohtasim Fuad 12

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 What is a mixture?

• Mixtures contain two or more elements or compounds that are not chemically bonded together.

Examples of mixtures include air.

Air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen and other gases.

• A MIXTURE contains MORE THAN ONE SUBSTANCE (ELEMENTS OR COMPOUNDS).

• In a mixture, the separate substances can be easily separated.

• If we have a mixture of iron powder and sulphur powder, al the iron can be

separated from the sulphur because the iron could be attracted with a magnet.

• The components of a mixture are not fixed. They can be present in any ratio. Types of mixtures

include:

a. a mixture of two elements

b. a mixture of two compounds

c. a mixture of one element and one compound

Mohtasim Fuad 13

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STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING IGCSE]

What is the difference between a mixture and a compound?

Mixture Compound

Separation The components of a mixture The elements of a compound

can be separated by physical can only be separated by

methods. chemical reactions or by using

Eg: filtration, distillation electricity.

Properties The chemical properties of a The physical and chemical

mixture are the same as those properties of a compound are

of its individual elements different from those of the

elements in the compound.

Energy change No chemical reaction takes A chemical reaction takes place

place when a mixture is formed when a compound is formed -

– usually there is little or no usually there is an energy

energy change change, e.g. the reactants get

hot.

Composition The components of a mixture The elements in a compound

can be mixed in any proportion. are always combined in a fixed

Contains two or more proportion (by mass). It is a

substances single substance.

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Example:

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 Alloys

• An alloy is an example of a mixture.

• An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or metals with a non-metal.

• An alloy is made to increase the tensile strength of a substance.

• Alloys are harder than metals because they have different sized atoms which prevent

the layers from sliding over each other.

• Alloy is made by heating the metals and non-metals together until they all melt and

leaving them to cool mixed.

• Alloys have chemical properties similar to those of elements they contain but they have

different physical properties.

 Solder is an alloy of lead and tin. It melts at around 183˚ C, lead melts

at 327˚ and tin at 232˚

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Example of Alloys

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➢ Uses of Alloy

• Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon or with carbon and other metals.

• Mild steel is low carbon steel.

- It contains about 0.25% carbon.

- It is soft, malleable and can be drawn into wires easily.

- Uses include: car bodies, parts of machinery where it will not be worn away,

buildings and general engineering purposes.

• High carbon steels

- contain 0.5% and 1.4% carbon.

- As the percentage of carbon in the steel increases, it becomes more brittle.

- Uses include: tools such as hammers and chisels.

• Low alloy steels

- have 1% and 5% of other metals such as nickels, chromium, manganese and titanium.

- They are hard and do not stretch much.

- Uses – Nickel steels are used for bridges. Tungsten steel for high speed tools.

• Stainless steels are high alloy steels.

- They have up to 20% Chromium.

- Many stainless steels contain 70% iron, 20% chromium and 10% nickel.

- They are strong and resist corrosion.

- Uses include: cutlery and surgical instruments.

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CHEMICAL BONDING

THEORY OF ATOMS

1. All matter is made of small invisible spheres called ATOMS

2. All the atoms of the same element are IDENTICAL and with SAME MASS

3. The atoms of DIFFERENT ELEMENTS have DIFFERENT MASSES

4. Chemical COMPOUNDS are formed when ATOMS JOIN TOGETHER

5. All molecules of a chemical compound have the SAME TYPE AND NUMBER of atoms

How do atoms react together?

• Atoms bond with other atoms in a chemical reaction to make a new substance

called a COMPOUND.

- Sodium metal will react with chlorine gas to make a new compound called sodium

chloride.

- Hydrogen gas will react with oxygen gas to make a new compound called water.

• These reactions are caused by electron arrangements in atoms.

• If atoms have incomplete electron shells, they will usually react with other atoms.

• Only atoms with complete electron shells tend to be unreactive like the noble gases

in group 8 of the periodic table.

• When atoms combine, they try to achieve full outer electron shells.

• They do this either by gaining electrons to fill the gaps in their outer shell to make a full outer

shell or lose electrons to leave a full shell behind.

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Structure and Bonding

Bonding

Ionic bonding Covalent bonding

between metal and non-metal ions between non-metal atoms

ionic compounds covalent compounds

simple molecular structure giant molecular structure

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 What is an ion?

An ion is a charged particle formed from an atom or a group of atoms by the loss or gain of electrons.

Metals form positively charged ions (cations) whereas non-metals form negatively charged ions

(anions).

 How do cations and anions form?

• Cations form by the loss of electrons from its atoms

protons electrons neutrons

Magnesium atom 12 12 12

Magnesium ion (Mg2+) 12 10 12

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• Anions form by the gain of electrons into its atoms

protons electrons Neutrons

Oxygen atom 8 8 8

Oxygen ion (O2-) 8 10

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 Ionic bonding

The electrostatic forces of attraction between positively charged metal ion and negatively charged non-

metal ions are known as ionic bonding.

Ionic bonds are formed when a metal reacts with a non-metal.

Metal + Non-metal → Ionic bonds

• Ionic bonding involves ELECTRON TRANSFER between metals and non-metals

to form FULL ELECTRON SHELLS.

• Metal elements LOSE ELECTRONS and form POSITIVE METAL IONS.

This is called OXIDATION.

• Non-metal elements GAIN ELECTRONS and form NEGATIVE NON-METAL IONS.

This is called REDUCTION.

• The ions are HELD TOGETHER by strong electrical forces called ELECTROSTATIC FORCES.

• The bonding process can be represented by DOT AND CROSS DIAGRAMS.

Here is the ionic bonding diagram for sodium chloride.

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 What ions can an element form?

The ion that is formed by an element can be determined from the position of the

element in the periodic table .

Elements in Groups 4 and 8 do not form ions.

 How are ionic bonds formed?

1. The formation of positive ions

Each sodium atom loses its single valence electron to form a positively charged sodium ion.

2. The formation of negative ions

Each chlorine atom gains an electron from a sodium atom to form a negatively charged chloride

ion.

3. The formation of ionic bonds

• Positive sodium ions and negative chloride ions are attracted to one another by electrostatic

attraction to form sodium chloride.

• The electrostatic forces of attraction that hold the sodium ions and chloride ions together are

called ionic bonds.

• An ionic bond may also be called electrovalent bond.

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 How do we show ionic bonding?

• In a dot cross diagram, dots represent the electrons of one atom, while crosses represent the

electrons of another atom.

• In this example, the dots represent the electrons of the sodium atom, while the crosses

represent the electrons of the chlorine atom.

• Ionic bonds are formed when atoms of metals transfer their outer electrons to atoms of non-

metals. Compounds that contain ionic bonds are called ionic compounds.

 Structure of ionic compounds

• Ionic compounds form giant ionic structures.

• The sodium ions and the chloride ions are very strongly attracted to one another.

• They are arranged in a giant lattice structure or a crystal lattice.

• In a lattice, sodium and chloride ions are arranged in an orderly manner.

• These ions are held in place by ionic bonds throughout the entire lattice.

• Each positive ion is surrounded by six negative ion and each negative ion is surrounded by six

positive ions.

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 The properties of ionic compounds:

1. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. For example:

• This is because the ionic bonds are very strong. It takes a lot of heat energy to break up the

lattice. So ionic compounds are solid at room temperature.

• Magnesium oxide has a far higher melting and boiling point than sodium chloride does. This is

because its ions have double the charge (Mg2+ and O2- compared with Na+ and Cl-), so its ionic

bonds are stronger.

Strength of ionic bonds depends on:

- charge of the ion

- size of the ions.

2. Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water.

• The water molecules are able to separate the ions from each other.

• The ions then move apart, surrounded by water molecules.

• However, some ionic solids such as silver chloride and barium sulphate are insoluble in

water.

• Ionic compounds are insoluble in organic solvents. Because organic solvents are non-

polar. (They do not have any charges).

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3. Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state but conduct in molten or

aqueous state

• In solid state the ions are not free to move about.

• However, when an ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water to form an aqueous

solution, it can conduct electricity.

• This is because the ions are free to move in the molten state or in aqueous solution.

 General Rules of Naming compounds

General rule to naming compounds Examples

metal is named first, then the non-metal

A compound made up of two elements has a Sodium Chloride- sodium and chlorine

name that ends in -ide Zinc Oxide – zinc and oxygen

Carbon dioxide – carbon and oxygen

A compound that contains hydroxide ions, Potassium hydroxide, KOH – contains potassium

𝑶𝑯− , is named a hydroxide ions and hydroxide ions

A compound that contains a negatively charged Magnesium + Sulphuric Acid → Magnesium sulfate

polyatomic ion containing oxygen usually has a Sodium + Nitric Acid→ Sodium Nitrate + Hydrogen

name ending in -ate

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 Steps of working out the formula of an ionic compound

1. Write the name of the ionic compound. Eg: Magnesium Chloride

2. Write down the symbols for its ions. Eg: Mg and Cl

3. Write down the charges below the ions. Eg: Mg Cl

2+ 1+

How do we recognize the charges?

The charges are equal to their valencies

4. Criss-cross the charges. Eg: Mg Cl

2+ 1+

5. To ensure that there is no overall charge of the compound. Eg: Mg +2 x 1 =+2

Cl -1 x 2 = -2

6. Write down the formula of the ionic compound. Eg : 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2

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 Covalent Bonding

The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus of an atom and the shared paired of

electron between the atoms is known as covalent bond.

OR,

The bond formed between two or more atoms by sharing of electrons is called a covalent bond.

After bonding, each atom attains the electronic configuration of a noble gas.

 How many covalent bonds can an element form?

• This is linked to the position of the element in the periodic table.

• Metals in groups 1,2 and 3 DO NOT form covalent bonds.

• The noble gases in group 8(0) are unreactive and do not form covalent bonds.

• This can be summarized in the table below:

X MEANS NO COVALENT BONDS AT ALL

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 Types of covalent bonds

1. Single covalent bond – the sharing of two electrons or on pair of electrons between atoms

is called a single covalent bond.

The single covalent bond is represented by a single line in a structural formula.

Example:

H+H → H–H

2. Double covalent bond- the sharing of four electrons or two pairs of electrons between

atoms is known as a double covalent bond.

The double covalent bond is represented by a double line in a structural formula.

Example:

O+O → O=O

3. Triple covalent bond- the sharing of 6 electrons or three pairs of electrons between atoms

is known as a triple covalent bond.

The triple bond is represented by a triple line in a structural formula.

Example:

N+N → N≡N

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 What are bond pair and lone pair electrons?

• Bond pair - electrons present in an atom which take part in bonding.

• Lone pair - electrons present in an atom which do not take part in bonding.

COVALENT BONDS GIVE RISE TO COVALENT MOLECULES

 What is a molecule?

A molecule is a group of two or more atoms of the same type held together by covalent bonds.

 What are the types of molecules?

a) Monoatomic molecules – one atom makes up a molecule. Example: noble gases, Helium, Argon

b) Diatomic molecules – two atoms join together to make up a molecule. Example: 𝐶𝑙2 , 𝐵𝑟2

c) Triatomic molecule – three atoms join together to form a molecule. Example : Ozone, 𝑂3

d) Polyatomic molecule – four or more atoms join together to form a molecule Example : 𝑃4 , 𝑆8

What is the difference between 2N and N2?

• 2N is two nitrogen atoms present without any chemical bonds between the atoms.

• N2 is two atoms of nitrogen are chemically bonded together to form a diatomic molecule.

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 Molecular compounds/ covalent compounds –

• Molecules made from two or more different types of atoms linked together by covalent

bonding are called molecular compounds/ covalent compounds. Example: CO2, H20, CH4.

• Covalent bonds are also strong bonds.

• They are INTRAMOLECULAR BONDS that are formed WITHIN each molecule.

• Much weaker INTERMOLECULAR FORCES attract the individual molecules towards each

other.

Covalent substances may exist as:

1. Simple molecular structures.

2. Giant molecular structures.

 Naming simple covalent compounds.

• If hydrogen is present, hydrogen is named first and then the other non-metal.

• If hydrogen is not present, the non-metal with the lower group number is named first.

Example: carbon and oxygen = carbon dioxide.

• If both the non-metals are in the same group, the element which is lower in the group is

named first.

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 Simple molecular structures

• They are simple and contain only a few atoms in one molecule.

• Covalent bonds between the atoms within a molecule are strong but they have weak bonds

between molecules.

• These forces increase as the size of the molecule increases.

Example: Iodine.

• Within each Iodine molecule, the iodine atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds.

• Iodine is purplish-black in colour.

• When heated, it sublimes to form a purple gas.

• The purple gas is made up of diatomic molecules of iodine, I2.

• Between the iodine molecules in the solid, there are only weak

van der Waal’s forces holding the molecules together.

• These weak forces break down on gentle heating.

• This is why solid iodine sublimes on heating.

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 Properties of Simple Covalent Compounds

Physical properties

1. Melting and boiling point.

• The melting and boiling point of simple covalent structures are low

- due to the presence of weak intermolecular forces between the molecules

- although they have strong covalent bonds between their atoms.

• When heat is provided, it is the intermolecular forces that are overcome but there is no

effect on the covalent bonds.

• Thus these substances have low melting and boiling point.

• Melting and Boiling Point Varies with the size of the molecule

- Simple covalent substances made up of larger molecules are solids at room

temperature.

- This is because the intermolecular forces of attraction are stronger between larger

molecules.

- Intermolecular forces depends on the number of electrons present in the molecule.

- As the size of the molecule increases, therefore intermolecular forces also

increases and thus melting and boiling point also increase.

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2. Solubility

• Most covalent molecules are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents.

• However, there are some exceptions, for examples, alcohol and sugar are covalent

compounds that are soluble in water.

• Some covalent molecules dissociate when dissolve in water.

3. Electrical conductivity

• Most covalent elements or compounds do not conduct electricity whether in solid, liquid or

gaseous state.

• This is because they do not have free moving ions or electrons to conduct electricity.

• There are exceptions.

- Carbon, in the form of graphite, conducts electricity.

- Hydrogen chloride, Sulphur dioxide and ammonia react with water to form solutions that

conduct electricity.

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 Giant molecular structures

One molecule contains hundreds of thousands of atoms. They have extremely strong bonds between

the atoms.

They are also known as macromolecular structures.

Example :- Diamond and graphite.

 What are allotropes?

• When an element exists in several physical forms of the same state, it is said to exhibit

allotrope.

• Each form of this element is an allotrope.

• Carbon has two popular allotropes which are diamond and graphite.

• Diamond and graphite are made up of carbon only.

• However, they look very different and have different physical properties.

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➢ Diamond

Structure:

• In diamond structure, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms by

very strong bonds forming a 3D tetrahedral shape.

• Diamonds have an extensive network of strong covalent bonds.

Physical properties of diamond:

1. Diamonds have very high melting and boiling point.

- Melting point of diamond is 3500˚C.

- Very strong carbon-carbon covalent bonds have to be broken

throughout the structure before melting occurs.

2. Diamonds are very hard.

- This is due to their need to break very strong covalent bonds.

3. Diamonds do not conduct electricity.

- All the electrons are held tightly between the atoms and are not

free to move.

4. Diamonds are insoluble in water and organic solvents.

- There are no possible attractions which could occur between solvent molecules and carbon

atoms which could outweigh the attractions between the covalently bonded carbon atoms.

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Graphite

Structure:-

• Graphite is a black shiny solid.

• In the graphite structure, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms

forming layers of linked hexagons (6 sided rings).

• Each layer acts as a molecule.

• Between the layers of graphite, there are weak intermolecular forces.

• Due to the presence of these weak forces between the layers, the layers can slide past each

other.

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Physical properties of graphite:

1. Graphite has a high melting and boiling point

- In order to melt graphite, it isn’t enough to loosen one sheet from another.

- It is required to break the covalent bonding throughout the whole structure.

2. Graphite has a soft slippery feel,

- This is because of the weak intermolecular forces between the sheets

3. Graphite has a lower density than diamond.

- This is because of the relatively large amount of space that is wasted between the layers.

4. Graphite is insoluble in water and organic solvents.

- There are no possible attractions which could occur between solvent molecules and carbon

atoms which could outweigh the attractions between the covalently bonded carbon atoms.

5. Graphite conducts electricity.

- In diamond, each carbon is bonded to four other carbon atoms so there are no free electrons.

- In graphite, each carbon is bonded to three other carbon atoms.

- Therefore there is one electron free per carbon atom.

- The delocalized electrons or the free electrons are free to move throughout the structure or

sheets/layers.

- If a piece of graphite is connected into a circuit, electrons can fall off one end of the sheet and

can be replaced with new ones at the other end.

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Property Uses

Diamond Colourless glittering crystals used to make jewellery

They are hard Used for cutting and drilling metals and glass

Graphite slippery graphite is used as a dry lubricant.

does not decompose even at high . Oil attacks rubber, but graphite does not

temperatures It is used to lubricate machine parts that contain

does not attack rubber rubber.

soft Graphite is baked with clay and made into pencil

lead.

 Silicon dioxide

Structure

• The structure of silicon dioxide is similar to that of diamond.

• In the structure, each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms.

• Each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure.

• The atoms are covalently bonded to each other. Silicon dioxide is actually sand.

Properties of silicon dioxide is very similar to that of diamond.

1. They have high melting and boiling point.

2. They do not conduct electricity.

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Type of structure Simple molecular structure Giant molecular structure

Examples Hydrogen, oxygen, water, Diamond, graphite, silicon (IV)

carbon dioxide, methane, iodine oxide

Volatility Volatile, low melting and boiling Non-volatile, high melting and

points boiling points

State (at r.t.p) Usually liquids or gases at room Solids at room temperature

temperature (most are hard solids, except

graphite)

Solubility Insoluble in water and usually Insoluble in all solvents

soluble in organic solvents

Electrical conductivity Usually non-conductors of Non-conductors of electricity

electricity in all physical states (except graphite)

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 Metallic Bonding

It is the electrostatic forces of attraction between positively charged metal ions and the sea of

delocalized electrons

The metallic lattice is the regular arrangement of positive ions embedded in a sea of delocalized

electrons.

 How does metallic bonding arise?

• In a metal lattice, atoms lose their valence electrons and become positively charged.

• The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be delocalized.

• They move freely between the metal ions like a cloud of negative charge.

• Hence this lattice structure is described as a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a ‘sea of

mobile electrons’.

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 Physical properties of metals:

1. Metals have high melting and boiling points.

- This is because it takes a lot of energy to break up the lattice, with its strong metallic bonds.

2. Strength of the metallic bond depends on Metal Valence electrons Charge

i. Charge on the ion Sodium 1 +1
ii. The number of delocalized Magnesium 2 +2
electrons per atom Aluminium 3 +3

- Aluminium will have the highest melting and boiling points because it had the greatest

charge and the most delocalized electrons.

3. Metals are malleable and ductile

- Malleable means they can be bent and pressed into shapes.

- Ductile means they can be drawn out into wires.

- In metallic bonding, the valence electrons do not belong to any particular metal atom.

- If sufficient force is applied to the metal, one layer of atoms can slide over another without

disrupting the metallic bonding.

- As a result, metallic bonds are strong but flexible, so metals can be hammered into different

shaped (malleable) or drawn into wires (ductile) without breaking.

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4. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity

- There is mobility of the valence electrons within the metal lattice.

- When a metal is used in an electrical circuit, electrons entering one end of the metal cause a

similar number of electrons to be displaced from the other end.

- The valence electrons move from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the

electrical circuit. Hence, the metal is able to conduct an electric current.

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STOICHIOMETRY

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IGCSE Requirements

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GCE O Level Requirements

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What is relative atomic mass?

The relative atomic mass is the weighed average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on a
scale where an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of exactly 12 units.

The symbol for relative atomic mass is Ar

The reason why we use the average mass of the atoms is to take account of naturally occurring
isotopes.

What is relative molecular mass?

The relative molecular mass of a compound is the relative mass of one molecule of the compound on a
scale where the carbon-12 isotope has a mass of exactly 12 units.

• We find the relative molecular mass by adding up the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
present in the molecule.
• Relative molecular mass is used to find out the mass of covalent compounds.

What is relative formula mass?

It is the same as relative molecular mass but it is used for ionic compounds.

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What is a mole?

A mole of a substance is the amount of particles it contains which is equal to the amount of particles
present in 12g of carbon-12 atoms.

The amount of substance with the Avogadro number of particles is called a mole.

• 1 mole of Carbon-12 in 12g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms

• Number of particles carbon-12 has in 12g is equal to 6.02 x 1023 atoms.
• AVOGADRO’S CONSTANT = 6.02 x 1023 particles
• Particles could either be atoms, molecules or ions.

Example:-

i) 1 mole of sodium contain = 6.02 x 1023 atoms

ii) 1 mole of oxygen molecule contain (O2)= 6.02 x 1023 molecules
iii) 1 mole of oxygen molecule contain = 6.02 x 1023 x 2 atoms

Problem #1

1 mole of NH3 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules.

Find the number of atoms present in 0.25 moles of NH3.

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Molar Mass

The mass of one mole of an element is called its molar mass.

We can also use the term molar mass for the relative formula mass in grams.

• a mole is the amount of substance that contains 6 x 1023 atoms, ions or molecules
• the Avogadro constant is the number of atoms, ions or molecules in one mole.

Unit of Molar Mass: g mol-1

It is numerically equal to its relative atomic mass, Ar, but it is given in grams per mole.

relative atomic mass of carbon = 12.0 relative atomic mass of magnesium = 24.0

molar mass of carbon = 12.0 g mol-1 molar mass of magnesium = 24.0 g mol-1

Molar Mass (M) = Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) – for atoms

Relative Molecular Mass (RMM) – for covalent compounds

Relative Formula Mass (RFM) – for ionic compounds

Molar Mass Using RAM Molar Mass Using RMM

1 mol of aluminium atom = 27g

1 mol of hydrogen atom = 1g 1 mol of hydrogen molecule (H2) = 2g

1 mol of oxygen atom = 16 g 1 mol of oxygen molecule = 32g

1 mol of chlorine atom = 35.5 g 1 mol of chlorine molecule (Cl2) = 35.5 x 2 = 71g

Molar Mass Using RFM

1 mol of ammonia = 17g

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Molar Gas Volume

Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gases, under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules or the same number of
particles.

• It does not matter what gas you have, they all contain the same number of particles provided
that they are at the same temperature and pressure.
• At room temperature (25 °C) and one atmosphere pressure (101kPa), one mole of any gas
occupies a volume of 24,000 cm3 (24 dm3).

• One mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure. This volume is called
the molar volume of a gas.

1 mole of any gas will always occupy 24dm3 at room temperature and pressure

Same moles of gases will have same number of moles.

CO2 = 1 mol C2H4 = 1 mol

24000 cm3 ➔ 1 mol 24000 cm3 of ethene ➔ 1 mol

1 cm3 ➔ 1/24000 1 cm3 ➔ 1/24000

10 cm3 ➔ 1/24000 x 10 cm3 10 cm3 of ethene ➔ 1/24000 x 10 cm3

= 4.16 x 10-4 mol = 4.16 x 10-4mol

Example :

1 mol of oxygen occupies 24 dm3 2 mol of oxygen occupy 2 x 24 = 48 dm3

1 mol of carbon dioxide occupies 24 dm3 2 mol of carbon dioxide occupy 2 x 24 = 48 dm3

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The number of moles of a gas can be calculated in two ways:-

1. From the volume of the gas.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚3 𝑎𝑡 𝑟.𝑡.𝑝.

Number of moles of gas =
24 000 𝑐𝑚3

Number of moles of gas = volume of gas in cm3 at r.t.p. / 24000 cm3

This formula can be rearranged to give

Volume of gas (in cm3) = number of moles x 24000

Volume of gas (in dm3) = number of moles x 24

2. From the mass of the gas.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

Number of moles of gas =
𝑀𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠

Calculations involving gases

Problem # 1

What is the volume, in dm3. of 8g of oxygen gas (O2) at r.t.p?

Solution:

Relative molecular mass of oxygen = 2 x 16 =32

8
Volume of oxygen = number of moles of oxygen x 24 = x 24 = 6 dm3
32

Problem #2

In an experiment, hydrochloric acid was reacted with calcium carbonate at room temperature and
pressure .80 cm3 of carbon dioxide was produced.

Calculate the number of molecules of carbon dioxide given off.

Solution:

80
Number of moles of carbon dioxide given off = = 3.33 x 10-3 mol
24000

Number of molecules of carbon dioxide given off

number of moles x Avogadro’s constant = 3.33 x 10-3-x 6 x 1023 =2.00 x 1021

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Problem # 3

Calculate the mass of oxygen gas (O2)in a room that measures 4 m high, 8m wide and 10m long.
Assume that air contains 20% oxygen. (1m3 ≈ 106 cm3)

Solution :

Volume of air in the room = 4 x 8 x 10 = 320 m3 = 320 x 106 cm3

Volume of oxygen in the room = (320 x 106 ) x 20% = 64 x 106 cm3

Mass of oxygen = number of moles of oxygen x Mr

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 64 x 106 cm3

= x 32 = x 32 = 8.53 x 104 g
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 24000 𝑐𝑚3

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Laws of stoichiometry

1st law – Law of conservation of mass,

the total mass of the reactants have to be equal to the total mass of the products.

H2 + O2 ➔ H2O

2g 32g 18g X (Not balanced)

2H2 + O2 ➔2 H2O

4g 32g 36g ✓ (balanced)

2nd law – Law of definitive properties/ constant composition,

a pure chemical compound always contains the same elements combined together

in the same definitive proportion by weight.

H2O 2H2O
2H : 1O 4H : 2O
2g : 16g 4g : 32g
1:8 1:8

3rd law & 4th law - Law of combining volume and Avogadro’s Law
N2 + 3H2 ➔ 2NH3

1: 3 : 2

24dm3 : 72 dm3 : 48dm3

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Combining all of the laws above

Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) ➔ MgCl2(aq) + H2 (g)

Molar Ratio 1 : 2 : 1 : 1

Mass Ratio 24g : 73 g : 95g : 2g

Total Mass 97g : 97g

Volume Ratio 24dm3

Mole is a proportion/ratio

Ex: 1 mole of carbon = 6.02 x 1023 atoms

0.5 mole of carbon = 6.02 x 1023 x 0.5 = 3.01 x 1023

Number of moles = ½ = number of particles = ½

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Chemical Calcualtions
Step of chemical calculations :- By Unitary Method

1. A balanced chemical equation of the reaction taking place

2. The state of reactants and products
3. The ratio in which the reactants and products are present in the reaction
4. The ratio of the mass of the reactants and the products.
5. Total mass of the reactants and products
6. The ratio of the volume of the reactants and products present. ( only for gases)

Example :

2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) ➔ 2NaCl (s)

Molar Ratio 2 1 2

Mass Ratio 46 71 117

Total Mass 117 117

Volume Ratio 24dm3

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Percentage composition of an element in a compound

Steps to follow

1. Find the total mass of the molecule or compound.

2. Find the mass of the element in the compound.

(mass of the element / mass of the compound) x 100 = percentage composition

Ex: N2O

RMM = (14 x 2) + 16 = 44g

Mass of N = 2 x 14 = 28g

(28/44) x 100 = 63.6 %

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Finding the formula of a compound

Empirical formula – It shows the simplest ratio of each of the elements present in a compound.

Steps to find the mpirical formula Example

64g of sulfur reacts with 64g of

oxygen to form an oxide of
sulfur. What is its empirical
formula?

1. List the elements present in the compound Sulfur Oxygen

2. Write down the symbols of the elements S O

3. Calculate the mass of individual element or percentage 64g 64g

of individual element

4. Calculate the relative atomic mass of each of the atoms 32 16

5. Find the number of moles 64/32 64/16

divide the mass by molar mass

6. Molar ratio 2 4

7. Divide the molar ratio by the smallest number 2/2 4/2

8. * multiply the numbers with a number to make the ratio

a whole number (If needed)

9. Emperical Ratio 1 2

10. Emperical Formula SO2

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Molecular formula- The molecular formula is the formula that shows the exact number of atoms of

each element in a molecule.

• The molecular formula of a compound is a multiple of its empirical formula.

• For ionic compounds, the empirical formula and the molecular formula is ALWAYS the same.
• For covalent compounds, the empirical formula and the molecular formula may be the same (
Ex : NH3, H2O) or different (Ex : H2O2)
• Note that:

− It is possible for different compounds to have the same empirical formula.

− For example, ethene (C2H4) and propene (C3H6) are two compounds with the
same empirical formula.(CH2)

− Where the empirical formula and molecular formula are different, the molecular
formula is always a multiple of the empirical formula.

− For example, the molecular formula and empirical formula of phosphorus (V)
oxide are P4O10 and P2O5 respectively. The multiple is 2.

(Empirical formula) x n = molecular formula

(Empirical mass) x n = molecular mass of the compound

Problem#2

Find the molecular formula of a compound with an empirical formula of CH2 and a molecular mass of
56

Empirical formula = CH2 Molecular mass = 56

Empirical mass = 14

14 x n = 56 n=4

(CH2)4 = C4H8

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Limiting Reactant

The reactant that is completely used up in a reaction is known as the limiting reactant.

It is called the limiting reactant because it determines or limits the amount of products formed.

The reactants that are not used up are called the excess reactants.

During a reaction, the quantity formed is always determined by the quantity of the limiting reactant.

Example:

H2 + Cl2 ➔ 2HCl

0.5 mol 0.3 mol

Excess reactant Limiting reactant

Although H2 is present, it cannot be completely used up as sufficient amount of Cl2 is not present.

Cl2 is the limiting agent

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Problem#22

Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation below.

zinc + hydrochloric acid ➔ zinc chloride + hydrogen

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ➔ ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

If 0.05 mol of zinc was added to 0.075 mol of hydrochloric acid, identify the limiting reactant.

Calculate the amount (in moles) of the excess reactant that remained unreacted.

Solution:

According to the equation,

1 mol of Zn will react with 2 mol of HCl,

therefore 0.05 mol of Zn will react with 0.10 mol of HCl.

0.075 mol of HCl was used and this will react with 0.0375 mol of Zn.

Since 0.05 mol of Zn were used, the zinc must be in excess and HCl is the limiting reactant.

Amount of zinc which remained unreacted = 0.05 – 0.0375 = 0.0125 mol

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Problem# 22

In an experiment, 10 cm3 of ethane was burnt in 50cm3 of oxygen. Which gas was supplied in excess?

Calculate the volume of the excess gas remaining at the end of the reaction.

Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced.

Ethane + oxygen ➔ carbon dioxide + water

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) ➔ 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Solution:

According to the equation,

1 volume of ethene reacts with 3 volumes of oxygen.

3
Therefore, volume of oxygen used = x 10 = 30 cm3
1

However, 50 cm3 of oxygen was used.

Therefore, oxygen gas was in excess.

Hence, volume of O2 remaining

Initial volume – volume used = 50cm3 – 30cm3 = 20 cm3

1 volume of ethane produces 2 volumes of carbon dioxide.

2
Therefore, volume of carbon dioxide produced= x 10 = 20 cm3
1

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CONCENTRATION
What is a solution?

Homogenous mixture of two or more substances. A solution may exist in any phase.

A solution consists of a solute and a solvent.

• Solute – the solid part of a solution

• Solvent – the liquid part of a solution
• Solute + solvent = solution

Types of solutions

i) A concentrated solution will have a large number of particles of the solute in the
solvent.
ii) A dilute solution will have a small number of particles of the solute in the solvent.

Concentration

• It is the measure of the amount of solute present per unit volume of solvent.

• The amount of substance is equal to moles of the reactant present.

3
• Volume is equal to 1 dm3. Concentration is always measured in dm

• A cubic decimetre is the same as a litre.

• Concentration should always be expressed in mol/dm3.

• Concentrations can be expressed as

i) the number of moles in a particular volume mol/dm3

ii) the number of grams in a particular volume. g/dm3

• Moles per cubic decimetre or mol/dm3 or mol dm-3 all mean the same thing.

• Grams per dm3 or grams/ dm3 or grams dm-3 all mean the same thing.

• When concentration is expressed in mol dm-3 it is called molar concentration.

unit = M (1 mol dm-3)

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Jug of lemonade

1 – add more lemon

2 – add more sugar

3 – add more salt

4 – add more water

5 – leftover lemonade –stays the same

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Volumetric Analysis

How can we determine the concentration of a solution by volumetric analysis?

• To do volumetric analysis, we use a method called titration.

• In titration experiments, we determine the volume of a solution (chemical reagent)
required to completely react with a known volume of another solution.
• By measuring volumes and doing some calculations, we can determine the
concentration of a solution.
• Titration experiments that involve the use of an acid, e.g. HCl and a base, e.g. NaOH,
are called an acid-base titration.

Titration:-

A titration is a method of analysis that will allow you to determine the precise endpoint of a reaction and
therefore the precise quantity of reactant in the titration flask.

A burette is used to deliver the second reactant to the flask and an indicator or pH Meter is used to
detect the endpoint of the reaction

• Begin by preparing your burette.

• The burette should be conditioned and filled with titrant (liquid in the
burette) solution.
• The burette should be checked for air bubbles and leaks, before
proceeding with the titration

• Take an initial volume reading and record it in your

notebook.
• Before beginning a titration, you should always calculate
the expected endpoint volume.

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• Prepare the solution to be analyzed by placing it in

a clean conical flask or beaker

• Use the burette to deliver a stream of titrant to within a couple of ml of

your expected endpoint.

• You will see the indicator change color when the titrant hits the solution in

the flask, but the color change disappears upon

• Approach the endpoint more slowly and watch the

color of your flask carefully.
• Use a wash bottle to rinse the sides of the flask and
the tip of the buret, to be sure all titrant is mixed in
the flask.

• As you approach the endpoint, you may need to add a partial drop of
titrant.
• You can do this with a rapid spin of a teflon stopcock or by partially
opening the stopcock and rinsing the partial drop into the flask with a
wash bottle.

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• Make sure you know what the endpoint should look like.
• For phenolphthalein, the endpoint is the first permanent pale pink.
• The pale pink fades in 10 to 20 minutes.
• If you think you might have reached the endpoint, you can record
the volume reading and add another partial drop.

• If the flask looks like this, you have gone too far!

• When you have reached the endpoint, read the final volume in the
burette and record it in your notebook.

• Subtract the initial volume to determine the amount of titrant

delivered.

• Use this, the concentration of the titrant, and the stoichiometry of

the titration reaction to calculate the number of moles of reactant

in your analyte solution.

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Problem# 221

A household ammonia solution was analysed to determine its ammonia content. 25cm3 of the ammonia
solution required 21.9 cm3 of 0.11 mol dm-3 of sulfuric acid to achieve the end-point of titration.
Calculate the concentration of ammonia, in g dm-3, in the household ammonia solution

Solution:

sulfuric acid + ammonia ➔ ammonia sulfate

H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (aq)➔ (NH4)2SO4 (aq)

21.9
Number of moles of sulfuric acid used = 0.11 x
1000

= 2.409 x 10=3 mol

From the equation,

1 mol of sulfuric acid reacts with 2 mol of ammonia solution.

∴ Number of moles of ammonia in 25 cm3 = 2 x 2.409 x 10-3

= 4.818 x 10-3 mol

1000
∴ Number of moles of ammonia in 1000 cm3 = 4.818 x 10-3 x
25

= 0.1927 mol

Mr of NH3 = 14 + (3 x 1) = 17

∴ Concentration of ammonia in g dm-3 = 0.1927 x 17

= 3.28 g dm-3

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Problem# 221

16.6g of a metal carbonate, M2Co3, was made up to 1000cm3 of aqueous solution. 25cm3 of this
solution required 30cm3 of 0.20 mol/dm3 HCL for complete reaction.

A. Calculate the number of moles of HCL used in this reaction.

B. Write the equation for the reaction between M2CO3 and HCl.
C. Calculate the number of moles of M2CO3 present in
a. 25cm3 of solution.
b. 1dm3 of solution
D. Calculate
a. the relative atomic mass of M
b. the relative formula mass of M2CO3
E. identify the metal M

Solution :

By checking the Periodic Table, we identify M as potassium.

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Percentage Yield and Percentage Purity

• In the chemical calculations that we have done so far, we assumed that all the reactants
are converted to products.
• The amount of products formed in a reactions is known as the yield. The theoretical
yield of a reaction is the calculated amount of products that would be obtained if the
reaction is completed.
• In practice, few reactions occur this way. Most reactions do not go to completion. The
amount of pure products that is actually produced in the experiment is called the
actual yield.
• The actual yield is almost always less than the theoretical yield. It can never be
more than the theoretical yield!
• The percentage yield shows the relationship between the actual yield and theoretical
yield.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
• Percentage yield = x 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

Often the percentage yield is less than 100% because the reactants are not pure. The more impure the
reactants, the lower the actual yield of the product.

• We can calculate the percentage purity of a substance using this formula:

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Percentage purity = 𝑥 100%
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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Problem#22

When 1.92g of magnesium was heated in excess oxygen, 3.0 g of magnesium oxide was obtained.
Calculate the percentage yield of magnesium oxide.

Solution:

2Mg (s) + O2 (g)➔ 2MgO (s)

Molar ratio of Mg :MgO = 2:2 = 1:1

This means that 24g of Mg will produce 40 g of MgO.

Therefore, 1.92 g of Mg should produce 1.92 g of Mg should produce 1.92 g of Mg should produce 1.92
40
x = 3.2 g of MgO.
24

Actual amount of magnesium oxide obtained was 3.0g.

Percentage yield of magnesium oxide

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
= 𝑥 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

3.0
= 𝑥 100% = 93.8%
3.2

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Percentage Composition of Compounds

How do we find the percentage composition of hydrogen peroxide?

• In general, the percentage by mass of an element in a compound can be found using the
formula:
• Percentage by mass of an element in a compound
𝐴𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
• = x 100%
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀𝑟)𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Problem #22

Calculate the percentage of water in copper(II) sulphate crystals (CuSO4.H2O).

Solution

Mr of copper(II) sulfate crystals

= 64 + 32 + (4 x 16) + (5 x 18)

= 250

Mr of water

= (1 x 2) + 16

=18

Percentage of water

𝑀𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

= x 100%
𝑀𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟(𝐼𝐼)𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠

18 𝑥 5
= x 100%
250

= 36 %

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IGCSE requirements

GCE O Level requirements

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REDOX

Reduction Oxidation

➢ Redox reaction

Redox reaction is a reaction where the species present in the reaction undergo both reduction

and oxidation simultaneously.

➢ Points to remember

❖ Metals always exist as atoms, non-metals always exist as molecules.

❖ Metals react by losing electrons and non-metals react by gaining

electrons

❖ The number of electrons a metal will lose and a non-metal will gain

depends on the number of outershell electrons/valency.

❖ It is also important to determine in which state and in which form

(whether its an atom or molecule) it exists as.

➢ Differences between oxidation and reduction

Oxidation Reduction
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
Increase in oxidation number Decrease in oxidation number
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen

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➢ Writing half-equations to show the electron transfer

• One half-equation shows electron loss, and

• the other shows electron gain.

Steps to follow to write the half-equations for the redox reaction:

1. Write down each reactant, with the electrons it gains or loses.

magnesium: Mg ➔ Mg2+ 2e-

oxygen: O + 2e- ➔ O2-

2. Always put the arrows of the two half equations at the centre to show electron gain or

loss

magnesium: Mg ➔ Mg2+ 2e-

oxygen: O + 2e- ➔ O2-

3. Check that each substance is in its correct form (ion, atom or molecule) on each side of

the arrow. If it is not, correct it.

• Oxygen is not in its correct form on the left above.

• It exists as molecules, so you must change O to O2.

