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HIGH-PERFORMANCE
SPORTS
CONDITIONING

Bill Foran, Editor

Human Kinetics
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

BQgh-performance sports conditioning / [edited by] Bill Foran.

p. cm.
Includes index and bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-7360-0163-8
1. Physical education and training. 2. Physical fitness. 3. Exercise. 4. Physical
fitness—Study and teaching. I. Foran, Bill.

GV711.5 .H59 2001

613.711—dc 21
99-088063

ISBN-10: 0-7360-0163-8
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-0163-2
Copyright © 2001 by Human Kinetics, Inc.
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic,
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 HIGH-PERFORMANCE
SPORTS CONDITIONING

Bill Foran, Editor

 Contents
The Functional Training Advantage vii

Part I Developing the

Sports Performance Foundation 7
Chapter 1 Establishing a Solid Fitness Base 3
“William J. Kraemer and Ana L. Gomez

Chapter 2 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 19

~Gray Cook

Chapter 3 Performance Flexibility 49

—Nikos Apostolopoulos

Chapter 4 Muscular Strength and Stamina 63

—Steven Scott Plisk

Chapter 5 Explosive Power 83

—Donald A. Chu

Chapter 6 Lightning Quickness 99

—Peter Twist

Chapter 7 3-D Balance and Core Stability 119

—E. Paul Roetert

Chapter 8 Agility and Coordination 139

—Mark Verstegen and Brandon Marcello

Chapter 9 Acceleration and Speed 167

George Blough Dintiman

Chapter 10 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 193

—Jack Daniels

IV
Parti II Developing a Sports
Performance Training Program 213

Chapter 11 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills

Into Conditioning 215
—Overview—Eric Lawson 215
Baseball—Fernando Montes 217
— Basketball—Bill Foran 222
—^Distance Running—Jack Daniels 228
—-Football—Kent Johnston 237
Golf—Pete Draovitch 241
—Hockey—Peter Twist 247
— Soccer—Vern Gambetta 252
—Tennis—E. Paul Roetert and Barrett Bugg 257
—Volleyball—Courtney Carter 262

Chapter 12 Periodizing Training for Peak Performance

Tudor O. Bompa 267

Chapter 13 Designing Periodized

Training Programs 283
Baseball—Fernando Montes 284
—Basketball—Bill Foran 290
—Distance Running—Jack Daniels 294
—Football—Kent Johnston 301
—Golf—Pete Draovitch 305
—Hockey—Peter Twist 309
—Soccer—Vern Gambetta 314
Tennis—E. Paul Roetert 318
Volleyball—Courtney Carter 322

Chapter 14 Restoring Performance After Injury 327

Todd S. Ellenbecker

References and Resources 345

Index 353
About the Editor 361

About the Contributors 362

 Photo Credits

Page 3 © Vincent Manniello/SportsChrome USA

Page 19 © Gregg Forwerck/ SportsChrome USA
Page 49 © Photo Run
Pages 63 and 83 © Action Images
Page 99 ©John Todd/SportsChrome USA
Page 119 © Rob Tringali, Jr./SportsChrome USA
Pages 139, 167, 193, 215, and 267 © Human Kinetics
Page 210 (figure 10.10) courtesy of the author
Page 283 © Brian Spurlock/ SportsChrome USA
Page 327 © BTSP/Carol Newsom
Pages 361-367 courtesy of the authors
Page 365 (Kent Johnston) courtesy of Seattle Seahawks
Page 366 (Fernando Montes) courtesy of Cleveland Indians

VI
The Functional
Training Advantage

^^ports training has progressed rapidly over the last 40 years. Innovative scien¬
tists such as Tudor Bompa have advanced new principles of training to help make
conditioning more systematic and productive. Practitioners such as Boyd Epley
have demonstrated the value of training experts working full time with sports
teams; Epley literally put more power into Nebraska Cornhusker football, lead¬
ing other teams and programs to follow suit. And organizations such as the Na¬
tional Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and the American Col¬
lege of Sports Medicine (ACSM) have gained credibility and members as the
field has become more professional and more accepted.
Because of these achievements off the field and convincing evidence on the
field, the value of expert sports exercise prescription is no longer questioned.
The only unknown is, how much better can it get? Some believe that athletes’
bodies will soon hit a “ceiling,” a point at which physiological and anatomical
limits can be extended no further. Others wink and whisper that as long as ergo-
genic aids are so accessible athletes will continue to define new limits of perfor¬
mance.
High-Performance Sports Conditioning takes a different tack. In this book we’ve
assembled an expert panel of scientists and practitioners to present the present
and future of sports conditioning: functional training. Traditional training re¬
sulted in athletes with adequate aerobic and anaerobic capacity, sufficient mus¬
culature—lean or bulky depending on whether the amount of weight or the num¬
ber of reps was emphasized, and fair to poor flexibility. In other words, athletes
could pass a general physical exam and achieve acceptable scores on fitness tests.
All very fine, but what did such training contribute to athletes’ ability to play
their sport? Unfortunately, the gains were less than satisfactory.
The functional training advantage is this: After establishing a solid fitness base,
athletes do conditioning activities that are designed for the specific purpose of
enhancing their individual performance in their sport. The intensity, duration, and
frequency of aerobic and anaerobic work are tailored to the endurance and power
demanded in the activity. Resistance training zeroes in on the movement pat¬
terns, loads, and length of activity required of the athletes’ musculature during
practice and competition. Stretching exercises are specific to the joints, connec¬
tive tissue, and musculature most active in the sport and serve to develop dy¬
namic, multidirectional range of motion instead of static, single-plane flexibility.
Moreover, this new type of training also enhances those sports performance factors
that used to be thought of as part of an athlete’s “natural talent” and as being

VII
resistant to much conditioning-induced development. Not only are speed, agil¬
ity, coordination, balance, and other key factors being improved markedly through
effective functional training programs, but the drills and activities used to de¬
velop such attributes involve movement patterns and skills specific to the sport
and perhaps even to a designated position.
As you read High-Performance Sports Conditioning, the physical benefits of func¬
tional training will become as apparent to you as they are to those who imple¬
ment such conditioning programs. But another very real and important benefit
of functional training is that it keeps athletes sharper mentally and more moti¬
vated through each practice. Training activities are no longer seen as punish¬
ment and as being separate from actually playing the sport; now, each condition¬
ing exercise and drill is seen as contributing directly to performance.
The first part of High-Performance Sports Conditioning establishes the key com¬
ponents of athlete conditioning, explains how to test for baseline fitness levels,
and covers each major performance factor in depth. The second part of the book
takes the next step toward effective design and application of a functional train¬
ing program, developing drills and workouts that promote both skills and condi¬
tioning, and putting all of the pieces together with consideration for the peak
performance periods targeted throughout the annual training calendar. A clos¬
ing chapter addresses the very real challenge of how to help an athlete who is
returning from injury regain or exceed his or her preinjury performance level.
Functional training bridges the gap between the training room and playing
field. It is the result of many years of work by outstanding scientists and practi¬
tioners, many of whom have contributed to this book. And it’s much more than a
fad; it’s a proven approach to conditioning that produces the best possible sports
performance. You can use this book in many ways, as a reference, course text, or
training manual. The important thing is to use it often and get the functional
training advantage.
 pa
. 1

Developing the
Sports Performance
Foundation

If If hat aspects of sports conditioning are most important to assess and train in
to produce the highest athletic performance? You’ll find out in the ten chapters
in part I.
Dr. William Kraemer and Ana Gomez start with chapter 1, “Establishing a
Solid Fitness Base,” an overview of how we’ve come to know what we know
about solid conditioning, training principles, and the physiology of performance.
The chapter discusses the nine basic sports performance factors: power, strength,
speed, agility, coordination, quickness, flexibility, local muscular endurance, and
cardiovascular aerobic capacity. Gray Cook’s chapter 2, “Baseline Sports-Fitness
Testing,” tells you how to perform a functional movement screen on athletes to
assess their overall mobility and stability and functional performance.
Nikos Apolostopoulos covers “Performance Flexibility” in chapter 3 by intro¬
ducing an innovative technique he developed called micro-Stretching®. This
type of stretching is not a quick warm-up stretching routine, but rather a train¬
ing session in itself covering 14 total-body stretches. Steven Scott Plisk explains
the basics of movement mechanics, a muscle’s rate of force development, and
power in chapter 4, “Muscular Strength and Stamina.” He then provides train¬
ing methods for improving athletes’ maximum strength, strength endurance,
and speed strength. In chapter 5, “Explosive Power,” Donald A. Chu presents 15
plyometric exercises that offer a sure way to develop explosive power.
The quickest athlete will dominate in any one-on-one situation. In chapter 6,
“Fightning Quickness,” Peter Twist covers four types of factors that affect an
athlete’s quickness: biomechanical, anatomical and physiological, neuromuscu¬
lar, and bioenergetic. He then provides 18 drills that improve athletes’quickness.
E. Paul Roetert’s chapter 7, “3-D Balance and Core Stability,” explains why athletes

1
can improve their performance by enhancing their muscular balance, dynamic
balance, and core stability. The 28 single-joint, multijoint, dynamic, and stabi¬
lizing exercises provided in the chapter relate specifically to stabilizing the body
during athletic performance.
In chapter 8, “Agility and Coordination,” Mark Verstegen and Brandon
Marcello cover the foundations needed to improve these two building blocks of
movement. They offer six agility drills and sport-specific drills for 12 sports.
George Dintiman’s “Acceleration and Speed” (chapter 9) focuses first on recog¬
nizing the factors that can limit acceleration and speed, then on how to test and
evaluate an athlete’s strengths and weaknesses, and finally on some speed im¬
provement training programs, including four form-training drills and 13 speed¬
enhancing exercises. In chapter 10, “Aerobic Capacity for Endurance,” Jack
Daniels covers seven principles of aerobic training and explains how to measure
athletes’ current aerobic capacity.
Establishing a
Solid Fitness Base
William J. Kraemer and Ana L. Gomez

^Significant advances have been made in the process of physical conditioning

for sport over the past 50 years. In the 1950s and 1960s it was common for
athletes in team sports such as football and basketball to “play themselves”
into shape. Even athletes in individual sports did not commonly embrace the
concept of year-round conditioning in the 1940s, 1950s, and even into the
1960s. For example, several 10K runners in the 1948 Olympic Games had
trained for only six months before the event.
Gradually, competitors and coaches began to attribute the success of certain
individuals and teams to their intense physical conditioning: perhaps it was true
that conditioning could provide an edge in competition. Yet the scientific under¬
pinnings for many conditioning methods were in their infancy. The common

3
4 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

methods of communication about training techniques involved copying the cham¬

pion performer and word of mouth in the gym. In addition, muscle magazines in
the area of “physical culture” provided information to athletes on training tech¬
niques.
As competitive demands started to rise (e.g., the first sub four-minute mile was
run, the first 500-pound clean and jerk was lifted, the first sub 2:10.00 marathon
was achieved) at all levels in athletics, interest in physical conditioning as the
focal component of a sports training program became more important. The major
sports of football and basketball were becoming big business in the 1970s on
both the major college and professional levels. Any organization that hoped to
succeed needed athletes who could perform at high levels and, in the profes¬
sional ranks, athletes who could stay healthy and have long careers.
By the late 1970s the concept of a strength and conditioning coach had be¬
come formalized with the founding of the National Strength Coaches Associa¬
tion in 1978. Renamed the National Strength and Conditioning Association
(NSCA) a few years later, one of its specific missions was to encourage the ex¬
change of ideas among strength and conditioning coaches. At first, this desire by
coaches for new knowledge and research in strength and conditioning for ath¬
letes was limited because most of the scientific studies in the 1960s and 1970s
focused on cardiovascular and aerobic conditioning methods. Only a few scien¬
tists had studied the effects of strength training on performance. By the late
1980s the study of anaerobic metabolism, strength training, and other athletic
attributes such as agility became popular and, more important, accepted as a
valid line of investigation in the scientific world. The “art” of coaching strength and
conditioning had now become more of a profession. The knowledge base for so-
called clinical judgments in the development of training programs could be based
on scientific facts and athletic testing. Among strength and conditioning profes¬
sionals, debate could be based on facts rather than the philosophies and anecdotal
observations that had been the basis for almost all training theory up to the early
1980s.
Another focal point and original mission of the NSCA in 1978 was to bridge
the gap between the coach and the laboratory scientist. The coach was becoming
a professional, capable of prescribing exercise in a manner similar to the way a
physician treats disease in his or her patients. The prescription process includes
reviewing the athlete’s history, conducting preliminary testing, determining goals,
and ultimately matching a specific training program to initial needs. Using the
knowledge base established by scientific studies, the coach evaluates the efficacy
of potential programs to meet specific goals in developing the conditioning pro¬
gram for the athlete (Fleck and Kraemer 1997). The success of the program is
then evaluated with further assessments, and program elements are changed to
meet the dynamic needs and goals of the athlete over time (Kraemer and Fry
1995). Thus, a strength and conditioning program becomes a dynamic process
that requires attention to the ever-changing knowledge base, continual evalua¬
tion of progress toward specific training goals, and management of each athlete’s
total conditioning program.
With the advent of professional certification (the CSCS offered by the NSCA)
in strength and conditioning, this composite job has achieved unique status in
the field of coaching. The strength and conditioning specialist has become an
 Establishing a Solid Fitness Base 5

important element of the athletic support staff, taking a place alongside the ath¬
letic trainer, sport nutritionist, sport physical therapist, and team physician.
The 1980s and 1990s brought continued expansion of study in the field and an
explosion of technology that could be applied to strength and conditioning. Al¬
most all collegiate athletes and elite athletes in the professional ranks now par¬
ticipate in year-round conditioning programs. Coaches are hungry for new train¬
ing ideas and new equipment to use as conditioning tools in the weight room,
gym, and on the field.
By the 1990s, many products had become available to aid athletic performance
and prevent injury across several professions in the field now commonly called
sports medicine. Over 150 equipment companies now sell various machines for
strengthening and conditioning athletes. The invention of new products has es¬
calated in the field of sports medicine. Medications, surgical techniques, and
therapies are available to treat and prevent injuries. The clothing, shoes, equip¬
ment, and competition venues (tracks, swimming pools, etc.) used by athletes in
training and competition have also improved each year to help boost athletic
performance. Olympic gold medalist Rafer Johnson commented that he would
have loved to have worn a pair of shoes like those that athletes run in today when
he competed in the decathlon in Rome in 1960. He feels he could have boosted
his performance with this simple addition of new technology. Sport nutrition
also became more broadly recognized in the 1990s as an important dimension of
the athlete’s training program. Thus, many elements that support the development
of athletes have improved, helping athletes raise the bar on performance. Neverthe¬
less, central to this whole phenomenon has been the quality and type of exercise
stimuli used to prepare the athlete’s body for elite competition.

A COMPREHENSIVE SPORTS-FITNESS BASE

Developing a sports-fitness base is important for both the performance and the
health of the athlete (Hoffman, Sheldahl, and Kraemer 1998). A comprehensive
program, which addresses each aspect of the athlete’s physical and mental capa¬
bilities, is imperative for total success. Total conditioning was another concept
promoted by the NSCA in its infancy. A comprehensive approach to the athlete
was influenced by the perceived approach taken by the former Soviet Union and
Eastern Bloc countries in developing their athletes (Mateyev 1972; Medvedyev
1988). In this approach to athlete development, sport coaches, physicians, and
sport scientists teamed up to get the most out of an athlete—an individual who
had been screened for specific athletic potential. By the late 1970s the United
States Olympic Committee had established their first Olympic Training Center
in Colorado Springs to help put a scientific component into training athletes. By
the mid to late 1990s coaches realized the importance of individualized training
programs and began to develop them. Many professional athletes had their own
conditioning coaches, sport psychologists, athletic trainers, sport nutritionists,
and even massage therapists to help them with individual physical and mental
preparation, injury management, nutrition, and recovery from training and com¬
petition.
The basic functioning of each physiological system is vital to the health and
performance success of the athlete. A needs analysis for any sports conditioning
6 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

program evaluates the demands of the sport, which include the range of meta¬
bolic requirements, the injury potential for different parts of the body, and the
types of muscle actions or biomechanical characteristics involved in the sport
(Fleck and Kraemer 1997). In sports medicine the first step is a thorough
precompetition physical exam by the team physician to rule out potential pa¬
thologies and establish the fundamental health of the athlete. Documentation of
prior injury is also important because part of the subsequent exercise prescrip¬
tion is designed to prevent both primary and secondary injuries (Hoffman,
Sheldahl, and Kraemer 1998). It is vital that a comprehensive testing program be
established to quantify the athlete’s fitness levels (Kraemer and Fry 1995). From
such testing, coaches and athletes can establish training goals, assess progress,
and determine the effectiveness of each aspect of the program (e.g., strength,
power, flexibility) at different phases of the program (see chapter 2).

SPORTS PERFORMANCE FACTORS

Many diverse factors have been considered important for sports fitness. How¬
ever, the degree of reliance on each component is completely dependent on the
specificity of each sport (swimming versus diving) or, in some cases, even within
the sport (linemen versus running backs in football). Sports-fitness characteris¬
tics beyond physical size and inherent biological characteristics include power,
strength, speed, agility, coordination, quickness, flexibility, local muscular en¬
durance, and cardiovascular aerobic capacity and endurance.

Power
Power may be the most important factor in sports performance because the abil¬
ity to produce force in a brief amount of time is vital to most sports skills, such as
the vertical jump (Newton, Kraemer, and Hakkinen 1999). Also called speed
strength by some, power plays a crucial role in all sports performance. In fact, the
inability to maintain power output is considered by many to be representative of
a state of fatigue.
Power output, although highly related to strength, especially at the higher
levels of force, must be developed as a separate fitness component (Kraemer et
al. 1995). This is especially important where development of acceleration is vital
to the sport skill or rate of force development at the faster time points in the
force-time curve (Fleck and Kraemer 1997). Although it may require an athlete
0.4 to 0.5 seconds to reach maximal force in performing a one-repetition maxi¬
mum (1RM), the amount of time available to exert force in competition (e.g., for
the forearm shiver in American football) may be as little as 0.1 second or less,
thus making force capabilities after that time point irrelevant or at least unused.

Strength
The ability to produce maximal force is a classic performance ability of all ath¬
letes. Some athletes may depend on this characteristic more than others do (e.g.,
wrestlers versus distance runners). Strength is vital to power development at
higher levels of force (moving heavier weights quickly) and provides the physi-
 Establishing a Solid Fitness Base 7

ological stimuli needed for collateral development of other systems such as con¬
nective tissue. Strength development also engages motor units, which allow for
the development of muscle hypertrophy. Preliminary data indicate that exercis¬
ing with loads in the 3RM to 5RM range using multiple sets stimulates strength
development and hypertrophy of all muscle fiber types because all are recruited
by such training. However, such intensity must be periodized over the long-term
training program. The development of strength is crucial for almost all sports for
potentially different reasons. Distance runners, for example, may need to develop
strength to offset the breakdown of tissue with high-volume, high-intensity mile¬
age, whereas wrestlers’ strength development benefits their ability to produce
and sustain maximal force. Also, strength must be maintained during power de¬
velopment phases of training.

Speed
Speed has been called the defining difference in many sports. Many games are
simply played faster as athletes progress to the next level of competition (Fry and
Kraemer 1991). Speed in forward, backward, and lateral positions is important
to many sports. With stops and starts, speed merges into .the concept of agility.
Speed is a vital attribute of strategy in many sports. Being able to move from
point A to point B quickly allows the athletes to set up in the proper position for
a sport skill (e.g., to hit the ball in tennis) or simply gives them a pure advantage
in the competition (e.g., being able to break away to the goal in soccer).

Agility
The ability to stop and change direction quickly is an obvious example of a physical
characteristic that provides a vital translation of speed in almost all sports. Few
sports require speed in only a straight-line movement. Agility is a total-body
phenomenon specific to the sports skill. Some sports also require the ability to
move with a sports implement. For example, in one of our studies competitive
tennis players showed greater agility when using a racket than without it, indi¬
cating that motor patterns are highly cued by the manipulation of the imple¬
ment. Other sports such as football, racquetball, lacrosse, and basketball have
interfaces with a sports implement or ball. Therefore, training agility using the
implement may be vital for optimal transfer of the attribute to the actual sport
competition.

Coordination
Coordination takes on many aspects of physical ability. Coordination can reflect
how well joints manage the muscular firing patterns between or among them.
Coordination can also indicate how well the athlete fires his or her motor-unit
pattern for muscular force in relationship to the use of an implement such as a
tennis racket or baseball bat. It can suggest how well an athlete times a jump to
catch a ball or make a shot. Coordination is crucial in the hand-eye relationship
needed in sports such as golf or baseball. Thus, coordinated movements in sports
can be vital within the context of the sport.
8 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Quickness
Quickness is a complex physical skill as well. Simplistically, quickness involves
reaction time and movement time in response to a specific stimulus or set of
stimuli. Anticipation is another dimension. The nature of the stimulus is one of
the more intriguing questions in sport. What is it that an athlete responds to? Is
it a touch? A look? A feel? The reaction to the stimuli within the sport context is the
first cue needed for success. Only then does the ability to produce force quickly
(power), which is based on the motor capability of the athlete, come into play. Fine
motor movements such as a tennis player making a volley at the net and larger
gross motor movements such as a running back making a cut in American foot¬
ball are different and may need to be trained differently within the sport context.

Flexibility
Flexibility, or the ability to move the joints in the needed range of motion de¬
manded by the sport, is vital. For years some coaches and athletes feared that
weight training would reduce flexibility and create “muscle-bound” athletes, but
research has since shown that intelligent training, even with heavy weights, does
not negatively affect flexibility.
Flexibility is highly variable among athletes, as are muscle stiffness and joint
stiffness, and women are typically more flexible than men. Each athlete can have
different levels of flexibility in various movements. Moreover, maximal flexibil¬
ity is not vital in all sports because it is only necessary that the athlete perform
the necessary sports skills with adequate range of motion. The golf swing is a
good example of this. In some sports, flexibility in some movements is sacrificed
to optimize the muscular support needed for the movement. For example, flex¬
ibility to touch elbow to opposite elbow in front of the body may be limited due
to massive pectoral development needed for lifting heavy weights in the bench
press. Thus, the amount of hypertrophy needed in different body parts and its
effect on flexibility must be examined to prevent development of a physical bar¬
rier of muscle that would limit movement needed in the sport.
Weight training has been shown to improve flexibility, but specific flexibility
training programs may also be needed to further enhance flexibility. In weight
training, a full range of motion is typically used to enhance flexibility when exer¬
cising. It is vital to exercise both sides of a joint so as not to limit joint flexibility
(Fleck and Kraemer 1997). Flexibility is an important component of any training
program because it dictates movement ability for sports skills.
Athletes make diverse selections from among many types of stretching exer¬
cises. They typically stretch at the beginning and the end of a training session or
workout. The benefits of stretching increase greatly, however, when the tem¬
perature of the joint is warmer than it would be at rest, making an active warm¬
up before stretching (e.g., jogging) important in a workout sequence.
Flexibility is important for athletic performance in several ways. Sometimes
internal resistance within a joint may limit movement, and improving flexibility
will increase the mobility of a joint. The bony structures of athletes vary and
occasionally limit movement. Greater flexibility can improve athletic performance
following injury. Muscle tissue that has been scarred because of an injury may
 Establishing a Solid Fitness Base 9

not be elastic, thus limiting the mobility of an athlete and his or her ability to
perform at maximum levels. Flexibility chronically increases the elasticity of
muscle tissue and may contribute to increased athletic performance. Recent studies
have raised a concern that stretching prior to some activities such as the vertical
jump or isokinetic force production may in fact reduce force and power perfor¬
mance acutely. More study will be needed to clarify this finding and to deter¬
mine the timeline of effects. Nevertheless, flexibility training is still important..

Local Muscular Endurance

Classically, local muscular endurance has been defined as the ability to perform
repeated muscular actions. This can range from whole-body movements, a ver¬
tical jump for example, to single-joint movements such as repeated elbow flex¬
ion. Although the leg musculature of a marathon runner may be perceived to
have a high level of fitness for local muscular endurance, many athletes are inter¬
ested in the ability to perform repeated bouts of exercise at a relatively high
power output (e.g., maximal vertical jumps in basketball). Because over 80 per¬
cent of competitive sports are dominated by anaerobic function, the ability to
reproduce athletic movements at a relatively high percentage of maximal power
output throughout a competition has become even more important. Condition¬
ing the body to produce repetitive maximal efforts with little or no drop-off in
performance has been the focus of many conditioning programs. In addition,
the ability to perform repetitive bouts of exercise under stressful metabolic con¬
ditions such as high muscle-lactate concentrations has also become important to
some sports (wrestling, for example). Thus, training for local muscular endur¬
ance is an important aspect of elite training programs (Kraemer 1997).

Cardiovascular Aerobic Capacity and Endurance

Development of a minimal level of cardiovascular fitness may be required for all
sports. Obviously, some sports have greater reliance on aerobic energy sources
supported by cardiovascular mechanisms. For example, endurance running re¬
lies more on aerobic energy than sprinting. But the concept of an aerobic base
(i.e., minimal aerobic fitness level) does not mean all athletes need to perform
distance running to achieve cardiovascular fitness. In fact, in some cases too much
aerobic training can diminish the magnitude of gains in muscular power, speed,
and strength (Fleck and Kraemer 1997; Kraemer et al. 1995). Therefore, other pro¬
grams for cardiovascular training within the context of the sport, such as interval
sprints for football players, may provide a more compatible training option.
The cardiovascular system is involved with a host of bodily functions (Fleck
and Kraemer 1997). This includes delivery of oxygen and nutrients, removal of
carbon dioxide and metabolic by-products from muscle and other tissues, trans¬
portation of compounds to the liver and other organs, assistance in regulation of
body temperature, and transportation of hormones to their target tissues in the
body. Thus, enhancement of the cardiovascular system increases the overall physio¬
logical function of the athlete. Cardiovascular conditioning is typically evaluated
by the amount of oxygen that can be consumed—maximal oxygen consump¬
tion—or the efficiency of its use (e.g., running economy) during exercise.
10 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

In general, aerobic training results in an increase in the number of capillaries

and mitochondria of activated muscle fibers (Kraemer, Fleck, and Evans 1996).
The increase in the number of capillaries allows the blood to perfuse the muscle
fibers more completely, delivering more oxygen and nutrients to each individual
muscle fiber. The increase in the number of the mitochondria favorably enhances
metabolic energy production from aerobic sources. Endurance training increases
the ability of the muscle to use fat as a fuel and to rely less on carbohydrate
energy while it reduces lactic acid and thus increases the lactate threshold. Pre¬
serving the carbohydrate stores in the liver and muscle provides the extra glu¬
cose needed during extended performance.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PERFORMANCE

Muscles are connected to tendons, which are connected to bones. The ability of
the human body to move involves the stimulation of muscle in a specific manner.
This in turn produces force, which ultimately causes the movement of the bone
segments. Movement can be simple as in elbow flexion, which involves just one
joint, or more complex as in a vertical jump, which involves a multijoint move¬
ment. Communication demands for muscles in multijoint movements are differ¬
ent from communication demands for single-joint movements. Thus, in a training
program to optimize sports fitness, it is neccessary to train multijoint move¬
ments. The importance of training multijoint movements along with single-joint
movements is based on this different pattern of neuromuscular activation and
coordinated communication (Kraemer, Fleck, and Evans 1996).
A motor unit is the alpha motor neuron and its associated muscle fibers. When
a motor unit is stimulated, all the muscle fibers in that motor unit are activated
to contract. Motor units are recruited to produce a certain pattern of force—
high force, power, speed, etc. The size principle is one of the primary concepts
in neuromuscular activation (for review see Fleck and Kraemer 1997). In gen¬
eral, when only a small amount of force is required by a muscle, low-threshold
motor units, which contain low numbers of fibers, small muscle fibers, or type I
slow-twitch muscle fibers, are stimulated. As more force and power are needed,
higher threshold motor units, which contain more muscle fibers, bigger fibers,
or type II fast-twitch muscle fibers that can contract more forcefully and quickly,
are recruited or stimulated. This means that for most activities lower threshold
motor units are recruited before the higher ones, even when leading up to maxi¬
mal voluntary recruitment of all available motor units. Exceptions to the size
principle, in which lower threshold motor units are inhibited so that an athlete
can jump more quickly to the use of higher threshold motor units, have been
seen in well-practiced power and speed recruitment demands. Therefore it is
clear that all sports skills have specific patterns of muscle recruitment of intact
muscle to perform a skill. Unless one recruits a muscle fiber by activating its
motor unit with an appropriate exercise demand, few training adaptations occur.
Finally, some scientists believe that only so much of the total neuromuscular
motor-unit pool can be voluntarily recruited. This means that all of the motor
units cannot be fired or activated at the same time. It has been proposed that
there is a “centrally mediated” safety range for muscle activation. Many training
 Establishing a Solid Fitness Base 11

programs have tried to reduce the amount of inhibition to gain greater vol¬
untary control of more motor units for maximal exertion (Kraemer and Koziris
1994).
The most important part of a training program is the pattern of recruitment of
the motor units used in the activity. The principle of specificity states that
carryover from a training activity to a sport is dependent on the similarity of the
neuromuscular demands of the activity and the sport. Of course, many skills
make up a sport. Therefore, a training program must address all of the various
muscle actions used in the skills involved. It is possible to achieve 100 percent
specificity only by performing the skills; overload of the muscles’ actions in the
context of the sports skills cannot accomplish this objective. It is also possible to
overload the rate of force development, power, force characteristics, and so on
using the basic biomechanical movements needed to train general body move¬
ments used in the sport. It is an oversimplification to say that it is necessary only
to strengthen muscle and then practice the sport because that statement addresses
only one component—strength—of muscular development. Many other biome¬
chanical characteristics can be trained, as discussed earlier. Oversimplification of
the way the neuromuscular system functions could lead to limited use of a vari¬
ety of beneficial training tools—plyometrics, speed drills, power movements,
strength training, flexibility training, and so on. Each of these components can
augment the total integrated skill in a properly developed conditioning pro¬
gram.
The muscle fibers in the motor units that are activated are either type I (slow
twitch) or type II (fast twitch) (Kraemer, Fleck, and Evans 1996). Within each
muscle fiber a continuum of fiber types exists, reflecting different enzymatic and
protein contents. For example, as an athlete stimulates a type IIB muscle fiber, it
slowly shifts to a type IIAB and then to type IIA muscle fiber with faster contrac¬
tile enzymes and stronger protein structures to tolerate higher use. In fact, with
training, almost all type IIB muscle fibers can be converted to type IIA fiber
types (Fleck and Kraemer 1997; Kraemer et al. 1995). Training affects many
characteristics of a muscle fiber—amount of enzymes, number of mitochondria,
number of capillaries, amount of glycogen, and so forth (for review see Kraemer,
Fleck, and Evans 1996). The underlying changes in each muscle fiber depend on
the specific type of exercise stimulus it receives. Although the subject is beyond
the scope of this chapter, an understanding of the various types of adaptations
that take place in response to different types of exercise training can help a coach
understand subsequent changes in performance (Kraemer, Duncan, and Harman
1998; Kraemer, Fleck, and Evans 1996; Kraemer et al. 1995). High-power and
high-force motor units use a different set of fibers than do the low-power motor
units used in more aerobic activities. Unless significant energy substrates in muscle
are lost, motor-unit activation attempts to recruit the type of fibers needed for
the metabolic and force demands of the activity. For example, elite marathon
runners have high percentages of type I fibers in their lower-body musculature
because type II muscle fibers would not be optimal for force production. Type II
fibers would produce more metabolic by-products such as lactic acid, which would
be metabolically counterproductive to an elite performance in which higher lac¬
tate thresholds are optimal.
12 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

BASIC TRAINING PRINCIPLES

Many principles govern physical conditioning programs. As noted earlier, one
important principle is that programs should be specific to the sport and should
meet the individual needs of the athlete. A related principle that has played an
important role in our understanding of physical conditioning is the SAID prin¬
ciple, the principle of specific adaptations to imposed demands. Both principles
point to the importance of training for the specific sport. Nevertheless, each
athlete will bring to the program a specific set of genetically based capabilities
and physiological strategies. In turn, each sport favors specific biological strate¬
gies for success based on the rules of the game and its physiological and biome¬
chanical demands (McCall et al. 1999). For example, it should be obvious that
only those athletes with a specific set of inherent characteristics trained to the
limits of their genetic potential will be on the starting line for the Olympic mara¬
thon or 100-meter sprint, will play center in the NBA, or will be on the lifting
platform in the next Olympic Games. As performance demands go up—being a
center in basketball in the NBA compared with playing center in high school—
the number of physical, physiological, and biomechanical strategies for success
will be reduced—you must be tall enough to play center in the NBA. In some
team sports a greater number of strategies may exist to get the job done because
of diversity in the various positions. Physical conditioning appears to improve
inherent genetic basis (change in the phenotypic expression based on genotype
you have) by about 15 to 45 percent depending on the specific characteristic
(e.g., muscle-fiber size or heart size) being trained. This is different from a train¬
ing improvement in a relative performance such as a vertical jump or strength;
you may improve your 1RM by 100 percent as you train from an untrained state.
It is a combination of inherent biological genetic factors that ultimately makes
elite performance possible.
It is well known in sports that recruiting is vital to success. We often hear that
an athlete picked his or her parents well. Thus, sports fitness is based on training
what the athlete brings to the table. Sports skills and sports strategy also contrib¬
ute to success in games or competitions and thereby help to reduce reliance on
genetics. Finally, a host of other factors, from psychological factors to environ¬
mental conditions, can affect performance success. Sport is thus a dynamic sce¬
nario to prepare for, but physical conditioning is an essential element in the
success formula for an athlete at any level.
Operationally defined by the exercise prescription, an exercise training pro¬
gram has several fundamental characteristics: frequency of exercise, duration of
exercise, and intensity of exercise. Each of these variables is defined within the
construct of the exercise modality (e.g., strength or aerobic) or program type
(e.g., local muscular endurance weight-training program versus strength weight¬
training program). The frequency of exercise refers to the number of workouts
per week and per day. Many training programs use workouts two or three times
a day during certain phases of training to shorten the single workout and to
increase the quality of exercise. This has been especially successful with resis¬
tance-training protocols.
In resistance exercise a single workout is described by the choice of exercises,
the order of exercises, the amount of rest between sets and exercises, the number
 Establishing a Solid Fitness Base 13

of sets for each exercise, and the intensity used (Fleck and Kraemer 1997; Kraemer
and Harman 1998). The choice of exercises will affect many characteristics of
muscle activation. Is a given exercise fixed form, involving a movement pattern
that is fixed and balanced, or is it free form, using free weights that must be
balanced with more use of the assistance muscles? Is it a single-joint or multijoint
exercise? Is it an isometric, isokinetic, or “isotonic” exercise type? Being able to
perform exercises and variations properly depends on having an in-depth under¬
standing of equipment characteristics. The order of exercises affects the amount
of fatigue and therefore the quality of the workout. The rest between the sets
and exercises will dictate the degree of metabolic strain. Shorter rest periods
(e.g., one minute) can produce higher lactate concentrations and require the use
of lighter loads in subsequent sets if the athlete has not adapted to the dramatic
disruption in the acid-base balance—the increase in hydrogen ions, decrease in
pH, and increase in lactic acid. The number of sets will affect the volume of a
particular exercise. Remember that an athlete need not perform the same num¬
ber of sets of all exercises in a workout (Kraemer 1997).
The intensity of the exercise is typically defined as the amount of external
resistance that the muscles must work against. Many studies have shown that a
continuum of loading exists (Fleck and Kraemer 1997). Training adaptations for
strength occur across all loads with the greatest changes taking place with loads
in the 1RM to 10RM range. Local muscular endurance is enhanced with loading
lighter than 15RM.
By using these five fundamental acute program variables—choice of exercises,
order of exercise, amount of rest between sets and exercises, number of sets, and
amount of resistance—it is possible to create many different types of resistance
exercise workouts. The challenge is to plan how to change these variables over
time to produce overload but not overtraining (Kraemer and Nindl 1998).
Overload is another basic concept that has been around since the inception of
physical training. From ancient times when Milo would each day lift a growing
young calf, demanding more from the muscle each day has been a basic principle
of resistance training. A vital corollary to the concept of overload is the concept
of training periodization. This type of sequencing, or periodizing, builds pro¬
gressive overload in a training program while allowing needed variation in the
training stimuli, along with rest and recovery, to allow the body to adapt posi¬
tively to the exercise program. Positive adaptations in the physiological systems
of the body influence the motor and biomechanical abilities of sports skills. Con¬
comitant with this process of physical development is the psychological develop¬
ment needed to cope with the many demands in sports.

PERIODIZATION
Periodization has been one of the more important training theories related to
sports conditioning over the past 30 years (Fleck and Kraemer 1997; Mateyev
1972; Medvedyev 1988; Stone, O’Bryant, and Garhammer 1981). Periodized
training involves planned variation in the intensity of exercises and in the vol¬
ume of a workout. Although periodization is typically used in resistance-training
programs, any conditioning program can and should be periodized to provide
variation in the exercise stimulus along with added rest and recovery.
14 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

There are a number of periodization schemes that can be used in resistance

training (Polquin and King 1992; Willoughby 1993) for both larger- and smaller-
muscle groups. A coach must consider the type of periodized program to use.
Two basic types have been developed: linear and nonlinear periodized protocols
for maximal strength development. Let’s examine some of the basic differences
between linear and nonlinear periodization when strength and power are the
primary goals of a training program.

Linear Methods
Classic or linear periodization methods use a progressive increase in the inten¬
sity with small variations in each two- to four-week microcycle. For example, a
classic four-cycle linear periodized program (four weeks for each cycle) may in¬
clude the following:

Microcycle 1: 3 to 5 sets of 12 to 15RM

Microcycle 2: 4 to 5 sets of 8 to 12RM
Microcycle 3: 3 to 4 sets of 4 to 6RM
Microcycle 4: 3 to 5 sets of 1 to 3RM

Note the variation within each four-week microcycle due to the repetition
range of each cycle. Still, the general trend for the 16-week program is a steady
linear increase in intensity. Because of the straight-line increase in intensity, this
program is an example of linear periodized training.
The volume of the training program will also vary in the classic program,
starting with a higher initial volume and a lower intensity. As the intensity of
the program increases, the volume gradually decreases. The drop-off in vol¬
ume of exercise can become less pronounced as the training status of the
athlete advances. In other words, advanced athletes with significant progres¬
sion in their training can tolerate higher volumes of exercise during the heavy
and very heavy microcycles. Breaking up workouts throughout the day facilitates
this tolerance.
Note that it is important not to progress too quickly to training with high
volumes using heavy weights. Too much too soon can lead to development of an
overtraining syndrome (Kraemer and Nindl 1998), which can compromise
progress for months. Although it takes a great deal of excessive work to produce
an overtraining effect, highly motivated trainees can easily cross the line out of
sheer desire to make gains and see progress in their training (Fry and Kraemer
1997; Kraemer and Nindl 1998). Therefore, it is important to monitor the stress
of workouts for all exercises performed in a total conditioning program. Re¬
member, exercises within a total program can interact to compromise other pro¬
grams; for example, long-distance running can affect power development.
High-volume exercise in the early microcycles has been thought to promote
the muscle hypertrophy needed to enhance strength in the later phases of train¬
ing. Thus, the late cycles of training are linked to the early cycles of training.
The cycles enhance one another because strength gains are related to size changes
in the muscle. Programs that attempt to gain strength without muscle hyper¬
trophy can be successful after initial increases in muscle size occur from the un-
 Establishing a Solid Fitness Base 15

trained state. This occurs as a function of the specific program used (e.g., load¬
ing, volume, etc.). In some cases, such as golf, the goal of continued hypertrophy
of muscle is not important and could be counterproductive to skill development.
In other words, not all athletes need to be big to be successful.
As the program progresses and the trainee begins to use heavier resistance, the
increase in the intensity of the periodized program then starts to develop ner¬
vous system adaptations for enhanced motor-unit recruitment. Heavier weights
demand that high-threshold motor units become involved in the force-produc¬
tion process. The increase in muscle protein in the muscles from the early cycle
of training enhances the force production of the motor units. Here again, there
is an integration of the different parts of the 16-week training program.
A 16-week program is called a mesocycle, and several mesocycles make up a
yearlong training program, or macrocycle. Each mesocycle attempts to advance
physical development toward the training goals. Thus, the theoretical basis for a
linear method of periodization consists of the development of hypertrophy fol¬
lowed by the improvement of nerve function to produce optimal force in specific
movements. This progression is repeated with each mesocycle to achieve progress
in the training program. Linear periodization also provides rest and recovery.

Nonlinear Periodized Programs

More recently, the concept of nonlinear periodized training programs has been
developed to maintain variation in the training stimulus (Polquin and King 1992).
Nonlinear periodized training makes program implementation possible when
competitive demands or other demands are intense. The nonlinear program al¬
lows for variation in the intensity and volume within each week over the course
of the training program. Intensity and volume of training will vary within the
week. An example of a week during a nonlinear periodized training program
over a 16-week mesocycle would include the following:

Monday: 4 sets of 12 to 15RM (or replace this with a power workout of 30%
oflRM)
Wednesday: 4 sets of 8 to 1ORM
Friday: 3 to 4 sets of 4 to 6RM
Monday: 4 to 5 sets of 1 to 3RM

This protocol uses a four-day rotation with one day of rest between workouts.
The variation in training is much greater within the week. Intensity spans over
a range of 1RM to 15RM sets during the week’s cycle. Training with this varia¬
tion in intensity appears to be as effective as training using linear programs.
Unlike the linear programs, in nonlinear programs the athlete trains the dif¬
ferent components of muscle size and strength, both the hypertrophy and the
neural aspects of strength, within the same week. Thus, the athlete is addressing
two different physiological adaptations within the same 7- to 10-day period of
the 16-week mesocycle. This approach appears to be possible and may be more
compatible with the schedules of many individuals, especially when competi¬
tions, travel, and other commitments make adhering to the traditional linear
method difficult.
16 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

In this program, athletes simply rotate through the different protocols. The
workout rotates between heavy, moderate, light, and power training sessions. If
an athlete misses the Monday workout, the rotation order is just pushed for¬
ward, meaning that he or she performs the missed workout on the next workout
day. For example, an athlete who misses the light 12 to 15RM workout (which
provides rest for many motor units) scheduled for Monday would simply per¬
form it on Wednesday and continue with the rotation sequence. In this way,
none of the workout stimuli in the training program are missed. Rather than
consisting of a set number of training weeks, a mesocycle in this program con¬
sists of a certain number of workouts (e.g., 48).
Both the linear and nonlinear program schedules appear to accomplish the
same effect and are superior to constant training programs (Kraemer 1997;
Willoughby 1993). Coaches can periodize a program by either training the hy¬
pertrophy component first and the neural strength component second in the
linear method or by training both components within a 7- to 10-day period in
the nonlinear method. The key to workout success is variation. Coaches can use
different approaches over the year to provide adequate variation.

PERFORMANCE STRATEGIES
Each athlete brings to the specific sport competition a set of physiological and
psychological strategies. A performance strategy includes the attributes that the
athlete brings to the competition (e.g., body mass, height, muscle fiber type, and
anxiety levels). Genetic inheritance, along with training, contributes to the sta¬
tus of the available strategies. How the athlete uses them or integrates them in a
performance dictates the degree of success. Some attributes, such as height, can¬
not be trained. Each sport has a specific set of demands for success based on the
characteristics and rules of the game or competition. The determinants of suc¬
cess in each sport have changed as rules have changed; for example, no blocking
below the waist in American football has made taller linemen more effective.
Athletes are continually bringing more capability to each sport; therefore, over
the years the level of performance has increased. For example, men’s 100-meter
dash times on the elite level are typically below 10.0 seconds (Kraemer and Koziris
1994). This has made the strategies for success—such as the need for type II
(fast-twitch) muscle fibers to be an elite sprinter—at the elite level of competi¬
tion even more restrictive; you do not see athletes with a high percentage of type
I (slow-twitch) muscle fibers running a 10-second 100-meter dash. The ability
of the athlete to match physiological and psychological attributes to the demands
of competition dictates success at all levels. As competitive demands (higher
levels of competition) increase, so too do the demands on strategies.
In many sports, however, success can build on several attributes once the sports
skills are solid. Most sports have complex demands. One athlete may succeed
using one set of strategies while another athlete succeeds in the same sport using
a different set. For example, in baseball one athlete may be tall, have large muscle
mass in the upper and lower body, and be powerful. Another athlete might be
short, have a lower muscle mass, and be extremely quick. Each can be a Hall of
Fame baseball player but for different reasons: one for hitting home runs and
 Establishing a Solid Fitness Base 17

hitting, and the other for fielding and hitting. Thus, baseball may allow many
different strategies to be successful. Yet, we are just starting to understand what
components explain the performances of elite competitors in many team sports.
Nevertheless, an athlete must have a fundamental level of skill in any sport in
order to engage physiological or psychological abilities (e.g., speed is not impor¬
tant in a hurdle race if you do not know how to negotiate a hurdle properly). At
the elite level of sport, some attribute or some combination of attributes must pro¬
vide a unique strategy to lift performance to the elite level. Integration of various
capabilities may also be involved at the elite levels, thus making prediction of success
in many sports difficult.
In a recent interview Tiger Woods alluded to the fact that golfers are now
paying greater attention to their physical conditioning and are starting to train
with weights. He stated that they are becoming better athletes with greater physi¬
cal capabilities to use in their games. Nevertheless, the muscular development
demands of a golfer are far different from those of a football player. Therefore,
sport-specific, individualized programs must be used in conditioning. Even ath¬
letes with outstanding natural physical and psychological abilities in a sport can
use physical conditioning to take those abilities to higher levels of performance.
At the elite level, the prevention of injury and an enhanced ability to recover
from small injuries contribute to success and a long career.

SUMMARY
The elite performances seen in sports today are a function of genetic inherit¬
ance, accomplished sports skills, psychological skills, and physical conditioning.
In order to excel, the athlete should bring to his or her sport an entire strategy,
which can be enhanced by physical conditioning and by establishing a solid fit¬
ness base for the sport. Thus the basis for elite performance in competition is
not a single factor but a combination of many factors coming together. Ulti¬
mately, individualized, sport-specific strength and conditioning programs can
enhance the fitness base for all athletes.
 -

■V ,

.
Baseline Sports-Fitness
Testing
Gray Cook

f esting is used throughout athletics to document, assess, and predict sports

performance. A review of the current literature reveals many interpretations of
testing philosophy and methods. It is first necessary to define the intent of baseline
testing and then develop a practical model for application. Miller and Keane
(1997) define base as “the lowest part or foundation of anything.” Baseline is defined
as “an observation or value that represents the normal background level of
measurable quality.” The operative words in these two accepted definitions are

19
20 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

foundation, the fundamental or essential components of a system or structure, and

quality, a range, degree, or grade of excellence. Note that the word quality is used—
not quantity. Most current testing methods are quantity based (time, distance,
force, etc.), not quality based. The purpose of baseline testing is to demonstrate
the fundamental building blocks of athleticism and preparedness for sport. Each
building block should have specific relevance to athletics. The word function has
become popular as a term to represent movements that are specific to a given
activity. It is important to reconstruct testing using the terms quality, foundation,
and f motion to represent accurately the purpose of baseline testing.
The goal of this chapter is to present a model that makes use of principles
consistent with motor learning. Early testing practices focused on physiological
energy systems and sport-specificity. This chapter will introduce functional move¬
ment patterns and motor control as key building blocks of performance. Ex¬
amples of testing are presented; however the reader is encouraged to create new
tests or to adapt conventional tests to fit within the proposed model.

CONSTRUCTING A TESTING MODEL

Baseline testing should ask three questions, regardless of the athlete’s sport or position:

1. What is the status of fundamental or functional movement quality? Funda¬

mental movement quality includes range of motion, balance, body control,
and stability.
2. What is the status of fundamental or functional performance quantity? This
describes functional movements, which are graded by time or distance. Ex¬
amples of fundamental performance are the 40-yard sprint, the vertical leap,
and so on. These movements should look at performance from a general
viewpoint and not be sport specific; this will allow the comparison of all ath¬
letes before sport specificity is considered.
3. What is the status of sport-specific skills? This describes specific proficiency,
ability, or dexterity with movements that define a sport and one of its posi¬
tions. These tests will usually look at quantity and quality. A good example is
pitching. A radar gun will measure speed (quantity), while the strike zone will
measure accuracy (quality).

These considerations will improve problem solving by establishing a more re¬

fined breakdown of information. For the purposes of this chapter and to provide
quick identification of performance problems, athletic movement will be ob¬
served in three categories:

1. Functional movement quality—basic fundamental movements that demon¬

strate full range of motion, body control, balance, and basic stability
2. Functional performance quantity—general, nonspecific performance dem¬
onstrating gross power, speed, endurance, and agility
3. Sport-specific skills—skills demonstrating sport-specific movement patterns

This chapter will not go into depth for sport-specific skill training because of
the large volume of information concerning each sport. The focus will be on the
first two categories because they are common to all sports.
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 21

If two athletes have poor 40-yard sprint times, and no fundamental assessment
of movement quality has been conducted, then it must be assumed that both
athletes are slow and need more speed training. If fundamental movement test¬
ing, however, reveals that athlete 1 has good flexibility, good core stability, and
good balance and that athlete 2 does not, then the two athletes do not have the
same problem. Athlete 1 has the fundamental building blocks but is not using
them well for speed generation. Therefore, a speed-development program would
be appropriate. Athlete 2 does not have the fundamental movement patterns
necessary for speed development. Placing athlete 2 on a speed program will have
some positive results but, as discussed later in this chapter, doing so would break
a major rule about the neuromuscular system (see page 23 on functional move¬
ment). The test deduction and result for the two athletes is as follows:

Athlete 1: Basic speed (performance work) and plyometric work

Athlete 2: Basic mobility (fundamental movement work) and stability work
progressing to speed and plyometric work

Focus is often placed only on the quantity (functional performance) aspect of

movement and not the quality (foundation or functional movement). Those who
develop conditioning programs commonly make two mistakes:

1. Placing minimal importance or emphasis on fundamental movement patterns

2. Confusing quality of movement and quantity of movement

Fundamental movement and the importance of quality will be examined in

this chapter. A model called the performance pyramid, designed to help coach¬
ing and training staffs interpret baseline data, will be presented. The model
will help coaches, trainers, and conditioning specialists develop a hierarchy of
importance and an objective approach for managing athletes and teams. The
first order of business is to identify the weakest link in movement through
testing.

Roles of the Staff

The certified athletic trainer will be provided with data that is based in preven¬
tion, which facilitates better tracking of athletic function and movement effi¬
ciency. The trainer should identify and monitor any weak link, such as poor
flexibility or muscle imbalances resulting from a previous injury or a poor train¬
ing program. The trainer should be concerned with functional movement quality.
The same data will assist the conditioning specialist with performance-based
problem solving for better prioritization of training. The strength coach must
also focus on the weak link but more from a performance basis. The model will
demonstrate a systematic progression designed to improve general performance.
The conditioning specialist should be concerned with functional movement and
functional performance.
Sports skill is the concern of the head coach and assistant coaches. It is their
job, with the help of the certified athletic trainer and the conditioning specialist,
to identify and understand the way in which the weak link will affect skill and
sport-specific performance. A look at functional movement quality and func¬
tional performance quantity will help explain sport-specific skill data.
22 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Baseline Testing Considerations

Baseline test data along with a sports medicine history (previous injuries) and
sport-specific data (performance and skills) should be considered equally when
setting goals. In case of injury the athletic trainer can use baseline measurements
to guide and direct rehabilitation toward preinjury performance. The strength
coach can use baseline data to direct the athlete’s focus toward his or her weak
link. Baseline testing must encompass a format that can both assist the strength
and conditioning specialists and sports medicine team by predicting which ath¬
letes are predisposed to injury and provide performance tests that look at raw
power, speed, agility, coordination, and endurance.
The appropriate time for baseline testing for sports is between the
preparticipation physical (medical screen) and the sport-specific testing. Baseline
testing should address general athleticism and physical preparedness. The test¬
ing should identify both attributes of and detriments to athletic performance
and competition. The modern strength and conditioning program commonly
employs baseline testing for athletes, but distinguishing between the athletes
who test well (in the weight room and on the field) and those who perform well
(in the competition arena) is often difficult. This means that current testing meth¬
ods are sometimes poor predictors of true sports performance. Furthermore, no
specific relationship has been drawn between an individual’s performance-based
test scores and the individual’s tendency to sustain noncontact injuries—injuries
that can be prevented because they result from tightness, weakness, poor coordi¬
nation, and the compensatory strategies athletes use to perform in spite of these
problems. Therefore, the athletic trainer has no reliable predictor of these un¬
necessary injuries. The trainer cannot be expected to prevent them unless a screen¬
ing tool is implemented (Cook and Athletic Testing Services 1998).

THREE FORMATS FOR BASELINE TESTING

Baseline testing can be broken into three distinct formats. The first format looks
at functional movement quality, the second at functional performance quantity,
and the third at sport-specific skills.
Do not be surprised when highly skilled athletes do not test well for functional
movement or functional performance. This should in no way diminish their skilled
accomplishments. The fact that they are good attests to how well their neuro¬
muscular systems have compensated for a particular weakness. But it is the re¬
sponsibility of those in authority to expose limitations and forecast potential
problems before they become reality. All athletes will ultimately make certain
compensations. As they become more seasoned and specialized, their focus is
usually on accomplishment (quantity), not functional movement and technique
(quality). This is one reason why all great coaches stress skill fundamentals. Move¬
ment fundamentals should receive the same attention. The compensatory pat¬
terns are numerous and not readily detectable. It is better to identify the reasons
for compensation through continual baseline testing.
The performance pyramid (figure 2.1) demonstrates how each level of baseline
testing builds on the other. Consider the skills involved in throwing a baseball or
softball:
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 23

Sport-specific skills
Skill

Functional performance quantity

Function

Functional movement quality

Foundation

Figure 2.1 The performance pyramid shows how each level creates a stable base for the next.

1. The athlete must first possess good general mobility, especially in the shoul¬
der region. Next, the athlete must have enough stability in the lower body to
shift weight from one foot to the other to generate rotary movement while
maintaining balance.
2. When the athlete adds speed and power to the weight shift, he or she is able
to generate greater ball speed. The athlete will learn to transfer power from
the hips to the trunk and from the trunk to the arm, a process known as
kinetic linking.
3. Last, the athlete will learn control and skill. This will improve accuracy, con¬
serve energy, and allow the athlete to become more relaxed and consistent.

One level creates a stable base for the next, and this sequence represents the
way the brain prioritizes and processes movement information. Although this is
an oversimplification of true motor learning, it will help the athlete understand
that he or she must develop each level before moving to the next.
The first block (lowest) on the pyramid represents fundamental mobility and
stability. Strength is not included because it is a subcomponent of stability mea¬
sured only in force with no consideration control, time, or distance. The second
block on the pyramid represents movement efficiency and productivity, includ¬
ing power, speed, agility, and endurance. The third block (highest) on the pyra¬
mid represents skill, movement timing, coordination, body control, muscle
memory, motor learning, and consistency.

FUNCTIONAL MOVEMENT
Functional movement relates to fundamental mobility and stability, the building
blocks for all other measurable physical fitness attributes. They represent the
underlying quality of movement. Although these fundamental movement pat¬
terns are present in normal growth and development, the athlete can sometimes
lose them when he or she focuses on only one aspect of human movement or
performance.

Mobility
The term mobility represents much more than simple muscular flexibility as iden¬
tified in a sit-and-reach test. It includes the way multiple body segments, such as
24 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

the hips, pelvis, and trunk region, interact in functional situations. Individual
assessment of one specific joint and muscle complex will not yield sufficient data
to describe the athletic body in motion; sitting and reaching has limited func¬
tional application and little correlation with true functional movement. Mobility
represents muscle flexibility, joint range of motion, and multisegmental interac¬
tion of the body parts in functional positions and movement patterns.

Stability
Stability, on the other hand, is not a representation of strength. It is more a
representation of body control through strength, coordination, balance, and effi¬
ciency of movement. Stability can be divided into static and dynamic categories.
Static stability is the maintenance of posture and balance. Dynamic stability is the
production and control of movement and includes the following components:

• Mobility and flexibility

• Strength
• Coordination
• Local muscular endurance
• Cardiovascular fitness

Note that by definition dynamic stability cannot be optimal if mobility and

flexibility are not optimal (because they are components of dynamic stability).
Note also that strength is only one component of dynamic stability. To create
efficient movement, all five components must work together. In the presence of
normal mobility, the neuromuscular system will selectively use muscular con¬
tractions (isometric, eccentric, and concentric) to stabilize one body segment
while creating motion in another body segment. This process is a result of tim¬
ing and coordination and it explains why athletes with less than impressive weight-
room statistics (isolated strength) can have impressive statistics in the vertical
leap (power), medicine ball throw (power), and 40-yard dash (speed). These ath¬
letes demonstrate efficiency with maximal use of all segments in a unified and
synergetic fashion to produce power, speed, and quickness. Raw force (strength)
that the athlete cannot use efficiently demonstrates only the ability to move weight,
not the body.
The foundations of mobility and stability are evident in human growth and
development. The infant enters the world with unlimited mobility and selec¬
tively learns to stabilize first the core and then the extremities. Movement con¬
trol and stability proceed in a head-to-toe progression (cephalo-caudal) as well
as a core-to-extremity progression (proximal-distal). This simple law of the neuro¬
muscular system produces a rule of thumb that should be the cornerstone in
strength and conditioning programs:

Proximal stability (control) must precede distal mobility (movement).

This means that the athlete must train the muscles of the core and trunk ade¬
quately before focusing on the extremities. Therefore, movements like the bench
press, although excellent for shoulder development and muscular hypertrophy
for the upper extremities, will do little to train the core or educate the neuro¬
muscular system about its role during upper-extremity patterns in a standing or
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 25

functional posture. The simple push-up is more functional because it involves

the core (if performed correctly). We must add a second rule to the first:

If a mobility problem exists it must be dealt with and rectified

before true stability can occur.

Training or testing on fixed-axis equipment in a seated or lying position often

breaks both rules. Usually the region of questionable stability is compensating
for the region of poor mobility. The knees, lower back (lumbar spine), and shoul¬
ders are good examples of areas that commonly develop poor stability. Before an
attempt is made to stabilize these areas, the mobility of the ankles, hips, and
upper back (thoracic spine) should be established. Testing functional movement
allows the sports medicine and conditioning team to understand the interaction
between mobility and stability. The combination of poor mobility and stability is
the source of many common athletic problems. Athletes demonstrating poor
functional movement patterns and poor mobility and stability should seek to
regain these fundamental building blocks before focusing on other attributes of
fitness such as strength, speed, power, and endurance. Innumerable unnecessary
injuries have occurred because athletes have focused more on the quantity of
their workout statistics (sets, reps, and weight) than the quality and technique of
their movements. A common example is the squat. Many athletes will continue
to lift greater amounts of weight with a poor-mobility (figure 2.2) squat even
though they cannot perform a deep, full-range-of-motion squat with no weight
at all (figure 2.3).
The most common mistake in sports conditioning today is training a move¬
ment pattern before achieving full range of motion and control in that move¬
ment. Poor technique and inadequate ankle and hip mobility will lead to poor
posture and body mechanics during the conditioning session. The compensa¬
tions that will occur because of a lack of mobility in the hips and ankles will not
only create stress on the knees and spine but will also change the motor program
for the squatting movement. These compensations will then become engrained
into the central nervous system, adversely affecting timing, coordination, and

Figure 2.2 Poor-mobility squat.

26 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Figure 2.3 Full-mobility squat.

efficiency. Baseline testing must therefore always assess functional movement

first to reveal potential efficiency. Once an athlete demonstrates functional move¬
ment through reliable and valid testing, performance testing can demonstrate
actual efficiency.
When mobility and stability are poor, potential efficiency is poor, yielding less
than optimal performance and a greater chance of injury during athletic condi¬
tioning and competition. Potential efficiency takes into account all aspects of
human movement; it is not a predictor of any single performance parameter. An
athlete may have poor mobility and stability and yet be an elite competitor in a
given sport. This circumstance is becoming more prevalent as athletes specialize
in one sport, and even one position, at an early age. If such an athlete is asked to
perform another movement parameter or to change technique, he or she will
have fewer movement options from which to choose. The highly specific move¬
ment patterns will cause imbalances by overdeveloping some areas and neglect¬
ing others, as well as increasing the potential for injury. Efficient rehabilitation
in the event of an injury is also reduced because the system is already compensat¬
ing in one form or another. Mobility and stability provide a buffer zone that
allows adaptability of movement patterns.

FUNCTIONAL MOVEMENT SCREEN

The functional movement screen (FMS) was developed in an attempt to quan¬
tify movement quality and fulfill the first requirement of baseline testing (mobil¬
ity and stability assessment). The screen uses seven movements that represent
the mobility and stability milestones in human growth and development—squat¬
ting, stepping, lunging, reaching, striding or kicking, and two movements that
require trunk stability for anterior-posterior stress (pushing) and rotary stress
(segmental stabilization). These movements have been placed in a format that is
cost effective, time efficient, reproducible, and representative of the basic foun¬
dation for human movement. The functional movement screen assigns a specific
score to each athlete. Each sport and position will require a minimum level and
optimum level of baseline function. Over time, a movement screen database will
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 77

reveal how certain injuries correlate with functional movement rankings, which can
serve as predictors for the sports medicine team. The screen assists coaches, athletic
trainers, and strength coaches in communicating with one another by providing
common ground for discussing an athlete’s functional status and future potential.

Scoring
The scoring criteria for the test are quite simple. If the athlete is able to produce
the required movement without any of the common compensations described,
he or she receives a score of 3. If the athlete reproduces the movement but has
one or more of the common compensations or any difficulty, the athlete scores a
2. If the athlete is unable to reproduce the movement as described, the athlete
receives a score of 1. If pain is present during the test, regardless of the athlete’s
performance, he or she receives a 0 for that particular movement. A perfect score
for all 7 movements is 21.

Interpretation
Interpretation of this scoring system is done on a priority basis. Any 0 scores will
be considered first by the team physician and athletic trainer, who will conduct a
sports medicine evaluation of the painful site considering the movement pattern
that produced the pain. Next, the score of 1 demonstrates that an athlete does
not have a functional base of mobility and stability and is therefore probably
experiencing microtrauma, poor efficiency, and poor technique with common
athletic movements (even if performance seems adequate). This score may also
indicate a relatively higher degree of stress during normal activities because a
basic movement pattern is absent. A sports medicine professional should specifi¬
cally evaluate the flexibility and strength of the areas in question (even though
the athlete reports no pain). A score of 2 demonstrates areas of priority in condi¬
tioning and flexibility. It is advisable that the athletic trainer, strength coach, and
sport coach work together to develop complementary exercise, conditioning,
and sport-specific training programs around these areas of limitation. A score of
3 demonstrates appropriate or optimal mobility and stability for a particular move¬
ment pattern; screening is still periodically necessary to check for common im¬
balances acquired in training. Five of the seven screens are performed on the left
and right sides of the body, allowing for comparison. If testing on one side of the
body produces a lower score, then that is the score given for the test.
Besides the seven movement screens, three clearing screens have been added.
The clearing screens are for the shoulder and lumbar spine areas (which can
sometimes go undetected in routine movement screening). Research and litera¬
ture reviews have shown that these areas hide potential problems unless specifi¬
cally addressed. The clearing screens are scored as pass or fail for pain. A 0 score
is assigned to the movement screen when pain occurs regardless of the previous
score. An impingement clearing screen is added to the shoulder exam. An individual
who scores 3 on shoulder mobility but has a positive impingement screen is given a
0. This simple addition to the shoulder movement screen will pick up potential
shoulder problems. A spine-flexion clearing screen and a spine-extension clearing
screen are added to each of the trunk-stability tests to look at passive spine range of
motion in an unloaded position (Cook and Athletic Testing Services 1998).
28 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Deep Squat
Purpose
The deep squat assesses bilateral, symmetrical, and functional mobility of the
hips, knees, and ankles. The dowel held overhead assesses bilateral, symmetrical
functional mobility of the shoulders as well as the thoracic spine.
Description
1. The athlete places the feet slightly farther than shoulder-width apart and places
the hands on the dowel so as to form a 90-degree angle at the elbows with the
dowel overhead.
2. The athlete presses the dowel overhead with the shoulders flexed and abducted
and with the elbows extended, then descends slowly into a squat position with
the heels on the floor, the head and chest facing forward, and the dowel maxi¬
mally pressed overhead.
3. The athlete is allowed up to three chances to perform the test.
4. If the athlete does not achieve the criteria for a score of 3, he or she then
performs the test with a 2 X 6 board under the heels.

Upper torso is parallel with tibia or toward vertical.

 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 29

• Tibia and upper torso are not parallel.

POINT
• Femur is not below horizontal.

U The athlete will receive a score of 0 if pain is associated with any

points portion of this test. A medical professional should perform a thorough
evaluation of the painful area.

Clinical Implications for the Deep Squat

The ability to perform the deep squat requires closed kinetic-chain dorsiflexion
of the ankles, flexion of the knees and hips, and extension of the thoracic spine,
as well as flexion and abduction of the shoulders.
Poor performance on this test can be the result of several factors. Limited
mobility in the upper torso can be attributed to poor glenohumeral or thoracic-
spine mobility. Limited mobility in the lower extremity including poor closed
kinetic-chain dorsiflexion of the ankle or poor flexion of the hip may also cause
poor test performance.
When an athlete achieves a score less than 3, the limiting factor must be iden¬
tified. Clinical documentation of these limitations can be obtained by using stan¬
dard goniometric measurements.
Previous testing has indicated that when an athlete achieves a score of 2, minor
limitations most often exist with either closed kinetic-chain dorsiflexion of the
ankle or extension of the thoracic spine. When an athlete achieves a score of 1 or
0, gross limitations may exist with the motions mentioned above as well as flex¬
ion of the hip.
30 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Hurdle Step
Purpose
The hurdle step assesses bilateral functional mobility and stability of the hips,
knees, and ankles.
Description
1. The athlete places the feet together and aligns the toes directly beneath the hurdle.
2. The hurdle is adjusted to the height of the athlete’s tibial tuberosity, and the
dowel is positioned across the athlete’s shoulders below the neck.
3. The athlete slowly steps over the hurdle and touches the heel to the floor
while keeping the stance leg in an extended position. Weight should remain on
the stance leg.
4. The athlete then slowly returns to the starting position.
5. The athlete is allowed up to three chances to perform the test.
6. Have the athlete perform the test again, using the opposite leg. If testing pro¬
duces a lower score for one leg, record the lower score.

points • Hips, knees, and ankles

remain aligned in the
sagittal plane.
• Minimal to no movement is
noted in lumbar spine.
• Dowel and hurdle remain
parallel.

2
POINTS
• Alignment lost between
hips, knees, and ankles.
• Movement is noted in
lumbar spine.
• Dowel and hurdle do
not remain parallel.
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 31

The athlete will receive a score of 0 if pain is associated with any

POINTS
portion of this test. A member of the sports medicine staff should
perform a thorough evaluation of the painful area.

Clinical Implications for the Hurdle Step

Performing the hurdle step test requires stance-leg stability of the ankle, knee,
and hip as well as maximal closed kinetic-chain extension of the hip. The hurdle
step also requires step-leg open kinetic-chain dorsiflexion of the ankle and flex¬
ion of the knee and hip. In addition, the athlete must display adequate balance
because the test imposes a need for dynamic stability.
Poor performance on this test can be the result of several factors. It may simply
be due to poor stability of the stance leg or poor mobility of the step leg. Imposing
maximal hip flexion of one leg while maintaining apparent hip extension of the
opposite leg requires the athlete to demonstrate relative bilateral, asymmetric
hip mobility.
When an athlete achieves a score less than 3, the limiting factor must be iden¬
tified. Clinical documentation of these limitations can be obtained by using stan¬
dard goniometric measurements of the joints as well as muscular flexibility tests
such as the Thomas test or Kendall’s test for hip flexor tightness (see Cook and
Athletic Testing Services 1998).
Previous testing has indicated that when an athlete achieves a score of 2, minor
limitations most often exist with ankle dorsiflexion or hip flexion with the step
leg. WTen an athlete scores a 1 or 0, relative asymmetric hip mobility may exist
secondary to an anterior tilted pelvis.
32 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Purpose
The in-line lunge assesses hip mobility and stability, quadriceps flexibility, and
ankle and knee stability.
Description
1. The tester measures the length of the tibia with a yardstick.
2. The athlete places one foot on the end of a 2 X 6 board and holds the dowel
behind the back, with the right arm up and the left arm down, so that it is touch¬
ing the head, thoracic spine, and sacrum.
3. The tester then places the yardstick at the end of the athlete’s toes and makes
a mark on the board equal to the length of the tibial height.
4. The athlete takes a step with the left leg and places the heel on the mark, then
lowers the back knee enough to touch the board behind the front foot. The feet
should be on the same line and pointing straight throughout the movement.
5. The athlete is allowed up to three chances to perform the test.
6. Have the athlete perform the test again, with arms and legs in the opposite
positions. If testing produces a lower score with either the left or the right leg in
front, record the lower score.