• That means you must also double the number of electrons and oxide ions:

oxygen: O2 + 4e ➔ 2O2-

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4. The number of electrons must be the same in both equations.

If it is not, multiply one (or both) equations by a number, to balance them.

So we must multiply the magnesium half-equation by 2.

magnesium: 2 Mg ➔ 2 Mg2+ + 4e-

oxygen: O2 + 4e- ➔ 2O2-

The equations are now balanced, each with 4 electrons.

5. Write an overall equation adding both the half equations.

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Oxidation and Reduction

1. In terms of electron transfer

• oxidation is defined as the loss of electron from a substance.

• reduction is defined as the gain of electrons from a substance.

• Example #1
Magnesium + Chlorine ➔ Magnesium chloride

Mg ➔ Mg2+ + 2e- [Oxidation; losing e-]

Cl2 + 2e- ➔ 2Cl- [Reduction; gaining e-]

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2. In terms of oxidation state

The oxidation state is the charge an atom of an element would have if it existed as an ion in a

compound (even if it is actually covalently bonded).

• Oxidation – Increase in Oxidation state

• Reduction- Decrease in Oxidation state

➢ Difference between valency and oxidation numbers

Valency Oxidation Number
It is the combining capacity of the element. Oxidation number is the charge (real or

No plus or minus sign is attached to it. imaginary) present on the atom of the element

when it is in combination.

It may have plus or minus sign.

Valency of an element is usually fixed. Oxidation number of an element may have

different values.

It depends on the nature of the compound in

which it is present.

Valency of the element is never zero except for Oxidation number of the element may be zero

noble gases

Valency is always a whole number Oxidation number of the element may be a

whole number or fractional.

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➢ Rules for oxidation states

1. Each atom in a formula has an oxidation state.

2. The oxidation state is usually given as a Roman numeral.

• Note these Roman numerals:

number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Roman numeral 0 I II III IV V VI VII

3. Where an element is not combined with other elements, its atoms are in oxidation state 0.

4. Many elements have the same oxidation state in most or all their compounds.

5. Atoms of transition elements can have variable oxidation states in their compounds.

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6. In any formula, the oxidation states must add up to zero.

The oxidation state of a K+,Zn2+, Cl-, O2- +1, +2, -1, -2

simple ion is the same as

the charge on the ion

The oxidation state of the Ca, C, 3O +2, +4 , 3 x (-2) = 6

atoms present in the

formula of a compound adds up to zero

add up to zero. The

example shown is CaCO3

The total of the oxidation S, 4O +6, 4 x (-2) = -8

states of the atoms in a

polyatomic ion is equal to

the charge on the ion. The adds up to -2

example shown is SO42-

7. If oxidation states change during a reaction, it is a redox reaction.

Example:
0 to +2

Mg + 2HCl ➔ MgCl2 + H2

+1 to 0

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➢ To check whether oxidation has taken place in any reaction, follow the three

steps below:

1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.

2. Write the oxidation states of all the substances in the reaction.

3. Compare the oxidation states to check which reactant has been oxidized and which has been

reduced.

Example:-

If the oxidation state of a substance increases, the

substance has been oxidized. Consider the reaction

between zinc and a solution of copper(II) ions.

➢ How to determine the oxidation states of atoms in a compound?

• In the compound magnesium oxide, MgO, magnesium exists as the ion Mg2+.

• Since Magnesium has two positive charges, its oxidation state is +2 (rule 2).

• Oxygen exists as the ion, O2-, thus it has the oxidation state - 2.

• Carbon dioxide, CO2, is a covalent compound.

• However, we can assume each oxygen ‘ion’ has an oxidation state of -2 (rule 2).

• Using rule 3, carbon has an oxidation state of +4.

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3. In terms of Gain and Loss of Oxygen

• Oxidation – Gain of Oxygen

• Example # 1

• When calcium burns in oxygen, the following reaction takes place:

Calcium + oxygen ➔ calcium oxide

• Since calcium has gained oxygen, we say that it has been oxidized to calcium oxide.

• This process is called oxidation.

• Example # 2

• Oxidation also takes place when methane burns in oxygen.

• methane + oxygen ➔ carbon dioxide + water vapour

• The carbon atom in methane has gained oxygen and has been oxidized to carbon dioxide.

• The hydrogen atom in methane has also gained oxygen. It has been oxidized to water.

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• Reduction – Loss of Oxygen

• Example # 1

• When a mixture of zinc powder and copper (II) oxide is heated, the following reaction occurs:

zinc + copper (II) oxide ➔ zinc oxide + copper

• In this reaction, the copper(II) oxide has lost its oxygen. IT is reduced to copper metal.

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4. In terms of Gain and Loss of Hydrogen

• Oxidation – Loss of Hydrogen

• Example # 1

• When ammonia is passed over heated copper(II) oxide, the following reaction occurs:

ammonia + copper(II) oxide ➔ nitrogen + copper + water vapour

• Ammonia has lost hydrogen. It has been oxidized to nitrogen.

• Reduction – Gain of Hydrogen

• Example # 1

• When a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen is exposed to sunlight, it explodes and produces

white fumes of hydrogen chloride.

hydrogen + chlorine ➔ hydrogen chloride

• Chlorine is reduced as it has gained hydrogen.

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Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents

❖ What is an oxidizing agent?

A substance that causes another substance in the reaction to be oxidized and in the process itself gets

reduced in the reaction is called an oxidizing agent.

• An oxidizing agent removes electrons from another substance. It is reduced during the

reaction.

❖ What is a reducing agent?

A substance that causes another substance in the reaction to be reduced and in the process itself gets

oxidized in the reaction is called a reducing agent.

• A reducing agent gives up electrons to another substance. It is oxidized during the

reaction.

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How can we identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in a reaction?

• Let us take a look at the reaction between chlorine and hydrogen sulphide.

• Try and identify the oxidizing and reducing agents.

• Hydrogen sulphide is oxidized to Sulphur.

• Chlorine is reduced to hydrogen chloride.

• Chlorine is the oxidizing agent because it has oxidized hydrogen sulphide to Sulphur.

• Hydrogen sulphide is the reducing agent because it has reduced chlorine to hydrogen chloride.

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Example # 1 Test for a reducing agent

An oxidizing agent: Potassium manganate (VII):

• Manganese is a transition element. Like other transition elements, it can exist in different

oxidation states.

• Potassium manganate(VII) is a purple compound. Its formula is KMnO4.

• In it, the manganese is in oxidation state +VII. But it is much more stable in oxidation state +II.

• So it is strongly driven to reduce its oxidation state to + II, by gaining electrons.

• That is why potassium manganate(VII) acts as a powerful oxidising agent.

• It takes electrons from other substances, in the presence of a little acid.

• It is itself reduced in the reaction – with a colour change:

• This colour change means that potassium manganate(VII) can be used to test for the presence

of a reducing agent.

• If a reducing agent is present, the purple colour will fade.

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Example # 2 Test for a reducing agent

An oxidizing agent: Potassium dichromate(VI)

• Chromium is also a transition element, and can exist in different oxidation states.

• In potassium dichromate(VI) it is in oxidation state +VI. But oxidation state +III is the most

stable.

• So potassium dichromate(VI) is a strong oxidizing agent, in the presence of acid.

• It reacts to gain electrons and reduce the oxidation state to +III.

• There is a colour change on reduction:

• This colour change means that potassium dichromate(VI) can be used to test for the

presence of reducing agents.

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Example # 3 Test for an oxidizing agent

A reducing agent : Potassium iodide

• When potassium iodide solution is added to hydrogen peroxide, in the presence of sulfuric acid,

the following redox reaction takes place:

H2O2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) ➔ I2 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

• Here the hydrogen peroxide loses oxygen: it is reduced.

• The potassium iodide acts as a reducing agent.

• At the same time the potassium iodide is oxidised to iodine. This causes a colour change from

colourless solution to red-brown solution

• So potassium iodide is used to test for the presence of an oxidising agent.

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Solve reactions in terms of oxidation and reduction

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ELECTROLYSIS AND CHEMISTRY

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ELECTROLYSIS AND CHEMISTRY IGCSE]

IGCSE
Electricity and Chemistry

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GCE O Level

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Conductors and Insulators

Conductors
Conductors are substances which have a low resistance to the passage of electricity.
Substances that are conductors:
1 The only solids that conduct are the metals and graphite. These conduct because of their free
electrons. The electrons get pumped out of one end of the solid by the battery, while more electrons
flow in the other end. For the same reason, molten metals conduct. (It is hard to test molten graphite,
because at room pressure graphite goes from solid to gas.)
2 Molecular substances are non-conductors. This is because they contain no free electrons, or other
charged particles, that can flow through them. Ethanol (above) is made of molecules. So is petrol,
paraffin, sulfur, sugar, and plastic. These never conduct, whether solid or molten.
3 Ionic substances do not conduct when solid. But they do conduct when melted or dissolved in water –
and they decompose at the same time. An ionic substance contains no free electrons. But it does
contain ions, which have a charge. The ions become free to move when the substance is melted or
dissolved, and it is they that conduct the electricity. Lead bromide is ionic. It does not conduct when
solid, but conducts when it melts. The brown vapour that forms is bromine. Electricity has caused the
lead bromide to decompose. Decomposition brought about by electricity is called electrolysis. A liquid
that contains ions, and therefore conducts electricity, is called an electrolyte. So molten lead bromide is
an electrolyte. Ethanol is a non-electrolyte.

Example of conductors are metals and graphite.

Uses of conductors
1. Copper is commonly used in electrical wiring and in thicker electricity cables because it is a
good conductor of electricity. It is also easily drawn into wires – it is ductile- and it is easily
purified by electrolysis.
Thick wires can carry a larger electric current more safely than thin wires. If a wire is very thin,
the electrons have to move through a narrow space. The ‘friction’ produced causes a lot of heat
and the wire may even melt. We use very thick wires in the high-voltage power lines used to
transfer electricity over long distances as these do not lose as much heat to the air as do a lot of
thin wires.
2. Aluminium is commonly used in high-voltage power lines and it is made into cables with a steel
core in the middle. The steel gives the cables additional strength to stop them from sagging and
breaking. Aluminium is used in high-voltage power lines because it is a good conductor of
electricity. It also has a low density – this important if very thick wires are suspended in the air
over long distances. Aluminum is also resistant to corrosion.

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Insulators
An insulator is a substance that resists the flow of an electric current – it does not conduct electricity.
Insulators do not conduct electricity because they do not have mobile electrons.
Examples of insulators include plastics, glass and ceramic materials made by heating clay.

Uses of insulators
1. Plastics such as PVC are useful insulators, not only because they do not conduct electricity:
they are also flexible and non-biodegradable. This makes them useful for covering electrical
wires so that we do not get an electric shock or form short circuits in electrical equipment.
Plastics like PVC are less useful as insulators where high electric currents are used. The heat of
the electric current can easily melt the plastic. If there is a danger of this, plastics called
thermosetting plastics can be used.
2. Ceramics and glass are useful insulators, not only because they do not conduct electricity: they
also have very high melting points so do not melt when high electric currents flow. For this
reason they are used in high-voltage electricity towers to keep the wires from touching the metal
pylons or from touching each other. Other advantages of ceramics are that they are not affected
by water or air and they can be moulded into complex shapes.

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Electrolysis
Definition of electrolysis
Electrolysis is the the breakdown of an ionic compound, molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage
of electricity.
The process of electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell.

Diagram of an electrolytic cell:

The electrolytic cell consists of:

1. A battery/ a DC power supply

2. Electrolyte ➔ The solution to be electrolyzed

● Molten ● Aqueous
i. Concentrated
ii. Dilute
3. Electrodes
Electrodes

Positive Electrode (+) Negative electrode(-)

Anode Cathode
Anions are discharged Cations are discharged

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Explaining Electrolysis
- Electrolysis separates an ionic compound back to the elements that form it. For example by
electrolysis we can obtain sodium and chlorine from sodium chloride.

- When the current is turned on, the negative ion in the electrolyte gets attracted to the positive
electrode because they are oppositely charged. When this happens, the negative ion loses the
electrons it gained from the positive ion during bond formation and becomes an atom. The
electrons lost are transferred through the wire in the outer circuit from the anode to the cathode.
At the same time, the positive ion from the electrolyte is attracted to the cathode, where it gains
the electrons lost by the negative ion and becomes an atom too.

- In ionic compounds, the positive ion is a metal and it is collected at the cathode. And the
negative ion is a non-metal and collected at the anode.

- The electrons are transferred from the anode to the cathode through the wires.

- The electrolyte is an ionic compound either in its molten or aqueous form. Ionic compounds
conduct electricity only when they are in these forms because they contain free mobile ions
which can carry the current but they don’t in solid form.

- When electricity is passed through an electrolyte, chemical reactions take place at the
electrodes and the electrolyte decomposes.

- Electrical energy is converted to chemical energy as chemical reactions (redox reactions) take
place at the electrodes.

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What are the differences between how elements (metals and graphite) and compounds
(electrolytes) conduct electricity?
Metals, carbon in the form of graphite and ionic compounds (when molten or aqueous) are all
conductors of electricity. Both metals and graphite are known as electrical conductors whereas ionic
compounds are called electrolytic conductors.

Electrical conduction by Electrolytic conduction by

metals and graphite electrolytes
Method of conduction Electricity is conducted by the Electricity is conducted by the
flow of electrons from one end movement of positive ions and
of the conductor to the other negative ions across the
end. (molten and aqueous)
electrolyte.
Effect of conduction Metals and graphite remain The electrolytes are
unchanged chemically when an decomposed to form new
electric current flows through substances when they conduct
them. electricity.

What are the different types of electrodes?

Types of electrodes
❖ Inert electrodes - Electrodes that do not take part in a chemical reaction during electrolysis.
● Examples include graphite and platinum.
Inert electrodes are electrodes that do not take part in any chemical reaction
during electrolysis. They simply provide the surface for electron transfer to
occur during electrolytic reactions. Inert electrodes are used to prevent
reactions from occurring between the electrodes and the products of
electrolysis. Carbon and platinum electrodes are considered to be inert
electrodes because they are rarely involved in electrolytic reactions.

❖ Active electrodes - Electrodes that take part in a chemical reaction during electrolysis.
● Examples include copper and nickel.

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What happens to the ions at the electrodes?

Cations (positive ions) receive electrons from the cathode while anions (negative ions) give up
electrons to the anode. The process of gaining or losing electrons at the electrodes is called discharge.
When ions are discharged at the electrodes, they form atoms or molecules.

cation metal
Cathode
discharged formed

Molten

non-metal
Anode anion discharged
formed

If metal is
above hydrogen is
hydrogen is
hydrogen in formed
discharged
the reactivity
series
Electrolyte Cathode
(Ion to be
discharged depends
on reactivity series
of metals)
if metal is below Metal atom
metal ion is
hydrogen in the formed
discharged
reactivity series,

Aqueous
(water is
present)
If
Halide ion is Halogen is
concentrate
discharged formed
Halide d
Anode present
(Ion to be hydroxide ion oxygen is
discharged depends If dilute,
is discharged, formed
on the presence of
halide and
concentration) Halide hydroxide is oxygen
absent discharged formed

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Electrolysing molten compounds

When a molten ionic compound undergoes electrolysis, a metal and a non-metal are formed as
product. The metal forms at the cathode and the non-metal forms at the anode.

Predicting the products of electrolysis of molten compounds

Electrolysing molten sodium chloride

Steps
1. Solid NaCl is heated and it melts at around 800˚C. The molten NaCl contains mobile Na+ ions
and Cl- ions.
Why does NaCl need to be heated first?
Since solid NaCl does not have free ions, therefore it cannot conduct electricity. When molten, it
has free ions which can conduct electricity.
2. Electricity is passed through the molten compound and the ions are discharged at their
respective electrodes and the following is observed
3. Observation:
● At the anode, greenish yellow fumes of Cl2 molecule are produced.
● At the cathode, greyish molten Na metal is produced.
❖ Why are carbon rods used in the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride?
The chlorine produced during electrolysis is very reactive. Inert electrodes such as carbon electrodes
are used to prevent reactions from occurring between chlorine and the electrode.
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An example of electrolysis of molten ionic compound.

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Electrolysing aqueous compounds

An aqueous solution of a compound is really a mixture of two electrolytes. For example, an aqueous
solution of copper (II) sulphate contains two electrolytes, namely copper (II) sulphate and water. The
aqueous solution, therefore, contains copper (II) ions (Cu2+) and sulphate ions (SO42-), and also small
amounts of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) from the dissociation of water molecules.
Observation:
At the cathode, a metal or hydrogen is produced.
At the anode, a non-metal is produced.

❖ The ion to be discharged at the cathode depends on the reactivity series of metals.

❖ The ion to be discharged at the anode depends on discharge series of anions.

Reactivity series of metals Discharge series of anions

potassium (K) SO42-

sodium (Na) NO3-
Reactivity decreases as we go down the series.

Reactivity increases as
-
lithium (Li) OH
barium (Ba) Cl-

we go down the
calcium (Ca) Br-
magnesium (Mg) I-
aluminum (Al) note: SO42- and
NO3- will not be

series.
CARBON
zinc (Zn) discharged during
iron (Fe) electrolysis.
lead (Pb)
HYDROGEN
copper (Cu)
silver(Ag)
gold(Au)
platinum (Pt)

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Selective discharge of cations during electrolysis

1. The cations of an element lower in the reactivity series are discharged at the cathode in
preference to other cations in the solution. This is because cations of a less reactive element
accept electrons more readily and the more reactive an element, the more it likes to exist as
ions as it is easier for them to lose electrons. So if a metal is more reactive than hydrogen, its
ions stay in solution and hydrogen bubbles off.
For example, if a solution containing Na+ and H+ ions is electrolyzed, H+ ions are discharged in
preference to Na+ ions.
2. If the metal ion present is below hydrogen in the reactivity series, the less reactive metal ion is
easier to be reduced, so the metal ion is discharged at the cathode.
Selective discharge of anions during electrolysis
1. If it is a concentrated solution of a halide, then chlorine, bromine or iodine form.
2. If the halide solution is dilute, or there is no halide, oxygen forms.

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Example #1
Electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid
When concentrated hydrochloric acid is electrolyzed using inert electrodes, bubbles are given off at the
negative electrode. As the electrolysis continues, the concentration of hydrogen ion falls and the acid
gets used up. Bubbles of chlorine are formed at the positive electrode since it is low in the discharge
series.
At the cathode At the anode

2H+ + 2e- ➔ H2 2Cl- ➔ Cl2 + 2e-

Example #2
Electrolysis of concentrated solution of sodium chloride (Brine)
Brine is a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride. It is obtained from seawater or from
seams of rock salt underground. The electrolysis of brine is used to produce chlorine, hydrogen and
sodium hydroxide on a large scale.
The anode is made of titanium and the cathode is made up of steel. There is a porous membrane
between the two chambers, its function is to let ions through but keep the gases apart. It is known as a
diaphragm cell.

The ions present are Na+ and Cl- from the salt, and
H+ and OH- from the water. The reactions at the
electrodes are :
At the cathode, hydrogen is discharged in
preference to sodium:

At the anode, chlorine is discharged in preference to

oxygen:

The two gases bubble off. Na+ and OH- ions are left
behind, giving a solution of sodium hydroxide. Some
of the solution is evaporated to a give a more
concentrated solution, and some is evaporated to
dryness, giving solid sodium hydroxide.

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At the electrodes

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Example #3
Electrolysis of a dilute solution of sodium chloride.

Electrolysis of aqueous dilute solutions.

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Electrolysis of copper
Electrolysis of solutions containing copper ions will give different results depending on the type of
electrodes
1. Electrolysing an aqueous solution of copper (II) sulphate using inert electrodes.
The ions present in the solution are
cations – Cu2+ and H+
anions – SO42- and OH-

- At the anode:
The anode cannot lose electrons because it is inert. Hydroxide ions rather than sulfate ions are
discharged. This is because hydroxide ions are lower in the discharge series. Oxygen gas
bubbles off.
4OH- (aq) ➔ O2 + 2H2O (l) + 4e-

- At the cathode:
Copper ions rather than hydrogen ions are discharged because they are lower in the discharge
series. Copper metal is deposited.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ➔ Cu (s)
- The electrolyte gradually loses its blue colour. This is because the copper ions in solution are
turning to copper atoms at the cathode but are not being replaced in the solution at the anode.

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2. Electrolysing an aqueous solution of copper (II) sulphate using active electrodes.

The ions present in the solution are
cations – Cu2+ and H+
anions – SO42- and OH-
The electrodes are made up of copper.
At the anode – impure copper
At the copper – pure copper

- At the anode:
Because the anode is not inert, it loses electrons and copper ions go into solution. The anode
gets smaller.
Cu (s) ➔ Cu2+ + 2e-

- At the cathode:
Copper ions rather than hydrogen ions are discharged because they are lower in the discharge
series.
Cu2+ + 2e- ➔ Cu(s)

- The electrolyte remains the same deep blue colour. This is because the copper ions removed
from the solution at the cathode are replaced in solution by copper ions formed at the anode.

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Electroplating is used to put a thin layer of one metal on top of another metal to make it look better or to
prevent corrosion.

Example of electroplating

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Uses of electroplating
Copper, chromium, nickel, silver and tin are the most commonly used for plating. There are two main
reasons for electroplating: protection of metals from corrosion and improving their appearance.

❖ Protection of metals from corrosion

Steel can are electroplated with tin. The layer of tin protects the metal underneath from the air and
water so that it does not rust. If the layer of tin is scratched the metal underneath will start to corrode.
Chromium is used to plate the metal parts of furniture, bicycle handlebars and the ‘trim’ on cars.
Chromium is very hard, so it does not scratch easily. It also gives a pleasing shiny appearance.

❖ Improving the appearance of metals

Chromium plating gives a very shiny surface to objects that does not go dull. Silver plating is used for
jewellery, cutlery and in electronics where it would be too expensive to use solid silver. Gold plating is
also used for jewellery and for specialized electronic equipment.

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Extracting aluminium from aluminium oxide

Electrolysis to produce aluminium is carried out in shallow electrolysis cells about 8 metres long and 1
metre deep. In order to carry out electrolysis, the aluminium oxide needs to be molten. Aluminium oxide
melts at about 2040 C. It is difficult to keep the electrolyte at this high temperature for long periods of
time. In addition, it is too costly because it needs so much energy – and energy is expensive.
Aluminium oxide on its own is a poor conductor of electricity.
The problem is solved by dissolving the aluminium oxide in large amounts of molten cryolite. Cryolite,
which is sodium aluminium fluoride, Na3AlF3, melts at about 1000 C. Since the aluminium oxide is
dissolved in the cryolite, the melting point of the electrolyte is much lower compared with pure
aluminium oxide.
Dissolving the aluminium oxide in cryolite not only saves a lot of energy but also improves the electrical
conductivity of the electrolyte. Calcium fluoride, CaF2 is often added to lower the melting point further.
In most cases the melting point of the electrolyte is about 900C

Electrolysis is carried out using graphite electrodes. The overall equation for this electrolyte is:
2Al2O3 ➔ 4Al + 3O2
The cathode is the carbon lining of the steel electrolysis cell. Several anodes, which can be raised or
lowered, dip into the electrolyte. The very high electric current 40000 amps used in this electrolysis not
only decomposes the aluminium oxide but also keeps the electrolyte molten.
At the cathode, aluminium ions gain electrons and are reduced to aluminium metal. The liquid
aluminium metal falls to the bottom of the cell. It is removed from time to time using siphon tube:
Al3+ + 3e- ➔ Al
At the anode, the oxide ions lose electrons and are oxidized to oxygen:
2O2- ➔ O2 +4e-
The oxygen reacts with the hot carbon anodes to form carbon dioxide gas. Because the carbon anodes
burn away they need to be replaced from time to time.
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Aluminium oxide from aluminium ore

Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust. It is found in the mineral ore bauxite which
contains 50-65% aluminium oxide, Al2O3. Aluminium oxide is sometimes called alumina. The main
impurities in bauxite are oxides of iron, silicon and titanium.
The first step in aluminium extraction is to purify the ore. The ore is first crushed and mixed with sodium
hydroxide. The aluminium oxide reacts with the sodium hydroxide and dissolves.

The impurities are insoluble in sodium hydroxide. These are filtered off. The sodium aluminate
undergoes further treatment and is finally heated to make pure aluminium oxide.

What is a simple cell?

A simple cell is a device which converts chemical energy to electrical energy. It is also known as an
electric cell. It is made by placing two different metals in contact with an electrolyte. The metals act as
the electrodes for the simple cell
The potential difference depends on the difference in reactivity of the metals and their tendency to get
oxidized or reduced.

How do you determine if a particular electrode is positive or negative in a simple cell?

The more reactive metals tend to give up electrons and form ions more readily than less reactive
metals. Thus, in a simple cell, the flow of electrons is always from the more reactive metal to the less
reactive metal. The more reactive metal becomes the negative electrode and the less reactive metal
the positive electrode.

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1. Magnesium is more reactive than copper. That means it has a stronger drive to form ions. So
the magnesium atoms give up electrons and go into solution as ions:
Mg (s) ➔ Mg2+ + 2e- (magnesium is oxidised)
2. The electrons flow along the wire to the copper strip, as a current.
3. Since copper is a metal, it cannot gain electrons, therefore the electrons are passed into the
solution.
4. The solutions contain Na+ and Cl- ions from sodium chloride, and some H+ and OH- ions from
water. Hydrogen is less reactive than sodium, so the H+ ions accept electrons from the copper
strip:
2H+ (aq) + 2e- ➔ H2 (g) (hydrogen ions are reduced)

A simple cell
The metal strips, wire, and beaker of solution above form a simple cell. Electrons flow from the
magnesium strip, so it is called the negative pole. The copper strip is the positive pole. The solution is
the electrolyte.
A simple cell consists of two metals and an electrolyte. The more reactive metal is the negative pole the
cell. Electrons flow from it.
Other metals can also be used, as long as they differ in reactivity. And any solution can be used, as
long as it contains ions.
You could connect a voltmeter into the circuit, to measure the voltage. The bigger the difference in
reactivity of the metals, the larger the voltage, and the more brightly the bulb will light.

Differences between an electrolytic cell and a simple cell

Electrolytic cell Simple cell

power supply present power supply absent
Reduction at cathode oxidation at cathode
oxidation at anode reduction at anode
voltage depends on the power supply voltage depends on the difference in the
reactivity of the metals

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CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

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IGCSE Requirements

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GCE O Level Requirements

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☞ What is enthalpy?

The total chemical energy of a substance is called its enthalpy.

☞ What is enthalpy change?

The change in chemical energy during a chemical reaction is known as enthalpy change.

● Symbol of enthalpy = H

● Symbol of enthalpy change = ∆ H

● Unit – kJ mol-1

Parts of an enthalpy reaction

System Surrounding

Reactants Products 1. Reaction vessel

2. Contents of reaction vessel

Bond breaking Bond forming
(Thermometer, stirrer)

Energy is taken in to Energy is given out

3. Air surrounding reaction vessel
break the bonds during bond formation

4. Bunsen burner

Example :

Reactants Products

MgO(s) + HCl(aq) � MgCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)

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Basic Acid Salt water

oxide

☞ According to enthalpy change, there are two types of reactions.

1. Exothermic reaction

2. Endothermic reaction

Enthalpy Reactions

Exothermic Endothermic

The energy taken The energy The energy The energy

A \
in for bond released required for t released during

breaking during bond bond breaking bond formation

forming

Example Example

H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

reactants product reactant products

H-H + I-I 2 H-I

energy given to energy given Heat taken in = Heat given out =

break bonds = during bond 500 kJ 200 kJ

50kJ formation =

100kJ

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50 kJ remains which is lost to the 300 kJ is deficit, energy is taken in

surrounding from the surroudings

☞ Law of Conservation of Energy

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be

converted from one energy form to another energy form.

During any chemical reaction, an energy change occurs.

Reactions release heat energy, or absorb heat energy from the surroundings.

● The ones that release heat energy from the system to the surroundings are called exothermic

reactions

● The ones that absorb heat energy from the surroundings to the system are called endothermic

reactions.

● In exothermic reactions, the reactants are higher in energy than the products. When the surrounding

gets hotter, the reaction is exothermic.

● In endothermic reactions, the reactants are lower in energy than the products. When the surrounding

gets cooler, the reaction is endothermic.

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☞ What makes a reaction exothermic or endothermic?

● To start a reaction, a certain amount of energy is given to the reactants; this is called energy of

activation because it activates the reaction.

● This energy is used to break the bonds between the atoms or molecules of the reactants, then the

reactants rearrange and bond again, this bond formation releases energy.

● If the energy given to activate the reaction is less than the energy released during the bond

formation, then the reaction gave out more energy than it took, so it is exothermic.

● If the energy given to activate the reaction is more than the energy released during bond formation,

then the reaction took more energy than it gave out, so it is endothermic.

● The total energy change is called the enthalpy change or simply energy changed.

● When the bonds are broken, the reaction is endothermic the ∆ H value is positive.

● When bonds are formed, it is exothermic and the ∆ H value is negative.

● The overall enthalpy change is:

∆ H = Energy in – Energy out

Endothermic reactions always have a positive ∆ H.

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Exothermic reactions always have a negative ∆H.

Energy is measured in joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ).

In terms of bond breaking and bond forming:

Exothermic reaction – Energy needed to break the bonds < Energy released during
bond formation.
Endothermic reaction – Energy needed to break bonds > Energy released during
bond formation.

☞ What is activation energy?

●It is the minimum amount of energy the reacting particles must possess in order to participate in a

chemical reaction.

●Only the molecules who have energy greater or equal to the activation energy will participate in a

chemical reaction.

● A reaction involves reacting particles

colliding to form product particles.

● Reacting particles that have less energy

than the activation energy cannot break

their bonds on collision with other

reacting particles.

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● Therefore, a reaction to form product particles does not occur.

● More energetic particles are able to

break their bonds on collision and form

new bonds.

● This is because these particles

possess activation energy, which is the energy necessary for initiating a reaction.

Enthalpy Profile Diagrams:

Exothermic Reactions Endothermic reactions

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In exothermic reactions, In endothermic reactions,

● the reactants have more energy than the ● the reactants have lower energy in them

products, that is why small amounts of than the products, this makes them less

energy is required to activate the stable, needing more energy to activate

reaction, and that is what makes it the reactions. So, they are endothermic.

exothermic.
● Because of that, the beginning of the

● The reactants having more energy than reaction has less energy than at the end of

the products, make the amount of energy it, the difference of amount of values is

at the beginning of the reaction higher caused by absorbing energy from the

than at the end, the energy in between is surroundings.

given off creating a curve in the graph.

Examples of exothermic reactions:

most chemical reactions are exothermic.

Examples of Endothermic Reactions:

Combustion: Photosynthesis:

Any substance burning in air Using carbon dioxide and water to make glucose

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + Energy and oxygen in the presence of light energy and

chlorophyll.

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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Respiration: Dehydration:

Burning food (glucose) in living organisms to Supplying heat to hydrated salt crystals

produce energy and carbon dioxide. evaporates the water of crystallization, leaving the

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy powered crystals.

CuSO4.5H2O + Heat energy → CuSO4 + 5H2O

Hydration: Thermal Decomposition:

Adding water to salt powder, it is not dissolving. The breaking down of a compound by heating it.

The powder changes to crystals. CaCO3 + Heat Energy → CaO + CO2

CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4.5H2O + Energy

Displacement:

A more reactive metal displaces the less

reactive one.

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu + Energy

Neutralization:

Adding and acid to an alkali forming salt, water

and energy.

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

☞ Bond Energy:

The amount of energy needed to break a specific covalent bond is called the bond dissociation energy.

We sometimes call this the bond energy or bond enthalpy.

The symbol for bond energy is E.

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● We put the type of bond broken in brackets after the symbol.

● The values of bond energies are always positive because they refer to bonds being broken.

● When new bonds are formed the amount of energy released is the same as the amount of energy

absorbed when the same type of bond is broken.

☞ Calculating enthalpy changes

●The overall energy change is determined by the amount of energy needed to activate the

reaction and break the bonds and the amount of energy released during bond formation.

●So to calculate the overall energy change we have to know the amount of energy needed to

break the bonds between the reactants and the amount of energy released during bond

formation.

Calculating enthalpy changes using bond energy

The exothermic reaction between hydrogen and chlorine

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H2 + Cl2 2HCl

Reactants Products

Bond breaking Bond forming

Bonds Number Bond Total Bonds Number Bond Total

broken of bonds energy/ energy formed of bonds energy/ energy

kJ mol-1 kJ mol-1

H-H 1 436 436 H-Cl 2 431 862

Cl-Cl 1 242 242

678 862

∆H = Energy in – energy out

∆H = 678 – 862 = -184 kJ mol-1

The endothermic reaction of decomposition of ammonia

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2 NH3 3H2 + N2

Reactants Products

Bond breaking Bond forming

Bonds Number Bond Total Bonds Number Bond Total

broken of bonds energy/ energy formed of bonds energy/ energy

kJ mol-1 kJ mol-1

N-H 6 391 2346 N≡N 1 946 946

H-H 3 436 1308

2346 2254

∆H = Energy in – energy out

∆H = 2346 – 2254 = +92 kJ mol-1

☞ What are fuels?

Fuels are substances that burn easily in air to give out energy. Most of the energy demand is from the

combustion of chemicals called fuels. The most commonly used fuels are fossil fuels such as coal,

petroleum and natural gas. Fossil fuels release energy in the form of heat when they undergo combustion.

fossil fuel + oxygen � carbon dioxide + water + energy

☞ What are the criteria for good fuel?

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Thus, a good fuel:

● must release a lot of heat energy when it is burnt

● Must be safe to use and convenient to store.

● Must be reasonably cheap and readily available

● Must not produce smoke, unpleasant gases or poisonous gases.

Fossil fuels

● Coal, oil and natural gas are all examples of fossil fuels.

● The term fossil fuels is derived from the fact that they are formed from dead plants and animals

which were fossilized over 200 million years ago during the carboniferous era.

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● Coal was produced by the action of pressure and heat on dead wood from ancient forests which

once grew in the swampland in many parts of the world under the prevailing weather conditions of

that time.

● When dead trees fell into the swamps they were buried by mud. This prevented aerobic decay

(which takes place in the presence of oxygen).

● Over millions of years, due to movement of the Earth’s crust as well as to changes in climate, the

land sank and the decaying wood became covered by even more layers of mud and sand.

● Anaerobic decay (which takes place in the absence of oxygen) occurred, and as time passed the

gradually forming coal became more and more compressed as other material was laid down above it

● Over millions of years, as the layers of forming coal were pushed deeper and the pressure and

temperature increased, the final conversion to coal took place.

● Different types of coal were formed as a result of different pressures being applied during its

formation.

● For example, anthracite is a hard coal with a high carbon content, typical of coal produced at greater

depths. Table 6.1 shows some of the different types of coal along with their carbon contents.

● Oil and gas were formed during the same period as coal.

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● It is believed that oil and gas were formed from the remains of plants, animals and bacteria that

once lived in seas and lakes.

● This material sank to the bottom of these seas and lakes and became covered in mud, sand and

silt which thickened with time.

● Anaerobic decay took place and, as the mud layers built up, high temperatures and pressures

were created which converted the material slowly into oil and gas.

● As rock formed, earth movements caused it to buckle and split, and the oil and gas were trapped

in folds beneath layers of non-porous rock

Crude oil

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● Crude oil is a complex mixture of

compounds known as hydrocarbons.

● Hydrocarbons are molecules which

contain only the elements carbon and

hydrogen bonded together covalently.

● These carbon compounds form the basis

of a group called organic compounds.

● All living things are made from organic

compounds based on chains of carbon atoms similar to those found in crude oil.

● Crude oil is not only a major source of fuel but is also a raw material of enormous importance. It

supplies a large and diverse chemical industry to make dozens of products.

● Crude oil is not very useful to us until it has been processed. The process, known as refining, is

carried out at an oil refinery.

● Refining involves separating crude oil into various batches or fractions.

● Chemists use a technique called fractional distillation to separate the different fractions. The

different components (fractions) separate because they have different boiling points.

● The crude oil is heated to about 400 °C to vaporise all the different parts of the mixture.

● The mixture of vapours passes into the fractionating column near the bottom.

● Each fraction is obtained by collecting hydrocarbon molecules which have a boiling point in a given

range of temperatures.

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● For example, the fraction we know as petrol contains molecules which have boiling points between

30 °C and 110 °C.

● The molecules in this fraction contain between five and ten carbon atoms. These smaller molecules

with lower boiling points condense higher up the tower. The bigger hydrocarbon molecules which

have the higher boiling points condense in the lower half of the tower.

● The liquids condensing at different levels are collected on trays. In this way the crude oil is separated

into different fractions. These fractions usually contain a number of different hydrocarbons.

● The individual single hydrocarbons can then be obtained, again by refining the fraction by further

distillation.

● It is important to realise that the uses of the fractions depend on their properties.

● For example, one of the lower fractions, which boils in the range 250–350 °C, is quite thick and

sticky and makes a good lubricant. However, the petrol fraction burns very easily and this therefore

makes it a good fuel for use in engines.

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Uses of Fossil Fuel

In a power station, the turbine drives a generator to produce electricity which is then fed into the national

grid. From the national grid is a system for distributing electricity throughout a country.

Fossil fuels are

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● used to generate electricity

● used as major feedstock (raw material) for the

chemicals and pharmaceuticals industries

● used as domestic and industrial heating and

cooking

● used as fuels for various forms of vehicle

transport.

Fractional distillation of crude oil

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Alternative sources of energy

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Alternative sources of energy are required because the world is heavily dependant on fossil fuels. Fossil

fuels are an example of non-renewable resource which means they are not being replaced as they are

being used up. Therefore is it important to use alternate sources of energy or renewable resources of

energy in the future.

Renewable resources include:

1. Nuclear power

● Nuclear reactors harness the energy from the fission of uranium-235.

● Nuclear fission occurs when the unstable nucleus of a radioactive isotope splits up, forming smaller

atoms and producing a large amount of energy as a result.

● the energy comes from the conversion of some of the mass of the isotope.

● This fission process begins when a neutron hits an atom of uranium-235, causing it to split and

produce three further neutrons.

● These three neutrons split three more atoms of uranium-235, which produces nine neutrons and so

on. This initiates a chain reaction.

● In a reactor the fission process cannot be allowed to get out of control as it does in an atomic bomb.

To prevent this, boron control rods can be pushed into different positions in the reactor to absorb

some of the neutrons which are produced and so slow down the chain reaction. If this is done, the

energy released from the reaction is obtained in a more controlled way.

● The energy is used to produce steam, which in turn is used to generate electricity.

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● However, there are problems. The main problem

associated with a nuclear power station is that the

reactor produces highly radioactive waste

materials. These waste materials are difficult to

store and cannot be disposed of very easily.

● Also, leaks of radioactive material have occurred at

various sites throughout the world. Accidents at a small number of nuclear power stations, such as

Three Mile Island in the US (1979) and Chernobyl in the Ukraine (1986) have led to a great deal of

concern about their safety. More recently, in March 2011 a major nuclear accident happened at the

Fukushima nuclear power plant in northern Japan. On this occasion the accident was not caused as

a result of the plant itself undergoing a problem, but as a result of an earthquake near Japan that

gave rise to a tsunami. This damaged essential equipment at the plant which was used to ensure the

temperatures were maintained at a correct level. Work is still going on at the plant to remove the

nuclear material safely.

2. Hydroelectric power

● Hydroelectric power (HEP) is electricity generated from the energy of falling water.

● It is an excellent energy source, and electricity has been generated in this way for some time.

● For example, the Hoover Dam in the US provides HEP for the surrounding area. It is a very cheap

source of electricity.

● Once built, the energy is absolutely free. In some mountainous areas of the world, such as the

Alps, HEP is the main source of electricity.

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● One of the main advantages of this system is that it can be quickly used to supplement the

national grid at times of high demand. A disadvantage of HEP schemes is that they often require

valleys to be flooded and communities to be moved.

3. Biomass and biogas

When any biological material, whether plant or animal, is converted into energy, this energy is called

biomass energy.

It can be taken from animal or plant materials in different ways:

1. by burning it, for example wood

2. by pressing out oils that can be burned

3. by fermenting it to produce fuels such as ethanol or methane.

● At least 50% of the world’s population

rely on wood as their main energy

source.

● In India there are millions of methane

generators.

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● Methane generated by the digestion of animal waste is called biogas.

● The biogas produced is used for cooking, heating and lighting.

● The by-product of this process is an excellent fertiliser.

● Some countries have already experimented with ethanol as a fuel for cars. Up to 20% of ethanol

can be added to petrol without the need to adjust the carburetor. Brazil, which has few oil reserves,

produces ethanol by fermentation (breakdown by enzymes) of sugar cane and grain, and uses it

as a petrol additive.

4. Hydrogen

The world’s reserves of fossil fuels are rapidly declining because the demand for them has increased

exponentially. Hence, hydrogen may emerge as a potential fuel for the future.

● It is an ideal fuel in many ways. It is a renewable energy resource. It is also pollution-free

because only water is produced when hydrogen reacts with oxygen.

● The basic problems are in finding a cheap source of hydrogen and an effective means of storing

the gas.

● There is plenty of hydrogen on this planet, but it is mostly combined with oxygen in seawater.

● One possible way of obtaining hydrogen is by the electrolysis of water.

Unfortunately, this is a very expensive method. Another alternative is to obtain hydrogen

from hydrocarbons.

● Cracking breaks up hydrocarbons that produces hydrogen and other substances

● HYDROGEN AS A FUEL

The reaction between hydrogen gas and oxygen gas is VERY EXOTHERMIC. It

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produces lots of heat energy.

2H2(g) + 02(g) = 2H20(l)

Burning only 2 grams of hydrogen gives out 485 joules of energy.

This reaction is used for powering space rockets using hydrogen as ROCKET

FUEL.

Photosynthesis

Plants use the energy from sunlight to make glucose. This process is called photosynthesis.

6CO2 + 6H2O � C6H12O6 + 6O2

The glucose is turned into macromolecules called starch and cellulose

Photosynthesis is catalyzed by the green pigments in plants called chlorophylls.

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Fuel cells

How does a fuel cell work?

A fuel cell consists of two platinum electrodes and an

electrolyte.

1. The platinum is coated onto a porous

material that allows gases to pass through it.

2. Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are bubbled

through the porous electrodes where the

reactions take place.

3. Hydrogen gas is bubbled through the negative electrode and oxygen is bubbled through the positive

electrode.

Acidic electrolyte:

At the negative electrode : the hydrogen loses electrons and forms hydrogen ions in the electrolyte:

2H2 (g) � 4H+(aq) + 4e-

The released electrons move around the external circuit to the positive electrode.

At the positive electrode : oxygen gains electrons and reacts with hydrogen ions from the acid electrolyte.

O2 (g) + H+ (aq) +4e- � 2H2O (l)

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The hydrogen ions removed at the positive electrode are replaced by those produced at the negative

electrode. So the concentration of the electrolyte remains constant.

The overall reaction is: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) � 2H2O (l) The water is removed.

Alkaline electrolyte:

At the negative electrode: the hydrogen reacts with the hydroxide ions in the electrolyte and forms water:

2H2 + 4OH-(aq) �4H2O (l) + 4e-

At the positive electrode: oxygen gains electrons and reacts with water to form hydroxide ions:

O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e- � 4OH-(aq)

The hydroxide ions removed at the negative electrode are replaced by those produced at the positive

electrode. So again the concentration of the electrolyte remains constant. The overall reaction is the same

as for the acidic electrolyte.

Difference between a fuel cell and an electrochemical cell:

A fuel cell differs from an ordinary chemical cell (or battery) in one important aspect, i.e. the reactants are

not contained within the cell by instead are continuously supplied from an external reservoir.

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What are the advantages of fuel cells?

Hydrogen fuel cells are used to provide electrical power in spacecraft. The water produced can be used for

drinking. Fuel cells are increasingly used instead of petrol to power cars. Fuel cells have many advantages

over batteries and petrol-driven engines:

● Water is the only product made – no pollutants are formed.

● They produce more energy per gram of fuel than other fuels.

● They are lightweight.

● They don’t need recharging like batteries

● Fuel cells operate with high efficiency.

Fuel cells seem to be the answer to many pollution problems. However, the hydrogen and oxygen needed

for the fuel cells to operate are usually produced using fossil fuels at present!

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O LEVEL

RATES OF REACTION

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IGCSE Requirements

GCE O Level

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 What is Rate?

- Rate is a measure of the change that happens in a single unit of time.

 What is rate of reaction?

- Rate of reaction is the measure of how fast or slow a reaction proceeds.

- Rate of reaction can be measured in two ways.

i) The amount of reactants used up per unit time.

ii) The amount of products formed per unit time.

Calculating rates of reactions:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠)

1. Rate of reaction = OR
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛(𝑠)

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚3)

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)

Unit = g/s or mol dm-3 s-1

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠) 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚3)

2. Rate of reaction = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
OR 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)

Unit = g/s or mol dm-3 s-1

 Types of Reactions according to rate

Very fast Moderately fast Slow
- explosion of a petrol-air - reaction of metals or - rusting of iron in air
mixture carbonates with dilute - Reaction of magnesium
- precipitation reactions acids with cold water
- fermentation
(conversion of fruit juice
into alcohol)

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To study the speed of reaction between zinc and dilute sulfuric acid

Example: _

Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq)  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

reactants products

reactants products
1 amount of sulphuric acid used up per 1 amount of zinc sulfate formed per unit time
unit time
2 amount of zinc used up per unit time 2 amount of hydrogen gas formed per unit time

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Experiment #1 Measuring the change in mass

Zinc Sulphuric acid

1. The apparatus is set up as shown.

 In case the reactant is solid, to measure the rate of reaction, we need to measure the
change in mass.

2. The mass of the system is recorded. This includes the mass of zinc, the sulfuric acid, the
conical flask, small test tube, the string and the cotton wool.

 A wool is used

a. to prevent the reactants from escaping

b. to prevent any entry of external particles into the vessel

3. The zinc and the sulfuric acid are added together, and the stop watch is immediately started

4. The change in mass of the system is recorded at fixed time intervals.

5. The change in mass is recorded until three consecutive recordings come out to be the same.

The reactant under investigation is always

taken in excess.

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Experiment #2 Measuring the amount of sulfuric acid being used up

Zinc Sulphuric acid

Procedure:
1. The apparatus is set up.
 In this experiment, sulfuric acid is taken in excess.

 In order to measure the amount of acid used up, we need to use a method known as
titration.
2. The concentration of the acid is determined.

3. Known volume of the acid is taken into the beaker.

4. The acid reacts with the zinc metal present.

5. Take samples at regular intervals from the reaction vessel.

6. After taking each sample, each sample test tube is quenched (dipped in ice cold water) to

immediately stop the reaction.

7. The remaining acid in each sample is titrated with an alkali of known volume and concentration.

8. After titration is complete, the concentration of the remaining acid in each sample is found out

and noted.

9. A graph is plotted for change in concentration of acid over time.

 Rate of reaction = change in concentration of the acid / time taken.

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Experiment #3 Measuring the amount of ZnSO4 formed.

Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq)  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

1 Take the exact amount of Zn and sulphuric acid so that there is no residue left after the reaction.

2 Take samples at regular intervals from the reaction vessel.

3 The crystallization process is carried out after each sample is taken to measure the amount of

zinc sulphate formed.

4 After the reaction is complete, the average rate of reaction is calculated.

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Experiment #4 Measuring the volume of gas produced.

excess
sulphuric acid
Zinc

1 The apparatus is set up as shown above

2 The zinc and the sulphuric acid is added to the reaction vessel.

3. The stopwatch is started just after the reactants have been added.

4. It is ensured that the reading of the gas syringe is set to 0.0 cm3

5. Bubbles are seen forming and collected in the graduated gas syringe.

6. At regular intervals, i.e. after every 1 minute, the amount of gas formed at the gas syringe is

recorded.

7. The readings are taken as long as 2-3 consecutive readings are the same.

8. The readings are arranged in a table and the average rate of the reaction is measured.

9. A data table is recorded.

Time 1 min 2 min 3 min 4 min 5 min 6 min

Volume x1 x2 x3 x4 x4 x4
produced

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝑐𝑚3)

Rate of Reaction =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)

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Progress of a reaction

 At the start of the reaction, the gradient is steepest

because there is more reactants, hence there is

more successful collisions so greater the rate of

reaction

 In the middle, gradient slowly becomes less steeper

as the reactants are being used up so less

successful collisions

 At the end of the reaction, gradient = 0,

because all the reactants are used up so there’s no

more reaction taking place.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
 Gradient =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

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 The Collision Theory

For a successful reaction:
1. The particles must collide with each other, and

2. They must collide with a certain minimum amount of energy known as the activation energy.

 In this way, collisions between reacting particles result in the formation of product particles.

 These collisions are known as successful/effective collisions.

 Thus, in the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid, only fast-moving molecules

with energies equal to or greater than the activation energy will react on collision to form

magnesium chloride and hydrogen.

 The collision of reacting particles can be used to explain why the speed of a reaction varies

with concentration, pressure, particle size and temperature.

 This is called the collision theory.

In general, when any factor increases the rate of effective collisions between reacting particles,

it will also increase the speed of reaction.

 Reactants have to have energy greater than or equal to the activation energy.

 The rate of a reaction depends on how many successful collisions there are in a given

unit of time.

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Example : Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2

The particles in the liquid move This collision has enough energy But this collision did not have
non-stop. To react, an acid to break bonds. So it is enough energy. It was not
particle must collide with a successful. The particles react successful. No bonds were
magnesium atom, and bonds and new bonds form, giving broken. The acid particle just
must break. magnesium chloride and bounced away again.
hydrogen.

 Factors affecting rates of reaction

1. Concentration –

- when both the reactants are in excess

- When one of the reactants acts as a limiting reagent

2. Temperature

3. Surface area

4. Pressure

5. Catalyst

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Factor #1 Concentration
i) When the concentration of the reactants increases (no limiting factor)

 there are more reacting particles

 more chances of successful collisions,

 therefore, rate of reaction increases.

 More products are also formed because there are more reactants.

 In a dilute acid- there are not so many  In a concentrated acid – there are more

acid particles. acid particles.

 So there is less chance of an acid  So there is now more chance of a

particle hitting a magnesium atom. successful collision.

As the concentration of the reactants increases,

There are two effects:

 Rate of Reaction increase

 Amount of Product formed also increases.

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ii) When one of the reactants act as a limiting factor

amount of product formed

When one of the reactants act as a limiting factor.

Faster reaction
with more X+Y
reactant
- When the concentration of X is increased, the rate of the reaction
increases.
- After a certain point, there will be excess of X and Y will act as a
limiting factor.
- Although we have enough of X reactant, there isn’t enough of Y to
react with it.
- The rate if reaction will increase, but total product formed will remain
the same because Y acts as a limiting reactant

Example:-
1. When carrying out an experiment we sometimes use an excess of one of the reactants.
2. The reactant that is not in excess is called the limiting reactant.
3. The reaction stops when the limiting reactant is completely used up.
4. You can work out which reactant is limiting by calculating which reactant has the least number
of moles for reaction.
5. You must also take into account the mole ratio of the reactant in the equation.

In the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid,

Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2

 If 0.1 mol of magnesium reacts with 0.1 mol of hydrochloric

acid,
 the limiting reactant is hydrochloric acid because,
 In the equation, for every mole of magnesium used, we need
two moles of hydrochloric acid.
 So there will still be 0.1/2 = 0.05 mol of magnesium left when
the hydrochloric acid has been used up.

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Factor #2 Temperature

When the temperature of the reaction increases

1. The reacting particles gain more kinetic energy.
2. So more reactant particles have energy greater or equal to
activation energy .
3. More chances of successful collisions,
4. the faster the rate of reaction.

1000 molecules
350˚C 400˚C
Activation energy  70 kJ Activation energy 70 kJ
Molecules: Each particle gain 20 kJ energy each
700  30-49 kJ 700  50-69 kJ
100  50-69 kJ 100  70-89kJ
100  70-89 kJ Can participate in the reaction 100  90-109 kJ Can participate in the reaction
100  90-109 kJ 100  110-129 kJ

Factor #3 Surface Area

When the surface area of the reaction increases

1. More particles are exposed for reaction (more

area of contact).

2. More chances of successful collision,

3. greater the rate of reaction.

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Explosive reactions

 Many industrial processes cause fine powders to get into the air.

 These powders are highly combustible.

 They burn very readily in air because of their very large surface area.

 A lit match or a spark from a machine can cause them to explode.

Example#1 flour in flour mills, wood dust in sawmills

- In flour mills Flour particles are tiny, so flour has a very large surface area.

- It can also catch fire.

- In a flour mill, if there is a lot of flour dust in the air, a spark from a machine could be

enough to cause an explosion.

- For the same reason, explosions are a risk in wood mills, from wood dust, and in

silos where wheat and other grains are stored.

- And in factories that make custard powder, and dried milk.

- The dust from all these will burn

Examples#2 In coal mines

- In coal mines, methane (CH4) and other flammable gases collect in the air.

- The methane gas which is often present can form an explosive mixture with air.

- At certain concentrations they form an explosive mix with the air.

- A spark is enough to set off an explosion.

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Factor #4 Pressure

When the pressure of the reaction increases

1. The volume decreases,

2. the intermolecular space decreases,

3. more particles are present per unit volume,

4. since the particles are closer to each other,

5. there are more chances of successful collisions.

6. So the rate of the reaction increases.

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 What are Catalysts?

Catalysts are chemical substances that speed up a chemical reaction by providing an alternative route
of lower activation energy and remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.

Catalysts and activation energies

 Catalysts work by providing an alternative

pathway for the reaction to proceed (reaction

pathway).

 This reaction pathway has a lower activation

energy than the reaction pathway for the

original reaction.

 The effect of catalysts on activation

energies can be shown by energy profile

diagrams.

 In the diagram, you can see that the activation energy of the uncatalysed reaction is Ea and that

of the catalyzed reaction is E’a.

 E’a is less than Ea.

 Since the activation energy is lower for the catalyzed reaction, a greater proportion of collisions

between reacting particles will result in product particles being formed much faster.

 Hence, the speed of reaction will be greater for the catalyzed reaction.

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 What are the types of catalysts?

There are two types of catalysts. They are:

i) solid catalysts

- A solid catalyst works by allowing the reactants to get close together on its surface so

that less energy is needed to get the reaction to occur.

- Catalysts are generally used in the form of pellets or wire gauzes. This gives them a

large surface area for reactions to occur on.

ii) catalysts that work in solution

 Only tiny amounts of catalyst are used to speed up the reaction because they are often

expensive. However, they can be used over and over again.

 Catalysts are important for speeding up the reaction in many important industrial chemical

processes. In this way, chemicals can be produced more quickly and at a lower temperature

than by the uncatalysed reaction.

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 Characteristics of Catalysts:

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Factor # 5 Catalyst

When a catalyst is added it lowers the activation energy

- more particles have energy greater or equal to the activation energy,

- so more chances of successful collisions

- so greater the rate of reaction.

1000 molecules
Without catalyst With catalyst
Activation energy 70 kJ Activation energy 50 kJ
700  30-49 kJ 700  30-49 kJ
100  50-69 kJ 100  50-69 kJ
100  70-89 kJ Can participate in the reaction 100  70-89kJ Can participate in the reaction
100  90-109 kJ 100  90-109 kJ

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Example #1

The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide is a colourless liquid that breaks down very slowly to water and oxygen:

hydrogen peroxide  water + oxygen

We can see the effect of a catalyst on a reaction by carrying out the following procedure:

1. Pour some hydrogen peroxide in three measuring cylinders. The first cylinder is the control.

2. Add manganese(IV) oxide to the second and raw liver to the third measuring cylinder.

The second cylinder will produce oxygen more quickly due to presence of the catalyst which

increases the rate of the reaction

3. Now use a glowing wooden splint to test the cylinders for oxygen. The splint will burst into flame

if there is enough oxygen present.

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How would you compare the effectiveness of different catalysts?

We can use the apparatus shown to compare the effectiveness of copper(II) oxide and manganese(IV)

oxide as catalysts for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

 In experiment I, 0.5g of powdered manganese(IV) is used to catalyse the decomposition

of 50cm3 of hydrogen peroxide.

 In experiment II, 0.5g of powdered copper (II) oxide is used to catalyse the

decomposition of the same amount of hydrogen peroxide.

The results of the experiment are shown.

Graph I is steeper than graph II. This shows that the reaction

is faster using manganese (IV) oxide as the catalyst. Thus,

manganese(IV) oxide is a better catalyst than copper(II)

oxide.

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What are the common catalysts for some industrial processes?

In many industrial processes, catalysts are used to speed up the various reactions. Below are some

examples:

 Iron in the Haber process for manufacturing ammonia

 Vanadium(V) oxide in the manufacture of sulfuric acid.

 Platinum or rhodium in catalytic converters

 Aluminum oxide or silicon(IV) oxide in the cracking process for producing hydrogen

Enzymes – biological catalysts

Enzymes are substances that catalyse the chemical reactions in plants and animals. They are often

called bioloigical catalysts. Enzymes have the following properties:

1. They are proteins

2. They are very specific in their actions. The human body contains many different kinds of

enzymes and each one does a single specific job. Amylase, for example, is the enzyme present

in saliva. It catalyses the reaction which changes starch into sugar.

3. They can be made inactive by heating. Many enzymes operate most effectively at body

temperature, i.e. 35˚C to 40˚C. Above or below this range, the speed of the reaction decreases.

4. Too low a temperature will render enzymes inactive while too high a temperature will cause

enzymes to become denatured.

5. They are sensitive to pH changes. Most enzymes have a certain range of pH at which they work

best.

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reactant A + reactant B 𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑦𝑚𝑒

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ product AB

What are the uses of enzymes in industry?

Enzymes are important in industry. In the manufacture of wine and other alcoholic drinks, enzymes

produced by yeast are used to catalyse the conversion of sugar or starch to ethanol.

sugar or starch 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ethanol + carbon dioxide

Modern detergents (biological washing powders) contain enzyme which are very effective in removing

stains caused by protein-based substances such as food and blood.

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Photochemical Reactions

 A few chemical reactions are started by ultraviolet or visible light.

 These are called photochemical reactions.

 We rely on the photochemical reactions in plants to provide the oxygen we breathe and the food

we eat as well as for removing the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

 The photochemical reaction in plants is called photosynthesis.

 Not all photochemical reactions are useful.

 Compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are broken down by ultraviolet light and the

products responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer around the Earth.

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Example #1 Photosynthesis

Plants use the energy from sunlight to make glucose. This process is called photosynthesis.

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2

The glucose is turned into macromolecules called starch and cellulose.

Photosynthesis is catalyzed by green pigments in plants called chlorophylls.

How light affects the rate of photosynthesis

1. When light shines on the pondweed, bubbles of oxygen slowly form on the leaves and then rise

in the syringe.

2. You can record the volume of oxygen collected over several days.

3. Then you can repeat the experiment using stronger (more intense) light.

4. The graph shows how the rate of photosynthesis changes with light intensity.

5. The graph levels off because carbon dioxide becomes limiting.

 A photochemical reaction can be speeded up by increasing the intensity of the light.

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Example #2 Ozone Depletion

1. Ozone depletion Ozone, O3, is an important gas found in the stratosphere.

2. It is important because it absorbs high energy ultraviolet radiation.

3. If this radiation were to reach the surface of the Earth it would lead to an increase in skin

cancers and other medical problems.

4. large holes were discovered in the ozone layer over Antarctica, Australasia and Europe

5. these holes have partly been produced by chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs.

6. CFCs were developed as refrigerants in fridges back in the 1950s.

7. They have also been used in air conditioning systems, in aerosol cans (as propellants) and in

the manufacture of expanded plastics such as polystyrene.

8. CFCs are very unreactive molecules. They escape into the atmosphere and, because of their

inertness, remain without further reaction until they reach the stratosphere and the ozone layer.

9. In the stratosphere, the high-energy ultraviolet radiation causes a chemical bond in the CFC

molecule to break and a chlorine radical to split off from the CFC molecule.

For example:

CF2Cl2 𝑢𝑣 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 CF2Cl + Cl●

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

10. This chlorine radical then reacts with the ozone, destroying it: Cl(g) + O3(g) → OCl(g) + O2(g)

11. One of the worrying things about this process is that, although the above equation indicates that

the chlorine radical has also been destroyed, it has been found that it is then regenerated by a

further reaction.

12. It has consequently been found that a single chlorine radical is capable of destroying hundreds

of thousands of ozone molecules.

13. This is not the only problem with CFCs. They are also significant ‘greenhouse gases’

14. At present, better alternatives, called hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), have been

developed. These have lower ozone depletion effects and are not effective greenhouse gases.

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Example #3 Photography

1. The surface of the black and white photographic film contains tiny crystals of silver bromide

mixed with gelatin,

2. When you click to take the photo, the camera shutter opens briefly.

3. Light enters and strikes the film. The silver bromide decomposes, giving tiny dark particles of

silver.

4. Where brighter light strikes (from brighter parts of the scene), decomposition is faster, giving

more silver.

5. In this reaction, the silver ions in the silver bromide accept electrons from the bromide ions and

become silver atoms. This is a redox reaction. The silver ions are reduced because they accept

electrons and bromide ions are oxidized because they lose electrons

2Ag+ +2e-  2Ag

2Br-  Br2 + 2e-

6. Next, the film is developed: unreacted silver bromide is washed away, leaving clear areas on

the film. The silver remains, giving darker areas.

7. Then the film is printed. In this step, light is shone through the film onto photographic paper,

which is also coated with silver bromide. The light passes through the clear areas of the film

easily, causing the silver bromide to decompose. But the darker areas block light.

8. The unreacted silver bromide is washed from the paper. This leaves a black-and-white image

of the original scene, made of silver particles.

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A light-sensitive reaction

 Place a cardboard disc on a piece of light sensitive

photographic paper in the dark. (Or you can also use a

piece of filter paper soaked first in silver nitrate then with

potassium bromide).

 The paper and disc are then left in the light. After a short

time the paper will turn black but if you remove the disc you

can still see a circle of white paper. This shows that light is

needed for the reaction to happen.

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O LEVEL

EQUILIBRIUM

Mohtasim Fuad

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IGCSE Requirements

GCE O Level Requirements

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 What is a chemical Reaction?

Chemical reaction, a process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted to one or

more different substances, the products. Substances are either chemical elements or compounds.

A chemical reaction rearranges the constituent atoms of the reactants to create different substances

as products.

Types of Chemical Reaction: -

 Irreversible Reaction

 Reversible Reaction

 What is an Irreversible Reaction?

Irreversible reaction – It is a chemical reaction where the reactants react to give products,

but the products do not break down back to form reactants.

Example:

1. Combustion – carbon burning in O2

C + O2  CO2

2. Thermal decomposition

CaCO3  CaO + CO2

 An irreversible reaction goes to completion. The yield of an irreversible reaction is close to

100%.

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 What is a Reversible Reaction?

Reversible reaction – It is a chemical reaction where the reactants react to give products

and products breakdown back to form reactants.

 When writing chemical equations for reversible reactions, we do not use the usual

one-way arrow.

 Instead, we use two arrows, each with just half an arrowhead –

the top one pointing right and the bottom one pointing left.

Example:-

CuSO4 + 5H2O ⇌ CuSO4.5H2O

anhydrous copper(II) sulphate + water ⇌ hydrated copper(II) sulphate

WHITE BLUE

 If we heat the hydrated copper(II) sulphate (BLUE) it turns into white

anhydrous copper(II) sulphate. STEAM is produced.

If we let the white crystals cool, we can add water again, they turn blue again

and we can do this process as many times as we like.

 A reversible reaction never goes to completion. The yield of a reversible reaction is never

100%.

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During a reversible chemical reaction

1st Step

 The reactants react to form products

 Three molecules of hydrogen react with one of nitrogen to

form two of ammonia.

2nd Step

 The nitrogen and hydrogen molecule keep on reacting to form

ammonia.

 This is a one way reaction

 The process goes on until the point of equilibrium has reached.

3rd Step

 After the point of equilibrium has been reached

 every time two ammonia molecules form,

 another two break down into nitrogen and hydrogen.

 The amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia remain steady

after equilibrium has been reached

 This stage of the reaction is known as dynamic equilibrium

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 What is equilibrium?

Equilibrium means there is no overall change in the concentrations of the particles present in a

reversible reaction.

 Characteristics of equilibrium

- it is dynamic

- the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate

- the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant at equilibrium

- it requires a closed system

1. Dynamic Equilibrium

- The phrase dynamic equilibrium means that the molecules or ions of reactants and products are

continuously reacting.

- Reactants are continuously being changed to products and products are continuously being

changed back to reactants.

2. The forward and backward reactions occur at the same rate

- At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction.

- Molecules or ions of reactants are becoming products, and those in the products are becoming

reactants, at the same rate.

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3. The concentrations of reactants and products remain constant at equilibrium

The concentrations remain constant because, at equilibrium, the rates of the forward and backward

reactions are equal.

For example, in the reaction

H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

 5.00mol of hydrogen molecules and 5.00 mol of iodine molecules react at 500K in a vessel of

volume 1dm3.

 As time passes, the purple colour of the iodine vapour fades until equilibrium is reached.

 At equilibrium the mixture contains 0.68mol of iodine, 0.68mol of hydrogen and 8.64mol of

hydrogen iodide.

H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

Initial

Change

Equilibrium Moles

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4. Equilibrium requires a closed system

- A closed system is one in which

 none of the reactants or products escapes from the reaction mixture.

 Energy can neither be added or lost from the system

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 Le Chatelier’s Principle

If one or more factors that affect an equilibrium is changed, the position of equilibrium shifts in the

direction that reduces (opposes) the change.

In order for the Le Chatelier’s principle to work, the reaction has to be a reversible reaction.

Position of equilibrium

The position of equilibrium refers to the relative amounts of products and reactants present in

an equilibrium mixture.

 If a system in equilibrium is disturbed (e.g. by a change in temperature)

and the concentration of products is increased relative to the reactants,

we say that the position of equilibrium has shifted to the right.

 If the concentration of products is decreased relative to the reactants, we say that the position

of equilibrium has shifted to the left.

Factors affecting the position of equilibrium

1. Concentration

2. Temperature

3. Pressure

4. Catalysts

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1. Effect of Concentration

How does change in concentration affect the position of equilibrium?

 When the concentration of one or more of the reactants is increased:

H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

i) Change: Increasing the concentration of H2 gas.

ii) According to Le Chatelier’s principle: -

the reaction will try to oppose the change and will try decrease the concentration of H2.

iii) How would the reaction decrease the concentration?

Since it is a closed system, the reactants or products can neither be added nor removed.

Therefore the excess H2 added will react with remaining I2 to give more product.

iv) Since more product is being formed, equilibrium will shift to the product side.

v) Equilibrium shifts to the right.

 When the concentration of one or more of the reactants is decreased:

H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

i) Decreasing the concentration of H2 gas.

ii) According to Le Chatelier’s principle: -

the reaction will try to oppose the change and will try to increase the concentration of H2.

iii) How would the reaction decrease the concentration?

Since it is a closed system, the reactants or products can neither be added nor removed.

Therefore, more HI will break down to form more H2 and I2.

iv) Since more reactant is being formed, equilibrium will shift to the reactant side.

v) Equilibrium shifts to the left.

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2. Effect of Temperature

 How does change in temperature affect the position of the equilibrium?

For an exothermic reaction:

Endothermic

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

Exothermic

 Effect of increasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction:

i) Change: - When the temperature is increased from 450˚C to 500˚C

ii) According to Le Chatelier’s principle: -

The reaction will try to oppose the change and tries to decrease the temperature or bring

back the temperature from 500˚C to 450˚C.

iii) How would the reaction decrease the temperature?

 Since it is a closed system, the energy can neither be added nor removed.

 The reaction uses up the extra energy/ heat. The reaction does so by utilizing

this energy to break the bonds.

iv) Breaking bonds is an endothermic process, therefore equilibrium will shift to the side which

is endothermic.

v) For this reaction, equilibrium will shift to the reactant side.

vi) Equilibrium shifts to the left.

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 Effect of decreasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction:

Endothermic

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

Exothermic

i) Change: - When the temperature is decreased from 450˚C to 400˚C

ii) According to Le Chatelier’s principle: -

The reaction will try to oppose the change and tries to increase the temperature or bring

back the temperature from 400˚C to 450˚C.

iii) How would the reaction increase the temperature?

 Since it is a closed system, the energy can neither be added nor removed.

 The reaction release extra energy/ heat. The reaction does so by forming

more chemical bonds.

iv) Bond formation is an exothermic process; therefore, equilibrium will shift to the side which is

exothermic.

v) For this reaction, equilibrium will shift to the product side.

vi) Equilibrium shifts to the right.

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For an endothermic reaction

Exothermic

2HI ⇌ H2 + I2

Endothermic

 Effect of decreasing the temperature of an endothermic reaction:

i) Change: - When the temperature is decreased from 450˚C to 400˚C

ii) According to Le Chatelier’s principle: -

The reaction will try to oppose the change and tries to increase the temperature or bring

back the temperature from 400˚C to 450˚C.

vii) How would the reaction increase the temperature?

 Since it is a closed system, the energy can neither be added nor removed.

 The reaction release extra energy/ heat. The reaction does so by forming

more chemical bonds.

viii) Bond formation is an exothermic process; therefore, equilibrium will shift to the side which is

exothermic.

ix) For this reaction, equilibrium will shift to the reactant side.

x) Equilibrium shifts to the left.

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 Effect of increasing the temperature of an endothermic reaction:

Exothermic

2HI ⇌ H2 + I2

Endothermic

i) Change: - When the temperature is increased from 450˚C to 500˚C

ii) According to Le Chatelier’s principle: -

The reaction will try to oppose the change and tries to decrease the temperature or bring

back the temperature from 500˚C to 450˚C.

vii) How would the reaction decrease the temperature?

 Since it is a closed system, the energy can neither be added nor removed.

 The reaction uses up the extra energy/ heat. The reaction does so by utilizing

this energy to break the bonds.

viii) Breaking bonds is an endothermic process, therefore equilibrium will shift to the side which

is endothermic.

ix) For this reaction, equilibrium will shift to the product side.

x) Equilibrium shifts to the right.

If a higher temperature favours the forward reaction, then the forward reaction is an endothermic

reaction.

If a lower temperature favours the forward reaction, then the forward reaction is an exothermic reaction

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 What is Pressure?

 The pressure of a gas is caused by the molecules hitting the walls of the container.

 Each molecule in a mixture of gases contributes towards the total pressure.

 So, at constant temperature, the more gas molecules there are in a given volume, the

higher the pressure

 Change in pressure only affects reactions where gases are reactants or products.

 In gases, the molecules are far apart, therefore pressure affects the reactions which

contains gases only.

 The molecules or ions in solids and liquids are packed closely together and cannot be

compressed very easily. Therefore pressure has no effect on the position of equilibrium.

3. Effect of Pressure

 How does change in pressure affect the position of the equilibrium?

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
reactants products
4 moles 2 moles
Operating Pressure for this reaction:- 200 atm

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 Effect of increasing the pressure on the position of the equilibrium

i) Change: - When the pressure is increased from 200 atm to 300 atm.

ii) According to Le Chatelier’s principle: -

The reaction will try to oppose the change and tries to decrease the pressure or bring back

the pressure from 300 atm to 200 atm.

iii) How would the reaction decrease the pressure?

 By decreasing the total number of molecules in the reaction vessel as pressure

depends on the number of molecules

 The number of molecules are lower on the product side compared to the reactant side.

iv) The equilibrium shifts to the side with lower number of molecues

v) Since the product side has less number of molecules

vi) Therefore, equilibrium shifts to the product side.

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 Effect of decreasing the pressure on the position of the equilibrium

i) Change: - When the pressure is decreased from 200 atm to 300 atm.

ii) According to Le Chatelier’s principle: -

The reaction will try to oppose the change and tries to increase the pressure or bring back

the pressure from 200 atm to 300 atm.

iii) How would the reaction increase the temperature?

 By increasing the total number of molecules in the reaction vessel as pressure depends

on the number of molecules

 The number of molecules are lower on the product side compared to the reactant side.

iv) The equilibrium shifts to the side with higher number of molecules

v) Since the reactant side has more number of molecules

vi) Therefore, equilibrium shifts to the reactant side.

4. Effect of a Catalyst

 How does the presence of a catalyst affect the position of the equilibrium?

 A catalyst does not affect the position of the equilibrium

 It only increases the rate of reaction

 It increases the rate of both forward and backward reaction.

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ACIDS AND BASES

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IGCSE Requirements

GCE O Level Requirements

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ACIDS AND BASES

Basis for comparison Acids Bases
Arrhenius Concept Acid is the substance when The base is the substance
dissolved in water, increases when dissolved in water,
the concentration of H+ ions increase the concentration of
OH- ions.
Bronsted-Lowry concept Acids are the proton donor. Bases are the proton acceptor.
Lewis Concept Such species that accepts the Such species that donates the
pair of electrons (an pair of the electron (a
electrophile) and will have nucleophile) and will have a
vacant orbitals are known as lone pair of electrons are known
Lewis acid. as Lewis base.
Chemical formula Such compound whose Such compounds whose
chemical formula begins with H, chemical formula ends with OH,
for example HCl, H2SO4. for example, NaOH and KOH.
Although CH3COOH is an
exception
pH scale (concentration of Less than 7. Greater than 7.
hydrogen ions in a solution)
Physical characteristics Sour taste Bitter in taste. Odorless (except
Gives burning sensation ammonia).
Acids are usually sticky Bases are slippery.
Reacts with metals to produce Reacts with fats and oils.
hydrogen gas.
Phenolphthalein indicator It remains colourless It turns pink.
Litmus test Turns blue litmus paper to red. Turns red litmus paper to blue
Strength Depends on the concentration Depends on the concentration
of hydronium ions of the hydroxide ions.
Dissociation when mixed with Acids dissociate to give H+ ions Bases dissociate to give
water after mixing in water. OH- ions after mixing in water.
Examples Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2),
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

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acid (HNO3), Carbonic acid

(H2CO3)
Uses Used as preservatives, Used in gastric medicine
fertilizers, in carbonated drinks, (antacid), soaps, detergents,
processing leather, household cleansers, antiperspirant
cleaning, making sodas, flavor deodorant, non-hazardous
to food. alkali to neutralize acidic
wastewater, neutralize soil
acidity.

Bronsted – Lowry Acids and Bases

A hydrogen ion is formed by the removal of the single electron from a hydrogen atom.

Nearly all hydrogen atoms have a single proton and no neutrons in their nuclei.

So a hydrogen ion is nothing more than a proton.

We can define acids and bases more generally by seeing what happens to the hydrogen ions (protons)
when acids and bases react.

An acid is a proton donor – it gives a proton to a base.

A base is a proton acceptor – it removes protons from an acid.

You can see this in the equation above – the hydroxide ion has accepted a proton from the acid to form
water.

We can see how this works in the reaction of an ammonium salt with sodium hydroxide:

NH4Cl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NH3(g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

The ionic equation is:

NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  NH3(g) + H2O(l)

In this equation there are no hydrogen ions but there is a transfer of protons.

The base, OH-, has accepted a proton from the ammonium ion, NH4+. So ammonium ion must be
acting as an acid.
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ACIDS
Arrhenius Concept Acid is the substance when
dissolved in water, increases
the concentration of H+ ions
Bronsted-Lowry concept Acids are the proton donor.
Lewis Concept Such species that accepts the
pair of electrons (an
electrophile) and will have
vacant orbitals are known as
Lewis acid.
Chemical formula Such compound whose
chemical formula begins with H,
for example HCl, H2SO4.
Although CH3COOH is an
exception

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What is the role of water in acidity?

If a piece of dry magnesium ribbon is added to a solution of hydrogen chloride in a dry organic solvent,
there is no reaction.

When a piece of magnesium ribbon is added to a solution of hydrogen chloride in water (aqueous
hydrochloric acid), bubbles of hydrogen are produced.

Why is it so?

Hydrogen chloride can exist as two different types of particles

i) HCl (g)  Hydrogen Chloride

ii) HCl (aq)  Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrogen chloride exist as covalent molecules.

In the absence of water, for example, in inorganic solvents, they do not behave as acids.

H2 + Cl2 ⇌ 2HCl(g)

HCl (g)  Hydrogen chloride gas

Acids only shows the properties of acids when they are dissolved in water. This is because
acids dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions which are responsible for acidic properties.

When HCl gas is dissolved in water, it becomes hydrochloric acid.

HCl (g)  HCl (aq)

HCl (g)  H+ (aq) and Cl- (aq)

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In the case of hydrogen chloride, the figure above shows what happens when it is dissolved in water.

The hydrogen ions H+ produced allow acids to react with metals such as magnesium

2H+ + Mg  H2 + Mg2+

No dissociation occurs when hydrogen chloride is dissolved in an organic solvent. Thus, hydrogen
chloride dissolved in an organic solvent does not react with magnesium.

Similarly, no reaction occurs when solid citric acid is mixed with anhydrous sodium carbonate.
However, when a few drops of water are added to the mixture, bubbles of carbon dioxide are produced.

2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)  H2O (l) + CO2(g)

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Classification of Acids:

1. According to extent of dissociation

 Strong acid – acids which fully dissociates. Ex: inorganic acids

 Weak acid – Acids which partially dissociates. Ex: organic acids

Strong Acid Weak Acid

Before (0) (0)
(100) (0) (100) (0)
dissociation
HCl ⇌ H+ + Cl- CH3COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3COO-
After (100)
(0) (100) (95) (5) (5)
dissociation
Hydrochloric acid (HCl),
Example Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Nitric acid (HNO3)

2. According to number of Hydrogen ion dissociated

Type of acid Name of acid Valency of anion

one hydrogen ion is dissociated Nitric acid
Monobasic - 1
per acid molecule HNO3 ⇌ H+ + NO3-
Hydrochloric acid
- 1
HCl ⇌ H+ + Cl-
two hydrogen ions are Sulfuric acid
Dibasic - 2
dissociated per acid molecule H2SO4 ⇌ 2H+ + SO42-
three hydrogen ions are Phosphorous acid
Tribasic - 3
dissociated per molecule H3PO4 ⇌ 3H+ + PO33-

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3. According to source

 Inorganic acid – Acids made in the laboratory. Ex: Nitric acid(HNO3)

 Organic acid – Acids formed naturally. Ex: Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)

BASES/ALKALI
Arrhenius Concept The base is the substance
when dissolved in water,
increase the concentration of
OH- ions.
Bronsted-Lowry concept Bases are the proton acceptor.
Lewis Concept Such species that donates the
pair of the electron (a
nucleophile) and will have a
lone pair of electrons are known
as Lewis base.
Chemical formula Such compounds whose
chemical formula ends with OH,
for example, NaOH and KOH.

Who are bases?

All Metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates, metal hydrogen carbonates, ammonium
hydroxide and ammonium carbonates are bases.

What is an alkali?

Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis.