Minimal to no torso movement

POINTS
is noted.
Feet remain in sagittal
plane on the 2X6.
Knee touches
the 2X6 behind
heel of front foot.

2
POINTS
• Movement is noted
in torso.
• Feet do not remain in
sagittal plane.
• Knee does not touch
behind heel of front foot
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 33

The athlete will receive a score of 0 if pain is associated with any

POINTS portion of this test. A member of the sports medicine staff should
perform a thorough evaluation of the painful area.

Clinical Implications for the In-Line Lunge

The ability to perform the in-line lunge test requires stance-leg stability of the
ankle, knee, and hip as well as apparent closed kinetic-chain hip abduction. The
in-line lunge also requires step-leg mobility of hip adduction, ankle dorsiflexion,
and rectus femoris flexibility. The athlete must also display adequate balance
because the test imposes lateral stress.
Poor performance in this test can be the result of several factors. First, hip
mobility may be inadequate in either the stance leg or the step leg. Second, the
stance-leg knee or ankle may not have the required stability as the athlete per¬
forms the lunge. Finally, an imbalance between relative adductor weakness and
abductor tightness in one or both hips may cause poor test performance.
When an athlete achieves a score less than 3, the limiting factor must be iden¬
tified. Clinical documentation of these limitations can be obtained by using stan¬
dard goniometric measurements of the joints as well as muscular flexibility tests
such as the Thomas test and the Ober test (see Cook and Athletic Testing Ser¬
vices 1998).
34 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Shoulder Mobility

Purpose
The shoulder mobility screen assesses bilateral shoulder range of motion, com¬
bining internal rotation with adduction and external rotation with abduction. It
also requires normal scapular mobility and thoracic spine extension.
Description
1. The tester determines the athlete’s hand length by measuring the distance
from the distal wrist crease to the tip of the third digit.
2. The athlete makes a fist with each hand, placing the thumb inside the fist, and
assumes a maximally adducted and internally rotated position with one shoulder
and an abducted and externally rotated position with the other. In one move¬
ment the athlete places the hands on the back. During the test the hands should
remain clenched.
3. The tester then measures the distance between the two fists.
4. Have the athlete perform the test again, with arms and hands in the opposite
positions. If testing produces a lower score with either the left or the right arm
up, record the lower score.

3 • Fists are within

POINTS one hand length.

2 • Fists are within one and a

POINTS half hand lengths.
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 35

• Fists are not

point within one and a
half hand lengths.

points athlete wiH receive a score of 0 if pain is associ¬

ated with any portion of this test or if pain is noted
during the shoulder stability screen. A member of the
sports medicine staff should perform a thorough
evaluation of the painful area.

Shoulder Stability Screen

A shoulder stability screen should be performed even
if the athlete scores a 3. The athlete places his or her
right hand on the opposite shoulder and then attempts
to point the right elbow upward. If the athlete experi¬
ences pain or is unable to perform this movement, a
score of 0 will be given for the shoulder mobility test
and the shoulder should be evaluated more thor¬
oughly. This screen should be performed bilaterally.

Clinical Implications for Shoulder Mobility

The ability to perform the shoulder mobility test requires shoulder mobility in a
combination of motions including abduction-external rotation and adduction—
internal rotation. It also requires scapular and thoracic spine mobility.
Poor performance during this test can be the result of several causes, one of
which is the widely accepted explanation that increased external rotation is gained
at the expense of internal rotation in overhead-throwing athletes. Excessive de¬
velopment and shortening of the pectoralis minor or latissimus dorsi muscles
can cause postural alterations of forward or rounded shoulders. Finally, a
scapulothoracic dysfunction may be present, resulting in decreased glenohumeral
mobility secondary to poor scapulothoracic mobility or stability.
When an athlete achieves a score less than 3, the limiting factor must be iden¬
tified. Clinical documentation of these limitations can be obtained by using stan¬
dard goniometric measurements as well as Kendall’s test for pectoralis minor and
latissimus dorsi tightness (see Cook and Athletic Testing Services 1998).
Previous testing has indicated that when an athlete achieves a score of 2, minor
postural changes or shortening of isolated axiohumeral or scapulohumeral muscles
exists. When an athlete scores a 1 or 0, a scapulothoracic dysfunction may exist.
36 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Active Straight-Leg Raise

Purpose
The active straight-leg raise assesses active hamstring and gastroc-soleus flexi¬
bility while maintaining a stable pelvis and active extension of the opposite leg.
Description
1. The athlete assumes the starting position by lying supine with arms at the
sides, palms up, and head flat on the floor; a 2 X 6 board is placed under the knees.
2. The tester identifies the athlete’s anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) and the
jointline of the knee (usually midpatella).
3. The athlete lifts the test leg with a dorsiflexed ankle and an extended knee.
During the test the opposite knee should remain in contact with the board, and
the lower back and head should remain flat on the floor.
4. Once the athlete has achieved the correct position, the tester aligns a dowel
through the medial malleolus of the athlete’s test leg perpendicular to the floor.
5. Have the athlete perform the test again, raising the opposite leg. If testing
produces a lower score for raising either the left or the right leg, record the
lower score.

2
POINTS
• Dowel resides between
midthigh and the jointline.
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 37

L • Dowel resides below jointline.

POINT

0
POINTS
The athlete will receive a score of 0 if pain is associated with any
portion of this test. A member of the sports medicine staff should
perform a thorough evaluation of the painful area.

Clinical Implications for the Active Straight-Leg Raise

The ability to perform the active straight-leg raise test requires functional ham¬
string flexibility, the flexibility that is available during training and competition.
This is different from passive flexibility, which is more commonly assessed. The
athlete is also required to demonstrate adequate hip mobility of the opposite leg
as well as lower-abdominal stability.
Poor performance during this test can be the result of several factors. First, the
athlete may have poor functional hamstring flexibility. Second, the athlete may
have inadequate mobility of the opposite hip stemming from iliopsoas tightness
associated with an anteriorly tilted pelvis. If this limitation is gross, true active
hamstring flexibility will not be realized. A combination of both factors will pro¬
duce relative bilateral, asymmetric hip mobility. Like the hurdle step test, the
active straight-leg raise test reveals relative hip mobility; however, this test is
more specific to the limitations imposed by the muscles of the hamstrings and
the iliopsoas.
When an athlete achieves a score less than 3, the limiting factor must be iden¬
tified. Clinical documentation of these limitations can be obtained by Kendall’s
sit-and-reach test as well as the 90-90 straight-leg raise test for hamstring flexi¬
bility. The Thomas test can be used to identify iliopsoas flexibility (see Cook and
Athletic Testing Services 1998).
38 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

■ .. ...„ .— ..—— -

Trunk-Stability Push-Up
Purpose
The trunk-stability push-up assesses trunk stability in the sagittal plane while a
symmetrical upper-extremity motion is performed. Scapular stability is assessed
indirectly.
Description
1. The athlete assumes a prone position with the hands spaced shoulder-width
apart.
2. The athlete places the hands so that the thumbs are alignbed with the top of
the head and fully extends the knees. The female athlete should lower the hands
so that the thumbs are aligned with the chin.
3. From the appropriate position, the athlete performs one push-up, lifting the
body as a unit with no lag in the lumbar spine.
4. The male athlete who cannot perform a push-up from the standard starting
position lowers the hands so that the thumbs are aligned with the chin and then
performs a push-up. If the female athlete cannot perform a push-up from this
position, she lowers the hands so that the thumbs are aligned with the clavicle
and performs a push-up.

*5 * Males perform one repetition with thumbs aligned with the top of
points the head.
• Females perform one repetition with thumbs aligned with the chin.

2
POINTS
• Males perform one repetition with thumbs aligned with the top of
the head.
• Females perform one repetition with thumbs aligned with the chin.
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 39

• Males are unable to perform one repetition in modified position.

• Females are unable to perform one repetition in modified position.

0 The athlete will receive a score of 0 if pain is associated with any

POiNTS portion of this test. A member of the sports medicine staff should
perform a thorough evaluation of the painful area.

Lumbar Extension
Lumbar extension should also be cleared after this screen, even if a
score of 3 is given.
Performing a press-up
in the push-up position
will clear spinal exten¬
sion. If pain is noted
during the lumbar
extension, a score of 0
will be given for the
trunk-stability push-up.

Clinical Implications for the Trunk-Stability Push-Up

The ability to perform the trunk-stability push-up requires trunk stability in the
sagittal plane during a symmetric upper-extremity movement. Many functional
activities in sports require the trunk stabilizers to transfer force symmetrically
from the upper extremities to the lower extremities and vice versa. Movements
such as rebounding in basketball, overhead blocking in volleyball, or pass block¬
ing in football are common examples of this type of energy transfer. If the trunk
does not have adequate stability during these activities, kinetic energy will be
dispersed, leading to poor functional performance as well as increased potential
for injury.
Poor performance during this test can be attributed simply to poor stability of
the trunk stabilizers. When an athlete achieves a score less than 3, the limiting
factor must be identified. Clinical documentation of these limitations can be
obtained by using Kendall’s test for upper- and lower-abdominal strength (see
Cook and Athletic Testing Services 1998).
40 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Rotary Stability

Purpose
The rotary-stability screen assesses multiplanar trunk stability during a com¬
bined upper- and lower-extremity motion.
Description
1. The athlete assumes a quadruped position with the shoulders at 90 degrees
relative to the upper torso and the hips and knees at 90 degrees relative to the
lower torso; the ankles remain dorsiflexed.
2. A 2 X 6 board is placed between the knees and hands so that the knees and
hands are in contact with the board.
3. The athlete flexes the shoulder and extends the same-side hip and knee. The
athlete raises the leg and hand just enough to clear the floor by approximately six
inches. The lifted elbow, hand, and knee should all remain in line with the board.
The torso should remain in the same plane as the board.
4. The athlete then flexes the same-side shoulder and knee (left-left) enough for
the elbow and knee to touch.
5. The athlete is allowed up to three chances to perform the test.
6. If the athlete does not attain a score of 3, he or she performs the drill in a
diagonal pattern, using the opposite-side shoulder and hip (left-right).
7. Have the athlete perform the test again, with arms and legs in the opposite
positions. If testing produces a lower score with either the left or the right arm
elevated, record the lower score.

3 • Athlete performs one correct repetition while keeping torso parallel

POINTS to the board and elbow and knee in line with the board.

2
POINTS
• Athlete performs one correct diagonal, flexion, and extension lift
while maintaining torso parallel to board and floor.
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 41

1
POINT
• Athlete is unable to perform diagonal repetition.

0
POINTS
The athlete will receive a score of 0 if pain is associated with any
portion of this test or if pain is noted during lumbar flexion. A
medical professional should perform a thorough evaluation of the
painful area.

Lumbar Flexion
Lumbar flexion should be cleared after this screen, even if a score of
3 is given. To clear spinal flexion, the individual assumes a quadru¬
ped position, rocks back, and takes the buttocks to
the heels and the chest to the thighs. The
hands should remain in front of the
body, reaching out as far as
possible; feet and toes
should be plantar
flexed. If pain occurs,
a 0 is given.

Clinical Implications for Rotary Stability

The ability to perform the rotary-stability test requires trunk stability in both
sagittal and transverse planes during asymmetric upper- and lower-extremity
movement. Many functional activities in sports require the trunk stabilizers to
transfer force asymmetrically from the lower extremities to the upper extremi¬
ties and vice versa. Running and exploding out of a down stance in football and
track are common examples of this type of energy transfer. If the trunk does not
have adequate stability during these activities, kinetic energy will be dispersed,
leading to poor functional performance as well as increased potential for injury.
Poor performance during this test can be attributed simply to poor asymmet¬
ric stability of the trunk stabilizers. When an athlete achieves a score less than 3,
the limiting factor must be identified. Clinical documentation of these limitations
can be obtained by using Kendall’s test for upper- and lower-abdominal strength.
 FUNCTIONAL MOVEMENT SCREENtm
SCORING SHEET

Name:___ School:-

Age:_ Height:_ Weight:_ □ Male □ Female

Address: __Phone:_

City:__State:_Zip:_

Sport:_

Position: ___

Hand dominance: L R Leg dominance: L R Eye dominance: L R

Previous injuries: _

Previous score:

Test and score Comments

Deep squat 3 2 0 _

Hurdle step 3 2 0 _

In-line lunge 3 2 0 _

Shoulder mobility 3 2 0 _

Active straight-leg raise 3 2 0 _

Trunk-stability push-up 3 2 0 _
Rotary stability 3 2 0

Total:

Tester or group:

42
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 43

FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE TESTING

Functional performance is a representation of actual efficiency through specific
testing of gross performance (power, speed, etc.)- The athlete can be ranked and
monitored by comparison with normative data. Functional performance data
bridge the gap between foundation movements and skill. Foundation testing will
identify basic human movement patterns. Functional performance testing will
help assess the way the athlete generates, transfers, and controls power.
Performance testing for athleticism must assess and quantify the way the ath¬
lete uses his or her body in forceful, explosive movements without being biased
toward a particular skill or activity. To look at the way the human body works as
a functional unit to produce movement, tests are commonly done for three pri¬
mary movements: jumping, throwing, and running.
The jumping test involves a vertical jump and tests for explosion. The charac¬
teristics of jumping include the following:

• Upper-body pulling movement

• Lower-body extension movements
• Trunk transfer of energy from upper body to lower body
• Trunk extension stability
• Top to bottom coordination

The throwing test involves a medicine ball chest pass and tests for propulsion.
The characteristics of throwing include the following:

• Upper-body pushing movement

• Lower-body stability
• Trunk transfer of energy from lower body to upper body
• Trunk flexion stability
• Bottom-up coordination

The running test involves a 40-yard sprint and tests for locomotion. The char¬
acteristics of running include the following:

• Upper-body and lower-body countermovement

• Transfer of energy from upper body to the trunk and from one leg to the other
• Trunk rotary stability
• Simultaneous coordination of upper body and lower body

Each test relies heavily on sound motor programming—the way the brain and
body interact. The three tests also represent kinetic linking—the timing and
sequencing of each specific movement to complement the next.

Vertical Jump
The vertical jump is commonly considered the true test of human power because
the force of gravity affects the body of each athlete equally. An athlete who has
the ability to summon the strength of the body in a quick, coordinated, and
44 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

balanced fashion will accelerate past the pull of gravity and achieve greater height
than an athlete who does not have equal ability, regardless of size. The role of the
upper body in jumping is considerable. The difference between good jumpers
and great jumpers is usually the ability of the upper body to contribute with
forceful movements of the arms and dynamic stabilization of the trunk. Jumping
must also be considered a top-down recruitment activity because the upper body
and trunk are loaded before the lower extremities. Testing the vertical jump is
quick and efficient, and numerous standards are available for sex, age, and sport
specificity. Right and left differences can be measured in special cases by per¬
forming a single-leg vertical jump. The landing should still be on two legs to
avoid unnecessary stress. Differences between left and right should not be greater
than 15 percent.

Standing Medicine Ball Chest Pass

In this test, instead of propelling the body against gravity, the athlete propels
another object. The goal is not to look at sport-specific throwing movements in
this test; rather, it is to look at general athleticism and the ability to produce
power from a bottom-up transition. Throwing a medicine ball from a standing
chest pass position (without a step) will allow the tester to identify power and
coordination generated in a bottom-up fashion. The athlete must load the legs
and trunk and maintain stability before achieving any vigorous movement of the
upper body to propel the medicine ball. Unlike the vertical leap, which looks at
extension dynamic stability (with respect to the trunk), a chest pass with a medi¬
cine ball looks at flexion dynamic stability (with respect to the trunk). The verti¬
cal leap is body relative, meaning that gravity treats all bodies equally. But the
medicine ball throw is not body relative if a standardized-weight ball is used
because that requires each athlete to propel a different percentage of body weight.
The standing medicine ball chest pass can be performed without this bias by
making a simple calculation; a medicine ball of approximately 2 percent of the

Throw left

fl Throw forward
Athlete Ijjp ( J --— ^ . .

Throw right

/
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 45

thrower’s body weight provides a standard for all athletes with a similar amount
of resistance to the throwing movement, thus allowing valid comparison of data.
Using the same stance, differences between the right and left can be tested. The
athlete should twist and throw left and then right. Compare the differences, us¬
ing the 15 percent rule as a standard.

40-Yard Sprint
The third test is the 40-yard sprint. This test has come under criticism in the
past because it is not sport specific. Most field and court sports have minimal
opportunity for an all-out linear run for 40 yards. In many sports, however, large
amounts of data have been collected on the 40-yard dash. Therefore, convenient
comparison can be made about general athleticism for all field and court sports.
Moreover, 40-yard dash speed represents the efficiency of the body. It allows the
athlete to demonstrate the ability to store energy, using the plyometric abilities
of each leg in propulsion. It illustrates mobility in the hips and legs through
stride length, and it displays coordination through stride frequency. Last, it indi¬
cates the ability of the torso to provide dynamic stability and redirect the power
generated in one leg directly to the other leg with minimal loss and maximum
efficiency. Therefore, the sprint test does more than measure simple sprint speed;
it allows the athlete to demonstrate efficiency, coordination, energy storage, and
momentum management.
If time, space, and equipment allow, the 120-yard sprint presents an interest¬
ing way to understand athletic speed. The 120-yard dash is even less sport spe¬
cific than the 40-yard dash, but it provides the strength and conditioning spe¬
cialist with unique criteria when analyzing deficits in running. Running is a base
movement for almost all sports. Distances shorter than 40 yards may be more
specific, but they require electronic timers for true accuracy. By looking at the
120-yard dash, the tester can observe three unique and specific 40-yard sprints.
The first 40-yard dash displays the athlete’s ability to start and accumulate speed
through acceleration. The second 40-yard dash measures the athlete’s ability to
maintain speed through efficient body mechanics. The last 40-yard dash dem¬
onstrates the athlete’s speed endurance and ability to maintain efficiency, tech¬
nique, and momentum as fatigue mounts. The 120-yard dash thus offers data to
analyze quickness, speed, and speed endurance. It is easy to see how a problem
with quickness could greatly affect all field and court sports. Field and court
sports also require running and plyometrics as primary methods of condition¬
ing. Problems with speed and speed endurance will affect training and reduce
the benefits of conditioning. Athletes with such problems will not be able to
improve running form or plyometric performance because fatigue will set in
before adequate training can occur.

Other Functional Performance Considerations

In summary, the three tests represent basic movements for general athleticism
and measure motor programming and efficiency. They look at two forms of power
as well as linear speed. The tester can conduct the three primary tests quickly
46 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

and efficiently, permitting their use throughout the year to monitor changes in
performance. Other tests for general athletic performance consider anaerobic
power, agility and body control, and aerobic power. These tests are more in¬
volved and take more time.

Anaerobic Power Tests

• Line drill for basketball (preferable for court sports)
• 300-yard shuttle run (preferable for field sports)

Agility and Body Control Tests

• T-test
• Edgren side step

Aerobic Power Tests

• 2-mile run
• 12-minute run
• 3-minute step test

SPORT-SPECIFIC SKILLS
Skill movements vary from sport to sport, but most coaches prefer sport-specific
skills assessment and even position-specific assessment. It is, of course, impor¬
tant to use a test that is reliable and valid. Radar guns compute the speed of
baseball pitches and tennis serves, and electronic timers measure baserunning
and pass rushing. Most sports skills are assessed from a quantitative, not qualita¬
tive, perspective. Until recently, the eyes of coaches were the only quality stan¬
dard. Current advances in movement analysis have linked photography and com¬
puters to bring greater objectivity to sports-skills analysis. Options for the future
will be discussed later. For now make sure that analysis is objective and has quali¬
tative parameters (accuracy, consistency, adaptability, etc.) as well as quantitative
parameters (time, distance, etc.). Books dedicated to a single sport cover sport-
specific skills testing in detail.

USING TEST DATA

Once data is collected, an individual performance pyramid can be constructed
for each athlete (see figure 2.4, a-c). Figure 2.4a represents the athlete with poor
mobility and stability scores but good functional performance and skill. This
common situation represents a majority of athletes in field and court sports. Note
that the foundation does not support the functional and skill activities. Injury
potential is greater because the athlete’s performance exceeds his or her mobility
and stability. The athlete has the potential to produce greater momentum and
power than he or she can potentially control. The athlete should first work on
mobility and stability not only to broaden the movement foundation but also to
improve efficiency and functional performance.
 Baseline Sports-Fitness Testing 47

Figure 2.4b represents the athlete who is highly specialized and is skilled at
one aspect of a position or sport but does not possess general athleticism. This
individual does not test well but is an excellent competitor. He or she has in¬
vested a large amount of time honing sports skills but will now need to focus on
the foundation base and functional base to see a significant change in perfor¬
mance.
Figure 2.4c represents an athlete who has good mobility and stability but poor
function. This individual will benefit greatly by focusing on functional perfor¬
mance deficits. This individual is ready for all the benefits that periodization,
plyometrics, interval training, and sport-specific conditioning can offer. He or
she possesses the basic framework and foundation movements to start functional
training. This athlete will need supervision because he or she may demonstrate
poor technique.-The individual may also have less energy-storing capability than
the athlete in figure 2.4a. Therefore, supervision is needed with explosive and
ballistic training.

a b c

Figure 2.4 Individual performance pyramids.

Constructing a team performance pyramid is also beneficial in identifying team

attributes and detriments compared with other teams or previous teams. Doing
so creates a philosophy and methodology for the athletic trainer and strength
and conditioning professional. Pyramids act as a compass to direct individual
athletes and teams to the areas of greatest weakness. Historically, a distinguish¬
ing characteristic of a good athlete versus an elite athlete has been a focus on his
or her weaknesses, rather than strengths. Good athletes focus on their strengths,
maximizing potential benefits while ignoring, covering up, and compensating
for weaknesses. Elite athletes confront their weaknesses and focus on them in
their conditioning programs. These athletes will enter competition with the physi¬
ological and psychological advantages that come from knowing that they have
confronted and rectified their weakest links. Because athletes don’t always intu¬
itively adopt such a mindset, the coaching and training staff must use baseline
testing to expose the weakest link and direct the progression of the training pro¬
gram. Follow-up testing can validate the rehabilitation or conditioning tech¬
niques employed. Testing also serves as a continuous monitor to expose other
potential weak links that commonly arise as athletes become more specialized
and experienced.
48 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

SUMMARY
Technology will continue to progress, but human movement will always obey
neuromuscular, biomechanical, and physical laws. Therefore, the conditioning
specialist must focus on the job, not the tool. Technology (testing tools) should
always be subservient to an objective testing philosophy based on sound prin¬
ciples.
The performance pyramid illustrates an athlete’s functional strengths and weak¬
nesses. This simple diagram is an effective teaching tool for athletes and coaches
alike. Athletes must be continually reminded that reaching the top of the pyra¬
mid is possible only after building a good foundation. This simple pyramid dem¬
onstrates the necessary priority and progression of baseline testing and analysis
to develop high-performance sports conditioning.
Performance Flexibility
Nikos Apostolopoulos

f his chapter looks at the importance of flexibility to performance. Unlike

strength, speed, and other motor abilities, flexibility belongs not to the causative
factors of movement but to the morpho-functional properties; that is, it helps
govern motion. In fact, flexibility helps determine the efficiency of the athlete’s
other physical abilities. Besides governing simple contraction and relaxation, the
motor system carries out the additional task of coordination within muscle groups.
Other duties include technique development and skill acquisition. Propriocep¬
tors in the muscles, tendons, and joints, which sense muscle length, tension, and
joint angle, are critical in providing information to the motor system. Therefore,
flexibility enhances the development of coordination and technique and the abil¬
ity of the proprioceptors to receive stimuli.

49
50 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Flexibility training must be viewed as a workout in itself, not a token warm-up

or warm-down. For the greatest benefit, flexibility training should begin in the
childhood or teenage years and continue throughout life. Proper flexibility train¬
ing can moderate, or even delay for many years, the deterioration of range of
motion that occurs with age.
In the world of sport, athletes and coaches always seek better and newer meth¬
ods to increase the athlete’s potential. The benefits of flexibility extend to ath¬
letes of all ages and abilities, whether elite, professional, or amateur. The goal of
training is to achieve good performance in competition. The more directly train¬
ing is aimed at preparing the athlete for a particular sport, the more effective it
will be. An understanding of the principles of flexibility provides the tools to
design individual stretching programs.
Training and competition expose the body to a tremendous volume and inten¬
sity of exercise. These constant demands result in great wear and tear and pos¬
sibly even injury. To prevent injury, the athlete must maintain stmcturo-functional
integrity of the musculoskeletal system. Different muscle groups should exert
symmetrically balanced forces on the skeletal elements, and individual muscular
forces themselves should be correcdy balanced and aligned. Proper develop¬
ment of flexibility produces a balanced system, restores muscles, and maintains
key physiological processes. Proper integration of the musculoskeletal system is
essential for a qualitatively and quantitatively well-executed movement. There¬
fore, performance flexibility is actually balanced flexibility.

ANATOMY OF INJURY
The anatomical structures that relate to flexibility are muscles, tendons, liga¬
ments, and bone (see figure 3.1). Muscle by nature is elastic, whereas tendons
and ligaments are inelastic. Skeletal muscle cells (sarcoplasms) are contiguous
with tendon fibrils. There is no continuity between the muscle cells and the
tendon fibrils, from the origin and insertion ends of the musculotendon system
to the bone (Ippolito, Perugia, and Postacchini 1986). Tendons are much stron¬
ger than the muscles that act on them. The maximal tensile strength of muscle
(its resistance to pull) is approximately 77 to 80 pounds per square inch, whereas
tendons can resist 8,600 to 18,000 pounds per square inch (Hollinshead and
Jenkins 1981, as shown in figure 3.2). This enables a large muscle to act through
a small tendon. Therefore, it is almost physically impossible for an injury to
result from a tendon tearing in the middle. When an injury does happen, it oc¬
curs either in the muscle fiber near the junction between muscle and tendon, or
where the tendon connects to the bone.
When the athlete performs a stretch and feels the muscles burning or senses
an extreme pull in the muscles, that is a strain. A form of stretching that exempli¬
fies strain is the isometric contraction phase of a proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation (PNF) stretch. A strain results in microtears of the muscle near the
muscle-tendon junction. Microtears are microinjuries. The body responds to
these tears by releasing collagen in the area, resulting in the development of scar
tissue. As scar tissue ages it contracts, further tightening the surrounding tissues.
These microtears, unlike those that occur in the postlifting and pregrowth re¬
pair process during muscular hypertrophy, are located in an area of transition
 Bone

Myotendon
junction

Figure 3.1 Arrangement of muscular tissue, tendon, and bone.

Figure 3.2 Tensile strengths of muscles and tendons; microtears and scar tissue related to a strain.

51
52 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

between elastic (muscle) and inelastic (tendon) tissue. In contrast to the middle
of the muscle belly, this area has poor circulation, which is further diminished
with the development of scar tissue. Therefore, the repair process is slower.
As these microtears increase in number and size, they progress into an acute
injury. The injury causes muscles or muscle groups to shift and compensate for
inadequate function of a weak muscle or muscle group. Muscle imbalance begins
to develop as the body strives to minimize pain, protect the injury, and retain
maximum function. If the athlete does not deliberately try to repattern these
natural shifts during the acute phase, the injury progresses to the chronic phase.
The constant avoidance of pain results in the alteration of motor patterns, mani¬
fested by a physical decrease in the range of motion around the joint. If the
individual does not resume normal activity, this altered motor pattern and its
related suboptimal function will continue.
Short-duration strain similar to the tension developed during the 6- to 10-
second isometric contraction phase of a PNF stretch can result in microtears. As
alluded to earlier, the constant repetition of such tension will predispose the
athlete to, and possibly result in, an injury. Proper flexibility training takes into
account the different stresses and strains of the connective tissues. A well-
designed program will help increase flexibility in the inelastic tissues (ligaments
and tendons), break down scar tissue, and decrease the chance of injuries caused
by strains.

PRINCIPLES OF PERFORMANCE FLEXIBILITY

It is possible to improve the elasticity of normally inelastic connective tissue
without deformation or tearing. The flexibility of all the links that compose the
locomotor system should be trained to the maximum range allowed by the joint
structure. The type of movement is determined by the shape and contact of the
joint surfaces as well as the elasticity and strength of the ligaments, tendons, and
muscle. Overdevelopment of the elasticity of connective tissues may result in an
irreversible deformation of joints, ligaments, and tendons. This will directly and
adversely affect motor abilities.
When an individual does flexibility training properly, maintaining the integ¬
rity of the connective tissue and muscle, he or she can develop a flexibility re¬
serve. This reserve enhances performance, allowing the athlete to execute
movement without excessive tension. The reserve also decreases the resistance
of the extended muscles and serves as a safeguard against injury.
Flexibility developed through static stretching and micro-Stretching® (a tech¬
nique I developed) is more beneficial than flexibility attained through other
forms of stretching (passive-active, ballistic, active assisted, and PNF). Done at
low intensity, static stretching and micro-Stretching develop the flexibility re¬
serve, decrease the influence of hypertrophy and other muscular changes during
the development of strength, and decrease muscle tension, thereby increasing
circulation and neural conductivity. This decrease in muscle tension also assists
in decreasing muscle tone and aids the removal of metabolic wastes (i.e., lactic
acid).
Like all forms of training, performance flexibility training adheres to certain prin¬
ciples of frequency, duration, and intensity. Table 3.1 summarizes these principles.
 Performance Flexibility 53

Table 3.1 Principles of Performance Flexibility Training

Training principle Application of training principle

Frequency Once or twice per day

Three times per muscle group per session
Intensity 30-40% of maximum stretch (100% = pain)
Duration Each stretch should be held for approximately
60 seconds

Frequency
As suggested by Tudor Bompa, an athlete must stretch at least twice per day to
improve flexibility (Bompa 1983). The athlete must stretch each muscle group at
least three times per session. Repetition is important. In both infancy and adult¬
hood, we learn movements and improve skills through repetition. Repeated stimu¬
lation of the central nervous system integrates the new physical pattern, turning
it into an automatic response.
With the ongoing development of flexibility, perceptual skills improve. The
tendons and muscles become more elastic, increasing the sensitivity of the joint
receptors and thereby processing more information. The athlete senses more
accurately the significance of a physical stimulus and, in turn, effects a more
suitable motor response.

Intensity
Performance flexibility stretching is always done at a low intensity level (approxi¬
mately 30 to 40 percent of perceived exertion). At this level, stretching increases the
pliancy of the connective and muscle tissues. Low-intensity stretching can be
referred to as micro-Stretching. The influence of micro-Stretching, like that of
microinjuries, occurs at the cellular level. Unlike a strain, micro-Stretching re¬
sults in minimal activation of the specialized receptor tissues of the muscle and
tendon (the muscle spindle fibers and the Golgi tendon organ). The muscle spindle
senses muscle lengthening, whereas the Golgi tendon organ senses tension.
Micro-Stretching helps damaged tissue recover and regenerate and aids in the
breakdown of scar tissue. If there is a lot of scar tissue between the muscle and
tendon, micro-Stretching can bypass the specialized receptor tissues, which would
be activated by a strain.
While stretching, it is critical to avoid strain or pain, which would result in the
activation or constant maintenance of a subconscious protective loop. The body
maintains this loop to respond to an injury. Its activation results in the develop¬
ment and reinforcement of muscle imbalances and a further decrease in the range
of motion around a joint.
With low-intensity stretching, an athlete is able to recover from injury, de¬
crease the muscle tone affected by connective tissue (i.e., fascia), regenerate con¬
nective tissue (i.e., tendons, ligaments, and muscles), and reestablish and repattern
the musculoskeletal system.
54 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Duration
The optimum length of time to hold a stretch is approximately 60 seconds. It
normally takes about 30 seconds for a stretch to progress from the middle of the
muscle belly to the tendons. Thus a token 10- to 15-second stretch may be bene¬
ficial to the muscle but will have minimal influence on the ligaments, tendons,
and fascia that are largely responsible for range of motion and flexibility.
At the Serapis Stretch Therapy Clinic I have found that individuals who hold
a stretch longer than 90 seconds often complain of feeling tighter. The Golgi
tendon organ is the cause for this. Prolonged low-intensity stretching of a muscle
causes it to lengthen slightly beyond its normal resting length, which is suffi¬
cient to trigger a slight increase in tension. This increase stimulates the Golgi
tendon organ to react, thereby triggering the muscle to contract. Because this
increase in tightness may cause some microtears, a stretch should not be held
longer than 60 seconds.

FLEXIBILITY FOR SPORTS

All athletes benefit from performance flexibility. Whether competing as an indi¬
vidual or on a team, an athlete with a balanced muscular system devoid of com-
pensational shifts will perform better. The notion of 30 percent exertion may be
foreign to athletes who identify with the “no pain, no gain” philosophy. Stretch¬
ing at this intensity, however, helps the athlete develop power and remain injury
free. No sport can be singled out as benefiting the most from flexibility.
Quality of movement, whether judged or not, is affected by flexibility. When
athletes have command of their flexibility, they are able to perform exercise or
events more strongly, quickly, and expressively.
Strength, speed, and endurance are qualities of every sport. Performance flexi¬
bility determines how proficiently and efficiently the athlete can apply them.
Flexibility in endurance and power sports is fundamental for high motor economy.
Flexibility aids in the development of conditioning and coordination. An athlete
with flexibility generates acceleration over a greater range of motion, thereby
increasing speed. Flexibility is the rate-determining factor. It governs move¬
ment.

STRETCHING EXERCISES
The human body occupies many positions in sports, all of which fall into three
general categories: standing, sitting, or lying. All positions involve the coordina¬
tion of many muscles or muscle groups. A properly designed flexibility routine
enhances the interaction of the muscles.
The suggested flexibility routine is based on two principles. The first prin¬
ciple, discussed earlier in this chapter, comprises frequency, intensity, and dura¬
tion. The second principle concerns stability, balance, and control (SBC—a prin¬
ciple developed at the Serapis Stretch Therapy Clinic). To observe this prin¬
ciple, position the body in a manner that isolates a muscle group, thereby allow¬
ing the rest of the body to relax. This can be accomplished by using a floor, wall,
 Performance Flexibility 55

chair, or any other base of support. Isolation helps decrease the metabolic cost to
the body. Adherence to both principles facilitates micro-Stretching.
The stretches selected follow a specific kinetic order. Morphologically, there
is no value in doing a lower-body stretch followed by an upper-body stretch. The
orderly progression is useful because each stretch leads into another. This flow
imprints itself on the neural system. The intention is to make the stretches sec¬
ond nature. The perceived flow of the stretches is facilitated through the fascial
communications of the muscles. (Note that each stretch should be performed at
30 percent of perceived exertion.)

For a tight calf muscle the athlete should do the following:

1. Sit in a chair with feet flat on the floor and

shoulder-width apart.
2. Place a 3 - to 5-inch book on the floor.
3. Place the ball of one foot on the book, making
sure the heel is on the floor.
4. Position the lower leg to create a light stretch
in the calf region.
5. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then repeat
with the other leg.
6. Do three repetitions per leg.

For a moderately tight calf muscle the athlete should

do the following:

1. Stand with feet 12 to 18 inches from a wall.

Face the wall and place both hands on the
wall for support.
2. Keep the pelvis squared and the feet shoul¬
der-width apart.
3. Bend one knee slighdy toward the wall and
bend the back knee slightly, keeping both
heels down.
4. Hold a fight stretch for 60 seconds, then
repeat with the other leg.
5. Do three repetitions per leg. Alternate to the
other leg.
56 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Anterior Lower Leg

For a tight tibialis anterior the athlete should do the following:

1. Sit in a chair and cross one leg over the other so

that the ankle of the crossed leg rests on the
outside edge of the knee of the anchor leg.
2. Grab the top of the foot at the outside of the
crossed leg.
3. Pull the foot toward the body.
4. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then repeat
with the other leg.
5. Do three repetitions per leg.

For a moderately tight tibialis anterior the athlete should

do the following:

1. Sit on the floor with the front of the lower legs touching the
floor and the heels of the feet touching the buttocks.
2. Position the legs shoulder-width apart.
3. If the stretch is a little too much, put a pillow between the
buttocks and the back of the lower legs.
4. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds.
5. Repeat the stretch three times with a 60-second break
between stretches.

Gluteal Region
The athlete should do the following:

1. Lie on the floor on the back in front of a wall. Place a pillow under the head.
2. Place the legs against the wall with the knees
flexed at 90 degrees.
3. Keep the hips and pelvis on the floor.
4. Position the legs shoulder-width apart.
5. Cross one leg over the other, placing the ankle
of the crossed leg just past the knee of the leg that
is against the wall.
6. Feel the sensation of the stretch in the buttock
region of the crossed leg.
7. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then repeat
with the other leg.
8. Do three repetitions per leg.
 Performance Flexibility 57

Posterior Thigh Region

The athlete should do the following:

1. Lie on the floor in front of a door jamb and place a pillow under the head.
2. Keep the hips and pelvis squared and on the floor.
3. Place the leg to be stretched up against the wall.
4. Do not force the knee straight; doing so may cause pain behind the knee.
5. Lace the other leg through the door jamb. If you have discomfort in the front of the leg
that you put through the door jamb, place a pillow under the knee to alleviate the discomfort.
6. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then repeat with the other leg.
7. Do three repetitions per leg.

Medial Thigh Region

The athlete should do the following:

1. Sit on the floor with the back up against a wall

and bring the soles of the feet together.
2. Keep the back straight.
3. Do not force the knees down.
4. Feel the stretch sensation in the groin area.
5. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then release
the stretch for 60 seconds.
6. Repeat three times.

Stretch diagram 5
58 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Lateral Thigh Region

The athlete should do the following:

1. Lie flat on the back on the floor and a place a

pillow under the head.
2. Keep the hips and pelvis squared on the floor and
the legs shoulder-width apart.
3. Bring one knee up toward the stomach.
4. Place the foot on top of the anchor leg, just above
the knee.
5. Try to move the stretching leg to a position that
forms a 90-degree angle to the body, keeping the
pelvis and hips flat on the floor.
6. Using the hand opposite the leg that is being
stretched, gently pull the knee over the anchor
leg.
7. Do not force the stretch. Hold the stretch for 60
seconds, then repeat with the other leg.
8. Do three repetitions per leg.

ior Thigh Region

The athlete should do the following:

1. Kneel on the floor with the knees shoulder-width apart and the pelvis and hips
squared.
2. Raise one leg off the ground and extend it in front of the body.
3. Lower the body into the stretch, bending the extended knee to form a 90-degree
angle.
4. Feel the stretch in the hip opposite the
extended leg.
5. Keep the back straight, not bent or
hunched over.
6. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then
repeat with the other leg.
7. Do three repetitions per leg.
 Performance Flexibility 59

The athlete should do the following:

1. Lie flat on the back on the floor and place a

pillow under the head.
2. Bring both knees up toward the chest until
the knees are bent at a 90-degree angle.
3. Keep both shoulders on the floor while
bringing both knees over to one side to rest
on the floor. Be sure to keep both knees at 90
degrees.
4. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds before
straightening the legs and repeating on the
opposite side.
5. Do three repetitions on each side.

Midback Region
The athlete should do the following:

1. Sit on the floor with the upper body nearly vertical. Bend one knee and place it
outside the straight anchor leg.
2. Place the elbow opposite the bent leg on the outside of the bent knee. Place the
hand of the anchor arm on the floor for support.
3. Push the arm with the elbow on the knee into the bent leg to
produce a twisting movement of the upper body away from
the bent leg.
4. Turn the head in the direction opposite the bent leg.
5. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then repeat with
the other leg.
6. Do three repetitions per leg.
60 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

The athlete should do the following:

1. Sit in a chair with the shoulders squared and

relaxed.
2. Slowly and gently bring one arm across the
front of the body by pulling the elbow with the
opposite hand.
3. Try to keep the lower back and upper body
straight.
4. Keep the feet planted firmly on the floor.
5. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then repeat
with the other arm.
6. Do three repetitions with each arm.

Chest and Anterior Shoulder Region

The athlete should do the following:

1. Stand erect with the right side of the body

toward a door frame and the feet shoulder-
width apart.
2. Extend the right arm straight out to the side
such that the hand is at about rib-cage or waist
height.
3. Rotate the forearm and grasp the edge of the
door frame with the palm of the hand and the
fingers.
4. Turn the upper body to the left.
5. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then release
slowly.
6. Repeat with the other arm.
7. Do three repetitions per arm.
 Performance Flexibility 61

The athlete should do the following:

1. Sit in a chair with the shoulders and pelvis

squared.
2. Extend one arm to the side of a chair and grasp
the edge of the chair.
3. Keep the head back and the ears aligned with the
shoulders.
4. Gently lean away with the neck from the hand
grasping the chair.
5. Slightly turn the neck away from the hand grasp¬
ing the chair and drop the head toward the chest.
6. Hold the stretch for 60 seconds, then repeat with
the other arm.
7. Do three repetitions per arm.

SUMMARY
Performance flexibility is balanced flexibility and is best developed through the
technique of micro-Stretching and the principle of stability, balance, and con¬
trol. The concepts presented in this chapter enable coaches and athletes to de¬
velop an effective flexibility program. By using 30 to 40 percent perceived exer¬
tion, the athlete performs a proper stretch without strain, thus decreasing the
development of scar tissue and microinjuries. The holding of a stretch for 60
seconds helps repattern the connective tissue system and ultimately the muscle
groups. Repetition of the stretch reinforces the imprint on the neuromuscular
system.
Muscular Strength
and Stamina
Steven Scott Plisk

I he need for strength and endurance in sports is now generally accepted. Despite
the potential for direct transfer to performance enhancement and injury
prevention, however, their role is often perceived as indirect or foundational.
Indeed, strength is often thought to be independent from or incompatible with
movement velocity, when in fact the latter is a result of explosive force application.
Realization of this fact is crucial to achieving optimal training effects.
Technical precision and speed of execution are fundamental goals of any athletic
movement, and, of course, the two are interrelated. Sports performance is
determined by the ability to properly execute skills and assignments at a planned
effort level. Training tasks should therefore be selected and prioritized according
to how well they target the coordinative, biomechanical, and bioenergetic
demands of competition.
In general, maximum strength training and speed-strength training should be
conducted with limited work volumes and minimal metabolic stress; doing so
maximizes the quality of learning and training effects. Methods designed to
increase muscle bulk (hypertrophy) as well as strength, which require greater
intensity of training, are an exception. Likewise, strength-endurance training
usually involves fatiguing workloads and greater overall volume. As part of the
overall sports-preparation process, specialized strength training should be planned
and implemented according to sound principles to optimize the athlete’s
performance capabilities.

63
64 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

MOVEMENT MECHANICS
Effective strength training begins with a working knowledge of basic movement
mechanics, especially aspects such as rate of force development (RFD) and im¬
pulse, stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) and reactive ability, power, and the role of
each of these qualities in “endurance” sports versus “power” sports. The opera¬
tive concept in each case is speed strength—that is, the ability to develop forces
rapidly or at high velocity. Collectively, this section illustrates that evaluation of
an athlete’s explosive and reactive strength capabilities is the starting point for
planning the preparation process. Fortunately, such tests are relatively simple to
administer and interpret.

Rate of Force Development and Impulse

The brief execution times of most athletic tasks require a high RFD. For ex¬
ample, force is applied for 0.1 to 0.2 seconds during the ground-support phase of
running, whereas absolute maximum force production requires up to 0.6 to 0.8
seconds. Even in nonballistic locomotion such as cycling, rowing, skating, or
swimming, performance is usually determined by the ability to generate force
quickly and thereby achieve a critical impulse output (defined as the change in
momentum resulting from a force, measured as the product of force and time;
see figure 4.1).
The practical implication of this is that amplitude, direction, and rate of force
application are equally significant when performing functional tasks. As will be
discussed in more detail in the section “Exercise Prioritization and Substitution”
on page 67 the issue is one of specificity to competitive demands. Thus, a basic
objective of training is to improve RFD, effectively moving the force-time curve

Figure 4.1 Isometric force as a function of time, indicating maximum strength, rate of force devel¬
opment, and force at 0.2 seconds for untrained, heavy-resistance trained, and explosive-ballistic trained
subjects. Impulse is represented by the area under each curve and is increased by improving RFD.
 Muscular Strength and Stamina 65

up and to the left, thereby generating greater impulse during the limited time
(and distance) in which force is applied. Furthermore, the significance of this
parameter is not limited to biomechanics. According to the impulse-timing hy¬
pothesis, the force-time relationship is a central component in motor program¬
ming and has important implications for motor control and learning.

Stretch-Shortening Cycle and Reactive Ability

Many functional movements involve springlike muscle-tendon actions and are
ballistic in nature, even when initiated from a static position. The action begins
with a preparatory countermovement in which the involved muscles are rapidly
and forcibly lengthened, or “stretch loaded,” and immediately shortened in a
reactive or elastic manner. This eccentric-concentric coupling phenomenon—
referred to as the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC)—is especially prevalent in sports
involving running, jumping, and rapid changes in speed and direction. SSC ac¬
tions exploit motoneural reflexes as well as intrinsic qualities of the muscle-ten¬
don complex, and their performance is a distinct capability that is independent
of maximum strength in elite athletes. Training for such sports should therefore
progressively include plyometric methods besides basic heavy-resistance move¬
ments, as will be discussed in the section “Training Methods” (page 74).
It is important to distinguish the concept of reactive ability from that of reac¬
tion time. The former is a characteristic of speed strength exhibited in SSC ac¬
tions that can be improved through reactive-explosive training. In contrast, the
latter is a relatively untrainable quality that correlates poorly with movement
action time or performance in many brief explosive events. For example, an elite
sprinter’s auditory reaction time typically ranges from 0.12 to 0.18 seconds but is
not significantly related to his or her 100-meter results. Other factors such as
acceleration, speed endurance, and (to a lesser extent) maximum speed are more
closely associated with overall sprint times. Reaction time is, however, an important
determinant of performance in quick-timing tasks (e.g., a batter hitting a baseball)
and defensive types of stimulus-response actions (e.g., a goaltender making a save).

Power
Power is the rate of doing work, or the product of force and velocity. The peak
levels of force and power absorbed by the tissues while they are actively length¬
ening are often greater than those produced while they are shortening (see fig¬
ure 4.2). If not adequately addressed in training, these forces can be the cause of
so-called noncontact injury, technical inefficiency, or outright nonathleticism.
Thus, in addition to improving concentric power production capability, the de¬
mands of SSC movements dictate two more training objectives: (1) to develop
the eccentric strength needed to tolerate extreme power absorption while explo¬
sively braking during the initial lengthening action, and (2) to develop the reac¬
tive strength needed to recoil rapidly into the subsequent shortening action.
Figure 4.2 also illustrates that achievable velocity depends on the load to be
overcome and that the role of strength in determining movement speed or accel¬
eration in any task therefore increases with resistance. In terrestrial movement this
resistance usually includes the athlete’s body mass and possibly his or her equipment
or opponent. In comparison, despite the fact that aquatic locomotion is not weight
66 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Figure 4.2 Power production and absorption as a function of force and velocity in concentric and
eccentric muscle actions. Maximum concentric power (Pm) occurs at ~30% of maxumum force (Fm) and
velocity (Vm). Note that the greatest force and power is produced during explosive eccentric actions.

bearing, consider the challenge presented by hydraulic resistance—in other words,

energy cost as a function of drag. Indeed, it is difficult to find examples of sports
that do not require power and high-speed force output to accelerate rapidly,
decelerate rapidly, or achieve high velocities quickly. These capabilities are de¬
termined primarily by the athlete’s percentage of type II fast-twitch motor units,
and, of course, his or her ability to activate them optimally. In contrast, isomet¬
ric, or low-velocity, strength is a function of muscle cross-sectional area (i.e., the
number of active sarcomeres in parallel). Once the athlete has achieved the up¬
per limit for specific muscle tension (40 to 45 newtons per centimeter2 in trained
athletes), hypertrophy is required—especially in type II fibers—to increase force
and speed production further.

Endurance Versus Power Sports

It is generally accepted that these speed-strength capabilities are important in
“power” sports (those involving explosive running, jumping, and changes in speed
or direction), but many believe that their role in “endurance” activities is minor.
The ability to apply force rapidly and accelerate one’s body mass is important in
most athletics. Prolonged activities often involve a series of brief, explosive spikes
in power output, and therefore one should not simplistically classify such activi¬
ties as submaximal endurance events. The task-specific importance of an athlete’s
speed-strength capabilities should be critically evaluated on a mechanical basis
rather than categorically assigned based on physiological factors.

SYSTEMS VERSUS COMPONENTS

In general, structural movements such as multijoint weight-bearing exercises
have a systemic effect that reaches far beyond the muscle fibers used in their
 Muscular Strength and Stamina 67

execution. Muscles act—and should be targeted—in functional task groups rather

than in isolation. This is one reason athletes should emphasize powerlifting and
weightlifting-style movements, and compound exercises in general in their train¬
ing. Furthermore, such movements are a potent means of activating the neuro¬
muscular and neuroendocrine systems, which in turn regulate every system in
the body. Thus, there are several reasons why strength-training programs should
be based on free-weight movements rather than isolated muscle movements.

1. Power. The greater the effort and acceleration with a given weight, the greater
the power development and subsequent training effect. Power output during
Olympic-style weightlifting is the highest ever documented and comparable
to the theoretical maximum for a human. For example, lifters execute the
explosive jump-and-pull or dip-and-drive actions of these movements in 0.2
to 0.3 seconds. Peak power production is 4 to 5 times that of the deadlift or
squat and 11 to 15 times that of the bench press.
2. Motor coordination. Skillful movements have a motor-control learning effect
that carries over to the following coordinative abilities:

• Orientation and differentiation

• Reactiveness, rhythm, and balance
• Combinatory and adaptive abilities

3. Systemic effect. The greater the exertion in the big lifts, the higher the produc¬
tion of endogenous hormones and the greater the activity and number of
tissue receptors, which in turn stimulate overall muscle mass and strength to
a greater degree. These guidelines are not definitive, and it is likely that no
ideal workload protocol exists for either effect. Flowever, a sound training
strategy must account for and exploit basic adaptive mechanisms:

• Moderate weights with high reps and high-intensity endurance activities in

general tend to maximize the somatotropin response.
• Heavy weights with low reps and brief maximal efforts in general tend to
maximize the testosterone response.

The sound of clanking iron invokes no magic. Certain machines, such as a hip
sled or cable-pulley system, serve useful roles. But multijoint free-weight train¬
ing has an advantage that cams, levers, and linear bearings will never match. It
requires—and develops—functional strength and has excellent transfer to
athleticism and explosiveness.

EXERCISE PRIORITIZATION AND SUBSTITUTION

In terms of specificity, training tasks should be selected and prioritized accord¬
ing to their dynamic correspondence with the demands of the activity. Their
basic biomechanics, but not necessarily their outward appearance, should be spe¬
cific to the biomechanics occurring in competition. The rate and time of peak
force production (impulse, see figure 4.1) and dynamics of effort (power, as shown
in figure 4.2) are especially important criteria in explosive athletic movements.
Other practical considerations include amplitude and direction of movement,
accentuated region of force application, and regime of muscular work. This concept
68 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

is analogous to the motor-learning principle of practice specificity with respect to

sensorimotor processing and contextual effects on acquisition, retention, and
transfer. Although these may appear to be commonsense statements, it is diffi¬
cult to overstate their importance because failure to address them in training can
result in limited transfer to competitive performance.

Classifications
Basic exercises are straightforward. There is little need to substitute other move¬
ments or supplement them with all sorts of assistance exercises intended to target
the muscles differently. This is not a concrete rule, however, and some prudent
alternatives are offered below. Long-term variety is often best achieved by ad¬
justing the workload for a limited number of functional movements rather than
attempting to include every possible exercise. Pages 69 to 73 provide exercises
that are commonly applied in sports training.
In this light, strength-training exercises can be classified into three categories:

1. Primary, or “structural”—multijoint, weight bearing (e.g., Olympic-style lifts,

squats, dead lifts)
2. Secondary, or “supplemental”—multijoint, non-weight bearing (e.g., upper-
body pressing or pulling exercises)
3. Tertiary, or “isolation”—single-joint, non-weight bearing

Primary exercises are inherently functional movements that by definition yield

the most profound results. Those further down the continuum have lesser ef¬
fects and are technically simpler. The examples cited above for each category are
certainly not comprehensive, and it is not difficult to find hybrid movements.
For example, Olympic-style weightlifting movements represent a special case of
primary exercises that are semiballistic in nature, with explosive impulse and
power as the fundamental objectives.
The lunge and step-up each meet the criteria for a primary exercise, whereas
machine exercises such as a hip sled or leg press arguably do not, despite the fact
that they may involve similar muscle mass and exertion. The latter may be viable
options during extremely intensive workloads or when the athlete’s trunk cannot
safely support the weight required to train the legs in movements such as the
squat or dead lift (as discussed on page 71).
The chin-up, pull-up, dip, push-up, and related exercises can be considered
multijoint weight-bearing movements, placing them in the primary category ac¬
cording to this scheme. But they often receive less emphasis than the traditional
upper-body exercises mentioned above. Furthermore, they usually do not in¬
volve the same muscle mass or resistance used in other primary movements,
making it difficult to justify placing them in the same group. Overall, however,
they may deserve greater consideration than “standard” upper-body movements.
Additional examples could be cited, but the point is that this classification scheme
is not an attempt to label certain movements as good or bad. It is simply a place
to start making rational decisions about selecting and prioritizing them. As with
all aspects of a program, use principles rather than preferences as a guide. Per¬
haps most important, training effect takes precedence over strength demonstra¬
tion. The objective is to choose the most effective movements and execute them
in the most beneficial way.
 Muscular Strength and Stamina 69

Weightlifting Variations
Although using sound movement mechanics is imperative, it may not always be
necessary to perform the classical lifts as they are done in competition. For ex¬
ample, the Olympic-style movements can often be adapted or modified for the
sake of simplicity.
In any case, the athlete should observe the following safety guidelines:

1. Use bumper plates and an eight-foot-by-eight-foot platform that is clear of

loose plates, obstacles, and people. Do not have anyone attempt to spot you.
2. Technique, especially position and quickness, always has priority over weight.
3. Be prepared to miss a rep. If you lose control of the bar or can’t complete a
rep for any reason, quickly get out from underneath and let it drop. Do not
try to save it on the way down.
• Use the barbell’s downward momentum to move out of the way. Keep your
grip and push yourself away from the bar as it falls.
• Stay between the plates; this does not mean that you remain under the
barbell but that you move backward or forward (not sideways) to escape.

Power Clean
In terms of training effect, it makes little difference if the athlete starts from the floor or
the hang position or whether he or she catches the bar. In fact, one way to teach these
exercises to a novice athlete is to have him or her perform a high pull from the hang
position, where the bar does not descend below knee level at the start of the movement and
is not caught at its completion. Once the athlete masters this movement, he or she can
progress into a power pull from the floor, the hang clean, and finally the power clean.

ieMHfen Library/Indiana Tech

1000 E. Washington Bivd., Ft. Wayne, IN 46803
70 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Snatch _

A similar progression can be used in teaching the snatch. In either case, the success of each
rep can be gauged by the athlete’s ability to get into the “power position” (with the bar just
above the knees) and use the hips and legs to get action on the bar, jumping and pulling
explosively enough to separate his or her feet from the platform.

Again, in terms of training effect it makes little difference if the athlete performs a split
when catching the bar overhead. Once the athlete masters the basic mechanics of this lift,
however, the split can improve an experienced athlete’s ability to manage the bar by achiev¬
ing a lower receiving position than is otherwise possible (unless he or she has the mobility
to drop into a full overhead squat). A simple progression for teaching this exercise is to
begin with the push press or push jerk before progressing into the jerk. In either case, the
success of each rep can be gauged by the athlete’s ability to dip (six to eight inches or about
 Muscular Strength and Stamina 71

10 percent of body height), drive through the “power position,” and use the hips and legs
to get action on the bar, jumping and pushing explosively enough to separate his or her feet
from the platform.

Powerlifting Variations
This discussion will address some adjunct considerations for safely and effec¬
tively performing the conventional squat and dead lift. These guidelines apply
generally to both movements because of their gross similarities. Although tech¬
nique checklists are presented, this section is not intended to present a complete
overview of their execution.

Squat and Dead Lift

Optimal range of motion in the squat or dead lift does not cause the trunk to lean exces¬
sively forward or cause the athlete to feel unusual pain (to be distinguished from the dis¬
comfort of exertion). Many athletes can safely achieve the classic parallel-depth position
with heavy weights, but some cannot. Those who do not compete in the sports of
powerlifting or weightlifting should consider several points when pursuing an optimal
training effect.
First, flexibility is an element of any functional movement. Active or passive mobility is
intrinsic to every skill or technique, no matter how simple or complex. As discussed in
chaper 3, the athlete should develop flexibility to optimal levels because functional strength
is applied through a movement path (that is, a range of motion), and because an athlete’s
neuromuscular system generates peak power and operates most efficiently when explo¬
sively stretch loaded and recoiled.
72 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Second, achievable depth depends on the resistance being used. Even athletes who cannot
get parallel with limit weights often can (and generally should, unless otherwise contra¬
indicated) do so during submaximal or warm-up reps. Thus, the inability to achieve a prede¬
termined depth with heavy weight does not necessarily mean that it cannot be done at all.
Third, contrived methods of keeping the hips in line with the center of gravity, moving
the knees in front of it, or otherwise altering the normal execution of these movements
(e.g., by elevating the heels) are counterproductive and potentially injurious. The athlete
can best achieve a stable base and balanced position by positioning the hips, the stronger
and more stable structure, behind the center of gravity to receive most of the torque and
driving through a “full foot” that is flat on the floor, with weight distributed between the
heel and forefoot.
Fourth, and most important, the names of these (or any) movements are not as impor¬
tant as what they are intended to do. Function should dictate form. Multijoint exercises
provide an opportunity to overload the major structures of the body by putting the “power
zone” (i.e., the hips) in an optimal position to transmit the largest force. It follows then that
to maximize torque at the hips, the athlete should move them as far behind the center of
gravity as possible, while flexing as far as leverage and body position allow. Squatting or
dead-lifting depth is therefore secondary to position. The key to a beneficial training effect
is to move the hips back while sitting to an optimal depth, not necessarily to aim for any
predetermined thigh angle. Depending on the athlete’s body proportions, maximal torque
may occur at or below an angle of 90 degrees at the hip or knee, with the midline of the
 Muscular Strength and Stamina 73

thigh above the parallel position. In the squat, it is interesting to note the effect of bar
placement. The powerlifter’s low-bar position usually allows the hips to move farther back¬
ward than does the weightlifter’s high-bar position, although this varies with individual
body proportions and mechanics.
In summary, the effort required to overcome a given resistance obviously increases with
depth. Beyond a certain point, however, this is the result of a loss in leverage rather than a
gain in torque, in turn bringing stress-strain relationships into question. This does not
imply that athletes should abandon parallel depth or universally adopt the half squat. The
latter can be effective for those whose mechanics or flexibility do not permit them to safely
get their thighs parallel according to the criteria presented above. The salient point is that
the standardized depth established decades ago to judge powerlifting competitions may
not be appropriate in all circumstances. “Full range of motion” should be critically evalu¬
ated for each situation rather than simplistically accepted as an absolute rule.

Alternatives
With the obvious exception of the competitive lifter, an advanced athlete may
develop to the point where it is no longer judicious for the trunk to support the
heaviest weights that the hips and legs are capable of moving. This observation is
not intended to dissuade athletes from performing heavy structural movements.
Indeed, one of the most effective ways to strengthen a healthy trunk is to load it
in a fixed position while the lower body does the work, transferring force through
the segments of the body. Likewise, lack of torso strength is an underlying cause
of many so-called back problems. But it is important to realize that the human
spine is a tower that was originally designed as a bridge. One should therefore
consider its limitations and corresponding training options when approaching
advanced levels of strength.
74 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

One recommendation is to view the primary exercises as a family of ground-

based movements that are interchangeable. It is a simple matter of whether the
weight is supported across the shoulders or suspended from them. If an athlete is
better able to handle heavy squat weights by substituting the conventional dead
lift in its place, that may be appropriate because the two movements are more
similar than they are different. Furthermore, if the athlete has difficulty main¬
taining good posture when dead lifting from a static bottom position, it may be
appropriate to set the bar up on blocks or racks and descend into each rep from
an upright position. In this way, the athlete can combine the best features of each
movement to achieve an optimal training effect.
Many athletes reach a point where they simply cannot maintain a flat back
when venturing into very heavy squats or dead lifts. The trunk must then be
unloaded or supported to train the hips and legs to their limit. One option is to
introduce other structural movements that do not load the trunk as heavily, such
as the lunge or step-up. Another is to include assistive hip and trunk strengthen¬
ing movements such as the glute-ham raise, Romanian or stiff-legged dead lift,
or trunk-reverse extension into the program to work the major structures in
different combinations while unloading the torso. An additional option is to use
barbell exercises for submaximal weights and perform the heaviest sets on a hip
sled, leg press, or other apparatus that supports the torso. When pursuing a
specific objective, the athlete should consider the pros and cons of various alter¬
natives.

Balance
Imbalances are a leading cause of nonathleticism, injury, and chronic orthopedic
problems. A sound program should therefore include movements for every ma¬
jor muscle group. It is possible to make big gains in strength and see little or no
functional transfer if certain movements are neglected, allowing antagonistic
muscle-group deficits to develop.
The concept of using power and control to achieve overload largely takes care
of itself (at least during lower-body workouts) when the program consists of
athletic free-weight movements. A useful rule of thumb is to include a “pulling,”
or flexion, exercise for every “pushing,” or extension, exercise so that each move¬
ment plane is worked equally in both directions. In the case of lower-body train¬
ing, exercises such as the glute-ham raise, abdominal-trunk flexion, and various
isolation exercises can largely balance out primary movements. But this becomes
more challenging with upper-body training because of the mobility of the shoul¬
der girdle and the resulting need to offset traditional pressing exercises. High-
low cable stacks and various free-body exercises are valuable here.

TRAINING METHODS

A hierarchy of training methods for specialized strength development is illus¬

trated in table 4.1. This classification scheme is largely a matter of practicality
and includes some overlap. The key to applying these methods lies in their skill¬
ful combination rather than exclusive or disproportionate use of any one of
them.
Table 4.1 Classical Training Methods for Specialized Strength Developiment

Action
Purpose Method Intensity speed Volume Density

Maximal Brief 75-100% Slow to 15-25 reps/session at 95-100% Full (up to

strength maximal explosive 20-40 reps/session at 90-95% 8 minutes)
efforts 70-110 reps/session at 75-80% recovery
8 or fewer reps/set for low-skill movements between
3 or fewer reps/set for high-skill movements sets

Repeated 80-90% Slow to 5-10 sets per exercise 1-4 minutes

submaximal explosive reps to exhaustion each set recovery
efforts between sets;
(hypertrophy) 24-48 hours
between

sessions

Combination

methods

Strength Extensive 30-40% Brisk, 3-6 sets per exercise Less than 5
endurance interval continuous 20-30 reps per set minutes
recovery

between sets

Intensive 50-60% Explosive 3-6 sets per exercise 1-3 minutes

interval 20-45 seconds duration per set of recovery

(rep count irrelevant) between sets

Speed Submaximal 30-85% Explosive, 3-7 sets per exercise 2-8 minutes

strength accelerative maximal 1 -3 reps per set at 85% of recovery

efforts 3-5 reps per set at 80-85% between sets;

(power; RFD) 5-8 reps per set at 70-80% daily sessions

8-15 reps per set under 70%

Reactive Explosive,

ballistic maximal

efforts

(SSC)

Contrast Explosive,

methods maximal

Sources: Ajan and Baroga 1988; Fleck and Kraemer 1987; Hartmann and Tunnemann 1989; Lyttle 1994;
Schmidtbleicher 1985a; Siff and Verkhoshansky 1999; Stone and O'Bryant 1987; Zatsiorsky 1992.

75
76 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Maximum Strength
Developing maximal strength is best achieved with two methods: brief maximal
efforts and repeated submaximal efforts.

Brief Maximal Efforts

Brief maximal efforts improve intra- and intermuscular coordination and to mini¬
mize neuromuscular inhibition. Although this method activates a relatively narrow
corridor of motor units, it recruits high-threshold (and quickly fatigable) motor
units at their greatest discharge frequency and synchronicity. It is useful for ad¬
vanced athletes but generally inappropriate for novices. This method tends to
improve RFD and the ability to accelerate heavy loads but has minimal hyper¬
trophic effect (which can be advantageous in certain situations).

Repeated Submaximal Efforts

Repeated submaximal efforts are usually applied with various intermediate in¬
tensities and a traditional “repetition maximum” approach. It is an effective means
of developing basic strength and muscle mass in novice athletes, as well as main¬
taining them in advanced athletes. Although it can also be useful in improving
high-intensity endurance performance, this response is dissociated from, and
often diluted by, its hypertrophic effect. This method targets a relatively large
population of motor units and tends not to improve RFD or high-resistance
acceleration ability (at least in highly qualified athletes). Furthermore, advanced
athletes should limit its use because of the high work volumes associated with it.

Strength Endurance
Extensive and intensive intervals are intended to improve endurance capacity
during prolonged low-intensity and brief high-intensity workloads, respectively,
and to improve subsequent recovery ability. Both approaches, especially exten¬
sive intervals, involve comparatively large work volumes. Intensive intervals at
first may appear similar to the method of repeated submaximal efforts, but this
method tends not to yield the same hypertrophic effect. In fact, the use of these
methods can be considered a variation of the metabolic conditioning discussed
in chapter 10.

Speed Strength
Speed strength can be improved through reactive-ballistic efforts, submaximal
accelerative efforts, or contrast methods that maximize the effects of each.

Reactive-Ballistic Efforts
As previously mentioned, springlike movements involving SSC actions are char¬
acteristic of many sports activities. Ballistic plyometric drills are intended to
develop the athlete’s reactive-explosive strength (refer to the section “Movement
Mechanics” on page 64 as well as chapter 5) by exploiting two phenomena: neuro¬
muscular reflex potentiation and musculotendinous elastic energy recovery.
Acute training responses include increased mechanical efficiency and overall
 Muscular Strength and Stamina 77

working effect” (e.g., power, impulse), whereas chronic responses involve up-
regulation of muscle stiffness and motoneural activation. The basic classification
scheme for SSC actions is the following:

• Long-response—ground contact greater than 0.25 seconds, large angular dis¬

placement (e.g., sprint start and acceleration, squat and countermovement jump)
• Short-response—ground contact less than 0.25 seconds, small angular dis¬
placement (e.g., maximal sprint velocity, high jump, and long jump)

This scheme is useful in selecting plyometric drills to improve specific perfor¬

mance qualities. For example, long-response training tasks would have the greatest
transfer to the sprint start and initial acceleration, whereas short-response tasks
would have the greatest transfer to top-speed performance.

Submaximal Accelerative Efforts

Inherently impulsive movements such as Olympic-style lifts, plyometrics, and
other reactive-ballistic actions are not the only methods for developing speed
strength. However, the role of acceleration and RFD in nonballistic tasks is of¬
ten misunderstood or neglected. These factors are especially important for athletes
and are fundamental to force production even when executing basic structural
exercises. Indeed, note that explosive movement intent is recommended for most
of the training methods itemized in table 4.1. It is a simple matter of understand¬
ing the fundamental nature of force and of addressing practical considera-tions
about task and workload.
As is the case with reactive-ballistic efforts, the method of submaximal accel¬
erative efforts is inferred from a basic physical law. Force is the product of mass
and acceleration (F = m X a). Simply put, because the forces acting on an object
are proportional to its acceleration, the athlete must accelerate that object, re¬
gardless of weight, to the limit of his or her ability to generate maximum force.
As mentioned previously, successful execution of most functional tasks requires
rapid force application. Nonballistic movements, including traditional
strength-training exercises, are no exception. Thus, in all cases, range of motion
can be considered an acceleration path. The only distinction is whether the ath¬
lete accelerates the object through the sticking region or through the entire
movement to project it ballistically.
At first glance, this law may seem to imply that there is no force without mo¬
tion or vice versa. But this is not necessarily the case. For example, because gravity
is expressed as an acceleration constant (about 9.8 meters per second2), a vertical
force of about 980 newtons (kilograms X meters per second2) is required to hold
a 100-kilogram barbell in place statically. Despite the apparent simplicity of this
fact, the inability or unwillingness to grasp its functional significance is an un¬
derlying cause of many nonsensical training methods. It is a foundational principle
for all motion. When considering that any movement is essentially an act of
defying gravity, which itself is an accelerative force, the central issue becomes
this: what is being moved, and how fast?
Simply stated, the athlete should move the object through an optimal accel¬
eration path within a certain time to maximize impulse production and subse¬
quent training effect. Olympic-style weightlifting is an iron game that is close to
the high-speed end of the spectrum, whereas powerlifting is relatively nearer
78 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

the low-speed end. Regardless of whether these movements are performed in

training or competition, the salient point is the same for each: Peak force and
motonenral activity (relative to one’s capabilities) are generated only by ac¬
celerating the load maximally through the “power position” or “sticking region.”
Aside from the obvious fact that an athlete can move light weights more rapidly
than heavy ones and that some tasks are inherently ballistic whereas others are
not, this has two other fundamental implications:

1. The intent to move explosively can be more important than actual velocity achieved.
Full volitional effort (i.e., a deliberate attempt to accelerate the resistance
maximally even if it is too heavy to move rapidly) yields the greatest neuro¬
muscular activation and subsequent adaptive response. Submaximal force pro¬
duction and neuromuscular activation—which, by definition, are precisely
what occurs when one does not accelerate a given resistance to the limits of
one’s ability—simply don’t make sense as a viable or productive means of
training.
2. Rate, direction, and amplitude of force production are equally important (and train-
able). Their brief application in certain parts of the movement is more impor¬
tant than sustained application over the movement’s full distance or duration.
Some athletes and coaches mistakenly believe that RFD is relevant during
ballistic tasks but not in basic exercises when the weight is not projected;
however, this notion needs to be revised.