Soluble bases:

Group 1 oxides, hydroxides, carbonates are all soluble in water (alkalis).

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Group 2 oxides, hydroxides are soluble in water (alkalis)

Group 2 carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are not soluble in water (bases)

All other metal oxides and hydroxides, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are insoluble in water.

What are the differences between alkalis and bases?

Alkalis are bases that are soluble in water whereas bases are insoluble in water.

Bases Solubility in water Alkali

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Na2O �⎯⎯⎯�NaOH ✔ ✔
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
BaO�⎯⎯⎯�Ba(OH)2 ✔ ✔
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 X X
ZnO �⎯⎯⎯�Zn(OH)2
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 X X
Fe2O3�⎯⎯⎯�Fe(OH)3

Classification of Bases/Alkali

Types of bases

1. Strong base – it completely dissociates into its ions in water or in a compounds that can remove
a proton (H+) from a weak acid. Examples of strong base are sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and
potassium hydroxide (KOH).
2. Weak base – these bases incompletely dissociate in water. The aqueous solution is one of the
examples that include a base and its conjugate acid.
3. Neutral base – it is the one that forms a bond with a neutral acid.
4. Superbase – This type of base is formed by alkali metal with its conjugate acid and even better
in comparison to a strong base. One of the examples of the super base if sodium hydride (NaH).
5. Solid base – it may be used in anion exchange resins or for reactions with gaseous acids. It is
active in solid form. Silicon dioxide and NaOH mounted on alumina are the examples of solid
bases.

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According to extent of dissociation

 Strong alkali – Alkali which fully dissociates. Ex: NaOH

 Weak alkali – Alkali which partially dissociates. Ex: NH4OH

Strong Acid Weak Acid

Before (100) (0) (0) (100) (0) (0)
dissociation
NaOH H+ + OH- NH4OH ⇌ NH4+ OH-
⇌
After (0) (100) (100) (95) (5) (5)
dissociation
Group 1 alkali Ammonia

DAILY USES OF ACIDS AND ALKALI

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Distinguish between an acid and an alkali

1. TESTING WITH LITMUS PAPER- It is a filter paper soaked in an indicator

In acidic condition – turns blue litmus red

In alkaline condition – turns red litmus blue

2. USING PH PAPER
These strips are used to determine if a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral, using a
color – coded scale that indicates the precise PH level of the solution

3. TESTING WITH AN INDICATOR

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Phenolphthalein is a chemical compound that is typically colorless. It turns bright

pink or magenta in response to bases, making it a commonly used indicators of pH
levels.

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What are indicators?

An acid–base indicator is a dye or mixture of dyes that changes colour over a specific pH range.

In simple terms, many indicators can be considered as weak acids in which the acid (HIn) and its
conjugate base (In–) have different colours.

Name of indicator lower pH neutral higher pH

Methyl violet yellow violet blue
methyl yellow red yellow yellow
methyl orange red orange yellow
bromophenol blue yellow blue blue
bromocresol green yellow blue blue
methyl red red yellow yellow
bromothymol blue yellow blue blue
phenolphthalein colourless colourless pink/violet
alizarin yellow yellow yellow orange/red

What is a universal indicator?

A universal indicator is a pH indicator made of a solution of several compounds that exhibits several
smooth colour changes over a wide range pH values to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of solutions.

It is a mixture of dyes. Like litmus, it can be used as a solution or a paper strip. Its colour changes with
pH as shown below.

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What is pH?

pH is the negative logarithm of H+ concentration in a solution to the power of base 10

pH = -lg10 [H+]

pH=power of hydrogen

Why do we use negative logarithm of base 10?

[H+] = 0.1 moldm-3 pH=1,

[H+] = 0.01 moldm-3 pH=2,

[H+] = 0.025 moldm-3 pH=2.6,

[H+] = 0.001 moldm-3 pH=3,

pH scale is used for easier representation of H+ concentration.

On this scale,

• An acidic solution has a pH number less than 7.

• An alkaline solution has a pH number greater than 7.
• A neutral solution has a pH number of exactly 7.

Greater the concentration of H+ ion, stronger the acid  lower the pH

Lower the concentration of H+ ion, weaker the acid  higher the pH

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Distinguishing between a strong acid/alkali and a weak acid/alkali

1. Qualitative analysis 

Rate of reaction: When an acid reacts with a metal or a metal carbonate, a gas is produced.

If the rate is fast, then a strong acid is present

If the rate is slow, then a weak acid is present.

• A strong acid reacts faster than a weak acid. This is also because there is a greater
concentration of hydrogen ions in the strong acid compared with the weak acid.

• We cannot use metal oxides or hydroxides to test for the difference between a strong acid and a
weak acid because in these reactions, there is no gas formed. The product is water.

2. Quantitative analysis 
a. pH scale
i. 1-3 indicates a strong acid
ii. 3- <7 indicates a weak acid
iii. >7 – 11 indicates a weak alkali
iv. 12-14 indicates a strong alkali

A strong acid has a lower pH than a weak acid of the same concentration.
This is because there is a greater concentration of hydrogen ions in the strong acid compared
with the weak acid.

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b. Electrical conductivity
i. High voltage indicates strong acid and
ii. Low voltage indicates weak acid

The electrical conductivity of a solution depends on the concentration of the ions present – the more
ions, the greater the conductivity.

A strong acid conducts much better than a weak acid of the same concentration. This is because
there is a greater concentration of ions in the strong acid compared with the weak acid.

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What are the physical properties of acids?

1. Acids have a sour taste

2. Acids dissolve in water to form solution which conduct electricity
3. Acids turn blue litmus paper red

What are the chemical properties of acids?

1. Acids react with metals to give salt + hydrogen

Zn + HCl  ZnCl2 + H2  faster rate of reaction

Zn + CH3COOH  Zn(CH3COO)2 + H2  slower rate of reaction

2. Acids react with metal oxides to give salt + water

ZnO + HCl  ZnCl2 + H2O  faster rate of reaction

ZnO + CH3COOH  Zn(CH3COO)2  slower rate of reaction

3. Acids react with metal hydroxides to give salt + water

Mg(OH)2 + HCl  MgCl2 + H2O

Mg(OH)2 + CH3COOH  Mg(CH3COO)2 + H2O

4. Acids react with metal carbonates to give salt + water + carbon dioxide

Na2CO3 + HCl  NaCl + H2O + CO2

Na2CO3 + CH3COOH  Na(CH3COO) + H2O + CO2

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What are the physical properties of bases?

1. They have a bitter taste.

2. They have a soapy feel.
3. They have a pH greater than 7.
4. Strong alkalis are corrosive.
5. Bases can be soluble or insoluble. Soluble bases are known as alkalis.

What are the chemical properties of bases?

1. Base + acid  salt + water

CuO(s) + 2HCl (aq)  CuCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
alkali + acid salt + water
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
2. All alkalis produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.

sodium hydroxide  sodium ion + hydroxide ion

NaOH (aq)  Na+ + OH- (aq)

3. Alkalis heated with ammonium salts give off ammonia gas.

alkali + ammonium salt  ammonia + water + salt

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2NH4Cl (s)  CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O + 2NH3

4. Alkalis can react with a solution of one metal salt to give metal hydroxide and another metal salt.
The general equation for this reaction is

alkali + salt (of metal A)  metal hydroxide + salt (of metal B)

2NaOH (aq) + FeSO4 (aq)  Fe(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4(aq)

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5. All alkalis can react with acids to form a salt and water only. This reaction is called
neutralization.
In a neutralization reaction, the hydrogen ions from the acid and hydroxide ions from the alkali
react to form water.
For example,

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O

USES OF ALKALIS AND BASES

• Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soap, paper, and the synthetic fiber rayon.
• Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is used in the manufacture of bleaching powder.
• Calcium hydroxide is also used to clean the sulfur dioxide, which is caused by the exhaust, that
is found in power plants and factories.
• Magnesium hydroxide is used as an 'antacid' to neutralize excess acid in the stomach and cure
indigestion.
• Sodium carbonate is used as washing soda and for softening hard water.
• Sodium bicarbonate (or sodium hydrogen carbonate) is used as baking soda in cooking food,
for making baking powders, as an antacid to cure indigestion and in soda acid fire extinguisher.
• Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove grease stains from clothes

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OXIDES

OXIDES

METAL NON-METAL
OXIDES OXIDES

BASIC OXIDE AMPHOTERIC NEUTRAL

ACIDIC OXIDE
OXIDE OXIDE

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1. Acidic oxides

Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides.

Most acidic oxides dissolve in water to form an acid.

Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic Acidic oxides with water
oxide
S+ O2  SO2 SO2 + H2O  H2SO3
sulfur + oxygen  sulfur dioxide

C+ O2  CO2 CO2 + H2O  H2CO3

ACIDIC OXIDES ONLY REACT WITH BASES.

ACIDIC OXIDES DO NOT REACT WITH ACIDS.

• Acidic oxides react with alkalis to form a salt and water. For example

Carbon dioxide + sodium hydroxide  sodium carbonate + water

• Some acidic oxides react with bases such as metal oxides when heated.

SiO2 + CaO  CaSiO3

• Many acidic oxides react with water to form acidic solutions.

SO3 + H2O  H2SO4

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2. Basic Oxides

Metals react with oxygen to form basic oxides.

2Cu + O2  2CuO

Most basic oxides are insoluble in water and some basic oxides are soluble in water.

Example: MgO + H2O  Mg(OH)2

Soluble basic oxides are called alkalis.

Example: Na2O + H2O  2NaOH (aq)

Basic oxides react with acids to form salt and water.

CaO (s) + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)

BASIC OXIDES ONLY REACT WITH ACIDS

BASIC OXIDES DO NOT REACT WITH ALKALIS

Many basic oxides do not react with water.

But those from group 1 and many from group 2 in the periodic table react to form a metal
hydroxide.

An alkaline solution is formed which turns red litmus blue.

BaO(s) + H2O (l)  Ba(OH)2(aq)

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3. Neutral oxides
Some non-metals form oxides that show neither basic nor acidic properties.

These oxides are called neutral oxides.

These oxides are insoluble in water.

H2O, CO, NO, N2O are neutral oxides.

NEUTRAL OXIDES DO NOT REACT WITH ALKALIS OR ACIDS.

4. Amphoteric oxides

They are metallic oxides which can act as both acidic and basic oxides.

THEY REACT WITH BOTH ACIDS AND ALKALIS.

The word ‘amphoteric’ means both of them.

Examples include:

ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O

ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H2O

They react with acids to form salts. They react with alkalis to form complex salts.

Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l) Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  2NaAlO2 (aq) +

H2O(l)

The zincates and the aluminates have the ending –ate to show that their ions are
compounds containing oxygen-rather like sulfates, carbonates and nitrates.

Zincate ions are ZnO22- and aluminate ions are AlO2-

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soluble amphoteric oxide

basic or is the oxide
yes amphoteric acid soluble in alkali?
does the insoluble basic oxide
unknown oxide
oxide dissolve
in acid? soluble acidic oxide
acidic or neutral is the oxide
no oxide soluble in alkali?
insoluble neutral oxide

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IGCSE Requirements

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GCE O Level Requirements

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SALTS
Salts are products of neutralization. They are formed when a base/alkali reacts with an acid.

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) � NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Separating into ions then cancelling the spectator ions, we have:

Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) � Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

This leaves us with a very simple ionic equation:

OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) � H2O (l)

If we carry out the same process with any combination of acid and alkali, we get the same ionic
equation. This makes sense if you think about it; every acid has hydrogen ions dissolved in water and
every alkali has hydroxide ions dissolved in water. So these two ions combine to make water.

SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS

Soluble Compounds Insoluble compounds

Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts

all group I and ammonium salts are soluble

all nitrates

most sulfates sulfates of calcium, barium and lead

most chlorides, bromides and iodides/ chlorides, bromides and iodides of silver and lead
most halides
Soluble bases- alkali Insoluble Bases

Group I hydroxides and carbonates most hydroxides and carbonates

Group I and II oxides react with water most metal oxides

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PREPARATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SALTS

Salts
SALTS K

Na
SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE
Li
Group 1 + Group 2 + transition metal precipitation Ca
ammonium transition salt below
metal salt h d i th Mg
titration two one
Method # 1 :Salt + H2
(acid+alkali) soluble soluble Al
Excess
Method # 1 Insoluble Base C
Salt 1 Insoluble salt
solution Excess metal + + 1 Insoluble
id + salt Zn
+ 1 soluble salt + Fe
Method # 1 Salt solution
:Salt + H2 1 soluble salt
solution
Pb
+ filtration
M th d # 2
and filtration H
and
Cu
CRYSTALLIZATION
Ag

Au

Pt

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STEPS of Crystallization:-

1. The salt solution is taken in a evaporating basin.

2. The solution is heated.
3. At regular intervals, a glass rod is dipped in the evaporating basin and a sample is taken.
4. The sample is let to cool down to check for crystals forming.
5. This process is repeated until crystal starts forming at the tip of the glass rod.
6. Once crystals start forming at the tip of the glass rod, heating is stopped and the salt solution is
let to cool down for crystals to form.
7. Once the crystals has formed, the sample is washed with very little amount of water to dissolve
the remaining impurities.I If any present).
8. The remaining sample is dried in an oven/ dried using a filter paper.
9. A pure sample of salt crystals are obtained.

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SOLUBLE SALTS

Method #1 TITRATION

● This method is used to make salts of the Group I metals and ammonium salts.
● It is not a good idea to prepare salts of very reactive metals such as sodium and
potassium using other methods. The reaction of these metals with the acid is too violent
– a titration method is more suitable in these cases.
● A titration is a method of analysis that will allow you to determine the precise endpoint of a
reaction and therefore the precise quantity of reactant in the titration flask.
● We use an acid titration to find out how much acid is needed to react exactly with a solution of
an alkali. We use an indicator to find when the acid has just reaced with all the alkali.
● We call this the end point of the titration. At the end point the indicator changes colour.
● The indicator we choose depends on whether we use a strong or weak acid or alkali.
● For a strong acid and alkali we can use any indicator
● If we are making a salt from a weak alkali, for example ammonia, we titrate with a strong acid.
We use methyl orange indicator. This goes from orange to red when there is excess acid.
● If we are making a salt from a weak acid, for example ethanoic acid, we use a strong base. We
use phenolphthalein indicator. This goes from pink to colourless when there is excess acid.

● Begin by preparing your burette.

● The burette should be conditioned by first washing it with distilled water
and rinsing with the titrant, and then fill with titrant (liquid in the burette)
solution.
● The burette should be checked for air bubbles and leaks, before
proceeding with the titration

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● Take an initial volume reading and record it in your

notebook.
● Before beginning a titration, you should always
calculate
the expected endpoint volume.

● Prepare the solution to be analyzed by placing it in

a clean conical flask or beaker
● Measure a known volume of alkali/acid into the
titration flask using a volumetric pipette.
● First wash the pipette with distilled water and then
rinse it with a little of the solution to be used.
● Add a few drops of indicator solution to the alkali in
the flask.

● Use the burette to deliver a stream of titrant to within a couple of ml of

your expected endpoint.

● You will see the indicator change color when the titrant hits the solution in

the flask, but the color change disappears

● Approach the endpoint more slowly and watch the

color of your flask carefully.
● Use a wash bottle to rinse the sides of the flask and
the tip of the burette, to be sure all titrant is mixed
in the flask.

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● As you approach the endpoint, you may need to add a partial drop of

titrant.

● You can do this with a rapid spin of a teflon stopcock or by partially

opening the stopcock and rinsing the partial drop into the flask with a
wash bottle.

● Make sure you know what the endpoint should look like.
● For phenolphthalein, the endpoint is the first permanent pale pink.
● The pale pink fades in 10 to 20 minutes.
● If you think you might have reached the endpoint, you can record
the volume reading and add another partial drop.

● If the flask looks like this, you have gone too far!

● When you have reached the endpoint, read the final volume in the
burette and record it in your notebook.

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● Subtract the initial volume to determine the amount of titrant

delivered.

● Use this, the concentration of the titrant, and the stoichiometry of

the titration reaction to calculate the number of moles of reactant

in your analyte solution.

When a pure salt Is to made :

1. All the steps of titration is carried out and the experiment is repeated without using an
indicator.
2. The solution obtained is evaporated, and pure dry crystals of salts are obtained.

Method #2 Excess Metal + Acid

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● This method is suitable only for metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series.
● This method is used to make salts of Group 2 and transition metals.
● This type of method is suitable to for making salts of moderately reactive metals because highly
reactive metals like K, Na will cause an explosion. This method is used with the MAZIT
(Magnesium, Aluminum, Zinc, Iron and Tin) metals .
● So we can make salts of magnesium, zinc, aluminum and iron in this way.
Displacement Method (Excess Metal Method):

Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

● For example, to make zinc sulfate we carry out the following reaction:

Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) � ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

Procedure:

● Add the metal to the acid in a flask so that the metal is in excess.
● The acid is the limiting reactant.
● Warm the flask gently to complete the reaction.
● Filter off the excess metal. The filtrate is a solution of the metal salt.
● Put the filtrate into an evaporation basin and evaporate the water until the crystallization point is
reached. Then you allow the salt to crystallize at room temperature.
● Filter off the crystals and wash them with a tiny amount of solvent so they don’t dissolve.
● Dry the crystals between sheets of filter paper.

Observations of this type of reactions:

● Bubbles of colorless gas evolve (hydrogen). To test, approach a lighted splint - if hydrogen is
present it makes a pop sound
● The temperature rises (exothermic reaction) Note: The metal is always taken in excess as the
● The metal disappears unreacted metal stays back as a solid which can

You know the reaction is over when: later be filtered off. But if acid is taken in excess,
the acid is a colorless solution as well as the salt
● No more gas evolves
solution. So, it is difficult to separate.
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● No more magnesium can dissolve

● The temperature stops rising

Method # 3 Salts from insoluble bases

Copper, lead and silver are below hydrogen in the reactivity series, so they cannot displace the H+
from the acid. Therefore, the metal is first converted into an insoluble base and then reacted with an
acid.

Acid + Insoluble metal compound → Salt + Water

We use this method for making salts of metals that are low in the reactivity series.

For example, to make copper (II) sulfate, we carry out the following reaction:

CuO (s) + H2SO4 � CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l)

To obtain copper sulfate salt from a given sample of copper carbonate and sulfuric acid:

CuCO3 + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O + CO2

● Add 100 cm3 of dilute sulfuric acid to a beaker

● Add excess mass of copper carbonate
● When the reaction is over, filter excess copper carbonate off
● The filtrate is a copper sulfate solution, to obtain copper sulfate powder evaporate the solution
till dryness
● To obtain copper sulfate crystals, heat the solution white continuously dipping a glass rod in it
● When you observe crystals starting to form on the glass rod, turn heat of and leave the mixture
to cool down slowly
● When you obtain the crystals dry them between two filter papers

Observations:

● Bubbles of colorless gas (carbon dioxide) evolve, test by approaching lighted splint, if the CO2
is present the flame will be put off
● Green Copper carbonate starts to disappear
● The temperature rises
● The solution turns blue

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You know the reaction is finished when:

● No more bubbles are evolving

● The temperature stops rising
● No more copper carbonate can dissolve
● The pH of the solution becomes neutral

❖ Water of crystalisation

Many salts combine with water molecules to form crystals. These water molecules are known as water
of crystalisation.

Salts that contain water of crystallisation are called hydrated salts.

Salts that do not contains water of crystallisation are called anhydrous salts. Anhydrous salts are
often powders. The table below shows the formulae of some anhydrous salts and some hydrated salts.

Name of salt Formula of anhydrous salt Formula of hydrated salt

copper(II) sulfate CuSO4 CuSO4.5H2O

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magnesium sulfate MgSO4 MgSO4.7H2O

sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Na2CO3.10H2O
zinc sulfate ZnSO4 ZnSO4.7H2O

❖ INSOLUBLE SALTS

Some salts are insoluble. The solid obtained when solutions of two soluble compounds are mixed is
called a precipitate.

These salts can be made in two ways:

i) by mixing two soluble salts

ii) by mixing a soluble salt and an acid.
☞ If we are going to make salts by precipitation, we must know which compounds are
soluble in water and which are insoluble.

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Fortunately, there are some rules which help us to do this.

We can call these rules the solubility rules. These rules are shown in the table:

If we want to make an insoluble salt, for example lead chloride, we:

● Identify the ions present in the insoluble salt – lead and chloride
● use our solubility rules to choose soluble compounds including these ions – for example,
lead nitrate for the lead and sodium chloride for the chloride

CATION-
ANION

CATION GROUP 1
NITRATE ANION

● add one solution to the other

● filter off the precipitate then wash and dry the solid.

● What happens in a precipitation reaction?

We can explain why a solid precipitate by looking at the reaction between lead nitrate and sodium
chloride as an example.

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl (aq) � PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

We know that in a solution of an ionic compound the ions are free to move. So our solution of lead
nitrate contains lead ion and nitrate ions that are separate from one another. They are able to move
freely and randomly throughout the water. The water molecules help to keep them in solution. A similar
thing happens with our solution of sodium chloride.

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Lead chloride, the insoluble salt, is precipitated when we mix the solutions. The lead ions in solution
have a greater attraction for the chloride ions than the water molecules that keep them in solution. So
the lead ions and chloride ions come together in large numbers and form a three-dimensional ionic
lattice. The sodium ions and nitrate ions remain in solution. They are the spectator ions.

Some uses of precipitation

Precipitation has some important uses in industry. For example:

● It is used to make coloured pigments for paint.

● It is used in some places to remove harmful substances dissolved in water, when
cleaning up waste water.
● It is used in making film, for photography. For this, solutions of silver nitrate and
potassium bromide are mixed with gelatin. A precipitate of tiny crystals of insoluble silver
bromide forms. The mixture is then coated onto clear film, giving photographic film.

Later, when light strikes the film, the silver bromide will break down:

2AgBr (s) � 2Ag (s) + Br2 (l)

Colors of Salts:

Salt Formula Solid In Solution

Hydrated copper CuSO4.5H2O Blue crystals Blue
sulfate
Anhydrous copper CuSO4 White powder Blue
sulfate
Copper nitrate Cu(NO3)2 Blue crystals Blue
Copper chloride CuCl2 Green Green

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Copper carbonate CuCO3 Green Insoluble

Copper oxide CuO Black Insoluble
Iron(II) salts E.g.: FeSO4, Pale green Pale green
Fe(NO3)2 crystals
Iron(III) salts E.g.: Fe(NO3)3 Reddish brown Reddish
brown

Controlling Soil pH:

● If the pH of the soil goes below or above 7, it has to be neutralized using an acid or a base.
● If the pH of the soil goes below 7, calcium carbonate (lime stone) is used to neutralize it.
● The pH of the soil can be measured by taking a sample from the soil, crushing it, dissolving in
water then measuring the pH of the solution.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

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PRACTICALS

TEST FOR TEST FOR TEST FOR

CATION ANIONS GASES

BY
FLAME TEST
SOLUBILITY

TEST FOR CATIONS

● We can test an unknown substance to identify the positive ion present.

● An alkali is used to do this
● Particular tests are used to identify negative ions are called anions.
● To find the type of anion present in an unknown compound a variety of tests is used.
● When all the test are completed for both cations and anions we can identify the unknown
compound.
● Further tests can also be carried out to confirm our conclusions.
● The whole process of finding out what elements are present in a compound is called
qualitative analysis.
● Many compounds look similar in the laboratory.
● If there is a white powder it could be sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate or aluminium
oxide.

● Even colored compounds may appear colorless when they are dissolved at low
concentration in aqueous solution. For example: iron (II) sulfate has light green crystals
but when dissolved in water it appears colorless unless you make a very concentrated
solution.
● So how can we identify a substance in solution? One way to do this is to use aqueous
sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia. These alkalis can be used to identify positive
ions in compounds. Positive ions are often called cations because they move to the
cathode when an ionic solution is electrolysed.

❖ FLAME TESTS
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A flame test can be used to identify some cations, especially those in compounds containing
elements from Groups I and II.

The procedure is:

● Clean a platinum or nichrome wire by dipping it in concentrated hydrochloric acid.

● Place a sample of the compound on the end of the wire.
● Hold the wire on the edge of a non-luminous (blue) Bunsen fame.
● Note any change in the colour of the flame

The typical flame test colours for some metal ions are shown in the table.

Metal ion Flame colour

Lithium (Li+) red
Sodium (Na+) yellow
Potassium (K+) lilac
Copper(II) (Cu2+) blue-green

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❖ SOLUBILITY TEST FOR CATIONS

The procedure for identifying an unknown cation is:

● If you have a solid that you want to identify it is best to dissolve it in little water first and
use this aqueous solution for the test.
● Put a small amount of the solution you want to identify into a test tube.
● Add a few drops of aqueous sodium hydroxide.
● Observe the color of any precipitate formed.
● Add excess aqueous sodium hydroxide and shake the test tube.
● Record whether or not the precipitate dissolves, and any color changes.
● Repeat the above steps by using ammonia solution
● Record whether or not the precipitate dissolves, and any color changes.

Sodium hydroxide and ammonia react in a similar way with some of the ions.

However, these two alkalis are used to distinguish the colourless solutions containing aluminum and
zinc ions.

If the alkalis are not in excess the precipitates formed are metal hydroxides. The equations for all these
reactions are similar.

The aluminium and zinc ions dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide because they form soluble
aluminates and zincates

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COLOR OF RESULT WITH EXCESS RESULT WITH EXCESS

ION
PRECIPITATE AQUEOUS NAOH NAOH AQUEOUS AMMONIA AMMONIA

Forms white precipitate Forms white precipitate

Zn2+ Soluble Soluble
Zn2+ + 2OH- →Zn(OH)2 Zn2+ + 2OH-→Zn(OH)2

Forms white precipitate Forms white precipitate

WHITE Al3+ Soluble Insoluble
Al3+ + 3OH- →Al(OH)3 Al3+ + 3OH- →Al(OH)3

Forms white precipitate

Ca2+ Insoluble Forms no precipitate
Ca2+ + 2OH- →Ca(OH)2

Forms a grey green Forms a grey green

Cr3+ precipitate Soluble precipitate Insoluble
Cr3+ + 3OH-→Cr(OH)3 Cr3++ 3OH-→Cr(OH)3
GREEN
Forms a grey green Forms a grey green
Fe2+ precipitate Insoluble precipitate Insoluble
Fe2+ + 2OH- →Fe(OH)2 Fe2++ 2OH-→Fe(OH)2

Forms a reddish brown Forms a reddish brown

RED Fe3+ precipitate Insoluble precipitate Insoluble
Fe3+ + 3OH-→Fe(OH)3 Fe3+ + 3OH-→Fe(OH)3

Forms a light blue Forms a light blue

BLUE Cu2+ precipitate Insoluble precipitate Soluble
Cu2+ + 2OH- →Cu(OH)2 Cu2+ + 2OH-→Cu(OH) 2

When a solution containing ammonium ions is heated with sodium hydroxide

NH4+ solution, ammonia gas is given off. This turns red litmus blue.
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) → NH3 (g) + H2O(l)

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Salt solution
+ NaOH

reddish brown
white ppt light blue ppt green ppt no ppt
ppt

Al3+, Ca2+, Pb2+,

Cu2+ possibly NH4+
Zn2+

+excess on heating, if
NaOH ammonia is
produced, it is
NH4+
soluble insoluble

Al3+, Pb2+, Zn2+ Ca2+

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Salt solution
+ aqueous
ammonia

reddish
white ppt light blue ppt green ppt no ppt
brown ppt

Al3+, Pb2+, possibly

Cu2+ Fe2+ Fe3+
Zn2+ NH4+or Ca2+

+excess + excess
NH3(aq) NH3(aq)

Cu2+ if deep
soluble insoluble blue solution
forms

Zn2+ Al3+, Pb2+,

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TEST FOR ANIONS:

1. Identifying chlorides, bromides and iodides

● We call the simple ions of the Group VII elements halides.
● Chlorides, bromides and iodides are all halides.
● Halides can be identified using aqueous silver nitrate.
● The procedure is as follows.

To a small volume of the halide solution in a test tube:

I. add an equal volume of dilute nitric acid

II. add a few drops of aqueous silver nitrate
III. observe the colour of the precipitate.

Chlorides give a white precipitate. Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

Bromides give a cream precipitate Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s)

Iodides give a pale yellow precipitate Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s)

Confirmatory test for halide ions:

Dilute ammonia Concentrated ammonia

Cl¯ Soluble Soluble

Br¯ Insoluble Soluble

I¯ Insoluble Insoluble

2. Identifying carbonate ion

● The identification of carbonates makes use of the test for carbon dioxide.
● The procedure is:
I. We add dilute acid to the unknown compound.
II. The unknown compound can be either a solid or a solution.
III. If a carbonate is present we will see effervescence (bubbles of gas)
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IV. We test to see if the gas given off is carbon dioxide using limewater.

3. Identifying nitrate ion

● The identification of nitrates makes use of the test for ammonia.
● The procedure is:
I. Put an aqueous solution of the unknown compound into a test tube.
II. Add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then aluminium foil and heat gently
III. Test the gas given off with a piece of damp red litmus paper placed at the
mouth of the test tube.
IV. If ammonia is given off, the litmus paper will turn blue.
V. So the compound is likely to be a nitrate.
4. Identifying sulfates
● Barium chloride or barium nitrate solution is used to test for sulfates.
● The procedure is:
I. Put an aqueous solution of the unknown compound into a test tube.
II. Add an equal volume of dilute hydrochloric acid and then add an aqueous
solution of a soluble barium salt.
III. This can be barium chloride or barium nitrate.
IV. If a white precipitate is formed the compound is a sulfate.
V. The equation for this reaction is:

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)

5. Identifying sulfites
● The identification of sulfites makes use of the test for sulphur dioxide.
● To test for the presence of a sulfite ion, we add dilute hydrochloric acid and warm
gently.
● A gas is evolved.
● A piece of filter paper soaked in acidified potassium manganate(VII) is placed above
the test tube containing the acid and sulfite.
● If sulfur dioxide is present, it turns acidified potassium manganate(VII) from purple to
colourless.

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TEST FOR GASES

Before a gas can be identified at first it has to be collected.

● We can use a gas syringe to collect any gas.

● But it is easier to identify a gas if we collect it in a test tube.
● After collecting the gas in the test tube you put a bung on the tube so that the gas does
not escape before you identify it.

The way the gas would be collected depends on:

1. The Density Of The Gas – Is it heavier or lighter than air?

2. The Solubility Of The Gas In Water – is it soluble or insoluble in water?

Gas Solubility in water Density compared to air

Ammonia Extremely soluble Less dense

Carbon dioxide Slightly soluble Dense
Chlorine Soluble Dense
Hydrogen Not soluble Less dense
Hydrogen chloride Very soluble Dense
Oxygen Very slightly soluble Slightly dense
Sulfur dioxide Very soluble Dense

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COLLECTING GASES

Method Description Example

Downward Displacement of water.

Suitable for collecting gases that are

CO2, H2 and Cl2
insoluble or slightly soluble in water.

Downward delivery of gas

Suitable for collecting gases that are

● soluble in water and CO2

● denser or heavier than air.

Upward displacement of air

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Upward delivery of gas

Suitable for collecting gases that are

● soluble in water and NH3 , H2.

● is less dense or lighter in air.

Downward displacement of air

1. Identifying Hydrogen:
● You put a lighted splint at the mouth of the test tube.
● If the gas is hydrogen it burns with a squeaky ‘pop’ sound.
● The hydrogen is reacting it with oxygen in the air to cause a small explosion when a
flame or spark is present.
2. Identifying Oxygen:
● You put a glowing splint into the test tube.
● If the gas is oxygen the splint will relight.
● The splint is made of wood and wood is a fuel.
● Fuels burn better in oxygen then in air – there is no nitrogen to dilute the oxygen.
● So the splint will burn much better in pure oxygen so much so that the glowing splint will
relight.
3. Identifying Ammonia: Using the litmus test
● A piece of damp litmus paper is held at the mouth of the test tube.
● If the gas is alkaline it will turn red litmus paper blue.
● The gas is almost certainly ammonia if there is a strong sharp smell as well.
4. Identifying chlorine

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● Chlorine is a poisonous green gas.

● So if chlorine is going to be released the experiment should be
carried out in a fume cupboard.
● Put a damp litmus paper or universal indicator paper at the mouth
of the test tube.
● The indicator paper turns white it is bleached.

5. Identifying carbon dioxide:

● If a gas given off in a reaction is carbon dioxide, we can bubble it through limewater.
● If carbon dioxide is present, the limewater turns milky or cloudy.
● A simpler way to test for carbon dioxide is to simply put a drop of limewater on the end of
a flattened glass rod and hold it above the reaction mixture.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

● Limewater is a solution of calcium hydroxide.

● This solution is colourless. But when you bubble carbon dioxide
through it, a fine white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed:
● Carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide. So it reacts with a base to form
a salt and water.
● If you bubble the carbon dioxide through the limewater for too
long the limewater goes colourless again. This is because the
calcium carbonate dissolves to form soluble calcium hydrogen
carbonate.
6. Identifying sulfur dioxide
● Sulfur dioxide is a colourless gas should be carried out in a fume cupboard.
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● An acidified solution of potassium manganate(VII), which is purple in colour, is used to test

for sulfur dioxide.
● When sulfur dioxide is bubbled through acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII), the
solution turns from purple to colourless.

We can tell if gas is acidic or alkaline by holding a piece of damp litmus paper at the
mouth of the test tube.

☞ If the gas is alkaline it will turn red litmus paper blue.

☞ If the gas is acidic it will turn blue litmus paper red.

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TEST FOR WATER

BLUE PINK

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PERIODIC TABLE

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IGCSE Requirements

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GCE Requirements

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THE PERIODIC TABLE

● The modern periodic table is based on atomic number and electron configuration, was created
primarily by a Russian chemist, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev
● Mendeleev created the first periodic table based on atomic weight. He observed that many elements have
similar properties, and they occur periodically. Hence, the table’s name.
● His periodic law states that the chemical and physical properties of the elements vary in a periodic way
with their atomic weights. The modern one states that the properties vary with atomic number, not
weight.
● It is divided into two parts by the zig-zag line.
o Elements to the left of the zig- zag line are metals and
o Elements to the right of the zig-zag line are known as non-metals. (except for hydrogen).
o The block of metals between Groups II and Group III is known as the transition elements.
● The 1st element of the periodic table is Hydrogen. The 2nd element is helium. Then 3rd element is Lithium
and goes on.
● The proton number is the lower number beside each symbol.

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● The two numbers beside a symbol tell you about the particles in the nucleus of its atoms
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

o The nucleon number is the total number of particles in the nucleus

(protons + neutrons) - The Bigger Number
o The proton number is the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom.
– The Smaller Number
o These numbers are for the main isotope of each element.
● The vertical columns are known as Groups. They are numbered 1 to 8.
● The horizontal rows are called Periods. They are numbered 1 to 7.
● When arranged by proton number, the elements show periodicity.

PERIODICITY

● Periodicity: - The repeating patterns in the physical and chemical properties of the elements across the
periods of the Periodic Table.
● The similar elements are arranged in columns / Groups

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TRENDS ACROSS THE PERIOD

● The Period number shows the number of electron shells present in the atom.
● The 1st period contains only two elements: - Hydrogen and Helium.
● Across the period, chemical properties of elements changes as the number of electrons in the last shell
changes.
● Metals are grouped on the left-hand side of the zig-zag line in each period.
● Non-metals are grouped on the right hand side of the zig-zag line in each period.
● Due to the change from metallic to non-metallic characteristics across a period,
there is also a change in the chemical properties of the elements.
● From left to right across a period, there is a decrease in metallic properties and an increase in non-metallic
properties.

Group I II III IV V VI VII 0

Symbol Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Name sodium magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus Sulphur chlorine argon
Properties metallic metalloid non-metallic

Trend Across Period 3

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Physical Properties

1. Melting and boiling points rise to the middle of the period, then fall to very low values on
the right. (Only chlorine and argon are gases at room temperature.)
Explanation:
a. Sodium to Aluminum: Giant Metallic Structure -
Strength of metallic bonding increases as
the no. of delocalized electrons increase.
b. Silicon: Highest melting and boiling point due to giant covalent structure with strong
covalent bonds.
c. Phosphorus to Chlorine: Simple covalent structure- weak intermolecular forces
between the molecules.
They have low melting and boiling points- They have a simple molecular structure having weak intermolecular
forces.intermolecular forces increases due to increase in the number of electrons

2. Electrical Conductivity:
a. Sodium to Aluminum: Conductivity increases as the no. of delocalized electrons
increases
b. Silicon: They are semi metals. So they are semi-conductors.
c. Phosphorus to Chlorine: Does not conduct because they do not have free electrons.

Chemical Properties

1. Valency- The valency of an element is the number of electrons its atoms lose, gain or
share, to form a compound.
The number of valence (outer-shell) electrons increases by 1 each time.
It is the same as the group number, for Groups I to VII.
a. Sodium always loses 1 electron to form a compound. So it has a valency of 1.
b. Chlorine shares or gains 1, so it also has a valency of 1.
c. Valency rises to 4 in the middle of the period, then falls again.
d. It is zero for the noble gases.
2. The elements go from metal to non-metal.
Silicon is in between. It is like a metal in some ways and a non-metal in others.
It is called a metalloid.

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3. Reactivity-
● Metal atoms lose their outer electrons when they react
● Non-metal atoms accept or share electrons.
● Reactivity across Period 3 changes roughly like this:

Explanation:

a. Sodium to Silicon: Reactivity decreases as the number of electrons needed to

be lost increases
▪ The more electrons a metal atom needs to lose, the more difficult it is. The electrons must
have enough energy to overcome the pull of the nucleus.
b. Phosphorus to Chlorine: Reactivity increases as the number of electrons needed to
be gained decreases.
▪ The fewer electrons a non-metal atom needs to gain, the easier it is to attract them.

4. The oxides of the

a. Metals are basic- they react with acids to form salts.
b. Non-metals are acidic – they react with alkalis to form salts.
c. Aluminum oxide is in between: it reacts with both acids and alkalis to form salts. So it is called an
amphoteric oxide.

The elements of other Periods

such as Period3 show similar trends.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METALS AND NON- METALS

Physical properties:

Physical Property: Metals Non-Metals

Solid-Gas
1. State at R.T.P Solid (Except Mercury, Liquid)
(Except Bromine, Liquid)

2. Density Very Dense (Except Group 1) Low Density

Most Are Dull

Shiny, Most Are Grey
3. Appearance
(Except Copper And Gold) (Except Diamond)

High Low
4. Melting Point
(Except Groups 1 & 2) (Except Diamond-Graphite)

High Low
5. Boiling Point
(Except Groups 1 & 2) (Except Diamond-Graphite)

6. Malleability Hard And Malleable Soft And Brittle

7. Ductility Ductile Not Ductile

8. Poor Conductors
Electrical Conductivity Good Conductors
(Except Graphite-Silicon)

9.
Heat Conductivity Good Very Poor

10. Sonority Sonorous Non-Sonorous

Malleability: If a metal is malleable it means it can be hammered into shapes without being broken.

Ductility: If a metal is Ductile it means it can be pulled into wires.

Sonority: If a metal is sonorous, it means it makes a pleasant sound when struck.