It is important to understand that high-speed movements are not the only way
to activate and train fast-twitch muscle fibers. Motor units exist in a spectrum
and are progressively recruited as power output increases. Given the range of
force-velocity combinations possible in any movement, it is not surprising that
the neuromuscular system activates motor units as well as muscles in functional
task groups. Furthermore, force production is a matter of not only motor-unit
recruitment but also coordination and synchronization. The higher centers of
the neuromuscular system that govern this process are as plastic as the muscle
fibers themselves. Adaptation is a function of activation, and maximal effort at a
given resistance is the means of achieving it. Indeed, adaptive tissue remodeling
may be an up-regulation response to innervation signals more than a simple cel¬
lular repair process (when a fast-twitch motor nerve is grafted onto a slow-twitch
muscle fiber, the properties of that fiber reverse themselves).
Practically speaking, a wide range of workload intensities and volumes can be
justifiably recommended. Despite all these options, the effectiveness of a strength¬
training program will be limited if an athlete approaches it exclusively in terms
of weights and reps while ignoring the accelerative quality of force. Likewise, it
is a mistake to assume that full activation automatically occurs whenever the bar
is moving or that the last rep of a set triggers the desired training effect. These
are particularly costly errors for those who abbreviate work volume to the point
where they cannot afford anything less than extreme emphasis on training qual¬
ity. The solution is to maximize force output and neuromuscular activity on each
repetition by accelerating through the sticking region at full power, regardless of
resistance or rep count.
Some individuals have misunderstood the method of submaximal accelerative
efforts to mean that they should accelerate light weights through the entire range
 Muscular Strength and Stamina 79

of motion without releasing them (i.e., “speed reps”). Such movements have been
shown to be futile because more effort is spent decelerating the bar for self¬
protection than accelerating it for beneficial force or power production. Although
eccentric muscle actions are intrinsic to functional tasks, in training they are
generally appropriate for performing controlled “negatives” (e.g., during non-
ballistic exercises) or preparatory countermovements (e.g., during ballistic move¬
ments) rather than terminal braking motions.
In practical terms, it is important to consider how acceleration interacts with
the sticking region, defined as the part of the movement path where leverage and
resistance interact to create the greatest difficulty in moving or controlling the
bar. Using the squat or dead lift as an example, the sticking point resides about
30 degrees above the parallel position. As with many multijoint exercises, the
sticking point is a small portion of the movement but may occupy a relatively
larger segment (perhaps up to a third or a half) of the time required to execute,
fatigue or 1RM attempts notwithstanding. Because maximal effort is not required
elsewhere in the movement path, the peak force generated in this region is the
primary reason for performing these exercises in training. Arguably, the lesser
forces applied elsewhere in the range of motion are secondary.
The relevant point is that brief, rapid force application is characteristic of a
wider range of activities than is often believed. The practical implication of this
concept is straightforward and presents a radical departure from the so-called
time-under-tension theory as well as other purposefully slow training methods.
An example of how to apply the method of submaximal accelerative efforts when
performing basic movements such as the squat or dead lift follows (note that this
approach can be adapted to other compound exercises as well):

1. Sit at a controlled speed into an optimal position; do not free fall into the
descent.
2. Immediately accelerate out of the hole and through the sticking region as
powerfully as possible with good form.
3. Be careful to throttle down at the top of each rep so the bar doesn’t jump off
your shoulders or out of your grip.
Two other practical issues apply to this method: deceleration at the end of the
movement path and possible breakdown of technique. Consider that it is not
easy to move even moderately heavy weight rapidly despite a deliberate attempt
to do so. Furthermore, as the athlete backs off from maximal acceleration toward
the top of the ascent, gravity will decelerate the vertical velocity of the bar. In any
case, if it is still moving upward by virtue of its momentum upon reaching full
extension, two possibilities exist:
• The athlete is accelerating the weight beyond the sticking point and should
adjust his or her effort during the latter third to half of each rep to avoid
“jamming” it at the top.
• The chosen resistance is so light that the athlete would do better by perform¬
ing a ballistic exercise with equipment designed to be launched explosively.

The athlete need not sacrifice technique for impulse or power, although form
often does degrade to some extent during very heavy, slow lifts. If athletes were
incapable of achieving a reasonable degree of technical precision whenever they
80 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

accelerated above first or second gear, it would be impossible to execute simple

acts of running, jumping, throwing, and other functional tasks. This is not to
suggest that barbells and dumbbells are to be yanked on and hurled recklessly
around the weight room. The point is simply that anyone with enough common
sense and motor coordination to perform basic exercises properly should be able
to maintain control when applying this method. If anything, it allows the athlete
to stay in the groove through the sticking region where the bar otherwise tends
to drift off course.

Contrast Methods
This approach is intended to exploit the aftereffect of preceding work to increase
the efficacy of subsequent work in a single training session. An example would be
to “complex” explosive-reactive efforts with brief maximal efforts to activate the
athlete’s neuromuscular system in alternating but complementary ways. This
advanced strategy capitalizes on the acute residual effect of certain work regimes
in much the same way that cyclic, long-term workload variation improves adap¬
tive responses by exploiting their cumulative and delayed effects. The athlete
should conduct this method with optimal rest intervals and minimal fatigue. It is
generally inappropriate for novice athletes.

PROGRAM DESIGN
To optimize the athlete’s performance capabilities, the sports-preparation pro¬
cess must be planned and implemented according to sound principles (as dis¬
cussed in chapters 12 and 13). For specialized strength development, the athlete
should rationally manipulate the following variables:

• Action speed—the intent to accelerate or achieve high velocity with a given

load as a means of manipulating power or impulse production
• Exercise order—the sequence in which a set of exercises is performed
• Density—the amount of work performed in a set or training session
• Frequency—the number of training sessions performed in a given time period
(e.g., day or week)
• Intensity—the effort with which a repetition is executed (usually characterized by
resistance but more accurately associated with impulse or power output)
• Recovery—the time interval between sets
• Repetition—the execution of a specific workload assignment or movement
technique
• Series—a group of sets and recovery intervals
• Set—a group of repetitions
• Volume—the amount of work performed in a given training session or time
period (usually characterized by repetitions but more accurately associated
with the product of resistance and distance moved per repetition)

These parameters are useful in quantifying training and in most cases can be
adapted or directly applied to speed, agility, and speed-endurance development.
 Muscular Strength and Stamina 81

To be useful in practice, however, they must be accompanied by qualitative guide¬

lines regarding movement mechanics and planned variation in training objectives.

SUMMARY
Specialized strength training offers the athlete tremendous potential to improve
performance capability and minimize risk of injury. Principle-based planning
and implementation of the preparation process are the keys. They require a work¬
ing knowledge of physiological and biomechanical bases of maximum strength,
speed-strength, and strength-endurance development.
In conclusion, the following practical implications can be recommended:

1. Explosive force application is the basis of strength training for sports. Functional
strength is expressed in terms of acceleration, execution time, or velocity—
especially in athletics. Training tactics that disregard this fact are fundamen¬
tally unsound. Moving through an acceleration path and applying rapid or
high-speed force is the name of the game.
2. Emphasize big basic movements that have the greatest training effects. Use equip¬
ment that challenges the athlete to control, direct, or stabilize it. Muscles act
in functional task groups and must be targeted by force transmission through
(rather than isolation within) the body’s kinetic chain. Multijoint free-weight
movements are superior in this regard.
3. Distinguish between specificity and simulation. Select and prioritize training tasks
according to the coordinative, biomechanical, and bioenergetic demands of
competition.
4. Balance the need for specificity versus variability. Maintain stability in the pro¬
gram by sticking with a basic exercise menu rather than trying to include
every possible movement. Achieve variation by cycling workloads on a peri¬
odic three- to four-week basis to summate training effects and avoid accom¬
modation problems.
5. Quality of effon, not quantity, is the bottom line. Although it is necessary to do
enough work to get a training effect, the athlete reaches a threshold of dimin¬
ishing returns above which effort is diluted and recoverability and adaptabil¬
ity are compromised. Fitness and fatigue are a trade-off beyond a certain point.
In general, athletes achieve optimal results by maximizing the quality of ef¬
fort within a prescribed amount of work.
6. Effort and recovery are interdependent. Workload intensity, frequency, and vol¬
ume are interrelated and cannot be changed arbitrarily. They must be ad¬
justed together; this occurs automatically with a sound plan. A training pro¬
gram is only as good as the athlete’s ability to recover from and adapt to it!
7. Fitness qualities are means toward an end, not ends in themselves. The goal is to
develop the athlete’s performance capabilities and skills and thereby couple
effort with execution. Power, flexibility, agility, speed, and endurance com¬
bined with motor coordination are the elements of athleticism. Each is train-
able, but the athlete must train them collectively because they are parts of a
larger whole. None is a separate entity, nor is one more important than an¬
other. Train athleticism, not muscles!
82 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

8. Most important, skillful tasks are the basis of sports training. Learning how to
perform them requires the services of a qualified strength and conditioning
coach. If simply counting reps and sets were the answer, anyone could do it.
As in all aspects of coaching or teaching, attention must be directed toward
what the athlete is doing and how he or she is doing it—not just how much
the athlete does. Skilled training requires skilled coaching. Without it, a
strength-training program will fall far short of its potential.
Explosive Power
Donald A. Chu

Every mathematical formula used to calculate power demonstrates that this

quality of movement is a function of time. Power is the product of work X time,
or force X distance X time, or force X velocity (distance X time). Thus, the
common denominator for the development of power in sports activities is based
on applying speed to the desired movement or specific sports situation.
Speed in the development of force is crucial to success in sports activity. Abilities
such as running fast, jumping high, and throwing far and fast are all related to
the ability to develop and impart forces quickly. All athletes seek to be their best,
but they may not understand that they must develop those abilities over time
and choose appropriate means for doing so. Even those who possess the physical
characteristics that others only wish they had must develop and refine their abilities
if they want to be at the top of their game. This chapter explains how to go about
accomplishing this goal.

83
84 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Whenever speed of movement is increased, a subsequent increase occurs in

the “stress” and “strain” on soft tissues. Stress can be defined as the rate at which
forces are applied to and absorbed by the body. Strain has to do with the ability
of the body to absorb these forces and recover from them. Terms associated with
power development—explosive, reactive, quick—all define the ability of the
individual to overcome the inertia of the body or outside object and place it in
motion. To do this, the athlete must defeat Newton’s law of inertia, which states
that a body at rest tends to remain at rest. To overcome inertia effectively and
repeatedly, he or she must have a method of dealing with the stresses and strains
of training. In other words, the coaching cliche “training to train” holds great
truth. Coaches and athletes should be aware that training for power is the icing
on the cake, not the cake itself. Training for power is the end of a progression of
athletic development.

TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBERS

Genetics partly determines potential for speed of movement. Those who have
muscle dominated by fast-twitch (type II) fibers have the potential to develop
speed of movement by exerting forces more rapidly than those whose fiber make¬
up is predominantly slow twitch (type I). Maximizing genetic potential requires
an understanding that three subclassifications of type II fibers—namely DA, IIAB,
and IIB—can be influenced to act like fast-twitch fibers if subjected to forms of
training designed to develop power.
Muscle fibers will always fire in the same sequence: type I, II, IIA, IIAB, IIB.
The way in which these fibers are recruited is related to the effort required to
overcome an external resistance. This means that maximal effort in resistance
training, plyometrics, and speed work will be required to develop power.

TRAINING PROGRESSION
The ability to demonstrate explosive power movements must come from devel¬
opment in a progression of physical qualities, as shown below.

Work capacity

Strength

Speed strength

Speed/Power
 Explosive Power 85

Work Capacity Training

The most basic level of training is referred to as “work capacity.” This can be
thought of as the “training to train” phase, or the preparation phase. In the young
athlete (11 to 13 years of age) or in the untrained older athlete, this phase could
last as long as 8 to 12 weeks. This phase consists of developing several physical
qualities, including the following: (1) core strength, (2) joint mobility, (3) strength
endurance, (4) anaerobic capacity, (5) body composition, and (6) aerobic capac¬
ity.

• Core strength refers to the individual’s ability to stabilize joints as well as the
trunk. This is the foundation of ability to develop power in movement. The
body must be connected, and core strength is what accomplishes this.
• Joint mobility refers to normal ranges of motion available within and between
joints, including both flexibility of muscles and extensibility of connective tis¬
sue.
• Strength endurance is the ability to sustain muscle force production at a high
level over a period of time.
• Anaerobic capacity is the ability to withstand repeated efforts of short-term
activity (up to 90 seconds) at a near maximal or maximal effort.
• Body composition relates to the efficiency of the body to perform physical
activity. Training at this stage of development affects the relationship of muscle
to fat mass.
• Although the ability to develop power is anaerobic in nature and will improve
most by using anaerobic training methods, aerobic capacity is important for
recovery between exercises and training sessions. But the power athlete should
not use aerobic training as a dominant form of training. It should be an ad¬
junct form of physical development that takes place during the warm-up or
cool-down. The athlete can also train the aerobic system during off-season
training periods.

Strength Training
Developing strength is the next stage of development on the road to becoming
an explosive athlete. Strength comes in many forms and is more complex than
the mere development of force tension within a muscle. For example, within the
scheme of physical development are several classifications:

• Maximal strength refers to the maximum amount of weight that an individual

can lift at any one time.
• Relative strength refers to the ability to work against one’s body weight.
• Static strength is the ability to hold or stabilize a position.
• Eccentric strength, or “yielding” strength, is the ability of a muscle to develop
force while it is lengthening. This form of strength is essential to success in
power tasks such as jumping, cutting, or changing direction.
86 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Speed-Strength Training
Next in the progression of developments is a crucial aspect of athletic develop¬
ment—speed strength—the foundation of power development. This area of de¬
velopment tends to be less familiar to the athlete. To make the transition from
the weight room to the field, the athlete must make a shift in thinking about how
to train. The components of this form of training are the development of (1)
starting strength, (2) explosive strength, and (3) reactive-elastic strength.

• Starting strength is the ability to exert maximal forces instantly.

• Explosive strength refers to the rate at which the athlete develops force.
• Reactive-elastic strength is the coupling of eccentric strength with concentric
strength. It can be measured in the time it takes (e.g., 0.25 seconds or less) to
reverse direction from an eccentric, or braking, contraction to a concentric,
or accelerating, contraction.

Here the exercise regimen shifts to more dynamic, uniquely designed forms of
exercise. If an athlete trains only for maximal force development, he or she will
be capable of developing great amounts of force tension but will create no change
in the rate of force development. This athlete will exhibit great strength in the
weight room but will not display the same prowess on the field. This circum¬
stance is probably what led many coaches in the past to decry the use of resis¬
tance training by their athletes, noting the athletes’ lack of improvement in their
play within the sport after becoming bulkier and stronger.
It is here that activities must begin to adhere to the SAID (specific adaptation
to imposed demands) principle, which means that training must become more
mechanically and velocity specific. The training drills or exercises must begin to
relate closely to the demands of the sport or event itself. Medicine ball and
plyometric drills are examples of sport-specific forms of training under the SAID
principle.

Speed or Power Training

The final level of training for athletes in their quest for optimal performances is
speed training. This form of training improves the ability to move the body or
body part through a range of motion in the least amount of time possible. The
components of speed development include the following.

• Acceleration—the rate at which speed of movement increases.

• Absolute speed—the highest velocity (distance -r time) reached during the activity.
• Speed endurance—the ability to repeat high-quality efforts of movement with¬
out suffering a drastic decrement in performance.
• Specific speed—the ability to demonstrate speed in a specific movement pat¬
tern on the track, field, or court.

The road to explosive power may be longer than the athlete originally ex¬
pected. Many characteristics of the athlete and his or her activity influence
the progress made in training for this quality. Gender, age, training background,
genetics, and sports activity are all considerations. The lesson to be learned in
 Explosive Power 87

reaching for the skills that define the elite athlete is that becoming an explosive
athlete is not always easy. The athlete must learn patience in order to achieve
success in physical development. Without a substantial strength base, proper
instruction, and careful planning, many sections on the road to success can be
rocky.

TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR EXPLOSIVE POWER

Once the athlete has gone through the preparation, or “ training-to-train,” phase
and begins to consider which exercises to adapt as part of a training program, he
or she should remember that progression is the operative word. My training ap¬
proach consists of performing these exercises as part of the total program. The
training cycle (phase or stage) will dictate the volume and intensity of the exer¬
cises. I prefer to develop training programs that include plyometric drills, weight
training, and speed work, often all on the same day. This method takes advan¬
tage of the fact that the nervous system is in a progressive state of arousal after
performing each type of exercise. The athlete can thus enjoy the advantage of
having the exercises maximally affect the body. This does not mean that the
athlete gives a high-volume effort in all three types of exercise. When the vol¬
ume is increased or emphasized in one area, such as speed work, the volume of
effort in the others, plyometrics and lifting, should be reduced. Thus the athlete
does not overtrain or become overly fatigued.
My philosophy on training for explosive power is that athletes best develop it
by focusing on multijoint, ballistic weightlifting exercises such as cleans, snatches,
push presses, and various forms of jump squats. The purpose of these types of
lifts is to teach the athlete to initiate force with maximal effort against a maxi¬
mum or near maximum resistance.
Once the athlete has learned the skills associated with these exercises and can
adapt them into a training program, the next step is to add plyometric training.
Plyometric training is designed to teach the muscular system of the athlete to
develop maximal forces over a brief period.
Plyometric exercises depend on the quality of movement, not the quantity of
exercises, to accomplish speed-strength characteristics. Exercises can be of a gen¬
eral nature, designed to work on start speed, acceleration, or absolute speed.
Alternatively, exercises can be adapted to sport-specific movements or skills.
The final ingredient in the process of developing the explosive athlete is speed
training. For sports performed on courts and fields, coaches and trainers speak
of sprint training, which should be an important element in the development of
any athlete. It is usually thought of as a means of conditioning the athlete in a
cardiovascular sense. In fact, sprint training should be part of the total develop¬
ment of the neuromuscular system. The volume of sprint training need not ex¬
ceed a total distance of 300 to 600 meters (subdivided into shorter sprints) in a
single workout.
Combining various aspects of speed training (lifting, plyometrics, and sprint¬
ing) is known as “complex” training. This is an excellent short-term method for
improving power and speed, but it cannot be the mainstay of the development pro¬
gram. Conducted for too long in the training year, complex training would overtrain
88 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

the athlete, causing him or her to be unable to make significant gains. By alternating
methods of exercise, an athlete can draw nearer his or her peak in the periodization
or training scheme. A complex training cycle four to six weeks long will generally
yield the best results. The section that follows centers on plyometric drills because
weighdifting and sprinting are covered in chapters 4 and 9 of this book.

Tuck-Jomp-

Focus
Calves, thighs, and hips
Procedure
1. The athlete stands with the feet shoulder-width apart and
the body in a vertical position with no bend at the waist (a).
2. The athlete jumps up, brings the knees as close to the
chest as possible, and briefly grasps the knees with the
hands before letting the feet return to the floor (b).
3. He or she lands in a vertical position and repeats the
jump immediately for the prescribed number of repeti¬
tions.

Key Points
The athlete should strive for hang time. The jump should combine an explosive movement
from the ground with bringing the knees quickly to the chest. This will help develop the
hip flexor speed that is so necessary for the drive phase of running and sprinting.

Backward Medicine Ball Throw

Focus
Calves, thighs, hips, lower back, and shoulders
Procedure
1. The athlete stands with the feet shoulder-width
apart and holds a medicine ball in the hands in
front of the body.
2. The athlete drops down into a squat position (a)
and uses the hips and thighs to explode up and
throw the ball over the head in a backward
motion (b).

Key Points
Encourage the athlete to throw with maximum effort
on each trial. If the athlete is throwing against a wall, he or she should try to knock the wall
down! The athlete should always use the hips and legs to bend, never the lower back only.
 Explosive Power 89

Overhead MeeKcme~BqH Throw^

Focus
Calves, thighs, hips, abdominals, and shoulders
Procedure
1. The athlete stands with the feet shoulder-width apart while holding a medicine ball
overhead.
2. The athlete takes a step forward with either foot and brings the ball behind the head.
3. He or she arches the back and brings the ball forward while generating force from
the ground (feet) through the legs, hips, abdominals, and finally through the chest
and arms.
4. The athlete throws the ball forward using the whole body to generate force.

Key Points
One of the hardest things to teach young athletes is the art of incorporating all their force
in a single effort. This drill offers the opportunity to do just that. The athlete must push against
the ground to develop a maximal effort, and that force must travel up the kinetic chain and
finally through the hands to the ball to achieve maximal distance and effort.

)litude Squat Jump

Focus
Calves, thighs, and hips
Procedure
1. The athlete assumes a thigh-parallel squat posi¬
tion with the hands behind the head.
2. The athlete jumps forward with a submaximal
effort by extending the legs, lands with the knees
flexed at 30 to 40 degrees, and eccentrically drops
into the thigh-parallel position again.
3. From here, the athlete immediately moves for¬
ward again for the prescribed number of repeti¬
tions.

Key Points
The athlete should simulate a ball bouncing across a
surface. Each jump should be controlled in both the
descent (eccentric, or lowering) phase and the ascent
(concentric, or raising) phase.
90 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Wqvg Squat Jump.' .

—.—j.—.—..-...——...

Focus
Calves, thighs, and hips
Procedure
1. The athlete stands with the feet shoulder-width apart and a weight of not more
than 60 percent of estimated or measured 1RM (repetition maximum) across the
shoulders.
2. The athlete jumps forward using submaximal, but progressive, efforts on each jump.
He or she continues forward for three small jumps.
3. On the final effort, the athlete explodes up as quickly as possible, attempting to
drive into full extension of the body.
Key Points
The athlete should keep the weight close to the shoulders while performing this exercise,
not letting it get away from the body. If the bar does come away, it can create bruises. The
athlete should try to keep each of the submaximal jumps on a progressive plane until the
final effort, which should be close to maximal.

StandinglongJump

Focus
Calves, thighs, hips, and shoulders
Procedure
1. The athlete stands with the feet
shoulder-width apart in the
ready position.
2. The athlete uses a big arm swing
in the direction of shoulder
extension, performs a counter¬
movement (flex) of the knees,
and explodes forward and out as
far as possible.
Key Points
Prepare the athlete to absorb the impact of landing. Depending on the surface, teach him
or her to flex the knees and control the landing with eccentric muscular control.
 Explosive Power 91

Hurdle (BarHer)-Jump
Focus
Calves, thighs, hips, and shoulders
Procedure
1. Place three to five hurdles or
barriers approximately three
feet apart. The athlete stands
in front of the first hurdle in
the ready position with the feet
shoulder-width apart.
2. The athlete jumps forward
over the barriers with the feet
together. Movement comes
from the hips and knees. The
body should be vertical and
straight. The knees should not
move apart nor should the feet
go to either side. The athlete
should use a double-arm swing
to maintain balance and gain
height.

Key Points
Make sure that the landing between barriers is brief. Emphasize spending as short a time as
possible on the ground. As the barriers become easier to clear, do not be afraid to progress
to higher heights. Use the time spent on the ground to gauge whether the height of the
barrier is too much for the athlete.

Long Verttcal Hurdle Jump-

Focus
Calves, thighs, hips, and shoulders
Procedure
1. Place five or six hurdles or barriers approximately six feet or farther apart. The
athlete stands approximately six or seven feet from the first hurdle in the ready
position with the feet shoulder-width apart.
2. The athlete performs a linear jump (standing long jump) to within 18 inches of the
barrier and immediately transfers to a vertical jump to clear the barrier.
3. Upon landing, the athlete repeats this procedure to clear the prescribed number of
barriers.
92 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

_ ___ ——— - ——— -

Change-of-Direction Hurdle Jump

Focus
Calves, thighs, and hips
Procedure
1. Set np hurdles or barriers on a series of diagonals or in a square or hexagonal
pattern. The athlete stands in the ready position with the feet shoulder-width apart
in front of the first hurdle.
2. The athlete jumps over the first barrier and continues to follow a preset pattern of
jumps, for example, three times around the hexagon.

Variation
A variation is to set a time limit for the athlete to clear all the hurdles.

......_
Standing Triple Jump

Focus
Calves, thighs, hips, and shoulders
Procedure
1. The athlete starts from a two-footed
stance with the feet shoulder-width
apart. The arm swing is done with
straight arms from the shoulder
joints to maximize the force
contribution.
2. Action—The athlete explodes off
both legs and lands on one foot
(hop phase; a).
3. Using the swing of the arms to help
move the body forward, the athlete
steps out with the opposite leg and
lands on that foot (step phase; b).
4. Finally, the athlete takes off and
performs a “hanging long jump”
before landing on both feet (jump
phase; c).

Variation
A variation of this drill is to use a rocker
step and let the athlete begin the hop
phase with a single-foot takeoff.

c
 Explosive Power 93

Single-Leg Bound

Focus
Calves, thighs, and hips
Procedure
1. The athlete begins from a rolling start to
develop momentum because he or she will
be performing this drill over a prescribed
distance, usually 20 to 30 meters.
2. Establish a takeoff mark 2 to 4 meters
beyond the actual starting line. The
athlete hits this spot and executes re¬
peated single-leg hops, attempting to
cover as much ground as possible. The athlete should sacrifice vertical height to
maximize and maintain speed across the ground.
3. After the athlete covers the distance, allow him or her to walk back for full recovery
before performing the next repetition.

1. The athlete begins from a rolling start. The distance covered in this drill may start
at 30 meters and eventually progress to as far as 100 meters for each repetition.
2. Establish a takeoff mark 2 to 4 meters beyond the actual starting line. The athlete
hits this spot and proceeds to use a series of exaggerated running strides to develop
force against the ground. The arm action can be single or double depending on the
athlete and his or her skill level.

Key Points
The athlete must be urged to focus on pushing against the ground from landing through
takeoff. Immediately after takeoff, the athlete should attempt to maintain hang time. The
result will be a glide or float pattern to each stride. This action should have an aesthetic
quality, with the athlete attempting to make it look effortless yet demonstrating great power
at takeoff.
94 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Combination Bound

Focus

1. The athlete starts in the same position as in alternate bounds. The drill is virtually
the same as alternate bounding except that it includes a double-hop phase.
2. The athlete takes off and uses a left-left-right foot pattern followed by a right-
right-left foot pattern (shown), repeating this sequence for a prescribed distance,
usually 40 to 60 meters.

Key Points
Remind the athlete that after the first sequence (left-left-right) he or she should be men¬
tally ready to hop immediately from the landing foot (right) to begin the next sequence
(right-right-left). Note that all the bounding drills involve complex movement skills and
will take some time to perfect. Do not worry if the athlete does not look particularly grace¬
ful in the beginning. Skill will improve with time and repeated efforts.

Repeat Rim Jump

Focus
Calves, thighs, and hips
Procedure
1. The athlete stands with the feet shoulder-width apart in
the ready position with a target slightly in front and
above. This target may be a mark on a wall, hanging
object, net, or basket. The athlete holds the arms in the
most common position for his or her sport. For example,
the volleyball player hoping to improve blocking ability
may have a ready position with the hands up by the
shoulders and palms facing the net.
2. On command the athlete performs a series of vertical
jumps, aiming to touch the target.
3. Perform this drill for no more than six repetitions to
avoid undue fatigue and maintain maximal efforts.

Key Points
Do not let the athlete settle to more than 20 to 25 degrees of
knee flexion. Remember that you are teaching the athlete to be quick off the ground.
 Explosive Power 95

Depth Jump

Focus
Calves, thighs, and hips
Procedure
1. The athlete assumes a standing
position, with the knees slightly
flexed and the toes at the edge of a
platform or box of a prescribed
height.
2. The athlete steps out from the edge
of the box and drops to the ground,
using the landing impact as the
stimulus to reverse the descent and
jump vertically as high as possible.
The athlete must give maximal
effort with each repetition lest the
drill become simply one of the
athlete absorbing the impact of
landing.

Key Points
The coach must be careful not to overwhelm the athlete with the height of the platform. If
the athlete cannot reverse direction quickly after making contact with the ground, the
benefits of performing this exercise disappear. Most young athletes can benefit from using
a 12- to 18-inch platform to improve their ability to generate vertical velocity.

POWER IN SPORTS
Tudor Bompa describes power in sport activities as “acyclic” (jumping or throw¬
ing events in the field events) and “cyclic” (sprinting, speed skating, and cycling).
Each form of activity has a slightly different priority in a training program.
The acyclic athlete is concerned with a single maximal effort in an event. Al¬
though the athlete might perform the event several times during the competi¬
tion, time is usually available for full recovery between events. The high-jump
event in track and field and the vault in gymnastics are two examples of such
sporting competition. The force and rate of acceleration become major priori¬
ties for these events. In these situations, maximal strength should always be a
goal of training, but speed of movement is crucial as well. Training should incor¬
porate rapid movement of lighter loads. Power as a result of training, technique,
and execution is imperative for success in these activities. Acyclic sports that
require power include the following:

• Shot put, discus, hammer throws

• Line positions (football)
• Olympic weightlifting
96 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

• High, long, and triple jumps

• Javelin throw
• Gymnastics
• Volleyball
• Diving

Cyclic events require frequency of performance for success. The role of a run¬
ning back in football is an example. Despite the need for start strength and a
rapid rate of acceleration, a touch of speed endurance is necessary to guarantee a
fourth-quarter performance similar to the first-quarter effort. Bompa cites the
need to employ lighter (30 to 50 percent of 1RM) loads performed dynamically
with long (five-minute) recovery periods between sets during the strength-training
phase. He also advocates using relaxation techniques to teach the athlete how to
employ contraction-relaxation states during muscle use when performing. Cy¬
clic sports that require power include the following:

• Downhill skiing
• Ice hockey
• Speed skating
• Skill positions (football)
• Sprinting (athletics)
• Rugby
• Basketball
• Boxing
• Lacrosse
• Water polo
• Cycling
• Sprint events (swimming)
• Martial arts
• Rowing
• Soccer
• Figure skating
• Synchronized swimming
• Fencing

The form of power that is required may vary from sport to sport. To say that
one exercise, or one way of doing all exercises, will be effective is risky at best.
Athletes will find it better to develop a power training program on the theory of
specificity, particularly during the competitive phase, making sure the program
meets the needs analysis conducted by the strength and conditioning specialist.
The nature of the athlete, playing time, position, body mass, limb length, and
technical ability are confounding factors. What we can say is that all sports re¬
quire the athlete to exhibit the physical quality known as power to achieve any
degree of success.
 Explosive Power 97

SUMMARY
In summary, the ability to exhibit power in sports often depends on how quickly
the athlete can develop maximal force within the neuromuscular system. Power,
or the ability to develop that characteristic, is the result of a developmental chain.
Like any other chain, the athletic chain of development is only as strong as its
weakest link. Therefore, when attempting to become an explosive athlete, it is
important to consider the total spectrum of athletic development.
Ballistic lifting, which includes Olympic lifts (cleans and snatches) and various
accessory or related movements, is one of the foundations of developing power.
Strength alone will not accomplish the ability to be explosive. The athlete must
learn to combine the ability to develop force with speed of movement. These
lifts are movement and speed specific for developing explosive power.
Plyometric exercises or drills are another fundamental aspect of developing
power. The athlete can use these exercises for both general and specific skill
development. Plyometrics are not to be performed in great volume (repetitions).
The athlete should focus on quality of movement, allowing the neuromuscular
system to adapt to a stimulus that challenges the body to perform.
Finally, sprint training or speed-of-movement drills are not only a training
method but also a means for assessing improvement in explosive power. Im¬
provement in sprinting speed is a result of the body becoming more reactive,
which is one indication that the athlete has accomplished his or her goal.
4
Lightning Quickness
Peter Twist

fcightning quickness is best described as the first gear of speed. While the third,
fourth, and fifth gears of speed are evident during linear acceleration and
ultimately measured as the velocity at the top end, the foundation for successful
offensive and defensive tactics is an athlete’s ability to initiate skilled movements
more quickly than his or her opponents.
Lightning quickness is undoubtedly the strongest discriminator between star
major pro players and stalled minor pro players. Analysis of game-breaking plays
reveals that an explosive tactic created most of them. The quickest athlete will
always dominate team sports that involve one-on-one confrontations and indi¬
vidual sports whose strategies follow a read-react-and-explode pattern.

99
100 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

In team sports, players must cooperate with their teammates, quickly moving
into position to receive passes, drawing opponents away from the play, or block-
ing opponents. Each athlete moves in accordance with the rest of the play, adjusting
positioning to meet changes in offensive and defensive strategies, such as a ball turn¬
over or an opponent cutting toward the net or end zone. The most consistent
contributor to successfully meeting these demands is lightning quickness.
Quickness allows small athletes to prosper in a big man’s game and gives large-
mass players another way to improve their game. Both need the skills to perform
complex maneuvers explosively. Extend your arms straight out to your sides—
quickness is often executed within this distance. Successful shooting, passing,
serving, spiking, rallying, rebounding, face-offs, throw-ins, and handoffs are all
fueled by quickness. Moreover, unsuccessful attempts fall back on quickness,
because quickness affords young players room for error while they refine their
decision making, positioning, and coverage.
Quickness is even critical to bodychecking, tackling, and blocking. First, the
player must read the play, react, and move quickly into the correct position. Then
the athlete must quickly drop the center of gravity before instantaneously driv¬
ing upward toward the target to execute and win the collision.

BIOMECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The weight transfer is just one of many movements in the sports quickness para¬
digm. From a biomechanical perspective, the 100-meter sprint provides a poor
model for teaching sports acceleration. Practicing sprinting in a straight line
may serve some bioenergetic conditioning purpose, but it has limited utility for
sports that require the athlete to execute stop and start movements, lateral move¬
ments, backward movements, and turns and pivots while concurrently strategizing,
reading the play, and coordinating skill execution with sports equipment. The
mechanical demands of sports quickness are multidirectional and rely much more
on eccentric power, dynamic balance, proprioception, and balanced flexibility.
Although quickness is often summarized as an explosive start, it can be drawn
upon in many other situations. A common movement is crossover first-step ex¬
plosion, such as when reacting and exploding from a stationary position, cross¬
ing over, pushing off the inside crossover leg, and lunging to return a serve with
a backhand stroke. Defenders face the demand of controlling their high speed to
stop on a dime and explode laterally to contain an opponent. Likewise, offensive
players will cut, turn, and zigzag to evade a defender.
In these ways, lightning quickness is a learned skill that contributes to sports
technique, individual tactics, and team systems. Each individual tactic relies
on a series of quick biomechanical adjustments, such as the sequence of
backpedaling, cutting into a power shuffle, and then jumping forward to con¬
trol a turnover.
Because most team systems are dynamic, game-specific quickness is also used
in transit to change velocity rapidly. For example, full-out speed is easy for a
defender to handle because it is predictable. Similar speed, proper positioning,
and smart angles provide the defender with all the tools he or she needs. But if
the offensive player can instantaneously adjust speed, rapidly alternating between
decelerating and accelerating, the defender is challenged to read and react to
 Lightning Quickness 101

each maneuver. The ability to change speed quickly while already moving fast is
a deceptive tactic that proves effective in throwing off a defender. Being able to
shift from fourth gear to second gear and jump right back up to fifth in the blink
of an eye is one of the most dangerous offensive tools.
The mechanics of quickness start with a good power position, athletic posi¬
tion, or ready position. During movement, the feet remain close to the ground
with more horizontal displacement than vertical. During the first two or three
strides, 85 percent (or more) of time is spent supported by one leg. Furthermore,
directional change relies on independent leg action or weight transfer from one
leg to the other. From there, quickness is manifested in many ways: forward,
backward, and sideways stopping; forward, sideways, sideways crossover, and
backward starting; reacting into lateral movement, cutting, turning, and spin¬
ning; backpedaling; crossing over; lunging; and controlled falling (to block a
shot or dive for a ball). All these actions have unique mechanical demands. For
many skills such as passing, throwing, and shooting, athletes must have effective
rotational quickness.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

One of the most common sports actions, the stop-and-start, harnesses the natu¬
ral system of the body for explosive force production. The underlying anatomy
and muscle physiology of quickness includes sensory receptors in the muscle
spindle and musculotendinous junction. The series elastic element, myotatic
stretch reflex, and intrafusil muscle fibers are worth noting for their contribution
to the powerful force-production process.
The stopping action loads the muscle under tension during the eccentric
prestretch. This produces stored elastic (potential) energy that may increase the
contractile speed of the agonist muscle during the concentric phase to produce a
more explosive start. The keys to this equation are the rate of the stretch and the
ability to minimize the time from ground contact to initiating the reversal of
movement. Most books on plyometrics define this as the amortization phase.
Because amortization has more to do with negotiating a mortgage than develop¬
ing quickness and tends to confuse those new to the theory behind plyometrics,
let’s bury that unsuitable term forever. We will simply refer to this process as the
countermovement.
During a stop, the legs are loaded with potential elastic energy when the muscles
are forced to lengthen (stretch) to absorb and control the stop. If the counter¬
movement time is too long, which means there is a slow stop or a pause at the
bottom because of inadequate strength and power to reverse the movement im¬
mediately, the elastic energy is lost as heat. If the countermovement time is short,
the elastic energy will contribute to a more explosive concentric contraction. So
one essential goal of quickness practice is to eliminate, or more realistically mini¬
mize, the pause that happens between the end of the eccentric phase and the
beginning of the concentric (coupling time) phase of movement. Drills targeting
the stop-and-start will always involve a rapid countermovement and minimal
coupling time, both of which are vital to producing quickness.
The myotatic stretch reflex is the “stretch receptor” in the muscle spindle.
The muscle is made up of extrafusal (EF) fibers that contract or elongate under
102 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

external tension to produce movement. The muscle also includes intrafusal (IF)
muscle fibers, which serve as the chaperones of the EF fibers, providing feed¬
back on the magnitude and rate of muscle lengthening as a protective mecha¬
nism. When the EF fibers elongate, the IF fibers stretch. If this stretch is rapid,
the sensory neurons of the IF fibers send a message directly to the spinal cord,
which in response delivers a command to inhibit the agonist muscle and concen¬
trically contract the stretched muscle.
During a rapid stop, the quadriceps are stretched and loaded eccentrically.
This produces potential elastic energy, and the sensory receptors of the IF fibers
detect the rate of stretch and send a message directly to the spinal cord and back
to achieve a protective concentric contraction. If the eccentric stretch is slow,
the stretch receptor sends no message and no elastic energy is produced. Like¬
wise, if the athlete lacks the strength to minimize the pause between stopping
and initiating the start, the elastic energy is lost as heat and the receptor signal
ceases. The countermovement rate must be rapid and the coupling time short to
generate the command for explosive contraction and to harness the elastic en¬
ergy as kinetic energy. Moreover, the strength to brake abruptly and decelerate
rapidly simply trims down the absolute time getting from point A to point B in
and of itself. For these reasons, improved stopping is the key to improved quick¬
ness!
For explosive quickness, first coach players how to stop more effectively rather
than keying in on starting. Use drills that are designed to improve and accelerate
braking capability to help stimulate the natural joint and muscle sensors. The
stop-start action, eccentric-concentric sequence, countermovement, and cen-
ter-of-gravity shift are drawn on to produce the maximal force in the shortest
time.

NEUROMUSCULAR CONSIDERATIONS
To improve quickness, training must focus on the neuromuscular system. Prac¬
tice drills must be structured scientifically in order for the muscles to learn to
fire more quickly and to allow the brain to rehearse specific movement patterns
at high speeds. Nervous-system training produces stored motor patterns of ex¬
plosive complex movements. Improvement is not a physical adaptation that re¬
quires overload but a neuromuscular adaptation that requires explosive and pre¬
cise movement patterns with perfect technique. This kind of training increases
the ability of the brain to turn on the machine more quickly. Nervous-system
training results in an increased firing rate of motor neurons, selective and maxi¬
mal recruitment of fast-twitch fibers, quicker reactions, and more explosive force
production.
Neurophysiological synchronization is needed to control and fire the appro¬
priate muscle fibers in proper sequence to achieve the desired movement. This is
critical given that many of the muscles contributing to sport-specific quickness
are relatively small (lateral and medial rotators, adductors, and abductors) and
not powerful enough for explosive contraction. Only through the summation of
these smaller groups can the athlete achieve the desired movement pattern and
velocity.
 Lightning Quickness 103

BIOENERGETIC CONSIDERATIONS
Synchronization is less than optimal when fatigue and lactate accumulation im¬
pede performance. So, from a bioenergetics perspective, quickness is improved
exclusively with the adenosine triphosphate-phosphocreatine (ATP) energy sys¬
tem (thus through anaerobic training), and training is prescribed accordingly. In
the game environment, however, explosive actions are often needed when the
athlete is already in a fatigued state. At the end of a match, during a prolonged
shift, or in overtime, the successful athlete will still be able to mobilize motor
units to coordinate explosive skills under fatigue. This too is a learned ability.

DEVELOPING QUICKNESS
Coaches should evaluate athletes and then build the prequickness foundation. At
all ages and levels, introduce quickness drill technique by incorporating the move¬
ments into dynamic warm-ups and agility drills. This affords athletes an oppor¬
tunity to understand and rehearse the technique at casual speeds and provides
the coach an opportunity to detect strength or flexibility imbalances that ham¬
per technique execution.
At this stage, the athlete’s readiness for quickness training can be assessed with
a simple athleticism test. When the player performs a simple lateral stop-and-
start drill, does he or she land evenly with both feet at the same time? Is the
footprint consistent, or does the athlete land at different places throughout the
drill? Athletes who fail this test must spend more time building their quickness
foundation.
Coaches must teach and train quickness as a skill, not some genetic gift or
elusive component that magically develops through standard anaerobic lactate-
tolerance interval training or generic practice drills. Most coaches turn quick¬
ness training into circuit training, supersetting one plyometric drill after an¬
other. An athlete cannot increase the ability to activate muscles at a high rate by
training while fatigued, moving slowly with flawed technique. Quickness prac¬
tice is quality practice, not quantity practice. The athlete needs to do full-out
overspeed efforts for a few seconds followed by generous recovery.
Believe it or not, one professional head coach of athletes training for an anaero¬
bic speed-power start still emphasizes continuous aerobic training as the main
(and often only) conditioning and development method! Repetitive continuous
aerobic training ultimately practices recruiting muscles for slow movements,
which detracts from high-velocity contraction capabilities. Too much aerobic
training preferentially activates slow-twitch muscle fibers, detracts from perfor¬
mance, inhibits skill improvement, and blocks development of explosive quick¬
ness. Complement and support quickness development with high-velocity anaero¬
bic conditioning.
The athlete must be lean to optimize quickness. Excess fat weight does not
contribute to force production and only provides an additional load to over¬
come. Physical development should prioritize the legs and the speed center, or
core of the body (abdominals, lower back, adductors, abductors, hip rotators, hip
flexors, hip extensors, and glutes), which initiates and powers all high-speed
104 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

actions. Muscle hypertrophy in the speed center and leg muscle groups also low¬
ers the body’s center of gravity. Excessive upper-body hypertrophy in lieu of
lower-body mass raises the center of gravity, weakens dynamic balance and cor¬
nering, alters sports technique, and limits first-step quickness and multidirec¬
tional control.
Too often, ill-prepared athletes jump right into quick-feet drills. Some coaches
and camps are overly concerned about appearing to be on the leading edge by
using the “latest” drills with their athletes. Likewise, many personal trainers from
a fitness background simply regurgitate memorized high-risk plyometric drills
because they lack the knowledge and expertise to implement holistic sport-spe¬
cific athlete development programs.
For quickness readiness, athletes first need efficiency of movement, which in¬
cludes coordination, dynamic balance, agility, balanced flexibility, propriocep¬
tion, and sports technique. They also require great leg and core strength, a low
center of gravity, and anaerobic conditioning before progressing to explosive
quickness drills. In building the prequickness foundation, balanced flexibility is
the most critical. When athletes move past the foundation stage to pure quick¬
ness development, my program for them is constructed of 50 percent quick-feet
drills and 50 percent micro-Stretching®, two components that in combination
hold great potential for performance enhancement. Micro-Stretching (see chap¬
ter 3) produces superior flexibility and, even more important, balanced flexibil¬
ity throughout the speed center. The balanced flexibility contributes not only to
the quick-feet drills but also direcdy to improved quickness. Because the muscles are
a linked system and quickness is a skill that relies on perfect biomechanics, explosive
technique is impeded by muscle imbalances. Serious muscle imbalances, in strength
or flexibility, prevent dynamic balance and equal quickness in all directions.
A hockey player, for example, whose left quadriceps and hip rotators are stron¬
ger and more flexible than those on the right will tend to favor the left side.
When backing up (gliding) on the ice, this player will have more body weight on
the left side. If the defenseman must suddenly cut laterally to the left to angle off
an opposing forward, a critical delay will occur before the defenseman can ex¬
plode to the left because he or she must first shift more weight to the right leg to
be able to push off to the left. This brief delay results in losing one-on-one
battles. The problem is exacerbated by a tight right side, which limits stride
length and power. Less flexible right hip rotators are a weakness that will be
exposed when the defenseman opens up to turn to the right from a backward-to-
forward skating position. The player will turn at a lower angle, thus limiting
defensive coverage options.
More than 99 percent of athletes do not stretch properly. I have been conduct¬
ing research with Nikos Apostolopoulos on stretching for explosive skill im¬
provement. We have a group of athletes participating in a regular program of
micro-Stretching, with no other training whatsoever (no strength training, no
speed work, etc.). We measured their power, speed, quickness, and agility before
implementing micro-Stretching to improve flexibility in the speed center and to
make sure balance exists between flexibility on the left and right sides of the
body and between opposing muscle groups. Then we conducted posttests.
The preliminary results are exciting because the tendency is for players to
improve their performance with flexibility training only. That includes improved
 Lightning Quickness 105

sports technique, more powerful bodychecking, quicker starts, and better mo¬
bility. The key is how and when they stretch. Proper micro-Stretching has as
much to do with inhibiting muscle-spindle and muscle-tendon receptors as quick¬
ness training does stimulating those receptors! A paradigmatic shift to micro-
Stretching promises to make a strong contribution to quickness and explosive
sports technique. The bottom line is to build the foundation first and then target
balanced flexibility along with quickness drills to optimize explosive sports per¬
formance.

Stopping and Starting

Skew initial quickness training toward stopping. The majority of injuries occur
not in the acceleration phase but during the deceleration and stopping needed to
achieve quick direction changes. Such injuries occur because coaches, from teach¬
ing technique to training, focus on starting! Stop training includes eccentric
strength, stop-and-hold, stop-and-balance, single-leg stop, lateral stop, and stop¬
ping on unstable surfaces.
Work also to improve stopping with full stop-and-start quickness drills, such
as the lateral crossover stop-and-start drill (see page 108), and emphasize quick
and controlled stops. Build from that, first working on minimizing the pause
between eccentric and concentric phases and then on accelerating through the
full stride.
On the start phase, increase foot quickness by instructing athletes to “pop” the
feet off the ground. They should pop off from the toes and minimize ground
contact time.
Don’t forget about upper-body quickness. During strength training, no mat¬
ter how much the athlete is thinking “explode,” he or she must ultimately decel¬
erate toward the end of each rep to avoid throwing the bar in the air. Medicine
balls work well here and help to enhance speed-center quickness such as rota¬
tional quickness. Medicine balls help bridge the gap between upper-body power
and quickness, allowing the athlete to explode through a full range of motion in
a standing, more sport-specific movement pattern. For example, with hockey
players I even use medicine balls on the ice, with the players on their skates. Use
the principle of the quick-feet drills—rapid countermovement rate and minimal
coupling time.
The athlete should always maintain a ready position with knees flexed and hips
low. If the athlete has to move into the ready position before becoming set to accel¬
erate, he or she will suffer a critical delay in initiating the required movement.
Athletes should perform at full-out effort until neuromuscular fatigue sets in.
Athletes must complete rapid and precise movements to train their neuromus¬
cular systems to organize high-velocity movements. Once athletes become fa¬
tigued, explosiveness slows, technique falters, and they finish the drill by practicing
the incorrect movement slowly! For pure quickness development, limit initial
drills to 5 seconds. After athletes improve, raise the limit to 15 seconds. Allow a
generous rest interval to ensure that athletes do not begin the next drill in a
prefatigued state.
Regeneration time, the critical part of the quickness equation, must accom¬
modate the individual. A less fit athlete may need supplemental conditioning
106 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

and physical overload to drive fitness levels up, but during quickness training
this athlete, for the time being, needs a shorter work phase and a longer rest
period.
In this age of premature sport specialization, young athletes need a variety of
quickness drills to develop a base of athleticism and coordinate the body in many
dynamic movement patterns. Do not limit youngsters only to sport-specific drills.

Incorporating Quickness Drills in Practice

For progression within a particular drill, increase the number of foot contacts to
achieve in a set time, increase lateral distance, increase drill movement-pattern
complexity, decrease the time to complete a drill course, use tubing to create an
overspeed environment, or use partners to add competition to drills (using shadow
drills or quantifying results and keeping score). A further progression is the ad¬
dition of visual stimuli. For a football player, this could involve catching tennis
balls during off-field drills or receiving passes during complex movements on
the field. These drills remain constant because the athlete always knows where
to go and when to expect the ball.
Next, incorporate visual or auditory stimuli at random times in varied move¬
ment patterns. Players may explode into action after a ball is dropped in front of
them, attempting to catch it before it hits the ground again. Coaches can also
call out directions. These are read-react-and-explode drills.
Although the literature recommends quickness training in the ideal situation,
with short bursts and long work-to-rest ratios, competition often calls for quick¬
ness in more difficult circumstances. Explosive quickness may be required at the
end of a shift, near the end of a match, in overtime, or after drawn-out anaerobic
activity. So once the athlete has improved his or her quickness, the final progres¬
sion is to develop his or her ability to execute coordinated and explosive quick¬
ness while fatigued. Top athletes aren’t just quicker. To get an edge, they must
also be able to mobilize motor units to coordinate explosive complex movements
when heavily fatigued. That is game-specific quickness. To develop it, extend a
quickness drill past the 15-second limit or extend a regular brief quickness drill
performed in a prefatigued state, aiming for quickness-endurance. To accom¬
plish this, lower the rest interval between drills. Whenever you want to drive up
quickness again, revert to the ideal quickness environment to stimulate further
pure improvements.
Coaches typically place anaerobic conditioning at the end of practice. As the
next game approaches, put overspeed quickness drills at the end of practice in¬
stead so that the last thing players remember is moving explosively, rather than
being exhausted and moving with poor mechanics.
Another tip is to integrate sports skills into dryland, off-court, or off-field quick¬
ness drills, and incorporate quickness development into drills done on the ice,
the court, or the field to help transfer improvements into game or match perfor¬
mance.
When including additional skill requirements, such as carrying a puck or drib¬
bling a ball, do not sacrifice quickness for puck or ball control. Good athletes can
already perform sports skills slowly. To become great athletes, they must learn
 Lightning Quickness 107

how to execute sports skills at a high rate of acceleration. Moreover, they must
be able to execute skills at top-end acceleration through a variety of movement
directions under balanced and off-balance conditions, and in some sports, while
withstanding contact.
To help athletes break through to a new level, coaches must sanction failure by
motivating players to challenge themselves. Most players will keep their foot
speed, technique, and movement patterns within a comfort zone in which they
know they can execute well. Athletes must push themselves past the existing
limits of their abilities. They will stumble, fall, knock over hurdles, drop balls,
and be off balance until eventually they can move effectively and control skill
execution at the new level. Short-term failure is a requisite to optimal improve¬
ment; the coach should never criticize an athlete’s willingness to extend his or
her abilities. Part of motivating is assuring athletes that you view their unsuc¬
cessful attempts as a positive and courageous effort to improve themselves and,
therefore, the team.
Quickness drills are already well received because they are unique, athletic,
and dynamic, and because they produce immediate results. Athletes recognize
the application to sports performance. Integrate aspects of play and competition
into as many drills as possible. Examine children’s interactive games to discover
what makes them fun to play and add those components into scientifically de¬
signed drills. Fostering spirited competition among teammates drives up the work
intensity and good-natured jesting. Having fun while competing hard is an incred¬
ible combination that produces the best efforts, the best results, and the most enjoy¬
ment.

Purpose
To improve stop quickness, stop control, and balance to achieve an optimal starting readi¬
ness position
Procedure
1. The athlete prepares by practicing depth drops, first on two legs, then on one leg, from
a box height of no more than 18 inches.
2. The athlete uses tubing and a running entrance to the drill to control horizontal dis¬
placement and to create an overspeed condition.
3. The athlete executes lateral stops using a board set at a 45-degree angle. For sideways
stops a single leg at a time should be used, but the athlete should practice with both the
outside leg and the inside leg.

Key Points
Emphasize “stop fast, balance, and hold.” The goal is a rapid and solid stop.
108 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Lateral Crossover Stop-and-Start

Purpose
To improve countermovement rate and reduce coupling time; to practice single-leg stop-
and-start moves and crossovers
Procedure
1. The athlete stands sideways to the right of a line on the floor
LnR
0 no
(L0Ro).
2. He or she transfers weight to the right foot and stands on one Re Lo Ri
leg (Rt).
3. The athlete steps onto the left foot (L2). 1-4 R5

4. He or she crosses the outside (right) foot over the inside (left) Rq L8 R7
foot and plants it across the line (R3).
5. The athlete plants the left foot to the floor to brake (L4).
6. He or she touches the right foot to the floor (R5), then crosses
the outside (left) foot over the inside (right) foot and plants it across the line (L6).
7. The athlete continues executing crossovers back and forth across the line, braking each
time with the outside leg.
Key Points
In variation A, the athlete keeps all foot touches close to the line. This focuses on popping
the toes off the ground, minimizing ground contact time, and decreasing coupling time.
In variation B, the athlete crosses over and lands farther away from the line. This focuses
on the braking or stopping action and emphasizes maintaining rapid countermovement.
Coaches can mark how wide they want the athlete to move laterally and can control the
pace by establishing a target number of line crosses for a set period.

Ankle Tubing Shadow Game

Purpose
To improve stop reaction and stop quickness, stop-and-start moves, lateral quickness, and
deceptive tactics
Procedure
1. Athletes partner up, put on ankle tubing (short tubing connecting ankle to ankle), and
stand facing each other about two feet apart.
2. One athlete, the offensive player, attempts to evade the other, the defensive player. The
offensive player can move only left and right, within established boundaries; he or she
cannot move forward or backward or turn and run. Only lateral shuffles are permitted.
3. The defensive player attempts to stay with the offensive player, chest to chest. The
defensive player uses lateral shuffles and stop-and-start moves to react to the offensive
player’s direction changes.
Key Points
Athletes start and remain in a good ready position, with the weight on the toes and the hips
dropped. Participants will fatigue quickly, so keep this drill short and allow more rest time
than with other drills.
 Lightning Quickness 109

Purpose
To develop quick feet; to improve reactions, stop-and-start moves, and cutting
Procedure
1. Mark a course with a starting line, finishing line, and a running line down the middle.
Assemble two rows of four microhurdles across the running line, using two hurdles on
each side of the line.
2. The athlete sets up at starting line (At) in ready position and starts running explosively
up the line on the command “go.”
3. When the athlete is one stride behind the first row of hurdles (A,), give a directional
verbal command or hand signal indicating that the athlete should turn and run forward
over the hurdles to the right (A3) or left.
4. The athlete quickly steps over the two hurdles indicated, then comes back across the
same two hurdles (A^), lateral shuffles to the next hurdle, and turns to run forward over
the two hurdles on the other side of the running line (A).
5 The athlete stops, then comes back across the two hurdles to the line and runs up the
line to the next group of hurdles (A6).
6. When the athlete is one stride behind the second
row of hurdles, give another directional
command or signal. Finish line

AA

Starting line
110 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

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Purpose
To develop quick feet, multidirectional movement, and quick direction changes
Procedure
1. Set up a line of six cones or microhurdles.
2. The athlete begins at one corner of the course and faces squarely in one direction
through-out each pass around, through, and over the cones. Each pass should be com¬
pleted as quickly as possible.
3. At the whistle, the athlete lateral shuffles to the end of the line of cones, runs backward
to get behind the line of cones, lateral shuffles back to the first cone, runs forward to the
start, and then reverses direction and repeats the series of lateral shuffles and forward
and backward running.
4. On the second circuit, the athlete runs backward to the first cone, turns and runs for¬
ward between the first and second cones, turns again to run backward between the
second and third cones and so on until he or she reaches the end of the fine. The athlete
then repeats the pattern back to the start.
5. On the third circuit, the athlete does lateral crossovers over each cone, stops outside the
last cone, then uses lateral crossovers over the cones to return to the start. Both feet
must touch the floor between cones.

Around

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Through

Over

Key Points
The key is to try to make every direction change more quickly. The athlete should not
use extra steps to change direction but just plant, cut, and explode!
 Lightning Quickness 111

Backward to Forward Transition

Purpose
A Start

To improve quickness and efficiency turning from backward to forward ¥

I
Procedure I
I

1. Set up a course with seven cones at various positions, leaving enough verti¬ t
cal space between cones for four backward steps plus an angled 5- to 10-
yard sprint to the next cone.
2. The athlete backpedals four quick steps straight backward from the cone. A
3. In midflight and without reducing speed, he or she turns forward and sprints
to the next cone.
4. Without stopping, the athlete turns backward and begins the four-step backpedal again.
5. The athlete continues the sequence until he or she has completed the course.
Key Points
To target a weak turning side, for example, the left, place each subsequent cone A
farther to the left, so that the athlete turns the same way through the entire
course. For equal emphasis, alternate cones to the left and right. For added chal¬
lenge, mix up the placement so that the athlete, while backpedaling, must look
behind to find the next cone to know whether to turn forward, to the left, or to
the right.

Zigzag Cutting ..

Purpose
To develop quick-burst sprinting with lateral cuts and
the ability to stop on a dime and explode in the oppo¬ A
site direction
Procedure
1. Set up seven cones in a zigzag pattern,
A
varying the horizontal and vertical distance
between cones but placing the cones no more
than 10 feet apart.
A
2. The athlete sprints toward the first cone, plants
and brakes just before it, then explodes out
toward the next cone.
A
3. The athlete continues the sequence until he or
she has completed the course.
A
Variations
Modify this drill by having the athlete run around each A
cone. Depending on placement of the next cone, the
athlete will either cut or corner around the cone. This
drill can also be done backward and with lateral power
A
shuffles.
112 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Purpose
To improve independent leg quickness and balance and reaction skills

Procedure
1. Mark off a small area with clearly identified drill boundaries.
2. One-sixth of the group of athletes are chasers and two-sixths are “it”; half the group rests.
3. Those who are it place a sweat towel out of the top of their shorts, as in flag football.
4. At the whistle, the chasers attempt to capture the towels of the its while the its attempt
to prevent the chasers from getting their towels. Players move using only one leg.
5. Once a chaser grabs the towel of an it, the it becomes a chaser and helps chase down towels.
6. The goal of each it player is to be the last one left with a towel.
7. Repeat the game having players use the opposite leg.
Key Points
Define contact or zero contact. For team competition, modify the drill so that the athlete
who loses a towel is out but does not become a chaser. Keep going until every towel is grabbed.
The coach can time how long it takes the team of chasers to finish the drill, and the six teams
can compete for the lowest time. This drill can also be done using two feet.

Follow-the-Leader

Purpose
To improve multidirectional quickness, the ability to read
and react, coordination, and mobility
Procedure
1. Split the group into partners or small teams of no
more than four athletes.
2. The leader stands ready to explode out at the sound
of the whistle.
3. The followers stand six feet behind the leader.
4. At the whisde, the leader tries to evade and lose the
followers.
5. The followers try to duplicate the running or skating
moves and pattern of the leader, staying as close to
him or her as possible.

Key Points
Encourage the leader to be creative and use various types
of moves—forward, backward, stop-and-start, cut, spin,
roll and so on. Just define whether they have to stay on
their feet or not. The followers cannot cut across to catch
up to the leader; they must try to duplicate not only each
maneuver but also the course of movement itself.
 Lightning Quickness 113

Purpose
To improve multidirectional quickness; the ability to read, react, and explode; and stop-
and-start moves
Procedure
1. Two teams of six players set up in one-half of a basketball court in volleyball format,
with two lines of three players for each team.
2. Each team’s zone extends from the center-court line to the side and end walls.
3. Each player starts with one tennis ball.
4. At the starting whistle, each player tosses the ball into the opposition’s zone. Balls can be
placed deep or just over the line, wide or in the center.
5. Players attack each ball thrown into their zone and attempt to throw it back before the
ending whistle. They must be heads up, ready to explode into action toward the balls
being sent into their zone. The coach times the drill so that there are variations of
between 20 seconds and 3 minutes between the starting and ending whistles.
6. The goal for each team is to have fewer balls in their zone at the ending whistle than the
opposition has in theirs.
Variation
Start each player with two balls, which they can throw right away on the start whistle. This
will really keep them hopping after balls thrown into their zone.

In-Place Lunge Jump

Purpose
To improve leg and hip power, contractile velocity, stride-length speed, and dynamic flexi¬
bility
Procedure
1. The athlete stands with the feet shoulder-width apart.
2. He or she steps forward with the left leg into a fall lunge position, with the left knee at a
90-degee angle over the left foot (but not past toes), left quadriceps parallel to the floor,
and hips low to the ground.
3. The athlete jumps up in place and switches leg positions in midair so that on landing the
right leg is in the lunge position described above and the left leg is extended behind the
body.
4. The athlete absorbs the landing and quickly jumps back up, switching legs in midair
again to land in the original starting position.
5. The sequence is repeated rapidly 5 to 15 times.

Key Points
The athlete keeps hips low to the ground and shuffles legs back and forth. Try a variation
in which the athlete jumps as high as possible, achieving maximum hang time.
114 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

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Lateral Angled Box Shuffle

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Purpose
To develop quick feet and improve lateral movement

Procedure
1. The athlete stands with both feet planted in the middle of the board.
2. He or she plants the left foot on the left side of the box.
3. The athlete pushes off the left side of the box with the left foot (Lj) and executes a
light foot touch in the middle of the board, first with the right and then with the left,
and pops both feet off the board (R2, L3).
The athlete lands on the right side of the box with the right foot (R^), brakes, and
quickly pushes off in the opposite direction.
He or she executes a light foot touch in the
middle of the board, first with the left foot
and then with the right (L_, R6), as rapidly
as possible and then pops both feet off the
board.
6. The athlete lands on the left side of the box
with the left foot (Ly), brakes, and quickly
pushes off in the opposite direction.
7. The athlete repeats this sequence for a set
period of time.

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Key Points
Because the athlete completes this drill with lightning quick feet, it is not possible to track
the total number of foot contacts. It is more accurate to count how many times he or she
touches one side of the box, for example, counting one contact every time a foot is planted
on the far right-hand side. The athlete must be up on the toes, with the hips dropped and
the knees flexed. When contacting the sides, the athlete should aim for the top half of the
angled box to target the hip abductors.
 Lightning Quickness 115

Purpose
To build lateral first-step explosiveness
Procedure
1. The athlete starts on top of a box 12 to 15 inches high.
2. He or she steps off the box, absorbs the landing,
and reacts to the direction signal given by imme¬
diately cutting left or right for three or four strides.
Key Points
As the athlete improves, delay the directional signal so
that less time is available to read and react. The athlete
can also perform this drill by stepping off backward,
landing backward, and, in response to the direction
command, rotating one leg outward to step forward
and sprint for three or four strides. A drill variation
with the forward step-off is to have the athlete land
and cross over before sprinting.

Purpose
To improve stride power, velocity change-up, shifting gears, and neuromuscular stimulation
Procedure
1. The athlete begins with a resistance harness,
belt, or parachute.
2. At the whisde, the athlete sprints full out
(under resistance conditions), using
quick, powerful strides.
3. After five or six strides, let go of the
resistance device and yell “go.”
4. With the removal of the resistance
device, the athlete displays a
stronger sprint and an accelerated
rate of leg turnover.
Key Points
Players begin with full-out, powerful
strides, but they must be encouraged
to kick in a second effort upon hear¬
ing “go” to maximize their accelera¬
tion at the let-go phase. This helps
teach the nervous system how to com¬
mand speed change-ups. z=
116 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Z-Ball
.
21
Purpose
To improve read-react-and-explode ability and multidirectional quickness

Procedure
1. Set up boundaries for the game such as half of a basketball court or tennis court.
2. Two players partner up and compete against each other, using a Z-ball, which generates
unpredictable bounces.
3. One player drops the ball from the height of the opponent’s eyes.
4. Spinning the ball on release is not permitted.
5. The receiving player must keep the hands on the lower quads until the opponent re¬
leases the ball.
6. The receiving player attempts to catch the ball in bounds.
7. If the receiving player successfully catches the ball in bounds, he or she gets one point
for each bounce. For example, if it bounces three times and the receiver catches it, he or
she gets three points. No points are awarded if the ball goes out of bounds, if the ball
stops bouncing (and begins to roll), or if the receiver drops the ball.
8. Players alternate dropping and receiving positions until one player scores 21.
9. The first player to drop receives the last drop; if player A drops first and is losing 21 to
18, he or she receives one more drop for a chance to tie. A player must win by two points.
Key Points
The key is staying low and keeping the feet moving to track the ball as it bounces around
the floor. This task requires tremendous quickness, agility, and athleticism.

End-Zone Medicine Ball Put

Purpose
To improve upper-body explosiveness (and explosiveness of the legs, speed center, and full
body as a linked system)
Procedure
1. Mark off two end zones at equal distance from the center of the room.
2. Two players compete against each other.
3. Holding the ball at arm’s length, the first player quickly brings the ball to the chest and
then pushes it away for an explosive chest pass toward the opponent’s end zone.
4. From wherever the ball lands, the second player executes an explosive chest pass toward
the other end zone.
5. Players alternate throws, each trying to work the opponent back until he or she can
throw the ball into the opponent’s end zone.
Key Points
Players throw with the full body, exploding with the legs. They complete one rep and then
rest one rep, allowing for great power. Set a target score, such as a game to five, depending
on how difficult it is to reach the end zone.
 Lightning Quickness 117

React-and-Sprint Tennis Ball Drop

Purpose
To improve first-step explosiveness
Procedure
1. Holding a tennis ball in each hand, stand with arms extended at the sides and the tennis
balls about six inches higher than the shoulders.
2. Position the player a set distance away from and facing squarely toward you, with slight
knee flexion and weight forward on the toes, ready to explode into action.
3. Drop one ball.
4. As it leaves the hand, the player reacts and sprints after
the ball, trying to catch it after only one bounce.
5. The player takes an equal number of turns starting
from a position facing toward, facing each side, and
facing away from you.
6. When the player is not facing you directly, call
out “drop” with each drop of the ball; the
player must react, turn, and with a quick
rotation of the hips, sprint out and cut
toward the dropped ball.
7. You can also call out “left” or “right”
to mandate the direction in which
the player must turn, either
toward the dropped ball or in the
opposite direction so that the
player has to turn and cut back.
Key Points
Coaches who use this drill see imme¬
diate improvement in first-step quickness because the player’s ability is visually obvious.
Players push themselves to the next level using this drill. Individualize the distance or drop
height to challenge each player yet offer a chance to break through to new success.

SUMMARY
The ability to initiate skilled movements more quickly than opponents is the
foundation for successful offensive and defensive tactics.
The first step in optimizing quickness is building a foundation. Key compo¬
nents include athleticism (balance, coordination, proprioception), anaerobic sprint
interval conditioning (not exclusively slow, continuous aerobic training), strength
(closed kinetic-chain multijoint and single-leg exercises with squat and lunge
variations), and balanced flexibility (through micro-Stretching).
The 100-meter sprint model of acceleration contributes little to developing
sports quickness. The mechanical demands of sports quickness are multidirec¬
tional with the emphasis on changing direction quickly. Each individual tactic
relies on a series of quick biomechanical adjustments and often stop-and-start
movements, which are the key to initiating game-breaking plays.
118 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Stopping is the key to starting. Players need a quicker stop to decrease abso¬
lute time, to throw off defenders, and to harness the muscle physiology that
contributes to a quicker start.
Unless the primary goal is quickness endurance, do not circuit plyometric and
quick-feet exercises. Between-drill regeneration time is essential to developing
explosive quickness. Don’t confuse the most physically exhausting workout with
the most effective quickness workout. Quickness drills are designed to stimulate
maximal nerve recruitment, to teach the nervous system to command muscles to
lire quickly in the correct sequence, and to replicate sports movements and tech¬
niques. As with all sports skills that involve neuromuscular adaptation, quickness
requires perfect practice.
Multidirectional read-react-and-explode drills that incorporate aspects of play
and competition will be well received by your athletes and prove successful for
improving quickness. Encourage athletes to push themselves past their comfort
zones to extend the boundaries of their abilities. Offer support for venturing and
failing, a process that players must go through in order to improve quickness.
The quickest players will always dominate team sports that involve one-on-
one confrontations, as well as individual sports whose strategies follow a read-
react-and-explode pattern. Lightning quickness is a learned skill. Because
successful sports technique, individual tactics, and team systems depend on it,
quickness itself is the most important skill for sports performance.
3-D Balance
and Core Stability
E. Paul Roetert

well-balanced athlete has good coordination and control when performing

sports actions. When a player absorbs a hit in football or hockey, it is clear that
maintaining balance is difficult; air resistance, friction, and gravity also affect
how well an athlete can maintain balance. The way in which an athlete resists
and handles these outside forces is called stability. The better and more sport
specifically athletes train their bodies, the more balanced and stable they will be
during sports performance.

119
120 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

The exercises described in this chapter relate specifically to three areas of bal¬
ance and stability: (1) muscular balance, (2) dynamic balance, and (3) core stabil¬
ity. Although listed as separate areas of balance, they are closely related. The
section on muscular balance provides a strength basis for athletes in most sports.
It highlights single-joint exercises as well as multijoint exercises that are benefi¬
cial for general core strength and stability. The section on dynamic balance fo¬
cuses on exercises that help the athlete control the body’s center of gravity while
training and competing. The core stability section features core strength exer¬
cises, which are designed for sports requiring not just flexion and extension but
also rotational movements. The 3-D approach refers to training the top and
bottom, left and right, and front and back of the body—in other words, the com¬
plete athlete. This type of training ensures muscular balance as well as stability
during all sports activities.

MUSCULAR BALANCE
Achieving optimal muscular fitness requires flexibility, strength, muscle endur¬
ance, power, and speed. All these components should be included in a well-
rounded training program. In some sports or activities such as baseball, tennis,
and javelin, the dominant side of the upper body develops more than the
nondominant side. Other sports such as running, soccer, and cycling may em¬
phasize the lower body more than the upper body. And if certain patterns or
muscular actions are performed repeatedly, muscles develop more in either the
front of the body (in football offensive linemen) or the back of the body (in
rowers). Competitors in all sports, however, benefit from a well-rounded muscu¬
lar training program focusing on the front and back, dominant and nondominant,
and upper and lower sections of the human body—a program that builds 3-D
muscular balance. A well-rounded muscular training program—one that includes
single-joint exercises as well as multijoint exercises—will help overall athleticism
and coordination, prevent injuries, and, best of all, enhance performance in all
sports activities.

Single-Joint Training
As the name suggests, single-joint training exercises focus on the muscle groups
surrounding one joint. Single-joint exercises serve an important purpose in pre¬
paring the body for more strenuous activities. They promote muscular balance
because they recruit or exercise isolated muscles or muscle groups. Although this
type of training can be somewhat time consuming, the specific attention paid to
each muscle or muscle group can produce significant dividends.
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 121

Extension
Purpose
To strengthen the quadriceps
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Sit on the machine and adjust the
backrest (if available) to a location that
aligns the center of the knee with the
rotating axis of the device. Bend the
knee approximately 90 degrees and
position the resistance pad just above
the ankle.
2. Extend the legs upward against the
resistance, straightening the knees
fully. It is important not to hyper
extend the knees.
3. Slowly lower the weight to the
starting position.

Hamstring Curl
Purpose
To strengthen the hamstrings
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie face down on the machine and adjust
the resistance pad so that it hits on the lower
third of the calf just above the ankle. The
knees should not hyperextend in the
starting position.
2. Slowly curl the feet toward the buttocks.
3. Slowly return the weight to the starting
position.
Variation
Try bringing the weight up with both legs and
then lowering it with one leg, alternating legs
on every repetition.
1 22 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Rubber Tubing Leg Abduction and Adduction

Purpose
To develop the hip abductors, used in lateral shuffling movements, and the hip adductors,
used in the split step and recovery phases. Both help stabilize the knee.

Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Attach one end of the surgical tubing to a post or support and the other end to the ankle.
2. Stand approximately an arm’s length away from the post.
3. For hip abduction, balance on the uninvolved leg while pulling the working leg away
from the midline of the body without swiveling the hips.
4. Hold this position for at least two seconds and return to the starting position.
5. For hip adduction, balance on the uninvolved leg while pulling the working leg slightly
past the midline of the body and stop before the hips begin to swivel.
6. Again, hold this position for at least two seconds and return to the starting position.

Multijoint Training
Because most sports require athletes to use a variety of complex movements,
training should be performed in a sport-specific manner if possible. For example,
to maximize training time and function, multijoint exercises such as squats and
lunges are usually more efficient than single-joint exercises. Multijoint exercises
do not isolate a single-joint activity; single joint action is uncommon in all sports.
Because multijoint exercises are performed in a slow, controlled motion, the like¬
lihood of injury is greatly reduced. This also makes them great lead-up exercises
to the dynamic balance exercises described in the next section of this chapter
(pages 125 through 127).

. .. —

Purpose
To strengthen and balance the gluteals, quadriceps, hamstrings, back extensors, and calves
Procedure
The athlete should do the following (see page 72 for illustration):
1. Stand with the feet shoulder-width apart (the feet should point slightly outward), and
hold a barbell behind the neck across the shoulders.
2. Bend the legs in a slow, controlled manner until the thighs are parallel to the ground.
While bending, keep looking straight ahead, with the chest out and the back flat. Keep
the weight back toward the rear of the feet and the knees over the feet (not forward). If
there is a knee problem or a history of knee problems, bend the knees only 45 to 60
degrees, as tolerated.
3. Return to the starting position, keeping the head up and the back flat.
Variation
Try performing the squat while holding dumbbells at each side or a medicine ball stabilized
behind the neck with both hands.
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 123

Purpose
To work muscles in the lower extremities and trunk
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Stand with the feet six to eight inches apart, holding a barbell behind the neck across the
shoulders (a).
2. Take a large step forward and drop the hips until the thighs are parallel with the floor (b).
3. Return the leg to the starting position. It may be necessary to take a few small steps to do
so.
4. Keep the trunk erect throughout the exercise by looking straight ahead and keeping the
chest out.
5. Alternate legs.

Variations
1. Crossover lunge. Instead of stepping forward, move the front leg in a 45-degree
diagonal lunge (move the left leg in a crossing direction in front of the right leg and
foot). Alternate between the right and left legs, using this crossover diagonal pattern.
2. Side lunge. Step directly to the right or left side, sinking into a squat position. Alter¬
nate between the left and right sides. If there are knee problems, bend the knee only
30 to 45 degrees to decrease the stress.
3. Dumbbell or medicine ball lunge. Perform the lunge while holding dumbbells at the
sides or while stabilizing a medicine ball comfortably behind the neck with both
hands.
124 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Purpose
To strengthen and balance the quadriceps, gluteals, and calves

Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Stand with a barbell behind the neck across the shoulders.
2. Using a step 14 to 20 inches high, alternately step up onto the platform and step down.
Variations
Vary the exercise by stepping forward, to the side, and crossing over to step up onto the
platform. Try it while stabilizing a medicine ball behind the neck with the hands or holding
dumbbells at the sides.

Leg Press

Purpose
To strengthen and balance the gluteals, quadriceps, hamstrings, and calves
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the back and adjust the seat or sled to a position where the hips and knees are
bent at 90-degree angles (a). The feet should be approximately shoulder-width apart.
2. Straighten the knees and hips by pressing down into the platform until they are almost
completely straight (b). Do not lock the knees.
3. Slowly return to the starting position.

Variations
Perform this exercise one leg at a time to focus on each leg independently. A second varia¬
tion is to place a six- to eight-pound medicine ball between the knees and squeeze it as the
knees and hips straighten.
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 125

Push Press

Purpose
To strengthen and balance the biceps, triceps, deltoids, back extensors, gluteals, quadri¬
ceps, hamstrings, and calves
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Stand with the feet approximately shoulder-width apart with knees and hips slightly
flexed.
2. Hold a barbell with the hands in a pronated position (palms facing away) about
shoulder high.
3. Perform a knee bend similar to a squat and drive the bar over the head and back down to
the starting position.
Variation
Try this exercise using a stretch cord or surgical tubing by standing on the cord with the
feet approximately shoulder-width apart with the knees and hips slightly flexed.

DYNAMIC BALANCE

What do the following athletes have in common: a shortstop in softball fielding

a ground ball, a basketball player playing man-to-man defense, a soccer player
dribbling through several defenders, and
a hockey player changing directions at full
speed? All these athletes must have tre¬
mendous footwork and good balance.
Keeping the body under control while
moving is called dynamic balance.
Having the feet just wider than
shoulder-width apart will give an ath¬
lete the most stable base of support,
as shown in figure 7.1. Of course,
this is not always possible during
athletic competition. The key is
to control the body’s center of
gravity, the point around which
the body balances most per¬
fectly. The center of gravity is
usually a little lower in females
than it is in males.

Figure 7.1 A stable base of support allows an athlete to change directions easily.
126 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

By keeping the center of gravity between the base of support (the feet), the
athlete can more easily change directions. In addition, lowering the center of
gravity adds stability. Great athletes in almost every sport have excellent control
over their center of gravity and therefore superior dynamic balance.
Some sports depend almost exclusively on an athlete’s control of the center of
gravity and the ability to balance during the sports activity. As soon as the athlete
loses balance, he or she loses the contest. The following sports fall into that
category:

Cycling • Speed skating

Judo • Figure skating
Diving • Weightlifting
Skiing • Gymnastics
Fencing • Wrestling

Other sports require athletes to stay balanced while moving in relation to a

moving object (a ball or puck, for example) or teammates. These sports have
similar movement patterns and include the following:

• Baseball and softball • Ice hockey

• Football • Tennis
• Basketball • Field hockey
• Soccer • Volleyball

The following exercises help athletes develop their control over their center of
gravity and therefore improve their dynamic balance.

Purpose
To promote control of the center of gravity
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Stand on one leg while holding the ankle of the other leg, making sure to point the bent
knee straight down.
2. Hold the position for 30 seconds before switching to the other leg.

Purpose
To increase double-leg strength
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 127

1. Line up three cones approximately two feet from each other.

2. Jump forward over all three cones with the feet together. Work to spring off the ground
into the next jump immediately after landing each jump.
3. Increase the distance between the cones as improvement occurs.
Variations
A variation is to perform the drill by hopping sideways and by changing directions. An
advanced version of this drill is to hop on one leg only. Adequate leg strength and balance
are prerequisites for this drill.

Line Hop

Purpose
To increase single-leg strength
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Place two pieces of tape approximately three feet apart.
2. Hop laterally from line to line, trying to touch down as lightly as possible each time.
3. Continue the pattern for 30 seconds, rest for 15 seconds, and repeat for five sets.
Variations
Perform this movement pattern by moving forward while continuing to hop from side to
side. Another variation is to use a deeper knee bend and hold that position for one second
on each hop.

Purpose
To measure foot quickness in changing direction backward, forward, and sideways while
facing in one direction (which simulates facing an opponent in a match); to test the ability
to stabilize the body quickly between direction changes (because stability must be achieved
before the next jump can be performed)
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. On the ground, create a hexagon (six sides with angles of 120 degrees; each side 24
inches long) using masking tape or chalk.
2. Stand in the middle of the hexagon and face in the same direction throughout the test.
3. WTien the person timing the exercise with a stopwatch gives the command “Ready go,”
jump forward over the tape and immediately back into the hexagon.
4. Continue facing forward, jump over the next side, and jump back to the middle.
5. Repeat for each of the sides.
128 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

CORE STABILITY
Most throwing and striking sports require an efficient transfer of force from the
ground up to achieve maximum acceleration of the upper limb or implement.
This transfer of force is often a function of how well the upper body and lower
body are connected. By strengthening the trunk, the athlete creates a solid unit
capable of developing and transferring forces from the legs through the trunk to
the arms and possibly the implement. The sum of these integrated forces results
in optimal acceleration of the ball or implement. This is known as the kinetic-
link principle, or kinetic-chain principle. Major sports in which this transfer of
forces is critical for good performance include the following:

• Baseball and softball

• Golf
• Basketball
• Javelin
• Discus
• Shot put
• Football
• Tennis

Other sports repeat a certain action or movement on a continuous basis, re¬

quiring a strong midsection and trunk to keep the body properly aligned. Bal¬
ance between left and right sides is crucial for good performance in the following
sports:

• Cycling
• Skiing
• Rowing
• Speed skating
• Running
• Swimming

Overtraining of certain muscle groups may become a problem if workouts are

not monitored closely. Training programs should be based on proper periodization
principles (see chapter 12) such as variation in training and taking appropriate
rest periods. In addition, training for muscular balance should not be over¬
looked.
Most sports require a strong trunk for proper posture or specific patterns of
movement within an activity. A strong trunk (rectus abdominis) is the source of
many movements and synchronizes the upper body with the lower body. There¬
fore, all sides of the trunk must be trained—the abdominal muscles for flexion,
lower-back muscles for extension, obliques for rotation, and all of them together
for stabilization and proper posture. Of course, these muscles never work in
isolation. The muscles in the lower body should form a solid foundation and be
able to transfer forces from the ground up. The result is optimal core stability.
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 129

Crunch

Purpose
To develop core strength in the anterior trunk region needed for most athletic activities.
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the back with the knees bent and the feet flat on the floor.
2. Hold the hands behind the head with the elbows to the sides or crossed and resting on
top of the chest.
3. Curl the upper body, including the head and shoulders, from the floor until the ab¬
dominal muscles contract. Refrain from pulling the head forward with the hands. The
upper body should be off the ground by about three inches at the shoulder blades.
4. Then lower the body until the shoulder blades touch the ground and repeat.

Purpose
To strengthen the anterior trunk and develop the pectoralis major and minor, serratus
anterior, triceps, and anterior deltoid
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the back on a narrow bench with the arms externally rotated at a 90-degree angle
to the torso, holding a dumbbell in each hand.
2. While keeping the wrists directly over the elbows and not locking the elbows, extend
the hands toward the ceiling.
3. As the hands extend upward, round the shoulders, pushing the hands as far away
from the body as possible. This extra motion works the serratus anterior muscle, which
supports the shoulder blade.
 130 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Reverse Sit-Up
Purpose
To work the rectus abdominis through a full range of
motion with little use of the iliopsoas (hip flexors)

Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the back with the knees bent and the
feet flat on the floor. Hold hands out to the
sides on the floor for stability.
2. Tilt the pelvis by pressing the back against
the floor and tightening the abdominal
muscles. Hold this flexed abdominal position
throughout the rest of the movement.
3. Slowly bring the legs to the chest and then
lower them to the ground, keeping the same
degree of knee bend throughout the motion.

Hi
*■

Purpose
To strengthen the rectus abdominis
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the back with the hips elevated, legs
straight in the air, and arms and hands out to
the sides for stability or under the lower back
for support.
2. Raise the hips off the ground and point the toes
toward the ceiling while flexing the abdominal
wall.
3. With control, lower the hips to the ground and
repeat.

Z2

Purpose
To strengthen the lower portion of the rectus abdominis or abdominal wall to improve
vertebral stabilization
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 131

1. Lie on the back with the hands under the small of the back for support and the legs fully
extended with toes pointing upward.
2. Slowly lift both legs together to about 30 degrees.
3. Then slowly lower the legs to just above ground level, but refrain from touching the
ground (doing so would allow the muscles to rest during the movement).

Sit-Up Witlr tegs^RcHsed

Purpose
To develop the rectus abdominis and iliopsoas
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the back with hips and knees raised at 90 degrees and the hands behind the head
with elbows out to the sides.
2. Curl the body up and attempt to touch the chest to the thighs, while refraining from
pulling the head forward with the hands.

Seated Row
Purpose
To develop the rhomboids, trapezius, posterior deltoid, and biceps
Procedure
The athelete should do the following:
1. Sit with the knees slighdy flexed and the hands holding a cord or band device, cable
column, or seated row machine.
2. While keeping the upper body erect and the elbows close to the sides, and without
leaning backward, pull the handles toward the chest and upper abdomen area.
3. Slowly return to the start position and repeat.
132 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Purpose
To prevent overuse injuries or chronic lower-back pain by targeting the erector spinae
muscles along the spinal column
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie prone on the floor with the arms fully extended overhead.
2. Lift both arms and both legs simultaneously.
3. Hold this position for one to five seconds and return to the start position.
Variation
Lift the right arm and the left leg and then lift the left arm and right leg in an alternating
pattern.

sion

Purpose
To strengthen the erector spinae, which al
lows the lower back to absorb and exert
greater forces during such actions as the
service motion in tennis or volleyball and
the overhead throw
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie prone on a table with the
trunk and upper body hanging
off the end.
2. Hold the hands behind the head
while a partner holds down the
lower body.
3. From a lowered starting posi¬
tion, raise the upper body until
it is in line with the rest of the
body or until the back is tight.
4. Then lower the upper body to
a 30-degree angle or to the
point just before the lower
back curves.
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 133

Reverse Hyperextension

Purpose
To strengthen the erector spinae to prevent injury and chronic back pain
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the abdomen on a table, letting the legs hang off the end.
2. While keeping the feet together, slowly raise and lower the legs.

Russian Twist

Purpose
To enhance trunk rotation by working the obliques
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Secure the feet on the floor, with the knees bent and the body leaning back at a 45-
degree angle.
2. Hold the arms straight out from the shoulders so that they are parallel with the thighs.
Holding a weight increases the resistance of the exercise.
3. Rotate to the side by turning the shoulders until the arms are at a 90-degree angle with
the body.
4. Then make a full twist to the opposite side. Over and back constitutes one repetition.
 134 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

._«ijl . .-.- — —-— ....*— ...... .“

Crossover Crunch

Purpose
To strengthen the internal and external oblique muscles of the trunk, which are respon¬
sible for trunk rotation
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the back with one knee bent and the same foot flat on the floor. Bend the oppo¬
site knee so that the heel rests on the other knee.
2. Hold the hands behind the head with the elbows out to the sides.
3. Curl the upper body so that the elbow opposite the elevated knee moves toward the
elevated knee diagonally. Refrain from pulling the head forward with the hands.
4. Repeat this movement on the opposite side.

Seated Trunk Circle

Purpose
To strengthen the entire abdomen and trunk more than the basic abdominal exercises
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Balance on the buttocks with the feet six inches above the floor
and the upper body leaning back at a 45-degree angle. The hands
are held behind the head with the elbows out to the side.
2. Cycle the legs, alternately bringing each knee to the chest
and returning it to the straight position. Do not allow the
legs to rest.
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 135

Side Raise

Purpose
To strengthen the trunk and lower-back musculature—rectus abdominis, erector spinae,
serratus anterior, transverse abdominis, obliques, and gluteals
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the side with the arms at the sides.
2. Have a partner hold the feet down, or if no partner is available, place the soles of the
feet firmly against a wall or other support. This makes the exercise easier to perform
and better isolates the working muscle groups.
3. Lift the torso off the ground, hold for two seconds, and then lower it back to the ground.
During the lift phase, imagine touching the head of the humerus (middle deltoid)
toward the ceiling.
4. Repeat the exercise on the opposite side.
Variations
Clasp the hands together above the head and lift the torso and arms toward the ceiling.
Increase the time interval during the lift as needed.

Hip Rotation

Purpose
To strengthen the rectus abdominis, obliques, and iliopsoas

Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Lie on the back with the hips flexed and knees flexed, and the arms and hands out to the
sides for stability.
2. Rotate the hips and trunk to one side until they touch the ground.
3. Keeping the knees together, rotate them all the
way until they touch on the other side.
Touching both sides completes one
full rotation.
136 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Wood Chop

Purpose
To develop the obliques and rectus abdominis for trunk rotation

Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Stand 8 to 10 feet from a partner, facing sideways, and hold a four- to six-pound medicine
ball at shoulder height with both hands.
2. Throw the ball to the partner using a sideways and slightly downward movement pattern;
have the partner catch it and release it back to you in the same manner.
3. Catch the ball and release it back to the partner as quickly as possible.
4. Perform the same number of repetitions for each side.

BALANCE AND CORE STABILITY TRAINING PROGRAMS

Because many sports require the athlete to generate force from the ground up,
why not train the muscles from the ground up? When designing a training pro¬
gram, think of the muscles of the trunk as a spiral staircase. Start by exercising
the legs, followed by hips, midsection (flexion, extension, and rotation), and fi¬
nally upper body (see sample training programs). Training in this manner fol¬
lows a logical progression, and different exercises can be plugged into the circuit
to add variety. Keep in mind that the goal is to develop balance between muscle
groups and to train the muscles from the ground up. Two sample programs illus¬
trate this spiral staircase model:

Spiral Staircase Training Program A

• Squat
• Hamstring curl
• Leg extension
• Leg abduction and adduction
• Crunch
• Superman
• Seated trunk circle
• Chest press
• Seated row
 3-D Balance and Core Stability 137

Spiral Staircase Training Program B

• Lunge
• Step-up
• 30-degree leg raise
• Hyperextension
• Hip rotation
• Reverse sit-up
• Reverse hyperextension
• Russian twist
• Wood chop

SUMMARY

Sports and activities can be organized in many different ways. For the purpose of
this book, sports are classified in order to understand the training demands and
movement patterns. It is possible to look at the muscular activity of each sport
and see that certain movement skills are similar and therefore can be trained in a
similar fashion. Some sports are quite similar to others in terms of the pattern of
movement as well as which muscle groups need to be trained. Of course, some
sports fit into more than one category.
Core stability and balance are critical for good performance in almost all sports
and activities. Some sports require good balance for movement purposes, some
for producing force, some for symmetry. But all athletes, no matter what sport
they compete in, benefit from proper preparation. Of course, an athlete cannot
perform all the exercises outlined in this chapter every day. Depending on the
sport, time of the season, and fitness level of the individual athlete, exercises
must be carefully selected for proper performance enhancement and injury pre¬
vention. An appropriate training program that includes key exercises will pre¬
pare an athlete for successful competition and reduce the risk of injury.
'
Agility and
Coordination
Mark Verstegen and Brandon Marcello

#rlichael Jordan has the ball with four seconds left in the 1998 NBA finals. It’s
showtime. MJ holds the ball in his triple-threat position, his eyes processing
every aspect of his defender’s position. In the blink of an eye, he fakes his body
one way and, with incredible efficiency, reacts opposite to the defender’s
commitment. He explodes past the defender with his first step, gracefully stops
on a dime, spins and ascends vertically, and then pauses in midair, creating a
stable platform from which to launch the game-winning shot! Another
championship goes to MJ and his teammates. This sequence of events is the
archetype of coordinated movement, which is the essence of every sport. If we
were to break down the sequence, we would be able to fill a whole book.

139
140 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Agility and coordination are the building blocks that make up sport and the
tools that athletes use to express their game, whether it’s the smooth yet power¬
ful golf swing of Tiger Woods; the dynamic and graceful synchronization of
arms and legs of Mike Powell propelling himself over 29 feet, 4 inches into the
long-jump pit; or the wondrous balance and deception of Terrell Davis as he
evades three would-be tacklers in a small space. Coaches and spectators often
look at coordination and agility as the key components in determining whether
someone is an athlete. Try to identify a sport that doesn’t require a high degree
of coordination or agility. Chances are you won’t find one.
The prospect of developing and possessing outstanding coordination and agil¬
ity is exciting because these movement skills transcend all sports boundaries.
Contrary to popular belief, an athlete can do much to improve his or her athletic
ability and movement skills. Everyone accepts without question a coach’s de¬
mand that players practice for hours to improve a particular skill such as ffee-
throw shooting. Coaches use this approach with great success in sports such as
baseball, golf, and tennis; they concern themselves with the way the hands and
fingers interact while gripping a ball, club, or racket and judge whether making
a change might improve performance.
From the way he or she moves the arms all the way down to the way the feet
interact with the ground, an athlete needs to develop the most efficient way of
moving, stopping, starting, spinning, landing, and so on. Chances are that most
athletes have had to figure out these basic movements and develop them on their
own. We used to assume that anyone who could walk and run didn’t need to take
any time to further develop specific movement skills. However, an athlete who
trains these skills optimally with the help of the knowledge provided in this chapter
can be a significantly better athlete.
Movement is what people refer to as athleticism, the “innate” skills some people
have to succeed in many sports, often spectacularly at one. There is no definitive
answer as to why some people are able to perform athletic skills better than
others. It goes back to the age-old argument of nature versus nurture. Athletes
benefit or suffer from the environment to which they were exposed just as they
benefit or suffer from the biological parents they “picked” (genetics). Neverthe¬
less, those of us in the performance-enhancement field have yet to meet an ath¬
lete, regardless of ability, who has achieved his or her full genetic potential.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide some insight about how athletes
learn the most efficient movement systems and to divulge some strategies that
facilitate athletes’ achieving their maximum potential. We start by briefly defin¬
ing agility, coordination, and the required physical abilities. Coupling this scien¬
tific knowledge with basic movement patterns and sport-specific needs, we then
present a model for improving athletic performance.

AGILITY
Agility is not easily defined because it is the culmination of nearly all the physical
abilities that an athlete possesses (figure 8.1). When integrated with a coordina¬
tion system, agility permits an athlete to react to a stimulus, start quickly and
efficiently, move in the correct direction, and be ready to change direction or
 Agility and Coordination 141

Figure 8.1 The relationship between agility and physical abilities.

stop quickly to make a play in a fast, smooth, efficient, and repeatable manner.
People possess several types of agility:

• Whole-body horizontal changes of direction such as faking and avoiding

• Whole-body vertical changes of direction such as jumping and leaping
• Rapid movements of body parts that control movement of implements in sports
such as tennis, squash, and hockey

An athlete who possesses high-quality agility can use it to advantage in compe¬

tition. High-quality agility decreases the potential for injury, improves perfor¬
mance and evasiveness by allowing the athlete to fake or neutralize the competi¬
tion, and refines the athlete’s ability to adjust to an outside object such as a puck
or ball.
An athlete can be compared with a computer system; both demonstrate a lot of
power and potential. Without agility, however, the athlete is as ineffective as a
computer that lacks the appropriate software—great potential but limited per¬
formance. There are two critical elements in developing agility, coordination,
and skill. The role of coordination is to execute the movements chosen in re¬
sponse to a stimulus. The role of skill is to orchestrate these coordinated abilities
into an efficient and effective set of general, special, and sport-specific movements.
142 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

These movements should be executed in a manner that uses maximum certainty

with minimum time and energy. Specific acts require the use of unique qualities.
When athletes struggle to achieve great agility, it is usually due to a deficiency in
one or more of the qualities illustrated in figure 8.1.

COORDINATION
Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary (Thomas 1993) defines coordination as “the
working together of various muscles for the production of a certain movement.”
In the field of exercise science, coordination is recognized as the ability of the
body to organize two or more patterns to achieve a specific movement goal.
Coordination involves an intricate and complex sequence of activities. Simply
stated, these activities encompass reacting to sensory input (stimulus), choosing
and processing the proper motor program from learned skills (motor learning),
and, finally, executing the action. Information is sent to the brain for prediction,
evaluation, and adjustment. The entire process occurs in a matter of milli¬
seconds.
The process of motor learning itself can be broken into four steps:

1. Muscle movements stimulate the sensory receptors.

2. The sensory receptors send information to the central nervous system (CNS),
which acts as a processor for the information.
3. The CNS executes, adjusts, or improves this information.
4. The CNS sends the information back to the required muscles via the motor
pathways.

Because any external or internal stimulus can affect the outcome at any level of
the process, the system is both complex and effective. This is what makes the
study of motor learning so challenging.
The process of motor learning is the systematic change of movement behavior
leading first to attainment and later to perfection of a certain motor skill. WTiile
learning a motor skill is complex and not completely understood, several vital
steps can be identified (see figure 8.2).

• Stimulus identification. Athletes receive information through an external

(exafferent) pathway and an internal (reafferent) pathway. The external path¬
way comes from external stimuli, whereas the internal pathways receive infor¬
mation relayed to the CNS from ongoing motor behavior. The bottom line is
that the information comes in from one, or more likely a combination, of our
five basic sensory analyzers: kinesthetic-proprioceptive, tactile, static-dynamic
vestibular, optic, or acoustical.
• Response selection. The incoming information is processed in this stage. After
the information has been processed, the athlete’s library of existing motor
programs is accessed. A selection is then made to elicit the most suitable re¬
sponse based on the information acquired.
• Response programming. Response programming executes the motor program
that best fits the situation, simultaneously creating a reference to that choice.
This motor program is then executed by passing through the CNS to the
Figure 8.2 The process of motor learning.

143
144 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

appropriate muscles, stimulating the correct motor-unit recruitment and syn¬

chronization to produce movement. At every level of this process, feedback is
being sent back and compared with the desired outcome.
• Feedback. Several types of feedback occur throughout the execution of this
process. The muscles relay their force and length, the proprioceptors and ki¬
nesthesia report on joint position and body position, and the visual and audi¬
tory systems add information about the environment. All this information passes
back up the response-produced feedback highway. The information is used to
compare the actual program with the desired program and to initiate the error
elimination process by which the body starts to suppress actions that might hinder
the desired performance.

The valuable aspect of this system is that athletes learn from each action—by
trial, error, and success. They discover what works and what doesn’t. Remem¬
bering what was good, discarding the bad, they try again, building on the good.
Through this process of adjusting and building on what works (practice), effec¬
tive motor programs are laid down to be recalled with greater efficiency and
effectiveness on the next task.
From the minute a coach starts developing athletes, he or she lays down the
motor programs, skills, and habits that will be the basis for all future perfor¬
mance. The athlete’s brain learns these habits by creating memorized patterns
called engrams. These engrams are motor programs that are “burned into” the
tissue protoplasm of the brain when practiced a sufficient number of times. These
permanent fixtures can be either positive or negative based on the quality of
what is put in.
The old saying, “Practice makes perfect” is not entirely true. It is more accu¬
rate to say, “Perfect practice makes perfect.” Insist that athletes practice perfect
techniques in everything they do, from the onset of movement preparation
through strength augmentation to energy-system development. Accepting inef¬
ficient habits puts athletes at greater risk of injury and compromises their right
to athletic success. An athlete who has developed less than optimal motor pro¬
grams will need substantial time and effort to suppress the existing program and
rebuild new, effective motor programs for peak performance. These new pro¬
grams will be the athlete’s tools for future performance, tools that will produce
outcomes of better quality with less effort.
There are three main stages in coordination refinement.

• Crude coordination (general)—In this stage the athlete attempts to learn a

new task and must consciously comprehend all movements. The athlete must
be aware of his or her body in order to control the new task. He or she will
rely heavily on visual and auditory input systems because the other senses of
the body aren’t quite ready to give highly accurate information. This sensory
hierarchy will invert itself as the learning process progresses into fine and
superfine refinement.
• Fine coordination (special)—In this phase the athlete starts to internalize how
movements should feel, relying less on the visual and auditory systems, with
the exception of input from the coach, and more on the depth receptors, prop¬
rioceptors, and dynamic and static contact receptors. The athlete uses feed-
 Agility and Coordination 145

back chain mechanisms that refine the motor skill while inhibiting undesir¬
able actions and enhancing the efficiency of the goal-outcome skill.
• Superfine coordination (specific)—This is the final stage of motor learning,
when integration of the automated motor programs that have been cleaned of
superfluous activity allows the athlete to execute movement effectively under
a variety of conditions.

Within this coordination refinement process, the body learns how to improve
the efficiency of desired movements. Efficiency can be increased by improving
intramuscular and intermuscular coordination. Intramuscular coordination involves
the ability to coordinate many neuromuscular units to act simultaneously to per¬
form a muscular contraction. Intermuscular coordination is the cooperative inter¬
action of several muscles in order to perform an action. Progressive loading of
body weight, resisted movement methods, or assisted movement methods may
significantly enhance these abilities.

FOUNDATIONS OF AGILITY AND COORDINATED

MOVEMENT
Most sports require athletes to possess general movement skills. In order to ex¬
cel, athletes should learn and master the building blocks of sport-specific movement.

Balance and Base of Support

Balance—the ability to maintain the center of body mass over a base of sup¬
port—has long been classified as an important aspect of motor development. It
is the underlying component of all movement skills, especially agility (for more
on developing balance, see chapter 7).
Defining a few terms will afford a more precise discussion of the contribution
of balance to athleticism. Center of mass is the hypothetical balance point of the
body, which is located at 55 percent of height in women and at 57 percent of
height in men (Hay and Reid 1988). The center of mass is a constant and will
always lie within the body. Height, gender, and body type affect an athlete’s cen¬
ter of mass.
In a static, erect position, the center of mass will be located at the same point as
the center of gravity. The difference is that the location of the center of gravity
shifts with movement; it will fluctuate within the body, and many sport actions
will shift it outside the body. This shift of the center of gravity away from the
center of mass creates movement.
Balance is traditionally classified into two categories, static and dynamic. Static
balance is inner-zone balance, that is, standing in place while highlighting the
intricate systemic feedback system and neuromuscular activity required to stay
still. Outer-zone balance is how far outside the inner zone an athlete can go
without losing balance. The point where an athlete loses control is the balance
threshold.
Sport is the essence of dynamic balance, of being able to maintain body mass
over the base of support while the body is in motion. Consider the critical role of
146 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

balance within every joint of the body to align and stabilize the entire dynamic
kinetic chain to produce or reduce the forces creating movement. Essentially,
dynamic balance is efficiently manipulating the balance threshold. Athletes push
the edge of this threshold, functionally moving in and out of balance in a way
that creates fluid movement. The nature of sport presents further challenges by
requiring athletes to compete on various surfaces, against opponents, in variable
environmental conditions, and so forth. It should be evident that balance is criti¬
cal to an athlete’s agility and overall performance. Regardless of the location of
the center of mass, it is advantageous for an athlete to get back within his or her
base of support to keep the center of gravity in check. By gaining control of the
center of gravity, the athlete takes the first step toward efficient and successful
movement on the court or field.
A solid base of support, or base, creates the foundation on which the athlete
can apply positive angles. The term positive angles refers to correct placement of
the ankles, knees, and hips in relation to the torso (see figure 8.3). These body
segments should create proportional angles to allow the athlete to manipulate
his or her balance threshold. Positive angles within the base of support enable
the athlete to decelerate, accelerate, cut, and jump by creating great leverage
between a stable center of mass and the ground. This becomes even more im¬
portant when outside forces such as other players and obstacles act on the base of
support. Great movers in all sports possess awesome positive angles that they
exploit in competition. You might have noticed that Michael Jordan would look
a little knock-kneed while playing defense or before making a great move to the
basket. MJ used great positive angles to be able to stop, start, and redirect his
body instantaneously.