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Chemical properties:

Metals Non-Metals

They have either 1,2 or 3 valence They have either 4,5,6,7 or 8 valence electrons.
1.
electrons (Except helium which has 2)

2. They lose electrons forming positive ions They gain electrons forming negative ions

Form either ionic compounds with metals, or

3. Forms ionic compounds with non-metals
covalent compounds with other non-metals

They form basic or

4. They form acidic or neutral oxides/compounds
amphoteric oxides/compounds

5. They are reducing agents They are oxidizing agents

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TRENDS DOWN THE GROUP

GROUPS

● The group number is the same as the number of outer shell electrons in the atoms.
● In Group I, the atoms have one outer shell electron, in Group II they have two and so on.
● The outer shell electrons are also called valence electrons.
● The valence shell electron is important as they dictate how an element behaves.
● The chemical properties depend on the valence shell electron. So all elements in a group have similar
reactions, because they have the same number of valence electrons.
● The atoms of the Group 8 elements have a very stable arrangement of electrons in their outer shells. This
makes them unreactive.
● Groups with special names
Group 1: the alkali metals
Group 2: the alkaline earth metals
Group 7: the halogens
Group 0: the noble gases
● Several elements, for example silicon and germanium are located close to the bold line. Because of their
positions, these elements have the properties of both a metal and non-metal.
● Silicon and germanium are known as semi- metals or metalloids.

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What are the GENERAL trends when going down a group?

In any group of the Periodic Table, the following trends can be seen as you go down the group:

● The period number increases because the number of shells increases

● The atoms become bigger
● The properties of the elements become more metallic. This is because on going down the group, elements
lose electrons more easily.

What are the types of ion formed by elements related to group number?

The table below shows the relationship between group number and the charge of the ions formed by each
element.

Group
I II III IV, V VI VII 0
number
Elements
elements
Type of ions tend to form negativ
positive positive positive negative do not form
formed covalent e
compounds
compounds

Charge of ion +1 +2 +3 -2 -1

Examples Na+,K+ Mg2+,Ca2+ Al3+ CH4,PCl5 O2-,S2- F-,Cl-

The elements in Groups I, II and III are metals.

● The atoms lose electrons to form positive ions, e.g. Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+.
● The charge of the ion is the same as the group number of the element forming it.

The elements in Group IV and V are non-metals. They are less likely to form ions.

● They share electrons to form covalent bonds.

● have a maximum oxidation state that is the same as the group number of the element.

Element Group number Oxidation state

carbon IV +4 and CH4
phosphorus V +3 in PCl3 , +5 (maximum in PCl5)

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The elements in Groups VI and VII are non-metals

● tend to gain electrons and form negative ions,e.g. S2- and Cl- when reacting with metals.
● They tend to share electrons when reacting with other non-metals.

The elements in Group 0 of the Periodic table

● have stable electronic configurations,

● do not form compounds.

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GROUP I

● The Group I metals are called the alkali metals.

● They are a family of metals with similar chemical properties.
● They are rather unusual metals because they are soft and have fairly low melting points.
● Lithium, sodium and potassium are the only Group I metals you will see in the school laboratory as the
other metals are very reactive and difficult to keep.
● These metals have to be stored under oil to stop them reacting with oxygen in the air. When cut, they
show a silvery surface that oxidises very quickly.

● They all form white crystalline compounds.

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Physical properties of the alkali metals

The table shows some physical properties of lithium, sodium and potassium.

metal electronic density / hardness melting point / boiling point

structure g per cm 3
C
0
/ 0C
lithium 2,1 0.53 fairly soft 181 1342
sodium 2,8,1 0.97 soft 98 883
potassium 2,8,8,1 0.86 very soft 63 760

1. Density generally increases down the group but compared to other metals they have low densities.

Density in g/cm3: Li 0.53; Na 0.97; K 0.86; Rb 1.53; Cs 1.88

Down the group,

a. Atomic Size increases

b. Atomic Mass also increases
c. But the increase in atomic mass compensates the bigger atomic size.
d. As a result, density of alkali metal increases down the group.
2. The metals get softer down the group.

Down the group,

a. Atomic Size increases

b. Distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron increases
c. Attraction between the protons in the nucleus and the outermost electron decreases.
d. So it is easier to cut through the metals due to weaker metallic bonding.
3. The melting points and boiling points decrease down the group.
Compared to other metals, they have low melting points compared to other metals

Down the group,

a. Atomic Size increases

b. Distance between the nucleus and the outer most electron increases
c. Attraction between the protons in the nucleus and the outermost electron decreases.
d. As a result, metallic bond strength decreases.
e. Therefore it is easier to overcome the attractive forces.

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We can use these trends to predict the physical properties of other alkali metals.

Predicting the melting point of rubidium – It will be lower than the melting point of potassium by about
20-300C. This gives a melting point for rubidium of about 33-430C. Its actual melting point is 390C

Chemical Properties of Group I metals:

1. Reactivity of Group 1 metals increases down the group

● Group 1 metals react by losing electron.
● Therefore, any atom which can lose electron more easily is a more reactive metal.

Sodium is bigger than lithium and potassium is bigger than Sodium.

Down the group,

a. Atomic Size increases

b. Distance between the nucleus and the outer most electron increases
c. Attraction between the protons in the nucleus and the outermost electron decreases.
d. So it is easier to remove the outermost electron or it is easier to lose the valence electron from
the bigger atoms.
2. They react with oxygen or air forming a metal oxide:

4Li + O2 � 2Li2O

a. The metals burn easily and give off coloured flames.

Lithium burns with a red flame.

Sodium burns with a yellow/orange flame.

Potassium burns with a lilac flame.

b. A white solid is formed each time .

c. Their oxides can dissolve in water forming an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide:

Li2O + H2O � 2LiOH

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3. They react with halogens forming a metal halide:

2Na+ Cl2 � 2NaCl

4. They react with water vigrously forming metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas:

2K + 2H2O � 2KOH + H2

Observation:

● The reactions get more vigorous down the group.

● The bubbles and fizzing are caused by hydrogen gas which is released in the reaction.

● .With the more reactive metals like sodium or potassium, the hydrogen gas burns.

We observe a flame with potassium because the reaction is violent enough to make the hydrogen catch

light. Sparks are often seen as well.

● When we add a universal indicator to the trough, the solution turns dark purple.

This shows that an alkali has been formed. – pH 14

● Alkalis contain OH- ions which have come from the metal hydroxides formed.

● That’s why the Group I metals are called alkali metals.

It can be predicted that the reaction of rubidium with water will be very violent, bursting into flame

very quickly, with lots of bubbles. It may even explode.

The results are shown in the table:

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Observation Lithium Sodium Potassium

fizzes slowly, fizzes vigorously, fizzes violently,

Step 1
a few bubbles many bubbles even more bubbles

The metal moves The metal moves very

The metal moves slowly
Step 2
on the surface quickly on the surface quickly on the surface

Step 3 No flames Yellow flames Lilac flame.

Does not melt into a ball. Melts into a liquid ball Melts into a liquid ball,
Step 4 Remains solid
Disappears quickly Disappears very quickly
Disappears slowly

5. Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents

● All Group I elements form ions with a charge of +1 by losing one electron from the outer shell.
For example, Li � Li+ + e-
● As it gets progressively easier to lose electron down the group, therefore down the group they
become better reducing agents.
K > Na > Li

Uses of Group 1 metals

1. Lithium carbonate = light sensitive Polaroid sunglasses lenses

2. Lithium hydroxide = CO2 remover in air conditioning systems
3. Sodium chloride = table salt
4. Sodium carbonate = water softener
5. Sodium hydroxide = oven cleaner and paper making
6. Monosodium glutamate = flavor enhancer in cooking
7. Sodium sulphite = food preservative, smoky flavor
8. Potassium nitrate = fertilizer and explosives

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Group I elements
(Alkali metals)

Electronic
Physical properties Chemical properties Group trends
configuration

soft metals; react with water to on going down the

one valence electron form an alkali and
low melting and group, these increase:
hydrogen; density; reactivity;
boiling points;
powerful reducing reducing power
low densities; agents; form ionic however, melting and
compounds are compounds boiling points
soluble in water decrease.

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Group VII

● The Group VII elements are called the halogens.

● They are poisonous non-metals that have low melting and boiling points.
● They all exist as diatomic molecules – they have two atoms in each molecule.
● They are the smallest element in each period.
● They are the most non-metal element in each period.
● Fluorine is the most non-metallic element known to us.
● Chlorine, bromine and iodine are the only halogens that are seen in a school laboratory.

Physical properties of the halogens

The halogens show trends in their physical properties:

electronic melting boiling

halogen state at r.t.p. colour
structure point / C 0
point/ 0C
fluorine 2,7 -219 -188 gas yellow
chlorine 2,8,7 -101 -35 gas green
bromine 2,8,18.7 -7 +59 liquid reddish-brown

solid greyish-black
Iodine 2,8,18,18,7 +114 +184 Liquid Brown solution
Gas Purple Vapour

From the table that:

1. The melting and boiling points of the halogens increase down the group.
a. Down the group, the size of the atom increases
b. The number of electron increases
c. The intermolecular forces becomes stronger/Vandar Waals’ forces become stronger
As a result of the trend in melting and boiling points, the state of the halogens at room temperature
changes from gas to liquid to solid down the group.
The colour gets darker down the group.

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We can also predict that astatine will be a black solid with a higher boiling point than iodine.

Chemical Properties of Halogens:

1. Reactivity of Group – 7 elements down the group

Group 7 metals react by gaining electrons.

Therefore, any atom which can gain electron more easily is a more reactive non-metal.

As we go down Group VII,

a. The size of the atom increases.

Chlorine is bigger than fluorine and Bromine is bigger than Chlorine.
b. Distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron shell increases.
c. Attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron shell decreases.
d. It is harder for the atom to gain an incoming electron.
e. Hence, reactivity decreases going down Group VII.
2. They react with hydrogen forming hydrogen halide

H2(g) + Cl2(g) � 2HCl(g)

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Hydrogen halides forms acid when dissolved in water:

HCl (g) � HCl(aq)
3. They react with metals forming metal halide

2Fe + 3Cl2 � 2FeCl3

The salts formed when metals react with halogens are called halides.

Chlorides, bromides and iodides all react with sodium to form halides. For example:

K(s) + Cl2(g) � KCl(aq)

4. Displacement Reaction:- A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen
from its halide solution.

2KBr + Cl2 � 2KCl + Br2

DISPLACEMENT REACTION OF HALOGENS

● A displacement reaction is a reaction in which one element takes the place of another element in a
compound.
● The reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group.

Fluorine is the most reactive halogen. Astatine is the least reactive.

● A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from its halide solution.
o Chlorine (Cl2) is a halogen.
o Sodium bromide (NaBr) is a halide.

● Reactions of halogens with halide ions

Chlorine
a. chlorine + sodium bromide � sodium chloride+ bromine

Cl2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) � NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

b. chlorine + potassium iodide � potassium chloride + iodine

Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) � 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)

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Bromine

c. bromine + potassium iodide � potassium bromide + iodine

Br2(aq) + 2KI(aq) � 2KBr(aq) + I2(aq)

d. bromine + potassium chloride� No Reaction

This is because bromine is less reactive than chlorine, hence bromine

cannot displace chlorine from a chloride solution.
● A less reactive halogen cannot displace a more reactive halogen from its halide solution.
● We can deduce the order of reactivity of the halogens from their displacement reactions.

Experiment with different Halogen and Halides

The table shows the colour changes when halogens are added to different halides.

A cross shows that there no colour change.

In aqueous solution chlorine is very light green, bromine is orange and iodine is brown.

In these reactions the colour changes show:

● That chlorine displaces bromine (orange) from potassium bromide, and iodine (brown) from potassium
iodide.
● Iodine has not reacted at all. So the more reactive halogen displaces the less reactive halogen from a
solution of its halide.
● Chlorine is the most reactive and iodine is the least reactive of these three halogens.
● So, aqueous iodine will not react with aqueous potassium bromide. This is because iodine is less reactive
than bromine.

The displacement reactions between halogens and other halide ions can also be classified as redox reactions.

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For example, in the displacement reaction between chlorine and potassium bromide, chlorine acts as the
oxidizing agent while the bromide ion acts as the reducing agent. Chlorine oxidizes bromide ions to bromine and it
itself reduced to chloride

5. Halogens are powerful oxidizing agents?

● During chemical reactions, halogen atoms gain electrons to form halide ions.
● Down the group, as the size of the atom increase, it gets more and more difficult for the atom to
gain electrons.
● It gets harder to reduce the atoms as we go down the group.
● Therefore down the group, oxidizing power decreases/ less powerful oxidizing agent .

X2 +2e- � 2X- (where X2 = halogen; X- = halide ion)

Uses of halogens

1. Fluorides are used in toothpaste to prevent tooth decay

2. Fluoride compounds make plastics like TEFLON which is non-stick pan base
3. Chlorofluorocarbons – propellants in aerosols and refrigerants
4. Chlorine is a bleach.
5. Chlorine compounds are used to kill germs in water and swimming pools. They are also used in
disinfectants (like Dettol) and antiseptics like TCP.
6. Hydrochloric acid is widely used in industry to make chloride compounds
7. Bromine compounds make pesticides like cockroach killer
8. Silver bromide is the light sensitive film coating on photographic film
9. Iodine solution is a antiseptic in hospitals before you have an operation

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Group VII elements (halogens)

General formula: X2

trends down the

electronic structure physical properties chemical properties
group

seven valence they are non metals

a more reactive halogen
the colour gets
electrons at r.t.p.
displaces a less reactive darker
e.g. F(2,7) ; Cl (2,8,7) halogen from its halide
solution.

fluorine and boiling and

chlorine are melting points
gases increase

bromine is a reactivity
liquid decreases

oxidising power
iodine is a solid
decreases.

they have low

melting and
boiling points

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TRANSITION METALS

● They are the block of 30 elements in the middle of the Periodic Table
● They are all metals
● They are between Group II and Group III.

Element Symbol Density in g/cm3 Melting point/0C

iron Fe 7.9 1535
copper Cu 8.9 1083
nickel Ni 8.9 1455
sodium Na 0.97 98

Physical Properties of Transition Elements

1. They have a higher density compared to metals of group 1 and 2 .

They are heavy. 1 cm3 cube of iron weighs 7.9 grams – over 8 times more than
1 cm3 cube of sodium.
2. They are harder and stronger than metals of group 1 and 2 .
3. They have very high melting and boiling points except for mercury.
4. They are excellent conductors of heat and electricity.
Of all the metals, silver is the best conductor of electricity , and copper is next.
Malleable (can be hammered into different shaped) and ductile (can be drawn out into wires).
5. They show catalytic activity due to its variable oxidation states.
6. They are coloured metals

Iron: the most widely used metal; grey with a metallic lustre (shine).

Copper: reddish with a metallic lustre. Nickel: silvery with a metallic lustre.

Comparison Between Transition Metals and Group 1 and Group 2 Metal

Property Group I metal Transition metal

Melting point Low High
Density Low High
Colours of compounds White Coloured
Reactions with air/water Very fast Slow or no reaction
Reactions with acid Voilent and dangerous Slow or no reaction

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Chemical Properties of Transition Elements

1. They are much less reactive than the Group I metals.

They react slowly with oxygen and water
For example, copper and nickel do not react with water, or catch fire in air – unlike sodium.
In general, the transition elements do not corrode readily in the atmosphere. But iron is an
exception – it rusts easily. We spend a fortune every year on rust prevention.
2. They show no clear trend in reactivity, unlike the Group I metals.
3. Most transition elements form coloured compounds. In contrast, the Group I metals form white
compounds.
4. Most can form ions with different charges /Variable oxidation state.
So we say the transition elements show variable valency.

Metal Charge on ions Examples

Group I metals always 1+ sodium: Na+

Group II metals always 2+ magnesium: Mg2+

Group III metals always 3+ aluminium: Al3+

Transition elements variable copper: Cu+, Cu2+

iron: Fe2+, Fe3+

5. They can form more than one compound when reacting with another element.
This is because of their variable valency/ Variable oxidation state

For example:
Copper(I) oxide, Cu2O ; Copper(II) oxide, CuO
Iron(II) oxide, FeO; Iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3

The Roman numeral in brackets tell you how many electrons the metal atom has lost. This number is
called its oxidation state.

6. Most transition elements can form complex ions.

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For example, if you add ammonia to a solution containing copper(II) ions, a pale blue precipitate of
copper(II) hydroxide forms. It dissolves again if you add more ammonia, giving a deep blue
solution.
It dissolves because each copper ion attracts four ammonia molecules and two water molecules,
forming a large soluble complex ion. This ion gives the solution its deep blue colour.

Uses of the transition elements

1. The hard, strong transition elements are used in structures such as bridges, buildings, and cars. Iron is the most widely
used – usually in the form of alloys called steels. (In alloys, small amounts of other substances are mixed with a metal, to
improve its properties).
2. Many transition elements are used in making alloys. For example, chromium and nickel are mixed with
iron to make stainless steel.
3. Transition elements are used as conductors of heat and electricity. For example, steel is used for
radiators, and copper for electric wiring.
4. Many transition elements and their compounds acts as catalysts. Catalysts speed up reactions, while
remaining unchanged themselves. For example, iron is used as a catalyst in making ammonia.

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GROUP 0 ELEMENTS – NOBLE GASES

The elements in Group 0 or Group VIII are called noble gases. They are the least reactive elements in the
Periodic Table. Apart from helium, the other noble gases have eight valence electrons. Helium has two valence
electrons. Their full electronic structures make the noble gases unreactive.

Physical Properties of Noble Gases

The Group 0 elements are also referred to as inert gases (because they are unreactive) or noble gases
They are monoatomic elements
They are all colorless gases at r.t.p.

noble gas its atoms a balloon full of boiling point/

this gas 0
C
helium rises quickly into -269
the air
neon rises slowly -246

argon falls slowly -186

krypton falls quickly -152

xenon falls very quickly -107

They have low melting and boiling points- They have a simple atomic structure having weak intermolecular
forces.

Melting and Boiling points increases down the group as the intermolecular forces increases due to
increase in the number of electrons

They are insoluble in water,

They are unreactive.

Why are Group 8 elements unreactive?

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Atoms react in order to gain a stable outer shell of electrons. But the atoms of the noble gases already have a
stable outer shell – with 8 electrons, except for helium which has 2 since it has only one shell.

So the atoms have no need to react in order to gain or lose electrons. The noble gases are unreactive, and
monoatomic, because their atoms already have a stable outer electrons shell.

Uses of the noble gases

1. Helium is used for filler weather or advertisement balloons and airships because it is much lighter
than air and will not catch on fire.
Divers working underwater breathe a mixture of 80% helium and 20% oxygen instead of air. Helium is
used in preference to nitrogen because it is less soluble in blood than nitrogen. Nitrogen, when dissolved
in blood, can cause a sickness called ‘the bends’.
2. Neon is used in making lights. It glows red but the colour can be changed by mixing it with other gases.
3. Argon is used to fill electric bulbs. It provides an inert (unreactive) atmosphere to help protect the
filament from oxidation in air.
Argon is also used for certain processes such as welding of stainless steel. It won’t react with the hot
metals unlike the oxygen in the air.
4. Krypton is used in lasers – for eye surgery and in car headlamps.
5. Xenon gives a light like bright daylight, but with a blue tinge. It is used in lighthouse lamps, lights for
hospital operating rooms, and car headlamps.

What do group and period numbers tell us about the electronic structures of elements?

The electronic configurations of Group II, IV and VI elements are given below.

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Element Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Carbon Silicon Oxygen Sulphur

Electronic 2,2 2,8,2 2,8,8,2 2,4 2,8,4 2,6 2,8,6
configuratio
n
Group II II II IV IV VI VI
Period 2 3 4 2 3 2 3

The table shows that

● Group II elements have two valence electrons.

● Group IV elements have four valence electrons and
● Group VI elements have six valence electrons.
● Thus, Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium all belong to the same group.
● Beryllium, carbon and oxygen belong to Period 2. They each have two electron shells.
● Magnesium, silicon and Sulphur belong to Period 3 and they each have three electron shells.
Thus, the number of electron shells is the same as the period number of the element.

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Chapter:13
Periodic Table

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Periodic Table
It is a regular arrangement of elements in the order of increasing proton number.
Periodic table is divided into groups and periods.
• Groups are vertical columns. It signifies the number of electrons in the last shell.
• Periods are horizontal rows. It signifies the number of electronic shells in an atom.
In a periodic table, metals and non-metals are separated using a zigzag line.
Periodicity- Elements with similar properties appear at regular intervals.
The outer shell electrons are called valance electrons and they dictate how an element
behaves.
Group 1- Alkali metals
Group 2- Alkaline earth metals
Group 7- The Halogens an
Group 0- The Noble gas
Group 1
They are called alkali metals because they form an alkaline solution when they are reacted
with water . Ex: 2K+ 2H₂O 2KOH + H₂
Physical Properties of Group-1 metals

• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

• They are softer than most other metals.
• They are lighter than most metals.
• They have low melting and boiling points compared to other metals.
• Melting and boiling point decreases down the group .
Explanation:- Down the group, the size of the atom increases. Attraction between
the nucleus and the delocalized electrons decreases, so strength of metallic bond
decreases.

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Chemical properties of Group 1 metals

1. Reaction with water : Metal + water Alkali+ Hydrogen

Lithium Fizzes slowly, Disappears Moves slowly on the Remains solid, no

a few bubbles slowly surface flame
Sodium Fizzes quickly, Disappears Moves quickly on Melts into a liquid,
many bubbles quickly the surface no flames
Potassium Fizzes Disappears Moves rapidly on Melts into a liquid
violently, even very quickly the surface ball, violent flame
more bubbles

Reaction with Halides:- Metal + Halogen Salt

IF you heat the three metals and plunge them into gas jars of chlorine, they burst into
flame. Ex: Sodium+chlorine Sodium chloride

Reaction with oxygen: The metals react with oxygen to form oxides. These dissolve in
water to give alkaline solution.

Why does reactivity increase down group 1?

In reactions, group 1 atoms lose their outer electron, to gain a stable outer shell. The more
shells there are, the further the outer electron is from the positive nucleus. So the easier it
is to lose. The easier it is to lose an electron, the more reactive the metal will be.

Why are they so reactive?

Group 1 atoms need to lose only one electron, to gain a stable outer shell so they have a
strong drive to react with other elements and compounds in order to give up this electron.
They become ions. The compounds they form are ionic compounds.

The alkali metals form ionic compounds in which the metal ion has a charge of 1+. The
compounds are white solids. They dissolve in water to give colourless solutions.

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Group 7 Halogens

Chemical Properties:

They react with metals to form compound called halides.

Why does melting and boiling point increase down the group?

Down the group size of the atom increases, the number of electrons increases. More
electrons, stronger van der Waals forces. Therefore, melting and boiling point increases
down the group.

Why does reactivity decrease down the group?

Halogen atoms react to gain or share an electron. The positive nucleus of the atom attracts
the extra electron/ the incoming electron. The more shells there are, the further the outer
shell is from the nucleus. So attracting an electron becomes more difficult as the distance
between the nucleus and the outermost shell increases. Hence, reactivity falls.

Why are they so reactive?

The halogen atoms need just one more electron to reach stable outer shell of 8 electrons.
So they have a strong drive to react with other elements or compounds to gain this
electron, therefore they are very reactive.

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How the halogens react with halides?

A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halide from its compound. So fluorine
can displace chloride, bromide, iodide ions from its compounds.

Example:-

1. When chlorine water is added to a colorless solution of potassium bromide, the

solution turns orange.

Cl₂(aq)+2KBr(aq) Br₂ (aq) + 2KCl (aq)

green colourless orange colourless

2. When chlorine water is added to a colorless solution of potassium iodide, the

solution turns red brown.

Cl₂(aq) +2KI (aq) 2KCl (aq) + I₂ (aq)

colourless red brown

If the solution Fluoride 𝐹𝐹 − Chloride 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − Bromide 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − Iodide 𝐼𝐼 −

contains...
Fluorine - displaced displaced displaced

Chlorine x - displaced displaced

Bromine x x - displaced

Iodine x x x -

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The Noble gases

Physical Properties of noble gases:

• They are non-metals

• Colourless gases, which occur naturally in air
• Monatomic, they exist as single atom
• Unreactive

Why are they unreactive?

As they have full outer shell, it does not need to lose or gain electron to become stable. So
they are unreactive.

Why does the melting and boiling point increase down the group?

Down the group size of the atom increases, the number of electrons increases. More
electrons, stronger van der Waals forces. Therefore, melting and boiling point increases
down the group.

Uses of noble gases:

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Transition Elements

Transition elements are elements that has a partially filled d orbital.

Physical properties

• High density
• Harder, tougher and stronger than group 1 and group 2
• High melting point and boiling point
• Malleable
• Ductile
• Good conductors of heat and electricity

Chemical properties

• They are much less reactive than group 1 metals

• They show no clear trend in reactivity
• Most transition elements form coloured compounds
• Most can form ions with different charges
• They can form more than one compound with another element due to their variable
oxidation state.
• Most transition elements can form complex ions

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Across the Period

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METALS AND REACTIVITY

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IGCSE Requirements

GCE O Level Requirements

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METALS

Most elements are metals. 88 elements to the left of the staircase line are metals or metal like elements.

Structure of a metal: Giant Metallic Structure

Bonding : Metallic Bonding (strong)

Physical Properties of Metals:

1. They have high density – they feel heavy.

2. They are strong and hard- If you press on them, or drop them, or try to tear them, they won’t
break – and it is hard to cut them.
3. They have high melting and boiling points (They are all solid at room temperature, except
mercury.)

Properties 1 to 3 are all due to strong metallic bonds present within the metal.

Atoms in a metal are packed tightly in layers and are held together by strong metallic bonds.

4. They are malleable and ductile:

a. In a pure metal, atoms are packed regularly in layers.
b. All these atoms are of the same size.
c. This makes it easy for the layers of atoms to slide over each other when
force is applied.
d. This makes metals malleable (They can be hammered into shape without
breaking).
e. Ductile (they can be drawn into fine wires without breaking)

5. They are sonorous: they make a ringing noise when you strike them
Due to vibration within the metal by the metal atoms
6. They are shiny when polished

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7. They are good conductors of electricity and heat.

a. While the atoms of a metal are tightly packed, the outermost electrons of the atoms can break
away easily from the atoms.
b. Or, metals can be described as positive (metal) ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons.
The electrons are mobile or free to move.
c. The delocalized/mobile electrons allow metals to conduct electricity when they are connected to an
electrical source.
d. Heat energy is also transferred easily by the mobile electrons in the structure. This makes
metals good conductors of heat.

Chemical properties of metals:

1. For the metals

a. In the numbered groups, - the charge on the ion is the same as the group number.
b. In transition elements, they have variable valency : they can form ions with different charges. For
example Cu+ and Cu2+.
2. They react by losing electrons.
3. Metals form positive ions when they react. For example, magnesium forms magnesium ions (Mg2+) when it
reacts with oxygen.
4. They react with oxygen to form oxides. For example, magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide.
Metal oxides are bases: they neutralize acids, forming salts and water.

5. Metals react with acids : to form salt and hydrogen

6. Metals react with water : to form metal hydroxides

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ALLOYS - An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of metals and non-metals.

This shows the atoms in a pure When pressure is applied, for But when the metal is turned into an
metal. example by hammering the metal, alloy, new atoms enter the lattice.
They are arranged in a regular the layers can slide over each other The layers can no longer slide
lattice. easily. That is why a metal is easily. So the alloy is stronger than
They are metal ions in a sea of malleable and ductile. the original metal.
delocalized electrons.

a. Alloy is made by heating the metals or metals and non-metals together until all the metals melt and mix

together.

b. When a pure metal is alloyed, a different element is added to the pure metal.

c. Atoms of the added element have a different size from those of the pure metal.

d. This breaks up the regular arrangement of atoms in the pure metal.

e. The atoms of different sizes cannot slide over each other easily.

f. Therefore alloys are stronger than the original metal.

Alloy is better than a metal because they have better properties.

i. They are harder than metals because they have different sized atoms which prevent the layers

from sliding over each other.

Example: -

● Brass is harder and stronger than its constituents, pure copper or pure zinc.

ii. Alloying can also be used to improve the appearance of the metal.
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Example: -

● Pewter is an alloy of tin, antimony and copper.

● It is used to make ornaments and souvenirs because it looks more beautiful

than pure tin.

iii. More resistant to corrosion than the metals they are formed from

Example: -

● Pure copper corrodes easily.

● This is why an alloy of copper is used to make coins instead.

iv. Alloying is used to lower the melting points of metals.

Example: -

● Solder is an alloy of tin and lead.

● It has a lower melting point than pure tin or pure lead and can be used to join metals.

Examples of alloys and their content:

Brass: copper and zinc

Bronze: copper and tin

Steel: iron and carbon

Stainless steel: iron, carbon, chromium and nickel

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IGCSE Requirements

GCE O Level Requirements

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THE REACTIVITY SERIES

The reactivity series of a metal is an arrangement of the metals (and carbon and hydrogen) in order of their reactivity
, starting with the most reactive metal at the top and ending with the least reactive metal at the bottom.

1. The reactivity series is a list of the metals in order of their drive to form positive ions, with stable outer shells.
The more easily its atoms can give up electrons, the more reactive the metal will be.
a. Potassium is extremely reactive because it has only one valence electron, so it is very easy to lose
the last shell electron, forming a positive ion.
b. Copper is a weakly reactive metal because it has more valence electrons, so it is harder for the metal
to lose electrons and become a positive ion.
2. The non-metals carbon and hydrogen are included for reference.
3. A metal will react with a compound of a less reactive metal (for example an oxide, or a salt in solution) by
pushing the less reactive metal out of the compound and taking its place.
4. The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compounds are. They do not break down easily.
5. The more reactive the metal, the more difficult it is to extract from its ores, since they are stable compounds.
i. For the most reactive metals, you need the toughest method of extraction: electrolysis.
ii. The less reactive the metal, the less it likes to form compounds. That is why copper, silver and gold are
found as elements in the Earth’s crust. The other metals are always found as compounds.

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Explaining Reactivity of Metals ( Good to know)

1. Potassium is more reactive than sodium because

a. its valency electrons are further from the nucleus and there are more shells between the valency
electrons and the nucleus.
b. This outweighs the effect of the increased number of protons in the nucleus of potassium.
c. So potassium can lose its valency electron more easily than sodium.
2. Magnesium is less reactive than sodium
a. because even though the valency electrons are in the same shell, magnesium has a greater nuclear
charge.
b. So magnesium will not lose its valency electrons as easily as sodium.
3. The ease of losing electrons from the outer shell depends on two factors:

a. Distance between the nucleus and the outer shell electrons

b. The number of protons and electrons present within the atom.

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REACTIONS OF METALS ACCORDING TO THE REACTIVITY SERIES

1. With Acid
Acids react with metals to form bubbles of hydrogen gas called effervescence.

The hydrogen forms as the reaction proceeds.

The other product of this reaction is the salt.

Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid � magnesium chloride + hydrogen

Mg(s) + HCl(aq) � MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

● If a metal reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, then hydrogen and the metal chloride are produced.

● If similar reactions are carried out using other metals with acid, an order of reactivity can be produced by

measuring the rate of evolution of hydrogen.

This is known as a reactivity series.

o The rate of evolution of hydrogen gas in each experiment was measured.

o The metals were arranged in order of reactivity starting with the most reactive metal which had the

highest rate of effervescence of hydrogen gas.

o The rate of effervescence is also the rate of reaction which is measured by measuring the volume of

hydrogen gas evolved per unit time.

Metals Reactivity With Dilute HCl

React Extremely Violently With

Potassium, Sodium And Calcium
Rapid Effervescence And Splashing

Magnesium And Aluminium React Violently With Rapid Effervescence

Zinc, Iron And Lead React Slowly With Bubbles

Copper, Silver, Gold And Platinum Do Not React

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2. WITH AIR/OXYGEN

Most metals react with oxygen from air forming a metal oxide.

magnesium + oxygen � magnesium oxide

2Mg(s) + O2(g) � 2MgO(s)

● Metal oxides are basic oxides and that some of them are insoluble in water and some of them are soluble in
water forming an alkaline solution.
● The most reactive metals like potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium react with oxygen with a very
bright flame and producing white coloured compounds which are soluble.
● Moderately reactive metals like
iii. Aluminum and zinc react with oxygen forming white powdered compounds but their
oxides are insoluble.
iv. Iron and copper react very slowly with oxygen. The result of iron and oxygen reactions is
rust which is reddish brown iron(III) oxide.
v. When a copper lump reacts with oxygen, a layer of black copper oxide forms on it. Oxides
of iron and copper are insoluble.
● Metals that are less reactive than copper like silver, gold and platinum do not react with oxygen.

3. WITH WATER/STEAM

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a. WITH WATER
1. Reactive metals such as potassium, sodium and calcium react vigorously with cold water to produce
metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

For example, the reaction of sodium with water produces sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.

Sodium + water � sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) � 2NaOH(aq) + H2

2. The moderately reactive metals, magnesium, zinc and iron,

React slowly with water to produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen

Magnesium + water � Magnesium hydroxide + hydrogen

Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) � Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2

Metal Observations Equation

Reacts Very Violently To Form Potassium

Hydroxide And Hydrogen Gas.
Potassium Enough Heat Is Produced to Ignite 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) � 2KOH (aq) + H2
The Hydrogen Gas Produced.
The Hydrogen Gas Burns With A Lilac Flame.

Reacts Violently To Form Sodium Hydroxide And

Hydrogen Gas.
Sodium 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) � 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
The Hydrogen Gas Formed May Catch Fire And
Burn With A Yellow Flame.
Reacts Readily To Form Calcium Hydroxide And
Calcium Ca(s) + 2H2O (l) � Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2 (g)
Hydrogen Gas.

Reacts Very Slowly To Form Magnesium Hydroxide

And Hydrogen Gas.
Magnesium Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) � Mg(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
A Test Tube Of Hydrogen Gas Is Produced Only
After A Few Days.

Zinc
No Reaction Occcurs Except For Within Iron.
Iron*
Iron Reacts Very Slowly With Water In The
Lead
Presence Of Air.
Copper
This Process Is Called Rusting.
Silver

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b. WITH STEAM
1. The moderately reactive metals, magnesium, zinc and iron,

React more rapidly with steam, forming metal oxide and hydrogen

Magnesium + steam � Magnesium oxide + hydrogen

Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) � MgO(s) + H2

2. The less reactive metals such as copper and metals below them do not react with steam.

Metals Observations Equation

magnesium Hot magnesium reacts violently with steam to Mg(s) + H2O(g) � MgO(s) + H2(g)
form magnesium oxide(a white powder) and
hydrogen gas.
A bright white glow is produced during the
reaction
zinc Hot zinc reacts readily with steam to produce Zn(s) + H2O(g) � ZnO(s) + H2(g)
zinc oxide and hydrogen gas. Zinc oxide is
yellow when hot and white when cold.
iron Red-hot iron reacts slowly with steam to form 2Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) � Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
iron oxide and hydrogen gas. The iron must be
heated constantly in order for the reaction to
proceed.
lead, copper and No reaction occurs
silver

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4. THE DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS OF METALS

a. More reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salt solutions.

Example:

i. Solid iron displaces copper ions from a solution of copper(II) sulphate.

ii. Due to the action of iron, copper metal is precipitated out of the solution as a pink or a reddish-brown
solid.It is removed by filtration.
iii. The reaction can be represented by the equation below:

iron + copper(II) sulphate � iron(II) sulphate + copper

Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) � FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

iv. The ionic equation is

Fe(s) + Cu2+ (aq) � Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)

**** Atoms of the more reactive metal become ions and form compounds

while ions of the less reactive metal change back to atoms.

The more reactive metal oxidises more readily than the less reactive metal.

The more reactive metal loses electrons more readily than the less reactive metal.

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A metals displaces a less reactive metal from solution of its compounds.

The following experiment investigates more of these displacement reactions.

Magnesium
Metal\salt solution Zinc sulphate Copper(ii) sulphate Lead(ii) nitrate Iron(ii) sulphate
sulphate
Solution remains Solution remains
Pale green solution
colourless. Blue solution turns colourless. Grey
turns colourless.
Grey deposit of colourless. Reddish- deposit of lead
Grey deposit of iron
zinc formed on brown deposit of formed on
formed on
MAGNESIUM magnesium. copper formed on magnesium.
magnesium.
Mg(s) + magnesium. Mg(s) +
Mg(s) + FeSO4(aq)
ZnSO4(aq) � Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) �
� Fe (s) +
Zn(s) � Cu(s) +MgSO4(aq) Pb(s) +
MgSO4(aq)
+MgSO4(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq)
Solution remains
Blue solution turns
colourless. Grey Pale green solution
colourless. Reddish-
deposit of lead turns colourless.
brown deposit of
formed on zinc. Grey deposit of iron
ZINC no reaction copper formed on
Zn(s) + formed on zinc.
zinc.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) � Zn(s) + FeSO4(aq) �
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) �
Pb(s) + Fe(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
Zn(NO3)2(aq)

Blue solution turns

colorless. Reddish-
brown deposit of
LEAD no reaction no reaction copper formed on No Reaction
lead.
Pb(s) +CuSO4(aq) �
Cu(s)+PbSO4(aq)

Colourless
Blue solution turns solution turns pale
pale green. Reddish green. Grey
brown deposit of deposit of lead
IRON no reaction no reaction copper formed on formed on iron.
iron. Fe(s) + Fe(s) +
CuSO4(aq)� Cu(s)+ Pb(NO3)2(aq) �
FeSO4(aq) Pb(s) +
Fe(NO3)2(aq)

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b. A more reactive element displaces a less reactive metal from its oxide

Experiment #1: Competing for the oxygen

● The equation for the reaction of iron with copper oxide:

Fe(s) + CuO(s) � FeO(s) + Cu(s)

Reducing metal oxides with carbon

1. When lead(II) oxide is mixed with carbon, it turns to molten lead,

and carbon dioxide gas forms.
So carbon is more reactive than lead.

The equation for this reaction is:

2PbO(s) + C(s) � 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

Explaining the use of reducing agents

We can explain the use of reactive metals and carbon to reduce metal oxides in terms of movement of electrons.
A more reactive metal loses its outer shell electrons and combines with oxygen more easily than a less reactive
metal. So a more reactive metal will be able to remove the oxygen from the oxide of a less reactive metal.
The more reactive metal is a better reducing agent.

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USES OF REACTIVITY

1. The thermite process

This is used to repair rail and tram lines. Powdered aluminium and iron (III) oxide are put in a container over the
damaged rail. When the mixture is lit, the aluminium reduces the iron(III) oxide to molten iron, in a very vigorous
reaction. The iron runs into the cracks and gaps in the rail, and hardens:

Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) � 2Fe(l) + 2Al2O3(s)

2. Making simple cells

A simple cell consists of two different metals in an electrolyte. Electrons flow from the more reactive metal,
so it is called the negative pole. The other metal or the electrode made of less reactive metal is the positive
pole.

The diagram shows a simple cell – two metal strips standing in an electrolyte.

The bulb is lit, so a current must be flowing. Hydrogen is forming at the copper strip.

The magnesium strips is dissolving.

Magnesium is more reactive than copper: it has a stronger drive to form ions. So when it is connected to the copper
strip, it gives up electrons and goes into solution as ions:
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Mg(s) � Mg2+ (aq) + 2e- (oxidation)

2 Electrons flow along the wire to the copper strip, as a current. The bulb lights up as the current flows through it.

3 The solution contains Na+ and Cl- ions from sodium chloride and some H+ and OH- ions from water. Hydrogen is
less reactive than sodium, so the H+ ions accept electrons from the copper strip:

2H+(aq) + 2e+ � H2(g) (reduction)

So the difference in reactivity has causeda redox reaction, that gives out energy in the form of electricity.

Using other metals in simple cells

You can use other metals in place of copper and magnesium, in a simple cell.

A voltmeter measures the ‘push’ or voltage that makes electrons flow. This chart shows the voltage for
different pairs of metals. For example 2.7V for copper/magnesium, and 0.47V for copper/lead.

The further apart the metals are in reactivity, the higher the voltage will be.

Notice how the voltage in the chart adds up:

0.47V for copper/lead, 0.31 V for lead/iron, and 0.78 V (0.47 + 0.31) for copper/iron

2. Sacrificial protection – protecting iron objects using zinc.

3. Galvanising
This is another way of using zinc to protect iron. It is used for the steel in car bodies, and the corrugated iron
for roofing.
● In galvanizing, the iron or steel is coated with zinc. For car bodies, this is carried out by a form of
electrolysis. For roofing, the iron is dipped in a bath of molten zinc.

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● The zinc coating keeps air and moisture away. But if the coating gets damaged, the zinc will still protect
the iron by sacrificial protection.

COMPARING THE STABILITY OF SOME METAL COMPOUNDS

The general rules for thermal decomposition

1. The more reactive the metal nitrates, carbonates, oxides, hydroxides, the more thermally stable the
compounds.
2. The lower a metal is in the reactivity series, the more readily its compounds decompose when heated.

1. METAL CARBONATES

Carbonates, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose to the form metal oxide and carbon
dioxide gas

metal carbonate � metal oxide + carbon dioxide

a. Carbonates of reactive metals such as potassium and sodium do not easily undergo any decomposition
reaction.
The carbonates of these metals are very thermally stable.
b. Carbonates of moderately reactive metals - decompose.
The less reactive the metal, the lower the temperature needed to make the carbonate decompose because
they are less thermally stable.
c. Carbonates of unreactive metals such as gold, silver and platinum are too unstable to exist and donot
decompose.

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2. METAL NITRATES-

Nitrates, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose to the oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.
The nitrate of sodium and potassium form nitrites and oxygen.

a. When nitrates of reactive metals are heated, they decompose to form the metal nitrite and
oxygen gas.

sodium nitrate � sodium nitrite + oxygen

2NaNO3(s) � 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

b. When nitrates of moderately reactive metals are decomposed, they produce brown fumes of nitrogen
dioxide gas, as well as the metal oxide and oxygen gas.

magnesium nitrate � magnesium oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen

2Mg(NO3)2 (s) � 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

c. When nitrates of unreactive metals are heated, these metal nitrates decompose to give the metal, nitrogen
dioxide gas and oxygen.

Silver nitrate � Silver + Nitogen dioxide + Oxygen

AgNO3 � 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2

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3. METAL OXIDES

a. Theoretically, all metal oxides can be thermally decomposed to give the metal and oxygen gas.

b. In reality, it is usually too difficult to decompose the oxides of reactive metals,

c. Some moderately reactive metals, such as aluminium, have oxides that require thousands of degrees

to make them decompose.

d. It is possible to thermally decompose some oxides of less reactive metals such as silver oxide.

silver oxide � silver + oxygen

2Ag2O(s) � 4Ag(s) + O2(g)

4. METAL HYDROXIDES

Hydroxides, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose to the oxide and water.

a. Hydroxides of reactive metals show no decomposition when they are heated.

b. Hydroxides of moderately reactive metals decompose to produce the metal oxide and water.

This process is used to convert calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) into calcium oxide (lime).

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calcium hydroxide � calcium oxide + water

c. Hydroxides of very less reactive metals are too unstable to exist.

Why does aluminium seem unreactive?

Aluminium is high in the reactivity series but it does not seem to react with water or acids.

It will react with acids only when it is freshly made.

This is because, when the surface of freshly made aluminium is left in the air, a thin layer of
aluminium oxide quickly forms on its surface:

4Al(s) + 3O2(g) � 2Al2O3(s)

This layer is only about 0.0002cm thick, but this is enough to make the metal resistant to corrosion.

The tough oxide layer sticks to the surface of the aluminium very strongly and does not flake off.

The oxide layer is unreactive so prevents the inner part of the aluminium metal from reacting further.

So, in order for the aluminium metal to react further, the oxide layer has to be scrapped off.

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IGCSE Requirements

GCE O Level Requirements

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EXTRACTION OF METALS

Extraction of Metals involves three steps

Most metals react with other elements to form ores. Obtaining metals from their ores generally involves three major
stages:

1. Concentrating the ore

2. Extracting crude metal from the ore
3. Refining crude metal to obtain the pure metal – using electrolysis

1. Concentrating metal ores

An ore is a compound of the metal (usually the oxides, sulphides , chlorides or carbonates) mixed with large
amounts of earth and rock.

At first, the soil and rock are removed from the ore.

The residue contains metal ore and little waste material.

2. Extracting metal from ores

The position of a metal in the reactivity series determines the method used for its extraction.

potassium (K)
sodium (Na) extracted by using electricity to
calcium (Ca) decompose the molten metal
Magnesium (Mg)
compounds (electrolysis)
Aluminium (Al)

zinc (Zn)
extracted by reducing the
iron (Fe)
lead (Pb) metal oxides using carbon
(reduction)

copper (Cu) found naturally

silver (Ag) uncombined as metals
gold (Au)

After mining an ore, the next step is to remove or extract the metal from it.
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It depends on the metal’s reactivity.

1. The compounds of the more reactive metals

a. The majority of metals are too reactive to exist on their own in the Earth’s crust,

they occur naturally in rocks as compounds in ores.

b. These ores are usually carbonates, oxides or sulfides of the metal, mixed with impurities.

c. They are very stable and more reactive the metal is, the harder it is to extract the metal from
its ore.
d. Reactive metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium cannot be
extracted by reduction with carbon.
e. Electrolysis of the molten, purified ore is the method of choice in these cases.

2. The compounds of the moderately reactive metals

a. They are less stable, and can be reduced using a suitable reducing agent.
b. These metals, such as zinc and iron are not very reactive.
c. They are readily extracted by reducing their oxides with carbon.
3. The most unreactive metals – such as silver and gold –
a. They occur in their ores as elements. They are very unreactive
b. The metal is extracted by removing it from sand and other impurities.
c. It does not usually involve chemical reactions.

Extraction Using Electrolysis

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

● Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust.

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● It is found in the mineral ore bauxite which contains 50-65% aluminium oxide, Al2O3. Aluminium

oxide is sometimes called alumina. The main impurities in bauxite are oxides of iron, silicon and

titanium.

Step 1 - Concentrating the ore

● The ore is first crushed and mixed with sodium hydroxide. The aluminum oxide reacts with the sodium

hydroxide and dissolves.

● The impurities are insoluble in sodium hydroxide. These are filtered off. The sodium aluminate undergoes

further treatment and is finally heated to make pure aluminium oxide.

Step 2 - Electrolysis

● Electrolysis to produce aluminium is carried out in shallow electrolysis cells about 8 metres long and 1 metre

deep.

● In order to carry out electrolysis, the aluminium oxide needs to be molten.

● Aluminium oxide melts at about 2040 C. It is difficult to keep the electrolyte at this high temperature for long

periods of time. In addition, it is too costly because it needs alot of energy – and energy is expensive.and

Aluminium oxide on its own is a poor conductor of electricity.

● The problem is solved by dissolving the aluminium oxide in large amounts of molten cryolite. Cryolite, which

is sodium aluminium fluoride, Na3AlF6, melts at about 1000 C. Since the aluminium oxide is dissolved in the

cryolite, the melting point of the electrolyte is much lower compared with pure aluminium oxide.

● Dissolving the aluminium oxide in cryolite not only saves a lot of energy but also improves the

electrical conductivity of the electrolyte.

● Calcium fluoride, CaF2 is often added to lower the melting point further. In most cases the melting point of the

electrolyte is about 900C.

● Electrolysis is carried out using graphite electrodes. The overall equation for this electrolyte is:

2Al2O3 � 4Al + 3O2

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● The cathode is the carbon lining of the steel electrolysis cell. Several anodes, which can be raised or lowered,

dip into the electrolyte. The very high electric current 40000 amps used in this electrolysis not only

decomposes the aluminium oxide but also keeps the electrolyte molten.

● At the cathode, aluminium ions gain electrons and are reduced to aluminium metal. The liquid aluminium metal

falls to the bottom of the cell. It is removed from time to time using siphon tube:

Al3+ + 3e- � Al

● At the anode, the oxide ions lose electrons and are oxidized to oxygen:

2O2- � O2 +4e-

● The oxygen reacts with the hot carbon anodes to form carbon dioxide gas. Because the carbon anodes burn

away they need to be replaced from time to time.

EXTRACTION OF ZINC – ZINC BLENDE

i. The zinc ore which is made up of zinc sulfide ( also called zinc blende) is first concentrated by
a process called froth flotation.
ii. The ore is then crushed .
iii. The crushed ore is fed into tanks of water containing a chemical frothing agent.
iv. Air is blown from below so that the whole mixture froths up.
v. The zinc sulfide particles, which does not soak in water, are carried to the top of the
tank by the air bubbles and are skimmed off and dried.
vi. The rock particles and other impurities, which are soaked with water sink to the bottom of
the tank and are removed.
vii. This ore now contains 55-75% of zinc sulfide.
viii. The zinc sulfide is then heated very strongly in a current of air in a furnace to convert it to
the oxide:
zinc sulfide + oxygen � zinc oxide + sulfur dioxide

2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) � 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2(g)

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ix. The sulfur dioxide is a useful co-product and is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid.

x. Then the oxide is reduced in one of these two ways:

a) Using electrolysis

b) By reduction with Carbon

A. USING ELECTROLYSIS

i. For carrying out electrolysis, the zinc compound has to be melted, or in solution.

ii. But zinc oxide has a very high melting point (19750C), and is insoluble in water.

iii. Instead, it is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid (made from the sulfur dioxide produced in the roasting stage).

iv. Zinc oxide is a base, so it neutralizes the acid, giving a solution of zinc sulfate. This undergoes

electrolysis, and zinc is deposited at the cathode:

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- � Zn(s) (reduction)

v. The zinc is scraped off the cathode, and melted into bars to sell.

vi. Cadmium and lead occur as impurities in the zinc blende, and these metals are recovered and sold too.

vii. Most zinc is extracted by electrolysis, because this gives zinc of very high purity.

B. USING CARBON MONOXIDE:

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The raw materials used in the extraction of zinc are zinc blende, coke (carbon) and air.
i. The zinc oxide obtained heated with coke (carbon) in a blast furnace.

ii. A blast of air is blown into the bottom of the furnace.

iii. The carbon reacts with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide:

C(s) + O2(g) � CO2(g)

iv. The carbon dioxide formed can react with more carbon to reform carbon monoxide:

CO2 (g) + C(s) � 2CO(g)

v. Higher up the furnace, carbon monoxide reduces zinc oxide to zinc:

ZnO (s) + CO(g) � Zn(g) + CO2(g)

vi. Some zinc oxide may also react directly with the carbon and is reduced by it :

ZnO (s) + C(s) � Zn (g) + CO (g)

vii. The temperature in the furnace is higher than the boiling point of zinc.

viii. So the zinc vapour is carried up through the furnace by the stream of carbon monoxide and

carbon dioxide.

ix. The heating costs of the furnace are reduced by burning the carbon monoxide which is produced

x. The vapour condenses in trays at the top of the furnace and the zinc metal cools and

condenses together with lead which is extracted at the same time.

xi. The zinc is then purified by distillation.

xii. This method produces only about 20% of the world’s zinc.

xiii. Electrolysis of zinc sulfate is now preferred because this produces much purer zinc.

xiv. Zinc is used in alloys such as brass. It is also used to galvanise steel and for electrodes in batteries.

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EXTRACTION OF IRON
THE BLAST FURNACE

i. The diagram shows the blast furnace used for extracting iron from its ore.

ii. It is an oven shaped like a chimney, around 90 metres tall.

iii. A mixture called the charge, containing the iron ore, is added through the top of the furnace.

iv. Hot air is blasted in through the bottom.

v. After a series of reactions, liquid iron collects at the bottom of the furnace.

vi. The charge contains 4 things:

a. Iron ore. The chief ore of iron is called hematite.

It is mainly iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3, mixed with sand and some other

compounds.

b. Limestone. This common rock is mainly calcium carbonate, CaCO3.

c. Coke. This is a form of coal, and is almost pure carbon

d. Air - Source of oxygen

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vii. The liquid slag floats over the molten iron as the molten iron is more denser than the liquid slag.It prevents
oxidation of the hot iron.
viii. The molten iron, as well as the molten slag, may be tapped off (run off) at regular intervals.
ix. The waste gases, mainly nitrogen and oxides of carbon, escape from the top of the furnace.
x. They are used in a heat exchange process to heat incoming air and so help to reduce the energy costs of
the process.
xi. Slag is the other waste material. It is used by builders and road makers for foundations.
xii. The extraction of iron is a continuous process and is much cheaper to run than an electrolytic method.
xiii. The iron obtained by this process is known as ‘pig’ or cast iron and contains about 4% carbon (as well as
some other impurities).
xiv. The name pig iron arises from the fact that if it is not subsequently converted into steel it is poured into
moulds called pigs. Because of its brittle and hard nature, the iron produced by this process has limited
use.
xv. Gas cylinders are sometimes made of cast iron, since they are unlikely to get deformed during their use.
xvi. The majority of the iron produced in the blast furnace is converted into different steel alloys such as
manganese and tungsten steels as well as the well-known example of stainless steel.

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Reactions in the blast furnace

Reactions, products and waste gases comments

Stage 1: the coke burns, giving off heat This, like all combustion, is a redox reaction.
The blast of the hot air starts the coke burning. It The carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide
reacts with the oxygen in the air, giving carbon The blast of air provides the oxygen for the
dioxide. reaction. The reaction is exothermic – it gives
carbon+ oxygen � carbon dioxide off heat, which helps to heat the furnace.
C(s) + O2(g) � CO2(g)
Stage 2: Carbon monoxide is made In this redox reaction, the carbon dioxide loses
The carbon dioxide reacts with more coke, like oxygen. It is reduced. The reaction is
this: endothermic – It takes in heat from the furnace.
carbon + carbon dioxide � carbon monoxide That’s good, stage 3 needs a lower temperature.
C(s) + CO2(g) � 2CO(g)
Stage 3: The iron(iii) oxide is reduced In this redox reaction, carbon monoxide is the
This is where the actual extraction occurs. reducing agent. It reduces the iron(iii) oxide to
Carbon monoxide reacts with the iron ore, giving the metal. The carbon monoxide is oxidised to
liquid iron: carbon dioxide.
iron(iii) oxide + carbon monoxide � iron + carbon
dioxide
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) � 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
The iron trickles to the bottom of the furnace
What is the limestone for? The purpose of this reaction is to produce
The limestone breaks down in the heat of the calcium oxide, which will remove the sand that
furnace: was present in the ore.
CaCO3 � CaO (s) + CO2(g) calcium oxide is a basic oxide. Silica is an acidic
The calcium oxide that forms reacts with the oxide. Calcium silicate is a salt.
sand, which is mainly silicon dioxide or silica. The molten slag is drained off. When it solidifies
calcium oxide + silica � calcium silicate it is used mostly for road building.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) � CaSiO3 (s)
The calcium silicate forms a slag which runs
down the furnace and floats on the iron.
The waste gases: hot carbon dioxide and The carbon dioxide is from the reaction in stage
nitrogen come out from the top of the furnace. 3. The nitrogen is from the air blast. It has not
The heat is transferred from them to heat the taken part in the reactions so has not been
incoming blast of air. changed.

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EXTRACTION OF COPPER:
i. Copper is one of the most popular metals.
ii. Native copper occurs in some regions in the world.

iii. Otherwise, copper exists in its ore, copper pyrites (CuFeS2).

iv. It is extracted from it ore by converting pyrites into copper sulfide by reacting it with oxygen:

2CuFeS2 + 4O2 → Cu2S + 3SO2 + 2FeO

v. Sulfur oxide produced escapes as waste gas and iron oxide impurities are removed by heating
the mixture with silicon converting it in to iron silicate which is run off.
vi. The remaining copper sulfide is then heated strongly with air. Copper sulfide reacts with oxygen
from air producing sulfur oxide which escapes as waste gas and pure copper.

Cu2S + O2 → 2Cu + SO2

vii. Thus copper is extracted.

viii. Copper is then purified by electrolysis.

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1. Electrolysing an aqueous solution of copper (II) sulphate using active electrodes.

The ions present in the solution are

cations – Cu2+ and H+
anions – SO42- and OH-
The electrodes are made up of copper.
At the anode – impure copper
At the copper – pure copper

- At the anode:
Because the anode is not inert, it loses electrons and copper ions go into solution. The anode gets smaller.
Cu (s) � Cu2+ + 2e-

- At the cathode:
Copper ions rather than hydrogen ions are discharged because they are lower in the discharge series.
Cu2+ + 2e- � Cu(s)

- The electrolyte remains the same deep blue colour. This is because the copper ions removed from the
solution at the cathode are replaced in solution by copper ions formed at the anode.

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Silver and gold

Silver and gold, because of their resistance to corrosion, are used to make jewelry. Both of these metals
are also used in the electronics industry because of their high electrical conductivity.

STEEL MAKING
The iron produced in the blast furnace is only about 95% pure.

The impurities are mainly carbon but also include sulfur, silicon and phosphorus.

The impurities make the iron very brittle – it breaks easily.

If all the impurities are removed, the iron becomes very soft. In this condition, it is easily shaped but it is
too soft for many uses. Pure iron also rusts very easily.

To make iron strong, only some of the impurities are removed produce various types of steel. Steel is an
alloy of iron with carbon and/or with other metals.

hot air oxygen carbon and small amounts

of other metals
limestone

iron ore hot air

blast furnace furnace steel alloy steel

coke
calcium slag
slag carbonate

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Production of steel

● The ‘pig iron’ obtained from the blast furnace contains between 3% and 5% of carbon and other
impurities, such as sulfur, silicon and phosphorus.
● These impurities make the iron hard and brittle. In order to improve the quality of the metal, most of the
impurities must be removed and in doing this, steel is produced.
● The impurities are removed in the basic oxygen process, which is the most important of the steel-making
processes.
● We make steel using a basic oxygen converter. It is often just called a steelmaking furnace.
● During this Process, Molten pig iron from the blast furnace is poured into the basic oxygen furnace.
● The converter is a very large bucket which can be tipped at an angle.
● The converter is put back into a vertical position.
● A water-cooled tube called an oxygen lance is lowered into the converter and oxygen at 5-15 atm
pressure is blown onto the surface of the molten metal.
● Oxygen and powdered calcium oxide are blown onto the surface of the molten iron
through the lance.
● The oxygen oxidises carbon, sulfur, silicon and phosphorus to their oxides.
● Carbon is oxidised to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, while sulfur is oxidised to
sulfur dioxide. The carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide escape from the converter because they are
gases.
● Silicon and phosphorus are oxidised to silicon (iv) oxide and phosphorus pentoxide,
which are solid oxides.

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Si + O2 � SiO2

4P + 5O2 � 2P2O5

● Silicon and phosphorus oxides are solids. They are acidic oxides. So these react with the
powdered calcium oxide which is basic. A slag is formed.

CaO (s) + SiO2(s) � CaSiO3 (l)

● The slag floats on the surface of the molten iron and is removed.
● These reactions are very exothermic. The heat released in these oxidation reactions keeps the
iron molten.
● Some calcium oxide (lime) is added to remove these solid oxides a slag. The slag may be skimmed
or poured off the surface.
● Samples are continuously taken and chalked for carbon content.
● The amount of carbon in the steel is controlled by the amount of oxygen blown
into the impure iron. The longer the oxygen blast the more carbon is removed.
● When the required amount of carbon has been reached, the blast of oxygen is turned off.
● After the required amount of carbon has been removed, other metals such as chromium or
manganese are added in controlled amounts to the molten iron to make particular alloys of steel with specific
properties.
● In this process the high temperatures needed to keep the iron molten are produced by
an electric current.
● The basic oxygen furnace can convert up to 300 tonnes of pig iron to steel per hour.
● There are various types of steel that differ only in their carbon content.
● The differing amounts of carbon present confer different properties on the steel and
they are used for different purposes.
● If other types of steel are required then up to 30% scrap steel is added, along with other metals
(such as tungsten), and the carbon is burned off.
● The addition of chromium or nickel makes the steel hard and more resistant to corrosion and heat. The
addition of manganese to steel makes the steel stronger.

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Recycling metals

Recycling is the processing of used materials to make new products. Some advantages and disadvantages of
recycling metals, such as aluminum, iron and steel are shown in the table.

Advantages Disadvantages

Conserves metal ores and other raw materials

Collecting and storing metals may be costly
(natural resources) used

Saves energy because less fuel is used

Takes time and energy to collect the waste
(extracting and purifying metals uses a lot of
metals
energy)

Reduces pollution arising from extracting and So there may be more lorries and noise on the
purifying materials roads of towns and villages

Saves land that may be used for extracting Takes time and money to sort out the metals
ores from mixtures of metals

Reduces waste and problems of disposal of

unwanted materials

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IGCSE Requirements

GCE O Level Requirements

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USES OF DIFFERENT METALS AND ALLOYS

Aluminium

1. Aluminium is used for making aircraft bodies because it is lightweight – it has a low density. It
is also quite strong. Most aircraft are made from aluminium alloys containing about 90% aluminium
and smaller amounts of zinc and copper.
2. Food containers and cooking foil are made from aluminium. This is because there is an
unreactive oxide layer on its surface which does not flake off. This oxide layer does
not react with the acids that are present in many foods.

Copper

1. For electrical wiring because of its high electrical conductivity It is one of the most
malleable and ductile metals so it can easily be shaped and drawn into wires. It is also
cheap compared to other metals.
2. Electrodes because it is a good conductor of electricity
3. It is also used for the base of cooking pans because it is an excellent conductor
of heat and it has high melting and boiling points and also resists corrosion
4. Water pipes because it is resistant to corrosion
5. Making alloys such as bronze and brass

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Zinc

1. Zinc is used to galvanise iron or mild steel to prevent rusting.

a. To galvanise a steel object, we dip the object into liquid or molten zinc, the zinc
forms a coating on the surface of the steel.
b. The thin layer of the more reactive zinc metal coating the steel object slowly
corrodes and loses electrons to the iron, thereby protecting it. This process
continues even when much of the layer of zinc has been scratched away, so
the iron continues to be protected
c. About a third of the zinc produced in the world is used to galvanise steel.
d. Galvanised steel is used for roofing because it is weather resistant.
e. Some steel girders, used in the construction of bridges and buildings, are galvanized.
f. Coal bunkers and steel dustbins are also galvanized. This involves dipping the
object into molten zinc.

2. Zinc is also used as a sacrificial protection

a. Bars of zinc are attached to the hulls of ships and to oil rigs.
b. Zinc is above iron in the reactivity series and will react in preference to it and so is corroded.
c. It forms positive ions more readily than the iron:

Zn (s) + Fe2+ (aq) � Zn2+ (aq) + Fe(s)

d. As long as some of the zinc bars remain in contact with the iron structure, the structure
will be protected from rusting.
e. When the zinc runs out, it must be renewed or replaced.
f. Gas and water pipes made of iron and steel are connected by a wire to blocks of
magnesium to obtain the same result.

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g. In both cases, as the more reactive metal corrodes it loses electrons to the iron and so protects it.

The sacrificial protection of iron

Iron is used in big structures such as oil rigs and ships. But it has one big drawback: it reacts with
oxygen and water, forming iron(iii) oxide or rust.

To prevent this, the iron can be teamed up with a more reactive metal like zinc or magnesium. For example

a block of zinc may be welded to the side of a ship. Zinc is more reactive than iron – so the
zinc loses electrons more readily

and dissolves:

2Zn(s) � 2Zn2+(aq) + 4e- (oxidation)

The electrons flow to the iron, which passes them on, in this reaction:

O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- � 4OH- (aq) (reduction)

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The overall equation for the reaction is:

2Zn(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) � 2Zn(OH)2 (aq)

So the zinc is oxidised instead of the iron. This is called sacrificial protection. The zinc block
must be replaced before

it all dissolves away.

Brass

1. Brass is an alloy of 70% copper and 30% zinc.

2. It is stronger than copper and does not corrode.
3. Although it is strong, it can still be easily beaten into shape.
4. Its gold colour makes it attractive.
5. So it is used to make musical instruments, door handles, ornaments and screws
Steel

1. Low carbon steel - Mild steel

a. It contains about 0.25% carbon.
b. It is soft, malleable and can be drawn into wires easily.
c. We use it to make car bodies and parts of machinery where it will not be worn away.
d. It is also used for buildings and general engineering purposes.
2. High carbon steels
a. It contains between 0.5% and 1.4% carbon.
b. As the percentage of carbon in the steel increases, it becomes more brittle and
also becomes harder.
c. These steels are used for tools such as hammers and chisels.

3. Low alloy steels

a. It contains between 1% and 5% of other metals such as nickel, chromium, manganese
and titanium.
b. They are hard and do not stretch much.
c. Nickel steels are used for bridges where strength is needed and for bicycle chains.
d. Tungsten steel is used for high-speed tools because it does not change shape
at high temperatures.

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4. High alloy steels - Stainless steels

a. They may contain up to 20% chromium. Many stainless steels contain 70% iron, 20% chromium and
10% nickel.
b. They are very strong and resist corrosion. So they are used in the construction of pipes and towers in
chemical factories.
c. Stainless steel is also used to make cutlery – knives, forks and spoons.
d. Surgical instruments are also made from stainless steel.

Steel Typical composition Properties Uses

Mild steel 99.5% iron, 0.5% carbon Easily worked Car bodies, large
Lost most of brittleness structures, machinery
Hard steel 99% iron, 1% carbon Tough and brittle Cutting tools, chisels,
razor blades
Manganese steel 87% iron, 13% manganese Tough, springy Drill bits, springs
Stainless steel 74% iron, 18% chromium, 8% Tough, does not Cutlery, kitchen sinks,
nickel corrode surgical instruments,
chemical plant reaction
vessels
Tungsten steel 95% iron, 5% tungsten Tough, hard, even at Edges of high-speed
high temperatures cutting tools

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AIR AND WATER

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IGCSE Requirements 4/2/23

GCE O Level Requirements

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 WATER
4/2/23

General Information :

1. Water – chemical formula H2O, is a neutral, colourless liquid

2. At 1 atmospheric pressure, pure water boils at 1000C and freezes at 00C.
3. Water is the most known substance in this world. This is because of its abundance and
numerous uses.
4. Water is the commonest compound on this planet. More than 70% of the Earth’s surface
is covered with sea, and the land masses are dotted with rivers and lakes.
5. Water is vital to our existence and survival because it is one of the main
constituents in all living organisms.
a. For example, your bones contain 72% water, your kidneys are about 82% water
and your blood is about 90% water.
6. Water is, H2O, is the most widely used solvent for chemical reaction.
7. TEST FOR WATER

A. CHEMICAL TEST FOR THE PRESENCE OF WATER

1. ANHYDROUS COPPER(II) SULFATE

When we add water to white anhydrous copper(II) sulfate, it turns blue:

CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) � CuSO4.5H2O(s)

2. ANHYDROUS COBALT (II) CHLORIDE PAPER.

When we add water to blue anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride, it turns red:

CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) � CoCl2.6H2O(s)

BOTH COLOUR CHANGES CAN BE REVERSED BY HEATING.

BOTH OF THE ABOVE REACTIONS ARE REVERSIBLE.

B. TEST FOR PURITY OF WATER

If a liquid is pure water,

i. It will boil at 100 °C

ii. It will freeze at 0 °C

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8. The unique properties of water

● It has an unusually high boiling point for a molecule of its relatively low
molecular mass.
● It has a greater specific heat capacity than almost any other liquid.
● It decreases in density when it freezes.

NICE TO KNOW

THESE UNSUAL PROPERTIES OF WATER ARE DUE TO A SPECIAL TYPE OF

INTERMOLECULAR FORCE KNOWN AS HYDROGEN BONDING

● This is a weak intermolecular force (bond) which occurs between water molecules
because the bonds within the molecules are polar.
● A polar bond is one which contains, for example, oxygen attached to hydrogen by a
covalent bond.
● The shared electrons in the bond are drawn towards the oxygen atom to create a small
negative charge on the oxygen atom.
● There is then a equally small positive charge on the hydrogen atom. The water
molecules then attract one another as shown below.
● In the case of water, this attraction is called a hydrogen bond. It is a much weaker bond
than a covalent bond.

Nice to Know

Different Sources of Water

1. Groundwater –
2. Surface water
3. Rain water

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Surface Water 4/2/23

Surface water is water that is open to the atmosphere and results from overland flow. It is also
said to be the result of surface runoff.

Examples of surface water

Specific sources that are classified as surface water include the following:

● Streams, Rivers, Lakes

● Man-made impoundments (lakes made by damming a stream or river)
● Shallow wells
● Springs
● Wells

Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water

There are both advantages and disadvantages to surface water:

● Advantages – the primary advantages to using surface water as a water source include
the following:
o It is easily located.
o Surface water is generally softer than groundwater, which makes treatment much
simpler.
● Disadvantages – The most common disadvantages to using surface water as a water
source include the following:
o Surface waters are easily polluted – For example - River water
a. It will contain particles of mud, and animal waste, and bits of dead
vegetation.
b. It is full of microbes: These microorganisms cause waterborne
diseases. Over 1 billion people around the world have no access
to clean water. They depend on dirty rivers for their drinking water.
And over 2 million people, mainly children, die each year from
diarrhoea and diseases such as cholera and typhoid, caused by
drinking infected water.
o The turbidity of a surface water source often fluctuates with the amount of
precipitation. Increases in turbidity increase treatment cost and operator time.
o The temperature of surface water fluctuates with the ambient temperature. This
makes it difficult to produce consistent water quality at a water treatment plant.

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 o Surface waters that are high in 4/2/23
color, especially color that is the result of
decaying vegetation, have the potential to produce high levels of
Total Trihalomethanes (TTHM).
These chemical compounds are formed when chlorine is added to the water. The
problem with the TTHM is that some of them are carcinogenic (can cause
cancer) and are referred to as disinfection by-products.

HARDNESS IN WATER- How hard water is formed?

1. The fact that water is a good solvent can cause some problems. These include the
formation of hard water and leaching of fertilisers. Hard water can cause further
problems and must in certain circumstances undergo a softening process.
2. The water you drink contains some dissolved solids and gases. This dissolved material
usually is not harmful and can, in fact, be good for you. Where do these solids come
from?
3. Rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide as it falls through the atmosphere. A small fraction of
this dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to produce carbonic acid, which is a
weak acid.

water + carbon dioxide ⇌ carbonic acid

H2O(l) + CO2(g) ⇌ H2CO3(aq)

4. As this solution passes over and through rocks containing limestone (calcium carbonate,
CaCO3) and dolomite (magnesium carbonate, MgCO3), the weak acid in the rain attacks
these rocks and very slowly dissolves them.
5. The dissolved substances are called calcium and magnesium hydrogencarbonates.

calcium carbonate + carbonic acid � calcium hydrogencarbonate

CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) � Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

6. Some of the rock strata may contain gypsum (calcium sulfate, CaSO4.2H2O), anhydrite
(CaSO4) or kieserite (MgSO4.H2O), which are very sparingly soluble in water.
7. The presence of any of these dissolved sulfates or hydrogencarbonates causes
the water to become ‘hard’.

8. Hardness in water can be divided into two types – temporary and permanent.
i. Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium or

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 magnesium hydrogencarbonates.
4/2/23

Temporary hardness is so called because it is easily removed by boiling.

ii. Permanent hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium or
magnesium sulfates.
Permanent hardness is much more difficult to remove and certainly
cannot be removed by boiling.
9. When water containing any of these substances is evaporates, a white solid deposit of
calcium or magnesium sulfate and/or calcium carbonate is left behind.

Effects of Hard Water

1. Calcium carbonate causes the furring in kettles that occurs in hard water areas.
This furring may be removed by the addition of a dilute acid:

hydrogen ions + carbonate ion � carbon dioxide + water

2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq) � CO2(g) + H2O(l)

2. Blockages in hot water pipes are caused by a similar process to the furring of kettles.

3. Effect on Soap

In hard water areas , it is difficult to make the soap lather. Instead, the water becomes
cloudy. This cloudiness is caused by the presence of a solid material (a precipitate)
formed by the reaction of the dissolved substances in the water with soap (basically
sodium stearate) and it is a real problem. This white precipitate is known as scum.

The amount of soap required to just

produce a lather with hard water can be used to
estimate the hardness in water. To overcome the
problem of scum formation, soap less detergents
have been developed. They do not produce a
scum because they do not react with the
substances in hard water.

Removal of hardness of water

Temporary hardness is easily removed from water by boiling.

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When heated, the calcium hydrogencarbonate4/2/23
decomposes, producing insoluble calcium
carbonate.

calcium hydrogencarbonate � calcium carbonate + water + carbon dioxide

Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) � CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The substances in permanently hard water are not decomposed when heated and therefore
cannot be removed by boiling.

Both types of hardness can be removed by any of the following methods.

● Addition of washing soda - (Na2CO3.10H2O) crystals.

In each type, the calcium or magnesium ion, which actually causes the hardness, is
removed as a precipitate and can therefore, no longer cause hardness.

calcium ions + carbonate ions � calcium carbonate

Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) � CaCO3(s)

● Ion exchange - The water is passed through a container filled with a suitable resin
containing sodium ions.
The calcium or magnesium ions causing the hardness are exchanged for the sodium
ions in the resin.
calcium ion + sodium-resin � calcium-resin + sodium ion
Ca2+(aq) + Na2-R(s) � Ca-R(s) + 2Na+(aq)

When all the sodium ions have been removed from the resin, it can be regenerated by
pouring a solution of a suitable sodium salt through it.
● Distillation - The water is distilles away from the dissolved substances. This method,
however, is far too expensice to be used on a large scale.

Advantages and disadvantages of hard water

Disadvantages Advantages
Waste soap Has a nice taste
Causes kettles to fur Calcium ions in hard water are required by
the body for bones and teeth

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 Can cause hot water pipes to block 4/2/23 Coats lead pipes with a thin layer of lead(II)
sulfate or lead(II) carbonate and cuts down
the possibility of lead poisoning
Can spoil the finish of some fabrics Some industries favour hard water. For
example, the leather industry prefers to cure
leather in hard water

WATER CYCLE
Water circulates around the Earth. The way it does this can be described by the water cycle.

The driving force for the water cycle is the sun.

I. Heat from the Sun causes evaporation of water from oceans, seas ,lakes and
also from leaves (transpiration), through respiration and through
combustion,forming water vapour.

II. The water vapour rises and cools, and condenses to form tiny droplets of water.

These droplets form clouds.

III. The clouds are moved along by air currents.

As they cool down , the tiny droplets join to form larger droplets, which then fall
as rain.

IV. The water that falls as rain runs into streams and rivers and then on into lakes,
seas and oceans.

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 V. Water is then diverted from rivers into reservoirs and purified.
4/2/23

a) This water is then used in industry and the home.

b) After use , the dirty water has to be treated at the sewage works
before being returned to a river or the sea.
c) Eventually, all the water finds its way into the sea.
d) In this way all the water that left the sea eventually returns there,
and the cycle can continue.

WATER TREATMENT AND PURIFACATION

At first, a clean source is found to pump water into the purification plant.

A lot of water to be purified is obtained from lakes and rivers where the pollution levels are low.

The process of water treatment involves both filtration and chlorination.

1. Removal of Floating Particles - Impure water is passed through metal screens to filter
floating debris such as twigs and leaves

2. Removal of Soil Particles - Aluminium sulfate is added to coagulate small particles

of clay or soil, so that they form large clumps, which eventually settle at the bottom of
the container.

3. Removing Large Insoluble Particles –

● Filtration through Coarse Sand removes large insoluble particles.

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 ● The sand also contains specially grown microbes which remove some of the
4/2/23

bacteria from the water.

4. Removing Small Insoluble Particles –

Sedimentation Tank – It has chemicals such as aluminium sulfate.
● The aluminium sulphate added helps to clump the smaller particles, so
that the clumps sink to the bottom of the tank.

5. Fine Sand Filter – It is made up of sand, gravel or crushed coal.

● The water from the sedimentation tank is then passed through this special
filter.
● Here, further filtration occurs. Small insoluble substances which were
not removed in the sedimentation tank is removed here.
● The crushed carbon or carbon slurry is used to remove unwanted tastes
and odour from water.

6. Removing Bacteria and Adjusting the pH –

● Chlorine gas is added, which sterilizes the water and kills any remaining bacteria.
● The addition of chlorine gas makes the water more acidic and so appropriate
amounts of sodium hydroxide solution are added to neutralize the acid and adjust
the pH.
● Fluoride is sometimes added to water to help to prevent tooth decay.

NICE TO KNOW - Sewage treatment

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After water has been used, it must be treated again
4/2/23 before it can be returned to rivers, lakes and

seas. This whole process is known as sewage treatment.

Used water, sewage, contains waste products such as human waste and washing-up debris as
well as everything else that we put down a drain or sink. The processes that are involved in its
treatment are as follows.

1. Large screens remove large pieces of rubbish.

2. Sand and grit are separated in large sedimentation
tanks.
a. The process is speeded up by adding
aluminium sulfate, which helps the solids to
coagulate into larger particles that separate
more rapidly.
b. The sand and grit often contain large amounts of useful chemicals which, by the
action of selected microbes, can be used as fertilisers.
3. The impure water is then removed and sent to a trickling filter, where it is allowed to
drain through gravel on which microbes have been deposited. These kill off any
remaining bacteria in the water by aerobic processes. This stage is known as biological
filtration.
4. The treated water is then chlorinated and returned to a river after checking.
5. Anaerobic bacteria digest what remains from the other stages. Methane gas is
produced, which can be used as a fuel.
6. Water is a renewable resource but care must be taken to avoid excessice water
pollution, as this could cause serious health issues such as typhoid or cholera.

USES OF WATER

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❖ CONSUMPTIVE USES 4/2/23

1. Agricultural Use

a. Agriculture needs a water supply in order to irrigate crops, especially in areas of the
world with hot climates.
The production of more and more crops for the ever-increasing population is essential.
b. On farms it is needed as a drink for animals, and to water crops.

❖ NON-CONSUMPTIVE USES

2. Municipal Use
i. Household
a. Cleaning
ii. Bathing
iii. Washing Clothes
iv. Washing Crockeries
v. Cleaning House and Washroom
vi. Flushing Toilet
b. Drinking - An adequate supply of fresh drinking water is needed for everyone
on the planet. Lack of availability of fresh water leads to waterborne
diseases such as cholera and typhoid and to diarrhea, which is one
of the biggest killers across the world.
Cooking
ii. Restaurants and Hotels

3. Industrial Use

● As A Solvent - Most Chemical Reactions Use Water As A Solvent.

● As A Coolant - It Is Used To cool down Hot Reaction Tanks
Like Nuclear Reactors.

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 (Cold-Water
4/2/23 Pipes Are Coiled Around The Tanks.)

● For Cleaning - Used In Industries For Washing Different Materials

Example : Fashion Industry.
● As A Chemical Reactant – Water is the starting reactant for many
chemical reactions.
● In Power Stations - Water Is Heated To Make Steam. The Steam Then
Drives The Turbines That Generate Electricity.

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IGCSE Requirements 4/2/23

GCE O Level Requirements

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 ATMOSPHERE AND THE WORLD
4/2/23

The Structure Of The Atmosphere

1. The gases in the air are held in an envelope around the Earth
by its gravity.
2. The atmosphere is approximately 100km thick, and about 75%
of the mass of the atmosphere is found in the layer nearest the
Earth called the troposphere.
3. Beyond this layer, the atmosphere reaches into space but it
becomes extremely thin beyond the mesosphere.
4. The atmosphere is divided into 4 layers.
● Troposphere
● Stratosphere
● Mesosphere
● Ionosphere

The composition of the atmosphere

If a sample of dry, unpolluted air was taken from any location in the
troposhere and analysed, the composition by the volume of the
sample would be similar to that shown in the Table below.

Nice to Know

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5. Nearly all atmospheric water vapour (or moisture)
4/2/23 is found in the troposphere, which also
contains the liquid water in the oceans, rivers and lakes.
6. About 3800 millions years ago, when the Earth cooled below 1000C, the water vapour in
this atmosphere condensed and fell as rain.
7. This caused the formation of the first oceans, lakes and seas on the now rapidly cooling
Earth.
8. Eventually, early forms of life developed in these oceans, lakes and seas at depths which
prevented potentially harmful ultraviolet light from the Sun affecting them
9. About 3000 million years ago, the first forms of bacteria appeared, followed by algae-like
organisms.
10. The ultraviolet radiation now broke down some of the oxygen molecules in the stratosphere
(the above the troposphere), and some of the oxygen atoms produced formed ozone
molecules, O3(g). Ozone is an unstable molecule which readily decomposes under the
action of ultraviolet radiation. However, some of these ozone molecules then re-form.
11. Ozone is an important gas in the upper atmosphere because it prevents harmful ultraviolet
radiation from reaching the Earth.
12. Over many millions of years, the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth’s surface
was reduced significantly.
13. About 400 million years ago, the first land plants appeared on the Earth and so the amount
of oxygen and hence ozone, increased.
14. The composition of the atmosphere is affected by the following factors :-
a. Respiration
b. Photosynthesis
c. Volcanic activity
d. Radioactive decay, in which helium is formed
e. Human activity, involving burning of fossil fuels, in which carbon dioxide and
water vapour are produced as well as other gases.
Human activity of this kind has given rise to an increase in the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere over the last 200 years in particular.

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 4/2/23

Separating Gases from Air : Fractional Distilation of Liquid Air

1. Air is the major source of oxygen, nitrogen and the noble gases.
2. The gases are obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air but it is a complex process,
involving several different steps.
1st step:
3. The air is passed through fine filters to remove dust.
2nd step
4. The air is cooled to about −80 °C to remove water vapour and
carbon dioxide as solids.
Water is removed from the air by passing it through a drying agent
and carbon dioxide is removed by reacting it with sodium
hydroxide solution.
If these are not removed, then serious blockages of pipes can
result.
3rd Step
5. The cold air is compressed to about 100 atm of pressure.
This warms up the air, so it is passed into a heat exchanger to
cool it down again.
6. The cold compressed air is allowed to expand into a larger
space. When it expands, the air cools.
7. The process of compression followed by expansion is repeated
until the air reaches a temperature below −200 °C. This process is followed as it is very
expensive and highly risky to exert high pressure and low temperature.
8. At this temperature the majority of the air liquefies.
9. The liquid air is passed into a fractionating column and it is fractionally distilled.
The gases can be separated because they have different boiling points.
a. When the liquid air is warmed, the nitrogen boils off first because it has a lower boiling
point.
b. Some of the nitrogen condenses at the top of the lower distillation column leaving a
mixture of impure oxygen and nitrogen at the bottom.

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 c. This mixture is then expanded into a gas.
4/2/23

d. The oxygen-nitrogen gas mixture is then fed into the top column.
e. The temperature in the top column is below the boiling point of oxygen but above the
boiling point of nitrogen.
f. So the oxygen condenses at the bottom and nitrogen gas is removed at the top.
10. The gases are then stored separately in large tanks and cylinders.
11. It should be noted that the noble gases argon, krypton and xenon are obtained by this
method
Helium and neon do not condense at -2000C. Therefore, helium is obtained from natural gas.

❖ USES OF NITROGEN
1. Liquid nitrogen is very cold.
i. So it is used to quick freeze food in food factories,
ii. To freeze liquid in cracked pipes before repairing them.
iii. It is also used in hospitals to store tissue samples.
2. Nitrogen is unreactive. So provides an inert atmoshphere.
i. So it is flushed through food packaging to remove oxygen and keep the food
fresh. (Oxygen helps decay.)
For example in crisp packets where it also prevents the crisps being crushed
ii. Chemical processes
iii. Silicon chip production.
iv. Empty oil tankers are filled with nitrogen to prevent fires
3. In the production of ammonia by Haber process;
i. The ammonia can then be used to make nitric acid, which is used in the
manufacture of dyes, explosives and fertilisers.
4. As a refrigerant

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 4/2/23

❖ USES OF OXYGEN
1. In hospitals, patients with breathing problems are given oxygen through an oxygen
mask, or in an oxygen tent.
This is a plastic tent that fits over the bed. Oxygen-rich air is pumped into it.
2. In steel works, oxygen is used in converting the impure iron from the blast furnace into
steels.
3. A mixture of oxygen and the gas acetylene (C2H2) is used as the fuel in oxy-acetylene
torches for cutting and welding metal. When this gas mixture burns, the flame can reach
6000°C. Steel melts at around 3150°C, so the flame cuts through it by melting it.
4. By mountaineers and divers
5. In hydrogen-oxygen fueled rockets.Planes carry oxygen supplies.
6. By astronauts on space missions and by fire-fighters
7. In fuel cells
8. To restore life to polluted lakes and river

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 ● To fill the space between4/2/23
the panes of double glazing units
● To provide an inert atmosphere in arc welding and in the production of titanium metal
Argon
● To a decreasing extent, to fill incandescent light bulbs (it prevents the tungsten filament
from reacting with oxygen in the air and forming the oxide)

● In advertising signs, because it glows red when electricity passes through it

Neon ● In the helium-neon gas laser

● In Geiger-muller tubes, which are used for the detection of radioactivity

● To provide an inert atmosphere for welding

● As a coolant in nuclear reactors
● With 20% oxygen, as a breathing gas for deep-sea divers

Helium ● To inflate the tyres of large aircraft

● To fill airships and weather balloons
● In the helium-neon laser
● In low-temperature research, because of its low boiling point

● In lamps used in photographic flash units

Krypton ● in stroboscopic lamps

● in lamps used in lighthouses

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AIR POLLUTION 4/2/23

1. Air pollution is all around us.

2. Concentrations of gases in the atmosphere such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides are increasing with the increasing population.
3. As the population rises there is a consequent increase in the need for energy, industries
and motor vehicles.
4. In order to meet the rising need for energy, we burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
gas in power stations and in the home.
5. We use hydrocarbons from the distillation of petroleum for transport – in cars, trains,
ships and aircraft. The gases given off when we burn fuels pollute the atmosphere and
cause harmful effects in the environment. These gases are produced primarily from the
combustion of the fossil fuels, coal, oil and gas, but they are also produced by the
smoking of cigarettes.
6. These pollutant gases include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen. When we burn fuels, tiny particles of solids also get into the air.
These are called particulates. Lead dust and soot are examples of particulates. These
pollutants have harmful effects on the atmosphere, seas and lakes, and on living things.
This is why pollutants are of global concern.
7. Motor vehicles are responsible for much of the air pollution in large towns and cities.
They produce four particularly harmful pollutants:

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 ❖ (‘Particulates’ is a general term used to4/2/23
describe very small particles in the atmosphere,
such as certain types of smoke emitted from diesel engines, as well as dust. These
particulates have been associated with a variety of lung complaints in both adults and
children.

CARBON MONOXIDE

a. Carbon Monoxide: Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the poisonous pollutants of

air. It is considered a pollutant because it can kill living organisms.
b. The main source of carbon monoxide is factories which burn carbon-containing
fossil fuels.
c. When a fuel in burned in plenty of air, carbon dioxide and water are produced.
This is complete combustion.
d. But if there is not enough oxygen to burn the fuel completely, carbon monoxide
and water are formed. We call this incomplete combustion.
e. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. It combines with the red pigment
haemoglobin in the cells of the blood that carry oxygen around the body. So if
there is carbon monoxide poisoning, respiration in the cells will stop.
f. Carbon monoxide is colourless and has no smell – so it cannot be detected
easily. So it is important that gas boilers are serviced regularly to prevent
incomplete combustion caused by not enough air reaching the fuel.
g. Carbon monoxide could be treated by installing catalytic converters in chimneys
of the factories

LEAD COMPOUNDS

1. Lead Compounds: Compounds of lead are waste products of fuel burning in cars.
2. Lead compounds were added to petrol to help it combust efficiently in car engines.
although lead is no longer used for this purpose in most grades of petrol, there is still a
considerable amount of lead in the environment as particulates.
3. This is because some lead compounds are not easily broken down in the environment.
Lead compounds are also found in some paints and water pipes in old houses.
4. They are considered pollutants because they are poisonous and they are said to cause
mental disabilities to young children.
5. To treat this problem, gas stations now provide unleaded fuel.

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 COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN 4/2/23

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

1. NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA take
nitrogen from the air to form nitrogen
containing compounds such as nitrates.
Some of these bacteria live in the soil or
root nodules of plants.
2. NITRIFYING BACTERIA convert ammonia
(from decayed remains and waste
products of animals and plants) into
nitrates.
3. DENITRIFYING BACTERIA convert
nitrates in the soil back into nitrogen gas in
the air.
4. Animals get extra nitrogen when they eat
animal or plant proteins.

OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NO & NO2):

1. Nitrogen is usually unreactive . This is due to the presence of strong N-N triple bond
which takes around 1000 KJ/mol to break.
2. Nitrogen forms several oxides. They are all gases.
3. We usually call these by their common names rather than by their correct chemical
names. Nitrous oxide is N2O, nitric oxide is NO. and nitrogen dioxide is NO2.
4. Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen
a. Most nitrogen oxides polluting the atmosphere are formed in car engines.
i. At high temperature and pressure inside an internal combustion engine
causes nitrogen and oxygen combine.
ii. A mixture of different nitrogen oxides is formed. This mixture comes out
with the exhaust gases from the engine.
iii. This mixture is sometimes called Nox to show that several oxides of
nitrogen are present.

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 iv. Nitrogen and oxygen present
4/2/23 in air in the engine react to form nitrogen

monoxide. N2 + O2 → 2NO

v. Nitrogen monoxide reacts with more oxygen from air producing nitrogen
dioxide.

2NO + O2 → 2NO2

vi. The reactions can also be written as follows:

Formation of nitric ( ii) oxide: N2(g) + O2(g) � 2NO(g)

Formation of nitrogen dioxide: N2(g) + 2O2(g) � 2NO2(g)

vii. The problem associated with nitrogen dioxide is similar to that of sulphur
dioxide. It rises up in the air and mixes with rain water forming nitric acid.
This causes acid rain.
viii. Nitrogen oxides can also cause health respiratory problems to humans
and animals. To treat this issue, cars are now fitted with devices called
catalytic converters which eliminate nitrogen oxides.
b. From high temperature furnaces – the temperature in these is high enough to
allow nitrogen and oxygen to combine.
c. In areas where there are a lot of thunderstorms, the electrical energy in the
lightning causes the formation of large amonuts of nitric oxide and nitrogen
dioxide from nitrogen and oxygen in the air.

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SULFUR DIOXIDE 4/2/23

1. Sulphur Dioxide: Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is considered a pollutant since it contributes to

acidic rain.
2. Source of Sulphur Dioxide
a. Heavy industry and power stations are major sources of sulfur dioxide, formed by
the combustion of coal, oil and gas, which contain small amounts of sulfur.
b. Burning of Sulphur containing fossil fuels
c. Extraction of metals from their sulphide ores (such as zinc sulphide).
d. Volcanoes are natural source of sulfur dioxide. They produce about a third of the
sulfur dioxide that pollutes the atmosphere.
e. Rotting vegetation.
3. When these fossil fuels are burned, the sulfur is oxidized to sulfur dioxide gas which
escapes into the atmosphere.

4. There are two ways of minimizing the effects of Sulphur dioxide pollution.
a. The most direct approach is to remove Sulphur from fossil fuels before they are
burnt. However, this method is too expensive and technologically difficult to
accomplish.
b. A cheaper way is to remove Sulphur dioxide from the waste gases formed when
fossil fuels undergo combustion. The waste gases are called flue gases. The
process of removing Sulphur dioxide from flue gases is called desulphurization.
c. Ultra-low Sulphur petrol are now used
d. There has always been some sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere, from natural
processes such as volcanoes

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 4/2/23

FLUE GAS DESULPHURISATION

Flue gas desulfurization means the removal of sulfur dioxide

from the waste gases at power stations, before they go out the
flue (chimney).

It is usually carried out using a runny mixture of powdered limestone, or slaked lime, and water.
The mixture is sprayed through waste gases, or the gases are bubbled through it.

Units called flue gas desulfurisation (FGD) units are being fitted to some power stations
throughout the world to prevent the emission of sulfur dioxide gas.

a. The sulfur dioxide gas is removed from the waste gases by passing them through
i. Either calcium hydroxide slurry.

Ca(OH)2 (s) + SO2(g) � CaSO3(s) + H2O(l)

ii. Or, Instead of calcium hydroxide, an aqueous suspension of calcium carbonate

can also be used to form solid calcium sulphite.

CaCO3(s) + SO2(g) � CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)

iii. Or, instead of calcium carbonate, calcium oxide can also be used for
desulphurization.

CaO(s) + SO2(g) � CaSO3(s)

b. The calcium sulphite is further oxidised to calcium sulphate by atmospheric oxygen.

2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) � 2CaSO4(s)

c. Then the calcium sulfite can be turned into hydrated calcium sulfate:

2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) � 2CaSO4.2H2O(s)

d. This not only removes the sulfur dioxide but also creates Hydrated calcium sulfate is known
as gypsum, which can be sold to produce plasterboard , plaster for broken limbs

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e. The FGD units are very expensive and therefore
4/2/23 the sale of the calcium sulfate is an
important economic part of the process. So the company that owns the power station can
sell it, to earn money.

FORMATION OF ACID RAIN

1. Rain is naturally slightly acidic. This is because carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in
rainwater and forms a solution of the weak acid, carbonic acid. However, if the pH of the
rain falls below 5.0, the rain is called acid rain. How is acid rain formed?
2. The sulfur dioxide from different sources reacts with various compounds in the
atmosphere to form sulfur trioxide.
3. The sulfur trioxide then reacts with water vapour in the air to form a solution of sulfuric
acid:

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 SO3(g) + H2O(l) 4/2/23
� H2SO4(aq)
4. When the acidic water vapour condenses, acid rain is formed.
5. Sulfur dioxide is not the only source of acid rain. Nitrogen oxides from car exhausts also
play a part.
6. When it rains, rain water which falls becomes acidic.
7. Effects of Acid rain:
a. Acidifies soil causing death to plants and deforestation.
i. It prevents growth of new plants .
ii. The reaction of the acid with the soil
dissolves some minerals.
iii. High concentration of these minerals in soil
causes harm to the crops.
iv. Acid rain dissolves aluminium hydroxide
(Al(OH)3) in the soil to produce Al3+ ions,
which are toxic to plants.

Fig: Trees that have been killed by acid rain.

v. Acid rain also washes out ions such as calcium and magnesium out of
the soil.These ions are essential ions for plant growth.
vi. Plants need magnesium to make green pigment chlorphyll which traps
the sunlight when a plant makes food by photosynthesis.
vii. Trees have their leaves damaged by the acid. They can no longer carry out
photosynthesis. The leaves fall off and the trees die.
b. It causes death to water creatures – fish and other aquatic life
● The pH value of unpolluted rainwater is usually slightly below 7. This is
because carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater to form carbonic
acid, which is a weak acid.

carbon dioxide + water � carbonic acid

CO2(g) + H2O(l) � H2CO3(aq)

● However, acid rain is much more acidic than rain that only contains
carbonic acid. Acid rain has a pH value of 4 or less.

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 ● The pH of rainwater has4/2/23
fallen to between pH 3
and pH 4.8 in many places of the world. This
increase in acidity has led to extensive damage
to forests ,lakes and marine life.
● In many countries, rivers are treated with an
alkali called Lime which is sprayed onto the
rivers to neutralize the acidity of the rainwater.

c. Reacting with limestone from buildings and sculptures

Buildings made from carbonate rocks will be eroded. The acid reacts with the
carbonate to release carbon dioxide and the surface of the building crumbles.
Buildings made from limestone and marble are particularly badly affected.

d. Metal structures such as bridges and iron railings corrode.

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 4/2/23

CATALYTIC CONVERTERS IN MOTOR VEHICLES

1. The catalytic converter has a honey

comb structure. The surfaces on the honeycomb are covered with a thin layer of catalyst
made of platinum, rhodium or palladium or a mixture of these.
2. The gases react on the surface of the catalyst. Multiple layers of the catalytic converter
increase the surface area for more efficient conversion of the pollutant gases to less
harmful gases.
3. Most catalytic converters have two compartments.
i. In the first compartment, the metals mainly catalyse the conversion of nitrogen
oxides to nitrogen.

ii. In the second compartment, carbon monoxide is converted to carbon dioxide:

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 4/2/23

4. The reactions in a catalytic converter are redox reactions. Some of the carbon monoxide
may react directly with the nitrogen oxides:

5. In these reactions, the pollutants are converted to carbon dioxide and nitrogen, which
are naturally present in the air.
6. The catalytic converter acts as a device to speed up reactions which involve the
pollutant gases, converting them to less harmful products, such as nitrogen and carbon
dioxide. It should be noted that catalytic converters can only be used with unleaded
petrol as the lead ‘poisons’ the catalyst due to impurities being deposited on the
surface of the catalyst, preventing it from catalyzing the reactions.
7. Effects of the pollutant gases from exhaust
i. The removal of oxides of nitrogen is important because they cause
respiratory disease.
ii. They are also involved in the production of photochemical smogs which occur
worldwide in major cities, especially in the summer
8. The gases leaving the car exhaust pipe now are not poisonous.
However, carbon dioxide contributes to global warming.

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 4/2/23

WHAT IS RUSTING?
1. The corrosion of iron and steel has a special name: rusting. The red-brown substance
that forms is called rust.
2. Rusting is a very specific reaction of iron, where the metal is turned into hydrated iron(III)
oxide, known as rust.
3. For iron to rust the metal must be in contact with both air and water.
Without either one of these the metal will remain intact and not corrode.
4. There are a number of separate stages involved, such as the oxidation of iron to iron(II)
ions and then the oxidation of iron(II) ions into the iron(III) oxide.

Equation –

4Fe2+(aq) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) � 4Fe(OH)3(s) or 2Fe2O3.3H2O(s)

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 5. These processes involve the movement of electrons and as such the rusting process
4/2/23

can be speeded up by having salt present in the water, as this allows greater
conductivity.

An experiment to investigate rusting

1. Stand three identical nails in three test-tubes.

2. Now prepare the test-tubes as below, so that:
a. test-tube 1 contains dry
air
b. test-tube 2 contains water
but no air
c. test-tube 3 has both air
and water.
3. Leave the test-tubes to one side
for several days.
4. Result :After several days, the nails in test-tubes 1 and 2 show no signs of rusting. But
the nail in test-tube 3 has rust on it.
5. This is because: Rusting requires both oxygen and water.

Prevention of Rust

Iron is the most widely used metal in the world – for everything from needles to ships. But
rusting destroys things. How can you prevent it? There are two approaches.

1. Cover the iron - The aim is to keep out oxygen and water.
a. Paint - Steel bridges and railings are usually painted.
b. Grease - Tools and machine parts are coated with grease or oil.
c. With another metal – Electroplating
i. Iron is coated with zinc, by dipping it into molten zinc, for roofing.
ii. Steel is electroplated with zinc, for car bodies. Coating with zinc has a
special name: galvanising.
iii. For food tins, steel is electroplated with tin or chromium since they are
very unreactive.

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 Galvanisation: Galvanisation is a very4/2/23
reliable method for preventing rusting.
It is basically covering the whole object by a protective layer of zinc. This can be done
either by electroplating the object with zinc or dipping it into molten zinc. The zinc layer
provides a barrier that prevents iron or steel from coming in contact with air and water.
The zinc gets corroded instead iron thus protecting it. If the a part of the zinc coat falls
off and the iron or steel gets exposed to air and water, the bare part still doesn’t get
corroded since it is protected by sacrificial protection now.

2. Let another metal corrode instead – Sacrificial Protection

i. This method is based on the idea that metals that are higher than iron in
the reactivity series will react in preference to it and thus that metal is
corroded and the iron is protected.
ii. Metals usually used as protectors in this method are zinc and magnesium
since they are higher than iron in the reactivity series.
iii. During rusting, iron is oxidised: it loses electrons.
iv. Magnesium is more reactive than iron, which means it has a stronger
drive to lose electrons. So when a bar of magnesium is attached to the
side of a steel ship, or the leg of an oil rig, it will corrode instead of the
iron.

Without magnesium:

With magnesium:
v. The magnesium dissolves. It has been sacrificed to protect the iron.
This is called sacrificial protection.
The magnesium bar must be replaced before it all dissolves.
Note that zinc could also be used for this.
Zinc is above iron in the reactivity series and will react in preference to it
and so is corroded. It forms positive ions more readily than the iron:

Uses of Sacrificial Protecton:

This method is usually used in ships or bridge columns. Bars of zinc are
attached to the hulls of ships and to oil rigs. As long as some of the zinc

Page 435 of 512

bars remain in contact with
4/2/23the iron structure, the structure will be

protected from rusting. The zinc or magnesium bars do not have to

completely cover the iron or steel because as long as they are attached to
each other the zinc or magnesium bars get corroded and not the iron.
Gas and water pipes made of iron and steel are connected by a wire to
blocks of magnesium to obtain the same result.

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 4/2/23

NITROGEN, SULFUR & CARBONATES

Page 437 of 512
 4/2/23

IGCSE Requirements

GCE O’LEVEL Requirements

Page 438 of 512

 4/2/23

TOPIC # 1

NITROGEN
● Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless, unreactive gas, that makes up 78% of the air.
● We breathe in – and breathe it out again, unchanged.
● Nitrogen is present in proteins, which is essential for human body.
● Protein is used to build muscle, bone, skin, hair, blood, and other tissues.

The properties of nitrogen

1. It is a colourless gas, with no smell.

2. It is only slightly soluble in water.
3. It is very unreactive compared with oxygen. This is due to the strong N-N triple bond.
4. Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia:

This reversible reaction is the first step in making nitric acid, and nitrogen fertilisers.

5. Nitrogen also combines with oxygen at high temperatures to form nitrogen oxides:

nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

The reactions occur naturally in the air during lightning – and also inside hot car engines,
and power station furnaces.

The nitrogen oxides are acidic, and cause air pollution leading to acid rain.

AMMONIA - Ammonia is a gas with the formula NH3.

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 4/2/23

● Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3.

● A stable binary hydride, ammonia is a colourless, alkaline gas with a characteristic pungent
smell.
● It is a common nitrogenous waste, particularly among aquatic organisms, and it contributes
significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor
to food and fertilizers.
● Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of
many pharmaceutical products and is used in many commercial cleaning products.
● It is mainly collected by downward displacement of both air and water.

The properties of ammonia

1. It is a colourless, alkaline gas with a strong, choking smell.

2. It is less dense than air.
3. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form a white smoke.
The smoke is made of tiny particles of solid
ammonium chloride.
This reaction can be used to test whether a gas is ammonia.
4. It is very soluble in water.
5. The solution in water is alkaline – it turns red litmus blue.
6. Since ammonia solution is alkaline, it reacts with acids to form salts.
For example, with nitric acid it forms ammonium nitrate:

7. Ammonia is a very important chemical, because it is needed to make fertilisers

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 4/2/23

A. Making Ammonia in the industry - THE HABER PROCESS

❖ STEPS
INVOLVED IN HABER PROCESS

1. The reactants in the Haber process are nitrogen and hydrogen.

a. Source of Nitrogen – Fractional Distillation of
Liquid Air
b. Source of Hydrogen
i. Cracking hydrocarbons or
ii. Reacting natural gas (methane) with steam
2. The two gases are mixed, and scrubbed (cleaned) to remove impurities.

3. The gas mixture is compressed. More and more gas are pumped in, until the pressure reaches
200 atmospheres.

4. The compressed gas flows to the converter – a tank made up of beds of hot iron catalyst.
The iron catalyses the reversible reaction:

Conditons : Temperature : 4500C

Pressure : 200 atm

Catalyst : Iron Metal

Only 15% of the mixture leaving the converter is ammonia.

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5. The mixture is cooled until the ammonia condenses to a liquid.

6. The ammonia is run into tanks, and stored as a liquid under pressure.

7. The remaining unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled to the converter for another
chance to react. Steps 3 and 4 are continually repeated.

❖ COMPARING THE YIELD OF HABER PROCESS USING DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

● The reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is reversible, and the forward reaction is
exothermic: it gives out heat.

● Since the reaction is reversible, a mixture of the two gases will never react completely.
● The yield will never be 100%.
● The yield can be improved by changing the reaction conditions, to shift equilibrium towards
the product. The yield of the reaction can be improved by:
I. Decrease the temperature
II. Increase the pressure

The graph below shows how the yield changes with temperature and pressure.

As seen
in the

diagram,

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The highest yield on the graph is at X, at

Temperature : 350°C Pressure : 400 atmospheres.

In Haber process the CHOSEN condition are :

Temperature : 450°C and Pressure : 200 atmospheres.

WHY??
Temperature

The yield of ammonia decreases with increasing temperature. This is because an increase in
temperature favors the endothermic reaction – in this reaction the endothermic reaction is the
reverse reaction.

A low temperature favors the forward reaction, increasing the yield of the reaction, but a very low
temperature will cause the rate of reaction to be too slow.

There is a conflict between the best equilibrium yield and the best rate of reaction. So, a
compromise temperature of 450°C is used. This gives quite a good yield with a fast enough rate of
reaction.

Pressure

The yield of ammonia increases with an increase in pressure. This is due to the fact that , for a gas
reaction, increasing the shifts the equilibrium in the direction of lower volume. In this case, it is to
the right.

But high pressure is expensive. It costs a lot of money to make strong, safe reaction vessels with
powerful pumps and very strong and sturdy pipes and tanks.

A lot of fuel is also needed to generate electricity and to keep the pressure high, which is again very
expensive.

Therefore, a very high pressure is not used and a compromise pressure is used.

Catalyst

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Iron speeds up the reaction. It has no effect on the equilibrium and does not change the yield.

It speeds up the rate of both the forward and backward reaction equally.

To improve the yield, ammonia is removed at regular intervals so that more and more of
ammonia is formed and the unreacted gases are recycled, for another chance to react.

So, the final yield is high.

B. Making ammonia in the laboratory

Ammonia is made in the laboratory by heating any ammonium compound with a strong base. The
base displaces ammonia from the compound. For example:

● This reaction can be used as a test for ammonium compounds.

● If an unknown compound gives off ammonia when heated with a strong base, it must be an
ammonium compound.

Uses of Ammonia:

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1. Ammonia in Fertilizer
● About 90 percent of ammonia produced is used in fertilizer, to help sustain food production
for billions of people around the world.
● The production of food crops naturally depletes soil nutrient supplies. In order to maintain
healthy crops, farmers rely on fertilizers to keep their soils productive.
● Fertilizers also can also help increase levels of essential nutrients like zinc, selenium and
boron in food crops.
2. Ammonia in Household Cleaning Products
● On its own or as an ingredient in many household cleaning products, ammonia can be used
to clean a variety of household surfaces – from tubs, sinks and toilets to bathroom and
kitchen countertops and tiles.
● Ammonia also is effective at breaking down household grime or stains from animal fats or
vegetable oils, such as cooking grease and wine stains. Because ammonia evaporates
quickly, it is commonly used in glass cleaning solutions to help avoid streaking.
3. Ammonia in Industrial/Manufacturing Uses
● When used as a refrigerant gas and in air-conditioning equipment, ammonia can absorb
substantial amounts of heat from its surroundings.
● Ammonia can be used to purify water supplies
● Ammonia can be used as a building block in the manufacture of many products including
plastics, explosives, fabrics, pesticides and dyes.
● Ammonia is used in the waste and wastewater treatment, cold storage, rubber, pulp and
paper and food and beverage industries as a stabilizer, neutralizer and a source of nitrogen.
● It also is used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals.

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FERTILISERS –
A FERTILISER IS ANY SUBSTANCE ADDED TO THE SOIL TO MAKE IT MORE FERTILE.

Types of Fertiliser:-

a. Animal manure is a natural fertiliser.

b. Synthetic/ fertilisers are made in factories, and sprinkled or sprayed on fields.

● For a plant to grow , it needs carbon dioxide, light, and

water. Along with the above conditions, they also need
several different elements. The main ones are nitrogen,
potassium, and phosphorus.
● Plants obtain these elements from compounds in the soil,
which they take in through their roots as solutions. The most
important one is nitrogen. Plants take it in as nitrate ions and
ammonium ions.
● Every crop a farmer grows takes compounds from the soil.
Some get replaced naturally. But in the end the soil gets worn out. New crops will not grow
well. So the farmer has to add fertilisers.
● Ammonia produced by the Haber process is used to produce nitric acid. If ammonia is then
reacted with the nitric acid, we have the basic reaction for the production of many artificial
fertilisers.
● The use of artificial fertilisers is essential if farmers are to produce sufficient crops to feed
the ever-increasing world population. Crops remove nutrients from the soil as they grow;
these include nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
● Artificial fertilisers are added to the soil to replace these nutrients and others, such as
calcium, magnesium,sodium,sulfur,copper and iron.

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Artificial fertilisers – NPK FERTILISER

Fertiliser Formula
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
Ammonium phosphate (NH4)2PO4
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
Urea CO(NH2)2

● Artificial fertilisers can make fertile land which was once unable to support crop growth.
● The fertilisers which add the three main nutrients (N, P, K) are called NPK fertilisers.
● They contain
I. Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3,
II. Ammonium phosphate ((NH4)3PO4) and
III. Potassium chloride (KCl) in varying proportions.

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During crop harvesting, the soil becomes deficient in important elements. The nitrogen is removed
in the harvested crops. In addition, nitrates can be washed from the soil by the action of rain
(leaching).

For the soil to remain fertile for the next crop, the nitrates need to be replaced. The natural process
is by decay or by the action of lightning on atmospheric nitrogen. Without the decay, however, the
latter process is not efficient enough to produce nitrate on the scale required.

Farmers often need to add substances containing these nitrates. Such substances include farmyard
manure and artificial fertilisers is ammonium nitrate, which as you saw earlier is made from
ammonia gas and nitric acid, both nitrogen-containing compounds.

Problems arising from use of fertilisers

# EUTROPHICATION - Excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently

due to run-off from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life.

● When too much uncontrolled artificial fertilizer are applied to the land, rain washes the
fertilizer off the land and into rivers and streams. This leaching leads to eutrophication by
encouraging the growth of algae and marine plants.

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● In the river,
o Fertilisers can seep into rivers from farmland.
o They help tiny water plants called algae to grow. These can cover the water like a
carpet.
o When they die, bacteria feed on them, at the same time using up the oxygen
dissolved in the water. So fish suffocate and die.
● In the water supply
o From rivers, the nitrate ions from fertilisers can end up in our water supply. They are
converted to nitrite ions in our bodies. These combine with haemoglobin in blood, in
place of oxygen, so the blood carries less oxygen around the body. This can cause
illness, especially in infants. Their skin may take on a blue tinge.

What can be done?

● Farmers should use fertilisers carefully. They should try to keep them away from river banks
– and not spread them in wet weather.

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TOPIC # 2

SULPHUR
Sulfur is a non-metal. It is quite a common element in the Earth’s crust.

The properties of sulfur

1. It is a brittle yellow non-metal solid.

2. It has two different forms or allotropes
3. Because it is simple molecular structure, it has quite a low melting point.
4. Like other non-metals, it does not conduct electricity.
5. Like most non-metals, it is insoluble in water.
6. It reacts with metals to form sulfides. For example with iron it forms iron(II) sulfide:

7. It burns in oxygen to form sulfur dioxide:

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Uses of sulfur

1. Most sulfur is used to make sulfuric acid.

2. It is added to rubber, for example for car tyres, to toughen it. This is called vulcanizing the
rubber.
3. It is used in making drugs, pesticides, dyes, matches, and paper.
4. It is used in making cosmetics, shampoos, and body lotions.
5. It is added to cement to make sulfur concrete. This is not attacked by acid. So it is used for
walls and floors in factories that use acid.

Where is sulfur found?

1. Sulfur compounds also occur naturally in the fossil fuels: coal, petroleum (crude oil) and
natural gas.
2. It occurs as a compound in many metal ores.
For example in the lead ore galena, which is lead(II) sulfide, PbS.
3. It is found, as the element, in large underground beds in several countries, including Mexico,
Poland and the USA. It is also found around the rims of volcanoes.

Extracting the sulfur

● From oil and gas Most sulfur is now obtained from the sulfur compounds found in petroleum
and natural gas. These compounds are removed to help reduce air pollution. For example
natural gas is mainly methane. But it can have as much as 30% hydrogen sulfide. This is
separated from the methane. Then it is reacted with oxygen, with the help of a catalyst, to
give sulfur:

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● From sulfur beds About 5% of the sulfur we use comes from the underground sulfur beds.
Superheated water is pumped down to melt the sulfur and carry it to the surface. (It melts at
115°C.)

Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colourless , poisonous gas, heavier than air, with a strong, choking smell.It
forms when sulfur burns in air.

The properties of sulfur dioxide

1. A colourless , poisonous gas, heavier than air, with a strong, choking smell
2. Like most non-metal oxides, it is an acidic oxide.
3. It dissolves in water, forming sulfurous acid, H2SO3:

6. This breaks down easily again to sulfur dioxide and water.

7. It acts as a bleach when it is damp or in solution. This is because it removes the colour from
coloured compounds by reducing them.
8. It can kill bacteria.
9. Sulfur dioxide as a pollutant
● Coal and petroleum contain sulfur compounds – even after petroleum is treated to
remove them. Some coals contain a high % of sulfur.

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● When these fuels are burned in power stations, and factory furnaces, the sulfur
compounds are oxidised to sulfur dioxide. This escapes into the air, where it can
cause a great deal of harm.
o It can attack your lungs, giving breathing problems.
o It also dissolves in rain to give acid rain. This attacks buildings and metal
structures, and can kill fish and plants.

Uses of sulfur dioxide

1. As a bleach:
a. In manufacture of paper
from wood pulp.
b. Bleaching materials
such as silk, wool and
straw
2. Its main use is in the
manufacture of sulfuric acid.
3. It is used as a sterilizing agent in making soft drinks and jam, and in drying fruit.
4. It stops the growth of bacteria and moulds so they are present inside canned food.

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SULPHURIC ACID
Sulfuric acid (alternative spelling sulphuric acid), also known as oil of vitriol, is a mineral
acid composed of the elements sulfur, oxygen and hydrogen, with molecular formula H2SO4.

❖ Physical Properties of Sulphuric Acid :

I. It is a colorless, odorless, and viscous liquid that is soluble in water and is synthesized in
reactions that are highly exothermic.
II. It has strong acidic nature, It is also hygroscopic, readily absorbing water vapor from the air.
III. It is very corrosive.
Upon contact, sulfuric acid can cause severe chemical burns and even secondary thermal
burns; it is very dangerous even at lower concentrations.

❖ Chemical Properties of Sulphuric Acid :

I. Sulphuric Acid is a dibasic acid. It releases two hydrogen ions per molecule when
dissociated.
II. Reactions of Sulphuric Acid - Its salts are called sulfates.

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1. acid + metal � salt + hydrogen

2. acid + metal oxide or hydroxide � salt + water

3. acid + carbonate � salt + water + carbon dioxide

III. Concentrated Sulphuric Acid

a. It is a very strong oxidizing agent.

b. It is a very good dehydrating agent

Sulfuric acid

● In the lab, dilute sulfuric acid is made by adding the concentrated acid to water. And never
the other way round – because so much heat is produced that the acid could splash out and
burn you.
● Dilute sulfuric acid is a strong acid and shows the usual reactions of acids.
● For example
o Dilute sulfuric acid reacts with iron like this:

o With copper(II) oxide like this:

Uses of sulfuric acid

Sulfuric acid is one of the world’s most important chemicals. It has thousands of uses in industry. Its
main uses are in making:

I. Sulfuric acid is also a key substance in the chemical industry.

a. It is used as an acid drain cleaner and cleaning material.
b. fertilisers such as ammonium sulfate

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c. mineral processing, oil refining, wastewater processing, and chemical synthesis.

II. paints, pigments, and dyestuffs
III. fibres and plastics
IV. soaps and detergents.
V. It is also the acid used in car batteries.

Industrial manufacture of Sulphuric Acid- THE CONTACT PROCESS

.

The raw materials are:

●Sulphur
●Air
●Water

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Step - 1

● A spray of molten Sulphur is burned in a furnace in a current of dry air. Sulphur dioxide is
formed.

Step - 2

● The Sulphur dioxide is cooled and reacted with excess air. Forms Sulphur trioxide.
● The reaction is reversible. The sulfur trioxide continually breaks down again.
● This happens in the converter. The converter contains four layers of catalyst, vanadium (V)
oxide to give the reactants further chances to react.
● Condition:
o Temperature : 450°C
o Pressure : 1 atm (101kpa)
o Catalyst : vanadium (V) oxide V2O5
● This is an exothermic reaction. Therefore, heat is removed between each catalyst layer to
keep the temperature low. To do this, pipes of cold water are coiled around them to carry

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heat away. The heat makes the water boil. The steam is used to generate electricity for the
plant, or for heating buildings.
● The mixture of gases leaving the tower contains about 99% Sulphur trioxide.

Step - 3

● The Sulphur trioxde leaving the converter is then absorbed into a 98% solution of sulphuric
acid.
● This occurs in a tower called an absorber.
● The Sulphur trioxide is not directly reacted with water because it gives off a very
exothermic reaction and forms fine mist of sulphuric acid which is hard to condense.
● The suphur trioxide dissolves in the 98% sulphuric acid to form a thick liquid called
oleum.

SO3 (g) + H2SO4(aq) � H2S207(l)

Step - 4

The oleum is mixed with a little water to make concentrated 98% sulphuric acid.

H2S207 (l) + H2O(l) � H2SO4 (aq)

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IGCSE REQUIREMENTS

GCE REQUIREMENTS

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TOPIC # 3
CARBON

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● Carbon is abundant, common.

● Forms strong covalent bonds.
● Has four valence electrons.
● Variety of shapes.
● Bonds with multiple elements.

Carbon moves between compounds in the

atmosphere, living things, the soil, and the ocean, in
the form of carbon dioxide and this non-stop journey
is called the carbon cycle:

The Carbon Cycle

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The carbon cycle is a natural global cycle of the element carbon. It is what maintains a constant
level of carbon dioxide in air (0.03%).

The cycle goes as follows:

Plants absorb carbon dioxide from air and undergo photosynthesis reaction which turns it into
glucose and produces oxygen:
6CO2 + 6H2O � C6H12O6 + 6O2
The carbon is now stored in plants as glucoce. One of the two things happen, either the plants get
eaten by animals or humans, or the plant dies and decays.The plant uses the glucose to make the
other carbon compounds it needs. Then animals eat the plants. So the carbon compounds get
passed along the food chain. Many of them end up in your dinner! Note that photosynthesis also
goes on in phytoplankton, tiny plants that float in the ocean. These are eaten by fish and other
organisms. So carbon is passed along food chains in the ocean too.
If the plant is eaten by animals or humans, glucose in the plant is used by them in a process called
respiration to release energy for their body
C6H12O6 + 6O2 � 6CO2 + 6H2O
Respiration is the oppostie of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is one of the products of it, which is
released by the humans through breathing into the air. Thus carbon dioxide returns to the
atmosphere.

The carbon cycle and fossil fuels

In the ocean, the remains of dead organisms fall to the ocean floor, and are buried. Over millions of
years their soft parts turn into petroleum (oil) and natural gas. (Hard shells turn into limestone rock.)
Meanwhile, trees and other vegetation get buried in warm swamps. Over millions of years, they turn
into coal. In this way, carbon dioxide from the air ends up in the fossil fuels.
These fossil fuel contain the carbon which was made and stored by the plants and they are then
taken by power stations which put them to use.

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Power stations burn carbon-containing fuels that were obtained as coal or fossil fuels formed by
dead plants. This is a combustion reaction.
C + O2 � CO2
Carbon dioxide is result of these reactions. Carbon dioxide produced released to the air through
chimneys of power stations. Thus the cycle is completed and all carbon dioxide returns to the
atmosphere.

CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is a colorless , odourless gas.
It has a density about 60% higher than that of dry air.
Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms.
It occurs naturally in Earth's atmosphere as a trace gas. The current concentration is about 0.04%.
Natural sources include volcanoes, hot springs and geysers, and it is freed from carbonate
rocks by dissolution in water and acids.
Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water, it occurs naturally in groundwater, rivers and lakes, ice
caps, glaciers and seawater.
It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas.
At high concentrations, it generates the taste of soda water in the mouth.
Properties of carbon dioxide
It is a colourless gas, with no smell.
It is much heavier than air.
Things will not burn in it. We say it does not support combustion.
It is slightly soluble in water, forming carbonic acid, H2CO3.
Source of Carbon Dioxide

By respiration This is the process that takes place in our cells (and in the cells of plants and other
animals) to provide energy:

By the combustion of fuels -Natural gas or methane burns like this:

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The reaction between dilute acids and carbonates.

Thermal decomposition of carbonates

Removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

By photosynthesis - In this process, carbon dioxide and water react in plant leaves, to give
glucose and oxygen. Chlorophyll, a green pigment in leaves, is a catalyst for the reaction. Sunlight
provides the energy:

By dissolving: Some carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in the ocean. It provides carbonate
ions, which shellfish use along with calcium ions from the water, to build their shells. (Shells are
made of calcium carbonate.) Fish also use them in building their skeletons. But only a certain % of
carbon dioxide will dissolve. A balance is reached between its concentration in the air and the
ocean.

CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide (CO) forms when carbon compounds burn in too little oxygen.
For example, when methane burns in insufficient oxygen:

It is a deadly poisonous gas. It binds to the haemoglobin in red blood cells, and prevents it from
carrying oxygen around the body. So victims die from oxygen starvation.
Carbon monoxide has no smell, which makes it hard to detect. So it is important to have gas
heaters and boilers checked regularly, to make sure the air supply is not blocked by soot.

Organic compounds

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Organic compounds all contain carbon, and most contain hydrogen. Some contain elements like
sulfur and nitrogen too. Many are found in, or derived from, living things.
Methane is the simplest organic compound. There are millions more – far more than all the
inorganic (non-organic) compounds. They include:
the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in your body
the hundreds of different compounds in petroleum and coal
the plastics and medical drugs made from the compounds in petroleum.
Methane
Methane is the compound CH4. Methane is an organic compound.
It is found in gas deposits in the ocean floor and on land, as natural gas. We use natural gas as a
fuel.
It also forms wherever bacteria break down plant material, in the absence of oxygen - in
paddy fields, and swamps, and landfill sites (rubbish dumps).
Some animals give out methane as waste gas. They include cattle, sheep, goats, camel, and
buffalo.
Bacteria in their stomachs help to break down grass and other food, giving methane as one
product.
GLOBAL WARMING
GREEN HOUSE GASES
A green house gas is a gas that absorbs heat energy and stops heat escaping into space.
The main green house gases are :
Carbon dioxide
It is the main green house gas.
It is naturally present in the atmosphere, but over years its concentration in the atmosphere is
increasing.
The increase in concentration is due to increased burning of fossil fuels, and other industrial
processes.
Methane
It is the second most important greenhouse gas.
It absorbs heat more than carbon dioxide
Its source includes –
by bacterial action in the digestive system of cows , pigs, sheep
decomposition of vegetation

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termites
Nitrous Oxide
Produced by bacteria in the soil
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
They are compounds containing the elements carbon, fluorine and chlorine. CFCs were widely
used as propellants for aerosols and as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners.
They were also used in the manufacture of packing foam.
Small changes in the concentration of these gases creates drastic changes in the average
temperature of the atmosphere.

THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Ultraviolet rays from the Sun have very short wavelengths. They get through the earth’s
atmosphere easily and are not absorbed by carbon dioxide.
The ultraviolet rays hit the Earth’s surface. Short wave radiation from the sun warms the ground.
The earth’s surface absorbs the ultraviolet rays .
The warm Earth gives off heat as long-wave radiation - known as Infrared rays.
Infrared radiation in absorbed by carbon dioxide and methane.
Some of the heat is re- radiated back to the earth and some escapes.
THIS IS KNOWN AS THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT.

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GLOBAL WARMING
When concentration of the green house gases increases in the atmosphere, much of the
radiation is re-radiated back into the earth and cannot escape the Earth, as it is trapped by the
increased concentration of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
This is known as global warming – this means the Earth is warmer than what it would be
normally. Increasing levels of greenhouse gases are stopping heat from escaping from Earth and
Earth’s average temperature is increasing all of the time.
Effect of Global Warming:
The average temperature of the atmosphere increases. This leads to melting of the icebergs,
leading to increase in sea levels.
In 30 years if this continues, low-lying countries like Holland, Bangladesh and Kuwait will be under
water.
There would be less rainfall leading to formation of deserts and less food production.
More adverse weather , leading to more storms and stronger winds. This will cause destruction of
property and crops.
We do not known for certain that greenhouse gases are the only thing responsible for the average
Earth temperature rising steadily. It may be that these temperature increases may be part of a
natural cycle – in the past there have been Ice Ages followed by very warm periods of time on

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Earth. Many people are concerned, however, that it is not part of a natural cycle o we should act
now to stop greenhuse gases being made and prevent global warming.
Compare the two graphs on the right.
The graph shows that greenhouse gases are almost certainly the main cause of global warming.
The rise in average temperatures over time
appears to match the rise in carbon dioxide
levels over time.

Enhanced Green House Effect -Depletion

of the Ozone Layer
Ozone was discovered in 1940. It was first
detected in the upper layer of the
atmosphere (the stratosphere) in 1899. It is
produced by the photochemical reaction
between oxygen molecules and oxygen
atoms in the atmosphere
oxygen atom + oxygen � ozone
O(g) + O2(g) � O3(g)
There is actually a thin layer of ozone in the stratosphere, about 20-50 km above the Earth. Here,
the ozone acts as a kind of shield, or a giant sunscreen, filtering out some of the harmful ultraviolet
radiation from the sun. If this radiation reaches the surface of the Earth, there could be a drastic
increase in the number of cases of skin cancer, genetic mutations and eye damage (e.g. cataracts
being formed). Ultraviolet radiation may also be harmful to marine life.
Since 1976, these has been an alarming decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere over
the South Pole. In recent years, a similar phenomenon has been occurring over the North Pole.
How is ozone different from oxygen?
Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen. Unlike oygen, which has two atoms in each molecule, ozone has
three atoms of oxygen per molecule. Therefore, its molecule formula is O3. Ozone is a pale blue,
almost colourless gas with a characteristic odour. In small concentrations, it is non-toxic. Breathing
in air that contains high concentrations of ozone can be dangerous, especially for people with
asthma.
What is causing the depletion of ozone in the stratosphere?
Scientists have discovered that the depletion of the ozone layer is caused by chlorofluorocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons, commonly called CFCs, are compounds containing the elements carbon,
fluorine and chlorine. CFCs were widely used as propellants for aerosols and as coolants in
refrigerators and air conditioners. They were also used in the manufacture of packing foam.

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Within the last few decades, large amounts of CFCs have been released into the atmosphere.
CFCs are very stable and can remain in the atmosphere for a very long time. Over the years, they
slowly diffuse through the air and react with ozone, destroying the ozone layer.

Carbonates
Carbonates are compounds that contain the carbonate ion, CO32-.
icalcium carbonate, CaCO3, which occurs naturally as limestone, chalk and marble is an example.
These are the main properties of carbonates:
They are insoluble in water – except for sodium, potassium, and ammonium carbonates, which are
soluble.
They react with acids to form a salt, water, and carbon dioxide.
Most of them break down on heating, to an oxide and carbon dioxide:

sodium and potassium carbonates do not break down, since the compounds of these reactive
metals are more stable.

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Limestone: from sea creatures

Most of the creatures that live in the sea have shells or skeletons made of calcium carbonate.
When they die, their remains fall to the sea floor.
Slowly, over millions of years, the layers of shells and bones become limestone rock. (The soft
parts of sea organisms become oil and gas.)
Over millions of years, powerful forces raised some sea beds upwards, draining them to form land.
That explains why plenty of limestone is found inland, miles from the sea!
Lime
When limestone is heated, it breaks down to lime (or quicklime):

Slaked lime
Slaked lime forms when water is added to lime. The reaction is exothermic, so the mixture hisses
and steams. Conditions are controlled so that the slaked lime forms as a fine powder:

Slaked lime is used to neutralise acidity in soil, and in lakes. In the lab, we use it to test for carbon
dioxide.
Limewater is a weak solution of calcium hydroxide, which is sparingly soluble in water.

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Cement
Cement is made by mixing limestone with clay, heating the mixture strongly in a kiln, adding
gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and grinding up the final solid to give a powder.
Flue gas desulfurisation
Flue gas desulfurisation means the removal of sulfur dioxide from the waste gases at power
stations, before they go out the flue (chimney). It is usually carried out using a runny mixture of
powdered limestone, or slaked lime, and water. The mixture is sprayed through the waste gases,
or the gases are bubbled through it. When slaked lime is used, the reaction that removes the sulfur
dioxide is:

Then the calcium sulfite can be turned into hydrated calcium sulfate:

Hydrated calcium sulfate is known as gypsum. It is used in making cement, plaster board, plaster
for broken limbs, and other products. So the company that owns the power station can sell it, to
earn some money.

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IGCSE Requirements

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GCE O Level Requirements

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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Introduction: It is the study of compounds that consists of a parent carbon chain that is
bonded to either carbon, hydrogen,oxygen,halogen or nitrogen.

1. All organic compounds contain the element carbon.

2. Most organic compounds also contain hydrogen.
3. Organic compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon are called hydrocarbons.
4. Organic compounds may also contain other elements such as oxygen and nitrogen.
5. Not all carbon-containing compounds are organic. For example, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and carbonates are not classified as organic compounds.
6. Each carbon is able to form four bonds which gives rise to a variety of different molecule.
7. There are millions of different organic compounds. Therefore, the study of organic chemistry
would be difficult without some sort of classification.
8. Chemists grouped organic compounds into families or homologous series.

What is a homologous series?

A homologous series is a family or group of organic compounds containing:

i. Same Functional group

ii. Same General Formula
iii. Same chemical Properties

A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms that gives a molecule its

characteristic properties. Organic compounds in the same homologous series have
similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group.

For example. the –OH group is responsible for most of the reactions of alcohols while
the rest of the molecule remains relatively unreactive (due to stable carbon-carbon
bonds).

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What are the general characteristics of a homologous series?

Organic compounds in the same homologous series have the following properties in common:

a. They have the same functional group.

b. They have similar chemical properties.
c. There is a gradual change in their physical properties
d. They follow the same general formula
e. In a homologous series, each member differs by the next by -CH2

Homologous Series

Homologous Functional General Polarity Intermolecular Boiling point Solubility in water

series Group Formula forces

1. ALKANE C-C CnH2n+2 non- van der Waals low Insoluble

polar
2. ALKYL C-C CnH2n+1 non- van der Waals low Insoluble
polar
3. ALKENES C=C CnH2n non- van der Waals low Insoluble
polar
4. ALCOHOLS - OH CnH2n+1 OH polar hydrogen high Soluble
bonding

5. HALOGENO C-X CnH2n+1 X polar dipole-dipole Increases down Insoluble

ALKANES the group

6. CARBOXYLIC -COOH Cn-1H2n-1 polar hydrogen Very high Soluble

ACID bonding
COOH

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REPRESENTING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

In order to describe or represent an organic molecule, there are two aspects to consider:

1. The type of formula used to represent the molecule

2. The specific name given to the molecule, known as its nomenclature.

1. The type of formula used to represent the moleculeThey are:

I. Empirical Formula: this shows the simplest whole number ratio in which atoms of
different elements combine in an organic molecule, and so many different molecules can
have the same empirical formula.

For example, the empirical of ALL alkenes is -CH2

II. Molecular Formula: this is a whole number multiple of the empirical formula and shows
the exact number of atoms of different elements in an organic molecule.
For instance, the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2, while that of propene is
C3H6 (obtained by multiplying the empirical formula by 3)

III. Structural Formula: The structural formula is a representation of the molecule showing
how the atoms are bonded to each other in an organic compound.
Carbon-carbon double bonds and any functional group are always shown in a
structural formula
Some examples include: (CH3CH2)2CHCH=CHCl and (CH3)2C(OH)CH2CH(CH3)CO2H

IV. Displayed Formula: this is an expanded form of the structural formula, showing the
location and type of every bond in an organic molecule.

The displayed formula for ethanoic acid is:

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2. Naming Organic Compounds : IUPAC NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Introduction:
• The purpose of the IUPAC system of nomenclature is to establish an international
standard of naming compounds to facilitate communication.
• The goal of the system is to give each structure a unique and unambiguous name.
• A systematic name for an organic compound is often based on the parent hydrocarbon
(the hydrocarbon that resembles the compound most closely).

Naming Compounds:

Each name consists of the components listed below

a. PREFIX : Indicates the position and type of side chain.

b. STEM : this specifies the number of carbon atoms in the longest carbon
chain.
c. SUFFIX : This is named according to the functional group present.

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Rule 1: Identify the longest straight chain of carbon atoms

a. The longest chain of carbon atoms gives the stem of the name
b. The carbons are numbered or counted from the terminal end which is closest to
the main functional group, or the chain is numbered starting at the end that will
give the smallest number to the functional group.

Number of carbon atoms Stem in IUPAC name Example

in the longest chain
1 Meth
2 Eth
3 Prop
4 But
5 Pent
6 Hex
7 Hept
8 Oct

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Rule 2 : Identify the functional group

a. The functional group determines the suffix to the name of the organic compound.
b. There is a distinction between class and functional group.
i. Class refers to the type of compound.
ii. Functional group refers to the site of reactivity in the molecule.
c. If there are multiple functional groups present in the same molecule, then the suffix will
be named after the functional group who is higher in the hierarchy

Class Functional Group Prefix Suffix

1. Carboxylic Acid Carboxy- -oic Acid

2. Ester -oate

3. Alcohol Hydroxy- -ol

4. Alkene Alkenyl- -ene

5. Alkane C--C Alkyl- -ane

6. Alkyl Halides Halo -ane

Example:

CH3-CH3 Ethane

CH3-CH=CH2 Propene

CH2=CH-CH=CH2 Butadiene

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Rule 3 : Identify the side chains or substituent groups

Side chains, or functional groups in addition to the one used as the suffix, are known as
substituents and are given as the first part or prefix of the name .

a. The position of side- chains or functional groups is indicated by numbering the carbon
atoms in the longest chain.
b. The numbering starts at the end that produces the lowest possible numbers in the name.

c. The adjacent numbers in a name have a comma between them

d. The adjacent numbers and words are separated by hyphens.
e. If there is more than one type of alkyl side – chain , they are listed in the name in
alphabetical order. The alkyl groups appear in its name in alphabetical order

Prefix Meaning
Methyl CH3-
Ethyl CH3-CH2-
Propyl CH3-CH2-CH2-
Chloro -Cl
Bromo -Br
Hydroxy -OH

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Alkane Alkyl Alkene Halogenoalkane Alcohol Carboxylic Acid

Carbon No. Prefix
-ane -yl -ene Halo- - ol - oic Acid

Meth Methane Methyl Halomethane Methanol Methanoic Acid

Eth

Prop

But

Pent

Hex

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ISOMERISM
Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but a different arrangement of
atoms.

There are two types of isomers:

Structural Isomerism Stereo isomerism

Molecules that have the molecules that have the same
same molecular formula but structural formula but
different structural formula different spatial arrangements

1. Structural Isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae.
a. Chain Isomers :They are compounds having different chains of carbon atoms.
For instance - of C4H10

b. Positional Isomers : Compounds having different position of the same functional group.

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Isomerism of Different Compounds: -

I. ISOMERS OF ALKANES – METHANE TO HEXANE

II. ISOMERS OF ALKENES - ETHENE TO HEXENE

III. ISOMERS OF ALCOHOLS – METHANOL TO HEXANOL

IV. ISOMERS OF CARBOXYLIC ACID: METHANOIC ACID TO HEXANOIC ACID

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PETROLEUM
The fossil fuels

• The fossil fuels are petroleum (or crude oil), coal, and natural gas. They are called fossil
fuels because they are the remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago.
• Petroleum formed from the remains of dead organisms that fell to the ocean floor, and
were buried under thick sediment. High pressures slowly converted them to petroleum,
over millions of years.
• Natural gas is mainly methane. It is often found with petroleum. It is formed in the same
way. But high temperatures and high pressures caused the compounds to break down to
gas.
• Coal is the remains of lush vegetation that grew in ancient swamps. The dead
vegetation was buried under thick sediment. Pressure and heat slowly converted it to
coal, over millions of years.
• Petroleum is still forming, very slowly, under the oceans. But we are using it up much
faster than it can form, which means it will run out one day. So petroleum is called a non-
renewable resource.

What is in petroleum?

I. Petroleum is a smelly mixture of hundreds of different compounds.

II. They are organic compounds, which means they contain carbon, and hydrogen and
other elements like oxygen, nitrogen and Sulphur.
III. Most are hydrocarbons – they contain only carbon and hydrogen.
IV. In petroleum, there are hydrocarbon molecules of different shapes and sizes, with
different numbers of carbon atoms, from 1 to over 70.

How do we use petroleum?

1. Around half the petroleum pumped from oil wells is used for transport. It provides
the fuel for cars, trucks, planes, and ships. You won’t get far without it!
2. Most of the rest is burned for heat, in factories, homes, and power stations
In a power station, the heat is used to turn water to steam, to drive turbines.
3. A small % is used as the starting chemicals to make many other things: plastics,
shampoo, paint, thread, fabric, detergents, makeup, medical drugs, and more.

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Refining petroleum – Refining Crude Oil

• Crude Oil contains hundreds of different hydrocarbons.

• But a big mixture like this is not very useful.
• So the first step is to separate the compounds into groups with molecules of a similar
size. This is called refining the petroleum.
• It is carried out by fractional distillation.
• The trends the fractions show :

• The results show that, the larger the molecules in a hydrocarbon:

✓ the higher its boiling point
✓ the less volatile the compounds
✓ the less easily it will flow / viscosity increases
✓ the less easily the compounds will burn

Refining petroleum in the lab

The apparatus on the right can be used to refine

petroleum in the lab.

1. As you heat the petroleum, the compounds start to

evaporate. The ones with smaller lighter molecules
go first, since it takes less energy to free these
from the liquid.
2. As the hot vapours rise, so does the thermometer
reading. The vapours condense in the cool test-
tube.
3. When the thermometer reading reaches 100°C,
replace the first test-tube with an empty one. The
liquid in the first test-tube is the first fraction from the distillation.
4. Collect the other fractions in the same way.

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Refining Petroleum in the Industry

I. In a refinery, the fractional distillation is carried out in a tower that is kept very hot at the
base, and cooler towards the top.
II. Petroleum is pumped in at the base. The compounds start to boil off.
III. Those with the smallest molecules boil off first, and rise to the top of the tower.
IV. Others rise only part of the way, depending on their boiling points, and then condense.
V. The table shows the fractions that are collected.

VI. As the molecules get larger, the fractions get less runny, or more viscous: from gas at
the top of the tower to solid at the bottom. They also get less flammable. So the last two
fractions in the table are not used as fuels.

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Cracking of Organic Compounds

1. Cracking is the process by which long chain hydrocarbons are broken down into
shorter chain hydrocarbons.
2. Cracking in the industry has to be carried out because:
i. Long chain hydrocarbons are more in supply, less in demand.
ii. Short chain hydrocarbons are more in demand, less is supply.
3. Therefore, to meet up with this mismatch, long chain hydrocarbons are broken down into
shorter chain hydrocarbons by cracking.
4. Example: Suppose you have too much of the naphtha fraction, and too little of the
gasoline fraction. You can crack some naphtha to get molecules the right size for petrol.
5. Cracking always produces short-chain compounds with a carbon–carbon double bond.
This bond makes the compounds reactive. So they can be used to make plastics and
other substances.

There are two types of cracking:

a. Thermal Cracking
i. Thermal cracking involves heating the alkane mixture to about 800oC
and at moderate pressure, in the absence of air but in the presence of
steam.
ii. After only a fraction of second at this temperature, the mixture is rapidly
cooled. By this means dodecane might typically be broken into
hexane\(boiling point 69oC) and ethene:

iii. The hexane is required for fuel but the ethene by product is not wasted, as it
is a key feedstock for the plastics, fibres and solvents industries; the
conditions for theramal cracking are often chosen so as to optimize ethene
production.
iv. The heat energy at 800 C is sufficient to break the C-C bonds into two carbon
free radicals. Long – chain radicals readily split off ethene units, eventually
producing shorter- chain alkanes and alkenes.

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b. Catalytic Cracking
i. Catalytic cracking involves heating the alkane mixture to a temperature of
about 5000C and passing it under slight pressure over a catalyst made from
a porous mixture of aluminium and silicon oxides (called zeolites).
ii. The catalyst causes the carbon chains to undergo internal rearrangements
before forming the final products.
iii. A typical set of prodcuts from catalytic cracking is shown in the following
equation:

iv. The branched – chain alkanes produced by catalytic cracking are useful
components of high – octane petrol.

Example of Cracking: -

Decane has been broken down into three smaller molecules. The propene and ethene
molecules have carbon–carbon double bonds. These two compounds belong to the alkene
family, and they are very reactive.

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Alkanes

1. Alkanes are hydrocarbons that make up most of crude oil and natural gas .
2. In alkane molecules, every carbon atom forms four single covalent bonds.
3. The alkanes are non- polar molecules with only weak intermolecular forces between the
molecules. Therefore, they are volatile and insoluble in water.
4. As molecules get longer and larger, the intermolecular forces increase, so the melting
and boiling points rise as the number of carbon atoms per molecule increases
5. We call them saturated hydrocarbons because no more atoms can be added to their
molecules.

Physical properties of the alkanes

All alkanes are colourless gases, liquids or solids. The first four members of the alkane
homologous series are gases at room temperature and pressure. Alkanes with 5 to 17 carbon
atoms in their chains are liquids. Alkanes with more than 17 carbon atoms in their chains are
solids. The boiling points of the alkanes vary in a regular way.

You can see that as the carbon chain gets longer, the boiling points of the alkanes increase.
The difference in the boiling point from one alkane to the next also gets smaller as the number
of carbon atoms increases. You can predict the boiling point of other alkanes by following this
trend. For example, using the graph, you might predict the boiling point of heptane (which has 7
carbon atoms in its chian) to be about 96-990C. The actual boiling point is 980C.

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Chemical properties of the alkanes

Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds. They do not react with acids or alkalis. But they
do burn and undergo a few reactions under special conditions. Alkanes burn with a clean blue
flame if there is plenty of oxygen or air present. We describe this reaction as complete
combustion. Carbon dioxide and water are formed:

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)

If there is not enough oxygen present, combustion is incomplete. Carbon monoxide is formed
and perhaps even soot (carbon particles).

2C3H8(g) + 7O2(g) → 6CO(g) + 8H2O(l)

C3H8(g) + 2O2(g) → 3C(s) + 4H2O(l)

The reaction of alkanes with chlorine

One chemical that alkanes will react with is chlorine – but only under certain conditions. Alkanes
do not react with chlorine in the dark. However, if we mix chlorine with an alkane in a sealed
tube and keep it in bright sunlight, the green colour of the chlorine disappears. A reaction has
occurred. This is a photochemical reaction. A chlorine atom replaces a hydrogen atom in the
alkane. We call this type of reaction a substitution reaction.

In sunlight, a chlorine atom replaces a hydrogen atom in methane.

CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

You will notice that the acidic gas hydrogen chloride is produced. This turns damp blue litmus
paper red.

If we use excess chlorine,we can substitute more hydrogen atoms:

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CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl

CH2Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl

If enough chlorine is present all four hydrogen atoms can be replaced by chlorine atoms.

We can carry out similar reactions with other alkanes and other halogens:

C3H8 + Cl2 → C3H7Cl + HCl

CH4 + Br2 → CH3Br + HBr

Alkenes

The alkenes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons whose names end in –ene. We call
them unsaturated hydrocarbons because they have a C=C double bond. They do not have
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms around each carbon atom – more atoms can be
added to their molecules.

We can test to see if a hydrocarbon is unsaturated by using aqueous bromine (bromine water).

Bromine water is yelloe/orange in colour. If the bromine water is decolourised, the

hydrocaarbon is unsaturated. All alkenes decolourise bromine water. If the bromine water
remains the same yellow or orange colour, the hydrocarbon is saturated.

Ethene, propene and butene are the first three compounds in the alkene homologous series.
These three alkenes are all colourless gases. These are their structural formulae:

Chemical properties of the alkenes

Combustion

The complete combustion of alkenes produce carbon dioxide and water:

C2H4 (g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

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Addition reactions

Many of the reactions of alkenes are called addition reactions. In an addition reaction, two
reactants add together to form only one product. Here are three examples.

The reaction of alkenes with bromine:

C2H4 + Br2 → C2H4Br2

You can see that the bromine has added across the double bond. Bromine does not react with
saturated compounds because they do not have a double bond to ‘open out’.

Hydrogen reacts with alkenes to form alkanes.

This addition reaction is also called a hydrogenation reaction. It can also be classed as a
reduction reaction – one of the simple definitions of reduction is ‘the addition of hydrogen to a
compound’. The reaction is carried out at 600C in the presence of a nickel catalyst.

C2H4 + H2 → C2H6

This type of reaction is used to make margarine from unsaturated vegetable oils. The hydrogen
reacts with the oil when it passes over the nickel catalyst at about 600C. Only some of the
double bonds in the vegetable oil are changed to single bonds. This is enough to ‘harden’ the oil
and make it into solid margarine.

Steam reacts with alkenes to form alcohols.

A high temperature of about 3000C and high pressure (70 atm) are needed for this reaction. The
steam is passed over a catalyst of concentrated phosphoric acid, H3PO4. This method gives a
good yield of alcohol. Ethanol
of high purity is made by this
method.

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Alcohols

General formula: CnH2n+1OH

physical properties

smell – sweet

melting and boiling point

density –

viscosity -

Flammability -

chemical properties

dehydration to from alkenes

oxidation to form carboxylic acid

Combustion oxygen to form CO2 and H2O

isomers of alcohols C1 to C2

methanol – no isomers

ethanol – no isomers

propanol – propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol

butanol – butan-1-ol, butan-2-ol and 2 methyl-propan-1-ol and 2 methyl propan-2-ol

The alcohols are a homologous series having –OH as the functional group. Their names all end
with –ol. Ethanol is:

Ethanol can be manufactured from:

ethene – by reacting steam and ethene at high pressure and temperature using a phosphoric
acid catalyst.

glucose – by fermentation.

Manufacturing ethanol from ethene

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INSERT DIAGRAM OF HYDRATION OF ETHENE

Ethanol is manufactured by the catalytic addition of steam to

ethene. The mixture of ethene and steam is passed through
phosphoric(V) acid at 3000C and 60 atm. Phosphoric(V) acid
(H3PO4) acts as a catalyst in this reaction.

The equation for the reaction between ethene and steam is

ethene + steam → ethanol

CH2=CH2 (g) +H2O(g) → CH3CH2OH

Conditions:

H3PO4 catalyst

3000C and 60 atm

Producing ethanol by fermentation

Fruits, vegetables and grains can be fermented to produce ethanol due to the presence of
carboghdyrates.

What is fermentation?

Fermentation is a chemical process in which microorganisms such as yeast act on

carbohydrates to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. Sugars and starch are examples of
carbohydrates.

Yeast contains enzymes (biological catalysts) which cause starch or sugars to break down to
glucose. The glucose is then broken down the ethanol and carbondioxide.

INSERT FERMENTATION HCAMBER DIAGRAM

glucose + yeast → ethanol +carbon dioxide

carbon dioxide is produced so frothing/bubbling occurs in the flask. A white precipitate is also
formed in the limewater.

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Fermentation can only take place in the absence of oxygen. So the container needs to be air
tight. This is ensured by:

The rubber bung is secured tightly to the flask.

the limewater in the test tube prevents air from entering the apparatus.

Ethanol burns with a clean blue flame in excess air to form carbon dioxide and water:

C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

The uses of ethanol

Ethanol has many uses:

As a solvent: ethanol is used in perfumes and other cosmetics, in printing inks and in glues.

As a fuel: ethanol can be mixed with petrol or used alone as a fuel for cars. It is less polluting
than petrol and reduces the reliance on petrol and diesel.

It is used to make other chemicals such as esters which are used in food flavourings and in
many cosmetics.

In some cultures the ethanol produced by fermentation is used for making alcoholic drinks.
Excessive drinking of alcohol, however, leads to aggressive behaviour, depression and causes
other medical problems.

More about the structure of alcohols

The general formula for alcohols is CnH2n+1OH. The formulae for the first four alcohols in this
homologous series are:

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The number in the formula is used so that you can distinguish between different isomers of the
alcohols. The numbers are not needed for methanol and ethanol though.

The isomers with the –OH group at the end are -1-ols. You will not be expected to name the
different isomers but you may be asked to draw them. Some different (position) isomers of
butanol are:

Ethanol to ethanoic acid

Ethanol can be oxidised to ethanoic acid by:

oxidation in the air:

Acetobacter is a group of bacteria that causes wine to go sour. These bacteria are naturally
present in the air and on surfaces around us. When we leave a solution of ethanol exposed to
the air, enzymes from the bacterium speed up the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid. The
reaction does not take place in the absence of oxygen.

C2H5OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O

We can write [O] in an equation when the oxidation reaction is complicated but we know that
oxygen is involved. This is the reaction that makes vinegar. Vinegar is a solution of ethanoic
acid.

Acidified potassium manganate(VII):

Potassium manganate(VII) is a good oxidizing agent, especially when sulfuric acid is added. We
heat the ethanol with potassium manganate(VII) and sulfuric acid. We do this in a flask with a
condenser in an upright position. We call this refluxing. This prevents the alcohol, which is very
volatile, from escaping. The equation for the reaction can be represented the same as the one
above. Other alcohols can be oxidised in the same way.

Carboxylic acids
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What are carboxylic acids?

The carboxylic acids are a homologous series of organic compounds with the carboxyl
functional group –COOH.

Carboxylic acids are weak acids. They are a class of organic acids.

Genera; formula: CnH2n+1COOH

Carboxylic acids are manufactured by oxidizing alcohols biologically (by fermentation) or

chemically (using an oxidising agent).

Ethanoic acid manufactured by:

Oxidising in air

When ethanol is left standing in air, bacteria bring about its oxidation to ethanoic acid. This
method is called acid fermentation. Acid fermentation is used to make vinegar (a dilute solution
of ethanoic acid). The vinegar starts as foods such as apples, rice, and honey, which are first
fermented to give ethanol.

Using oxidizing agents

Ethanol is oxidised much faster by warming it with the powerful oxidising agent potassium
manganate(VII), in the presence of acid. The manganate(VII) ions are themselves reduced to
Mn2+ ions, with a colour change. The acid provides the H+ ions for the reaction:

Ethanoic acid shows typical acid reactions:

A solution of ethanoic acid turns litmus red.

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A solution of ethanoic acid contains H+ ions, because some of the ethanoic acid molecules
dissociate in water, like this:

Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form a salt and water. It reacts with sodium hydroxide like
this:

Like all salts, sodium ethanoate is an ionic compound.

Ethanoic acid reacts with metals to form a salt and hydrogen. The salts of ethanoic acid are
called ethanoates.

2CHsCOOH(aq) + Mg(s) → (CH3COO)2Mg(aq) + H2(g)

Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water

2CH3COOH(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → 2CH3COONa(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols to form an ester and water.

Difference between strong and weak acids

Strong acids – fully dissociate. It’s a one way reaction

HCl → H+ + Cl-

Weak acids → partially dissociate. It’s a reversible reaction.

C2H5COOH → C2H5COO- + H+

propanoic acid propanaote ion hydrogen ion

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Each carboxylic acid group has a valency of -1 when dissociated

C2H5COOH + Na → + H+

propanoic acid sodium sodium propanoate hydrogen ion

Esters

Ethanoic acid also reacts with alcohols, to give compounds called esters.

Note these points:

Two molecules have joined to make a larger molecule, with the loss of a small molecule, water.
So this is called a condensation reaction.

The reaction is reversible, and sulfuric acid acts a catalyst.

The alcohol part comes first in the name – but second in the formula.

Conditions of esterification:

While drawing:

The first part of the ester belongs to the carboxylic acid. The second part of the ester belongs to
the alcohol

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CH3CH2CO OCH3

1st part of the ester 2nd part of the ester

belongs to the belongs to the
carboxylic acid alcohol

While writing / naming the ester:

1st part is alcohol and 2nd part is the carboxylic acid

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Polymerisation

What are polymers?

Polymers are long-chain molecules that contaisn hundreds or thousands of atoms, joined
together by covalent bonds. A polymer is formed by linking together many small repeating units
known as monomers. The process of joining together a large number of monomers to form a
polymer is called polymerization.

The drawing shows six ethene molecules adding together. In fact many thousands add together,
giving molecules with very long chains. These very large molecules are called
macromolecules. A polymer is a substance made of macromolecules. The polymer made from
ethene is called poly(ethene) or polythene. Poly- means many.

Natural polymers

Starch is a polymer made by plants. The starch molecules are built from molecules of glucose, a
sugar. We eat plenty of starch in rice, bread, and potatoes.

Plants also use glucose to make another polymer called cellulose. Cotton T-shirts and denim
jeans are almost pure cellulose, made by the cotton plant.

Your skin, hair, nails, bones and muscles are mostly polymers, made of macromolecules called
proteins. Your body builds these up from amino acids.

Synthetic polymers

Nylon is a polyamide made from a di-amide and a di-acid.

Terylene is a polyester made from a diol and a di-carboxylic acid.

The reactions that produce polymers

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All polymers, natural and synthetic, consist of macromolecules, formed by small molecules
joined together. But these macromolecules are not all made in the same way.

There are two types of reaction:

addition polymerization

Addition polymerisation occurs when monomer units join together without losing any molecules
or atom. Alkenes undergo addition polymerisation. At high pressure (1000 atm) and high
temperature (2000C), thousand of alkene molecules join together to form polymers. In addition
polymerisation, double bonds in molecules break and the molecules add on to each other. For
addition polymerisation to take place, the monomers must have C=C double bonds.

Identifying the monomer

If you know the structure of the addition polymer, you can work out what the monomer was. Like
this:

Identify the repeating unit. (It has two carbon atoms side by side, in the main chain.) You could
draw brackets around it.

Then draw the unit, but put a double bond between the two carbon atoms. That is the monomer.

condensation polymerization

Two different monomers join in condensation polymerisation. Each of the monomers has two
functional groups at each end that take part in the reaction. The monomers join at their
functional groups, by getting rid of or eliminating small molecules. There are two main groups of
condensation polymers; polyamides and polyesters.

Nylon is an example of a polyamide. There are two monomers involved in producing nylon.
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A has NH2 groups at each end whereas B has COCl groups at each end. Only these
functional groups take part in the reaction.

So the nitrogen atom at one end of A has joined to the carbon atom at one end of B, by
eliminating a molecule of hydrogen chloride.

The reaction continues at the other ends of A and B. In this way, thousands of molecules join,
giving a macromolecule of nylon. Here is part of it:

The group where the monomers joined is called the amide linkage. So nylon is called a
polyamide.

Terylene is an example of a polyester. There are two monomers involved in producing terylene.

C has two COOH (carboxyl) groups, and D has two OH (alcohol) groups. Only these functional
groups take part in the reaction. So once again we can show the rest of the molecules as
blocks.

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So a carbon atom at one end of C has joined to an oxygen atom at one end of D, by eliminating
a water molecule. The reaction continues at the other ends of C and D. In this way thousands of
molecules join, giving a macromolecule of Terylene. Here is part of it:

So the group where the monomers have joined is called an ester linkage. Terylene is called a
polyester.

Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Glucose is a simple carbohydrate. A

glucose molecule looks like this:

Two glucose molecules can join like this, giving maltose, a disaccharide:

Hundreds or thousands can join in the same way, giving starch, a complex carbohydrate. It is
also called a polysaccharide:

Proteins are polymers, built up from molecules of amino acids. Amino acids contain carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and some contain sulfur. There are twenty common amino
acids. Here are three of them – with the COOH bonds drawn vertically, to help you see how the
amino acids join:

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The reaction is a condensation polymerisation, with loss of water molecules. Note the amide
linkage.

The importance of proteins in your food

When your body digests food, it breaks the proteins back down to amino acids. These then join
up again to make proteins your body needs. For example all these substances in your body are
proteins:

the enzymes that act as catalysts for reactions in your body cells

the collagen in your skin, bones, and teeth

the keratin that forms your hair

haemoglobin, the red substance in blood, that carries oxygen

hormones, the chemicals that dictate how you grow and develop.

Fats

Complex carbohydrates, and proteins, are polymers. But fats are not made by polymerisation,
so they are not polymers. They are esters: compounds formed from an alcohol and an acid.

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This is a condensation reaction, with the elimination of water. Each OH group in a glycerol
molecule can react with a different fatty acid, so you can get many different esters. Note the
ester linkage

Hydrolysis in the digestive system

What is hydrolysis?

Hydrolysis is a reaction in which molecules are broken down by reaction with water.

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This is what happens in your body, during digestion:

Starch and any disaccharides get broken down to glucose. Your cells then use the glucose to
provide energy, in a process called respiration.

It is the reverse of photosynthesis:

C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)

Proteins get broken down to amino acids which your body then uses to build up the proteins it
needs.

Fats and oils (which are esters) get broken down into glycerol and fatty acids. These are used
for energy, or to make new fats for cell membranes, or to be stored. All the ‘breaking down’
reactions during digestion are hydrolyses.

Enzymes as catalysts

Enzymes act as catalysts, in building up the macromolecules in food. In digestion, other

enzymes act as catalysts to break them down again. Enzymes called amylases act on starch,
lipases act on fats and oils, and proteinases act on proteins.

If we were to hydrolyse them in the laboratory, these are the conditions required:

Things to note:

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the products are the same as for digestion, except for fats, where you obtain sodium salts of the
fatty acids.

the hydrolyses in your digestive system take place in much milder conditions, at much lower
temperatures, thanks to enzymes.

if the hydrolysis of starch and proteins is not complete, you will obtain a mixture of molecules of
different sizes. Partial hydrolysis of starch can give glucose, maltose (made of two glucose
units), maltotriose (three glucose units), and dextrins (many glucose units).

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