Figure 8.3 Positive angles enable an athlete to manipulate his or her balance thresh
old to facilitate quick changes in speed and direction.
 Agility and Coordination 147

Posture
Good posture is critical to athletic performance and is seen in an erect trunk. It
is the result of good core stability, which in turn is created by a harmony of
contractions by the transverse and rectus abdominis, erector spinae, and many
odier muscles that help stabilize the pelvic and thoracic regions. Stability is gained
by drawing in the stomach, as if trying to touch the belly button to the spine
while breathing dynamically. This helps create intrathoracic pressure, which acts
as a stable platform from which the forces of the legs, hips, torso, and arms can
be transferred more efficiently into the ground to create movement and im¬
proved balance.
Athletes perform only as effectively as they process information, relying heavily
on visual input. Core stability acts as a solid foundation for the head, which should be
in line with the trunk. This in turn creates a consistent, stable environment for the
eyes to gather reliable information to add to the feedback system. Having depend¬
able information is a critical component in decreasing the potential for injury
and achieving a high level of performance in every position, style, and sport.
Once the trunk is stable, the correct stance depends on the sport and situation.
For most applications from a static start, the athlete should sit the hips back and
lean slightly forward at the waist so that the shoulders and chest are just over the
knees. The knees should be aligned slightly inside the toes, and the feet should
be nearly flat with the weight forward of the arch and on the inside ball of the
foot. (For some sports such as tennis it will make more sense to stagger the feet
under the hips.) The torso should be parallel with the forward angle of the shins.
The athlete might not feel comfortable in this stance at first but will in time feel
well balanced and powerful, and will create positive angles with the ground (see
also chapter 7).

Foot Interaction With the Ground

How an athlete’s foot interacts with the ground is as important as how a pitcher’s
hand interacts with a baseball or how a golfer’s grip interacts with the golf club.
Athletes spend countless hours perfecting technical skills, but how often do they
think about how the foot hits the ground? In fact, for most positions in sport,
improving foot-ground interaction can offer greater performance rewards than
working on specific technical skills.
The calf represents only about 14 percent of the power within the kinetic
chain, yet this component either activates or compromises all the bigger muscle
groups within the chain such as the legs, hips, torso, and arms. Whether per¬
forming agility drills, practicing, or competing, it is imperative to dorsiflex at the
ankle, or pull the toe up toward the shin. The toe-up position should become
automatic every time the knee lifts up. Assuming this position prepares the leg to
reaccelerate back down through the ground by transferring power through the
forefoot back up through the kinetic chain. For most activities the foot will actu¬
ally look as if it is flat, with 75 percent of body weight forward of the instep. It
may be possible to slide a pencil under the heel, but the weight is definitely not
up on the tips of the toes. If an athlete runs, cuts, or jumps from on tiptoe, the
likelihood of injury (cumulative or traumatic) to the ankle, hip flexor, and ham-
148 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

string increases and performance decreases because he or she is not able to take
advantage of the ground reaction forces.
While moving laterally or cutting, the athlete should keep the toes of the lead
foot pointed perpendicular to where he or she wants to go. It is common for
basketball players and others to shuffle with the lead toe pointed out in the di¬
rection they are headed, literally pulling themselves along! This is exactly the
opposite of efficient technique; the athlete should push with the back foot. The
lead foot should continue to point perpendicularly to the desired direction, en¬
abling the athlete to cut with the weight in the forefoot, specifically on the inside
ball of the foot. The athlete lifts the front foot and pushes off the back foot. This
applies even when making a transition from a dynamic movement.

Ground Reaction Forces

Ground reaction forces develop from the ability of the body to deliver force into
the ground, transfer energy, and produce an equal and opposite reaction that
propels the body and limbs in the desired direction. This method of movement
takes advantage of innate reflexes such as the phasic spinal cord reflex of crossed
extension in which the flexion of one leg elicits extension of all joints of the other
leg. The elastic nature of the muscle improves efficiency and performance.
The lifting of the leg should be relatively low for multidirectional movement.
The reason the knee and dorsiflexed foot come up at all is to prepare the foot to
reaccelerate back through the ground and push the athlete in the desired direction.
The sound of the dorsiflexed feet driven powerfully into the ground should be a
series of rhythmic, hard, crisp taps. If the tapping is quiet, the athlete probably isn’t
putting much power into the ground, probably because he or she is trying to run up
on the toes. This must be corrected in order to maximize ground reaction forces.

Reaction
Reaction will be improved by using the proper stance and weight distribution as
well as taking a positive first step in the desired direction. Improved coordina¬
tion from evolved motor programs will help. Reaction will be significantly im¬
proved with practice in visual, auditory, technical, and tactical anticipation.

Acceleration and Deceleration

Acceleration relies on great posture, a total-body lean, positive shin angles, and
aggressive piston-like leg and arm action (see also chapter 9). Deceleration
requires great relative strength and technique. Deceleration occurs during cutting
and stopping with various levels of abruptness; it is critical to bend or yield to stop.

Starting Quickness
Starting quickness and first-step quickness are related to stance, reaction, and
knowing where to go. A balanced stance with great positive angles helps propel
the athlete in the desired direction. Make sure the athlete does not false step!
The first step should attack the ground with positive shin angles, regardless of
 Agility and Coordination 149

the direction the individual is going (forward, sideways, backward). Remember

that a first step that strikes out in front of the hip (center of gravity) is too long
and will slow the movement. One starting step, the jab step, involves short dis¬
tance, quick reaction, and a movement backward of the lead foot relative to the
center of gravity. (Refer to chapter 6 for more information on quickness.)

Cutting
Cutting, or executing a change of direction, requires rapid deceleration and
reacceleration while performing various movements. Cutting can link movement
in one direction with the same movement in another direction, or link different
types of movement.

Crossover Ability
A crossover is a transition from lateral to backward or forward movement, en¬
abling the athlete to cover a lot of distance in a short time when immediate
reaction is not required. The crossover may also occur at speed. The back foot
crosses over the front while staying close to the center axis of rotation. The
action uses a push off from one or both feet.

Drop Stepping
The drop step is a transitional step that links any forward-facing movement with
diagonal crossover runs or that effects the transition from a backpedal to a turn
and run. The athlete drops the inside foot while pushing off the outside foot and
then aggressively gets the dropping leg back down on the ground with power.

Backpedaling
A backpedal is a preliminary movement, traditionally used while marking or guard¬
ing an offensive player or while making a transition into cutting or linear movement.

After athletes master these individual skills, it is time to link them together in a
predetermined progression.

DESIGNING AN AGILITY PROGRAM

A drill is an exercise designed to address a specific aspect of a greater skill. Today
we see people train by “just doing” a myriad of drills meant to improve speed,
agility, or quickness without understanding how the drills will help. Coaches
continue to use these drills repeatedly without analyzing them or having a spe¬
cific goal or outcome in mind.
It is important to classify drills based on how much they contribute (by per¬
centage) to the desired motor ability (mobility, biomechanics, strength, energy-
system development, and so forth). Drills should be classified as to whether they
are general, special, or sport-specific exercises for a given skill, movement, player,
sport, or position.
150 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Evaluate Athletes
To improve and maximize the effectiveness of a training program, it is important
to evaluate the needs of the athletes. Every drill prescribed will have some effect
on motor programming, the nervous (neuromuscular) system, the energy sys¬
tem, and so on. Thus, to maximize the performance program, it is important to
take into account the percentage of contribution and the degree of taxation each
drill will have. Compare this with the needs of the athletes.
Evaluate each athlete by answering these questions:

• What is the developmental level of the athlete (age, skill, etc.)?

• WTiat is the current state of his or her movement?
• What is the athlete’s limiting factor? Is it coordination? Motor ability (i.e.,
mobility, strength, etc.)? A combination? See chapter 2 for tests to use in evalu¬
ating athletes.

Structure the Workout Plan

This is the fun part—time to attack the limiting factors across all motor abilities.
Several methods are available to improve performance, any one of which can
help athletes become faster, more agile, and so forth. But only the correct syn¬
ergy between the relevant variables will maximize athletes’ performance most
efficiently. The workout plan is the culmination of the scientific and artistic as¬
pects of coaching. Remember that no part of the body is totally independent
from other parts. Every exercise or drill affects motor programming, the ner¬
vous system, the metabolic systems, and so on. Understanding the extent and
importance of each variable, as well as which components the drill or exercise
focuses on, is critical to proper exercise selection and the success of the pro¬
gram.
Drills and exercises are tools to help athletes accomplish their goals. Drills are
powerful tools if they are properly organized, prescribed, progressed, and mas¬
tered. To help athletes get the most out of their workouts, coaches should do the
following:

• Plan a specific goal for each movement session.

• Strive for perfect technical execution of every rep, every set, every drill, and
every skill.
• Remember that quality (proper execution and intensity) is far more important
than quantity (“just doing it” or volume).
• Work on simple skills before complex skills; that is, work on preprogrammed
(closed) skills before random (open) skills.
• Have athletes master fundamental (general) movement skills before progress¬
ing to more advanced (special and specific) skills.
• Attack fundamental limiting factors systematically instead of “shotgunning”
everything.
• Provide accurate feedback with visual and auditory cues, and encourage ath¬
letes to use sensory input.
 Agility and Coordination 151

• Work on stride frequency (rapid response, quickness, adjustment, decelera¬

tion) and stride length (short and long, power).
• Remember: starting is extending and stopping is bending.

Each workout should include the basic components of movement preparation,

biomechanics work, neural innervation, and, finally, coordinated movement
drills.

Movement Preparation
The goals of movement preparation are to elevate the core body temperature;
actively elongate the muscles; activate the nervous system, proprioceptors, and
stabilizers; improve kinesthetic awareness; and work on technique by reinforc¬
ing critical motor programs daily.
Essentially, movement preparation is warming up in a way that is similar to the
way the athlete plays. This segment of the workout is designed to maximize the
active ranges of motion required for fluid, high-performance movement. These
exercises incorporate and reiterate correct posture, core stabilization, balance,
coordination, and range of motion through all planes of movement. Movement
preparation is divided into three categories that follow a specific order—from
low-level activities that increase core temperature to higher intensity sport-spe¬
cific dynamic movements that prepare the athlete for training or competition.

1. Warm-up. Start with basic, active movements such as a sprinter’s jog, side
sweeps, carioca, weaves, spins, or even light games that improve kinesthetic
awareness.
2. Joint mobility. This type of work mobilizes and strengthens segments of the
body in flexion, extension, and rotation. These drills actively ease the body
into motion, gradually elongating and preparing the muscles for more in¬
tense dynamic flexibility. Examples include the drop lunge and side lunge
(see chapter 7, page 123).
• Lying supine or prone (hip crossover series, leg-overs, and scorpions)
• Standing (standing torso rotations and diagonal patterns)
• Moving (forward, backward, and lateral hand walks; drop lunges; and over-
and-under hurdles)
3. Dynamic flexibility. Dynamic flexibility work consists of a progression from
walks, marches, and skips through runs, which start at the feet and progress
up the body toward the head. These movements start slowly with small am¬
plitude, then progress into large, fast movements that activate the perfor¬
mance systems essential for practice or competition. Two components exist
within dynamic flexibility—general and specific. The general component in¬
volves movements that target body areas and is not specific to any sport. The
specific component matches the types of movements within a particular type
of workout session or competition.

Biomechanics Work
This is a fundamental component of every drill or exercise. The material prin¬
ciples—dorsiflexion, positive angles, arms, posture, core, ground reaction—are
152 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

built in and executed with feedback in every aspect of the athlete’s performance.
At this point the athletes are thoroughly warmed up and tuned in; this is the time
to establish the day’s goal or lesson plan. For novice athletes, this training seg¬
ment may take a significant amount of total workout time.

Neural Innervation and the Stretch-Shortening Continuum

We use neural drills not only to improve the elastic properties of the muscles but
also to improve the athletes’ motor learning and comprehension of the overall
workout. Select these drills by considering first the goal of the training session,
then where they fall within the progression from beginning to intermediate to
advanced (see table 8.1* on the next page).

1. Rapid response. These drills require high neuromuscular frequency through

high velocity and low force. The best analogy is moving your limbs like a
sewing machine. Rapid-response exercises improve various types of coordi¬
nation and lay the foundation for a progression from movement skills to higher
level plyometrics. Examples of rapid-response drills would be over-the-line
jumps and hops and coordination patterns (see chapter 6, pages 109 to 117)
and ladder drills.
2. Short response (minimal yield). Short-response drills require minimal yield
(amortization) and possess a low frequency, a higher amplitude, and a higher
force. The best analogy is a Super Ball instantaneously rebounding after it
hits the ground. In these drills you want your athletes to be “springy,” mini¬
mizing the time in contact with the ground (switching from eccentric to con¬
centric muscle contraction). Perfecting these drills will help the athletes be¬
come more elastic. Examples of short-response exercises are ankle and tuck
jumps (see chapter 5, page 88), reactive step-ups (see chapter 7, page 124),
and low depth jumps (see chapter 5, page 95).
3. Long response (long yield). These drills require longer yield, lower frequency,
moderate amplitude and force, and maximal rate of force development. The
action in these drills is analogous to a heavy kid on a pogo stick who com¬
presses the spring along its entire length and then explodes straight up into
the air. Long-response exercises develop speed strength by letting the muscles
go through a more complete range of motion before executing an explosive,
maximal contraction. Examples of long-response plyometrics are squat jumps
(see chapter 5, pages 89 to 90) and split jumps.
4. Very long response. These drills require very long yield, moderate to high
amplitude and force, and maximal rate of force development. This type of
action definitely blends into speed and explosive strength. The movements
include some types of resisted movement jumps, certain medicine ball throws,
traditional weightlifting movements at various intensities (see chapter 4, pages
69 to 73), eccentric manipulation, and isometric and concentric exercises done
with maximal rate of force development.

Movement Drills
This is the actual application of the lesson plan, incorporating into the drills all
the elements specifically aimed at attacking the factors that are limiting an athlete’s
performance. Lollow this progression for effective learning:
Table 8.1 Plyometric Continuum
Rapid Short Long Very long
Upper-body movement

Pressing Running or seated Chest pass with partner Medicine ball chest pass
fast-arm movements Punch pass and throw Explosive push-up
Wall chest pass Chest pass with
lateral movement
Throwing Cuff dribble Overhead pass Vertical jump
Walking wall dribble
Body blade

Rotating Rotational twist Short ball routine Medicine ball drills:

• chopping
• swing pass
• rotational power throw
• rotational overhead throw

Lower-body movement

Vertical Bunny hop Jump rope Jump-up to box Vertical

Jump rope Pogo stick Vertical jump medicine
Tuck jump Power skip ball throw
Jump over obstacle Dip-and-drive step-up Resisted
Depth jump Squat jump vertical jump
One-leg tuck jump Power step-up Reactive jump
Split jump
High depth jump

Linear Jump rope Ankle skip Power skip

Ladder drill Bounce and go Medicine ball throw
Over-the-line drill Jump over low obstacle and chase
Quick skip, jump, hop Bounding Standing long jump
Run in place Tuck jump Standing triple jump
Box run Depth jump Multiple long jump
Backward or Box bound Medicine ball knee punch
forward jumping jacks Crossover dip-and-drive
Crossover power step-up
Crossover power skip

Lateral Lateral ladder drill Lateral quick bound Lateral bound Resisted lateral
Lateral over-the-line Lateral box run Lateral squat jump bound
drill Lateral depth jump Lateral dip-and-drive
Lateral bounce Lateral box jump Lateral hop
(to sprint) Lateral high depth jump
Lateral jump over low
obstacle
Lateral quick hop

Multiplanar Ladder Spin jumps Medicine ball drills:

Over-the-line drill Leg external • chopping
Rotational jumping rotational jumps • swing pass
jack Medicine ball with • rotational power throw
Rotational pogo stick partner (back to back) • rotational overhead throw
work Figure 8 throw Depth jump with spin
Medicine ball rotational
throw
Leg external rotation hop

*ln each movement category in table 8.1, exercises are listed from those for beginners to those for more
advanced athletes. Some drills noted in this table are described in chapters 5 through 7 in detail. For
more plyometric exercises, see D.A. Chu, 1998, Jumping into plyometrics, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics).

153
154 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

1. Preprogrammed closed skills with variations such as eyes closed, shoes off,
resistance or assistance, uneven surfaces
2. Preprogrammed with outside stimulus such as a ball, hand signals, or com¬
mands, progressing to random agility (open skills)
3. Random agility progressing from reaction to a single stimulus to reaction to
several stimuli or sensory input systems

Closed Skills
In preprogrammed closed-skill movements, athletes know exactly what is ex¬
pected of them; these drills allow athletes to go through the initial stages of
motor learning and to progress within a controlled environment. Closed-skill
drills can then be progressed through volume, rest intervals (performing at fa¬
tigue), and often resisted movement or assisted movement methods. After the
athletes have refined the motor programs within preprogrammed movement,
move on to random agility by getting them to react to outside stimuli such as
claps, directional signals given by hand, other athletes, kinesthetic awareness,
and so on.

Complex Training Complexing refers to a protocol that combines some form

of training stimulus that activates high levels of neuromuscular excitation with a
complementary activity such as jumping or running, with the goal of improving
performance. A physiological phenomenon results from the high demand placed
on the system by heavy strength exercises; resisted runs, jumps, or throws; or
specific plyometrics that improves the summation and synchronization of the
desired motor units. These neuromuscular changes last between two and five
minutes. There are two main ways to maximize this window. The first way is to
extend an already very short set by 7 to 10 seconds, and then take a prescribed
rest interval for the set. Second, the athlete can take a two- to five-minute rest if
the excitation exercise is more demanding. Empirical evidence indicates that vari¬
ous types and depths of excitation may enhance performance for several hours.
As a guideline for trying to match or exceed the previous altered experience, use
a ratio of two or three aided reps followed by one or two free applied reps.

Resisted Movement Resistance training provides several benefits:

• Increased coordination through summation and synchronization

• Increased stride length through specific coordination strength
• Kinesthetic learning through nonvisual, nonauditory senses
• Improved biomechanics.

A standard recommendation is to resist specific movements between 5 and 15

percent 1RM. This ensures that the training is enhancing the specific skill, not
creating a new motor program. However, using much heavier resistance is effec¬
tive during specific drills. For example, using an appropriate harness system and
attaching a thick or doubled-up bungee cord on the athlete’s right hip, then
significantly assisting and resisting the athlete during the right-foot cutting ac¬
tion requires the athlete to drop the hips, establish positive angles with the weight
on the inside ball of the dorsiflexed foot, and focus on loading and exploding off
the outside leg. The same principle holds true in teaching the feel of accelera-
 Agility and Coordination 155

tion by having athletes lunge, march, and run through very heavy sled pulls,
push objects, or run up very steep inclines. These exercises teach athletes to have
great forward total-body lean, hip separation, back-side extension, and front¬
side flexion.
When using any type of external resistance or assistance, be sure to follow the
product safety guidelines.

Assisted Movement Assistance training is extremely effective in slightly rais¬

ing athletes’ performance ceiling by exposing the body to higher rates of move¬
ment. It is important not to assist athletes beyond 5 to 15 percent of their un¬
aided performance. The goal for the athlete is not to let the assistance do the
work but to relax, using efficient biomechanics to “outrun” the device. If assis¬
tance negatively alters technique, it is exceeding the athlete’s current potential,
and the amount of assistance should be lessened. Examples of assisted movement
are running downhill at a 3 to 5 percent grade and using assisted pulley and rope
systems or bungee cords.

Open Skills
Open skills are required in order to react to an outside stimulus perceived by the
sensory input systems. The open skills that comprise random agility—reacting
to a ball, an opponent, an obstacle—are essential for success in most sports. To
prepare for competition, then, the athlete is enrolled in a chaotic environment
to simulate sport through specific movements. Begin training random agility by
adding a simple outside stimulus, such as a change of direction given by hand, to
mastered preprogrammed work. Another step in the progression is to add assis¬
tance or resistance to these now-random drills. The ultimate measure of random
agility may be competitive tag games such as mirror tag, shark-in-the-tank tag,
freeze tag, and others. This type of game provides an opportunity to evaluate
what the athletes have learned and whether they can apply it in a random, cha¬
otic, competitive environment. Use these games to highlight specific instances
of success or failure as they relate to the goal of the movement session.

Each of the following drills can be varied to help the athlete progress from closed-
skill movements (complex, resisted, and assisted) to open-skill or random linked
movements.
156 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

eral Wave
Purpose
To teach cutting, dynamic balance, positive angles, foot interaction with the ground, and
elastic muscle strength
Procedure
The athlete will move laterally between two points three to six yards apart. He or she
should do the following:
1. Keep the body erect and stable, and keep shoulders and hips parallel.
2. Rapidly cut to the outside leg, then push back in the other direction
3. Repeat.
Variations
Beginners should work on mastering cutting technique, then progressing volume and speed.
More advanced athletes should perform the drill wearing an elastic cord around the waist
that is tethered to a fixed object. Add an outside stimulus to make the drill more random, then
progress to using resistance and assistance methods while reacting to the outside stimulus.

ssover
Purpose
To teach the crossover step and develop dynamic balance and elastic strength needed for
deceleration
Procedure
The athlete will move between two cones three to six yards apart using a crossover step. He
or she will do the following:
1. Keep an erect posture with a solid base of support and keep shoulders and hips parallel.
2. Drive the left leg across to the right by rotating from the core, pushing the left foot
through the ground.
3. Square the hips back into a position parallel with the shoulders to help decelerate with
positive angles.
4. Repeat, moving to the other side with the opposite leg.
Variations
Progress from walking to doing this drill at all-out speed. Then add assistance and resis¬
tance to accentuate the kinesthetic learning and improve deceleration. Progress further to
random linked movements by accelerating in all directions in response to an outside stimu¬
lus. Apply resistance and assistance from both sides.
 Agility and Coordination 157

Gone Wheel
Purpose
To link various motor skills such as lateral to backward or forward, crossover, drop steps,
and so forth
Procedure
1. Set up a circle of cones with a three- to five-yard radius.
2. The athlete starts at one cone and picks a movement pattern to use to move around
from cone to cone, linking each movement with other skills.
Variations
Make this drill more advanced by adding assistance and resistance and working on the
transitions between linked skills. Have a partner roll balls randomly within the cone area,
rolling or throwing the next object the instant the previous one has been caught.

Purpose
To develop stance, reaction, one-step acceleration, and redirection agility
Procedure
The athlete should do the following:
1. Stand erect with the weight on the balls of the feet and face a partner four or more yards
away who holds a ball at the top of his or her reach.
2. Explode toward the ball with a positive first step as the partner releases it. Drive the
arms back to enhance acceleration.
3. Try to catch the ball before it hits the ground a second time.
4. Have the partner move back in one-yard increments each time the athlete succeeds.
Variations
Try the drill facing sideways or backward, turning and exploding instantaneously to catch
the ball. Have the partner yell the moment the ball is released. Also try incorporating
rapid-, short-, or long-response plyometrics or various starting positions. Or use multiple
balls so that the object is to get ball two or three.
158 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

One-on-One Tag
Purpose
To incorporate acceleration and deceleration from a balanced base and to react to a ran¬
dom situation
Procedure
1. Mark a clear playing area of 10 X 10 yards (for beginners) or 15 X 15 yards (for more
advanced athletes) and have athletes form two lines at opposite edges of the box. One
line is made up of taggers; the athletes in the other line are “avoiders” (who try to
avoid being tagged).
2. Have the first tagger sprint toward the avoiders, decelerate, and gain his or her balance
as the first avoider comes out and makes a move to get away from the tagger.
3. Once the avoider is tagged or reaches the opposite edge of the playing area, the next
two athletes in each line take a turn.
Variations
Start the line of avoiders facing away from the taggers and call “go” when the tagger is
halfway across the playing area. Toss a ball to the avoider before he or she makes a move to
avoid the tagger.

Purpose
To incorporate and randomly link together all preprogrammed drills
Procedure
1. Create large playing area with boundaries (approximately,20 X 50 yards).
2. Pick one to five “sharks.” Everyone else is a “minnow.” The sharks try to catch the
minnows.
3. Time how long it takes each shark or team of sharks to tag the minnows.
4. Watch athletes for positive or negative instances of agility and movement. Reward those
who are tagged early with some core, balance, stability, strength, and conditioning exer¬
cises to do while they are waiting for the game to finish.
Variations
Change the game by increasing the shark-to-minnow ratio up to 1:10, by increasing or
decreasing the size of the playing area, or by changing the game to freeze tag (in which the
athletes may move to unfreeze tagged teammates). These variations require more strategy,
greater energy-system demands, and a higher level of movement skills.

Implement Your Program

To introduce a drill to athletes, clearly define the name, purpose, procedure, key
points, and the specific role the drill will play in making the athletes better dur¬
ing competition. The athletes will then have a clear understanding of what they
need to do. Offer feedback verbally and visually during the workout through
 Agility and Coordination 159

coaching cues, demonstrations, and video. Don’t forget that one of the best ways
for athletes to learn is by sensory input that is nonverbal and nonvisual (Brisson
and Alain 1996). The emphasis of the teaching and the structure of the practice
must provide opportunities for the learner to develop skill in all processes in¬
volved in the performance of the particular motor tasks. In other words, place
athletes in situations in which they will learn by doing and feeling.
Treat drills to improve agility in the same manner as speed work. Have ath¬
letes perform these drills while they are fresh, in the prescribed order, and with
ample rest for most phases of development. Eventually, athletes will achieve high
levels of performance in the required skills. Then use the drills after inducing
progressive levels of fatigue; this mimics the conditions athletes experience in
the competitive environment.
After athletes master individual skills, it is time to link them together. Start
with the same rules used for the progression of preprogrammed (closed) drills,
focusing on making efficient transitions from one motor program to the next.
Once these various motor programs are seamlessly linked together, progress into
random (open) drills. The amount of motor learning that has occurred will be
evident in the athletes’ execution of the random drills. Only those athletes who
have engrained all the specific patterns will express movement skills effortlessly
to achieve efficient movement. Inform the others, during and immediately after
the session, which aspects of the drill they need to work on.
Follow these guidelines as athletes progress from beginner to advanced stages:

• Beginners—Use the prescribed order at the beginning of the practice. Tech¬

nique is more important than speed. The goal is to establish the foundation.
• Intermediate—Use the prescribed order, progressing intensity, density, and
volume. Have the athletes perform the drills before or during practice.
• Advanced—Vary the order, intensity, density, and volume. Have the athletes
perform the drills before, during, or after practice.

During the general preparatory phase of training, the goal is to establish a

conditioning foundation. The most effective way of doing this is to spend a lot of
time working on movement preparation activities. Teach general and special
movement skills. Teach and prepare proper foot interaction with the ground
using a variety of rapid-response activities as well as low-level short- and long-
response activities. Enhance energy-system work with creative games played bare¬
foot on sand, grass, or turf.
The special preparatory phase builds on the general preparatory phase. Work
on mastering special skills in preprogrammed work, mixing altered (resisted and
assisted) movements with free movements. Progress all drills gradually after ath¬
letes demonstrate mastery so that the athletes are continually challenged. In¬
crease complexity or intensity of rapid-, short-, and long-response drills to im¬
prove the athletes’ ability to withstand eccentric forces within the ankle, knees,
hips, core, and so on.
After athletes have mastered the various special skills and can perform them
under altered conditions, start linking them together. Athletes should focus on
mastering every combination of preprogrammed drills. Incorporate random ex¬
ercises. An example of linking using lateral and base movements would be lateral
to straight ahead, left, right, and backward accelerations.
160 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Once athletes have mastered special drills and have started linking pre¬
programmed movements, it is time for them to start applying these actions to
sport-specific sequences. This will greatly enhance their speed, and more im¬
portant, will improve their movement efficiency. When the learned sport-spe¬
cific linking has been burned into a skill, challenge athletes with a variety of
random (open) skills, increasing the complexity and intensity while insisting that
they express perfected, engrained motor skills.

SPORT-SPECIFIC DRILLS
This section highlights some major areas of each sport and shows how to com¬
bine the special motor programs to create efficient sport-specific movement skills.
Linking is the critical element. The ability to link movements together provides
the competitive edge in elite-level athletics. The athlete who can link move¬
ments can create separation or close ground. He or she has a quicker first step,
jump, or cut.
In sport-specific drills, athletes combine special skills and sport-specific links
in the most random (open), chaotic environment possible. Clearly, athletes who
can execute these links subconsciously in this environment have mastered the
movement skills necessary to react during competition.

Football
Football requires diversity of movement skills based on positional requirements.
For simplicity, the positions are broken into three main categories, grouping
both offense and defense:

1. Line, which includes offensive and defensive lines as well as defensive ends
2. Combo, which includes linebackers, strong safeties, tight ends, and fullbacks
3. Skill positions, which include running backs, wide receivers, defensive backs,
and quarterbacks

Line
Defensive ends require great explosion and acceleration skills tailored to run¬
ning on an arc, quickly regaining balance, and redirecting agility to pursue an
agile quarterback or a scampering running back.
Players in the offensive and defensive lines must be able to manipulate balance.
They must explode for run blocking, moving past their balance threshold by
delivering force to another lineman. At the same time, they must be able to re¬
gain their balance immediately when the player they are blocking comes off the
block. They must possess the skills to drop the hips within the base immediately,
staying on the feet so that they can quickly pick up another player. Athletes who
can do this also reduce their chance of injury.
Teaching movement skills to line players is critical. Chances are that they were
the big kids who were always sent over to hit the bags and work in the post.
Meanwhile, all the smaller kids their age were exposed to countless hours of
running, cutting, and agility work. This scenario explains why late-maturing ath-
 Agility and Coordination 161

letes tend to be the best in the end. Offensive and defensive line players will
often make the greatest gains and benefit the most from movement skill training.

Combo
Individuals who play combo positions must possess the power and size to deal
with the line as well as the movement skills to react and compete with the skill
players. Players at these positions will need a lot of integration of movement
training throughout their development of hypertrophy and relative strength so
that every pound is highly coordinated and innervated. Tight ends and fullbacks
must have blocking skills and be able to apply the movement skills that are cru¬
cial for skill positions (deceleration, power cuts, spins, and speed cuts in the open
field). Linebackers must be proficient in using their lateral and base programs as
the foundation for explosive first-step quickness. They must also be able to drop
step to open the hips so that they can fall back into coverage using the crossover
motor programs. The crossover step will also be useful to them in linking their
lateral and base positions.

Skill Positions
Players at skill positions tend to cover more ground and operate in open-field
situations more frequently. Wide receivers have the advantage of being able to
master preprogrammed (closed) routes and vary them based on their opponents’
defense and options within the play. They must be able to cut at speed using the
inside leg heavily to cut at angles less than 90 degrees and be proficient in the use
of “power cuts,” which use the outside foot to redirect at an angle greater than 90
degrees. Players at all skill positions use the same skills, linked with various move¬
ments such as backpedaling, drops, crossovers, and so on. These athletes will
benefit greatly from kinesthetic awareness drills such as decelerating, drop step¬
ping, and keeping the foot close to the center axis; they can use the skills prac¬
ticed in these drills to link transitions and transfer to spinning. Players should
master general and special skills thoroughly and then spend a majority of their
time applying these tools in random movement activities, such as various tag
games and competitions. Speed, elasticity, and relative strength will be major
long-term developmental goals for athletes at skill positions.

Tennis
Movement skills in tennis are critical to success and often determine both shot
selection and the ultimate outcome of each point. Dynamic balance is highlighted
in tennis, not just during movement but also in the instant just before ball con¬
tact with the racket. Moreover, players must be able to recover their balance to
avoid leaving the rest of the court open. Tennis movements are broken into three
main areas: close proximity, wide-ball recovery, and baseline to volley.
Close proximity is the area within approximately four meters of the offensive
position, usually around the center mark where the players hit the majority of
their shots. The critical movement skills are lateral and base, allowing the play¬
ers to move with perfect balance to offensive or defensive forehands and
backhands. In tennis, the base stance allows the athlete to be poised for lateral
movement.
162 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Wide-ball recovery occurs out around the doubles alley or beyond. The criti¬
cal components are squaring up with improved balance and positive angles, linked
with a single powerful crossover step, linked with a lateral and base slide. Players
must keep the base so that they can make any shot required.
Baseline to volley starts with the multidirectional stance, which enables play¬
ers to react in a 360-degree arc. They must take a positive first step; link together
three to five explosive, accelerative steps; and then link into deceleration and
lateral and base (split step), making sure to keep the hips down. This will put
them back in perfect position to react to a great volley and recover immediately
into a good stance to repeat the action.

Baseball and Softball

Baseball and softball have a variety of positions. On the defensive side of the
ball, movement packages are broken into infielders, outfielders, catchers, and
pitchers.
Infielders rely heavily on their sensory input reactions to send a message to
link their effective stance with a powerful first step, crossover, deceleration, and
get-up skills.
Outfielders must use visual stimuli and be able to link that with the correct
movement selection (first-step quickness straight ahead, crossover, or a drop step).
Outfield movement requires many types of transitions. An outfielder may need
to use a drop step, crossover running, acceleration, and absolute speed to fill the
gaps. Smooth transitions between these movements will lead to superior perfor¬
mance.
Catchers must work on reacting from the catching position. Starting them in
proper position will drive concentric muscle action, because their elastic energy
will have dissipated. Catchers must react quickly and possess blocking skills. They
must be able to throw to various positions, execute crossover steps, accelerate,
and decelerate. Progression of these skills with eyes shut or looking upward can
improve agility.
Pitchers require special attention, both on and off the field. They should de¬
velop their specific skills from various postpitch positions. They must be able to
accelerate or execute a crossover while maintaining balance during total-body
deceleration. Practice will decrease the chance of their making an awkward, off-
balance throw to which their body is not accustomed and that may result in
injury.
Offensively, the roles of assorted baseball and softball players are much more
similar. The movements that help players get out of the box quickly and increase
on-base percentage are activities that link rotational movements with accelera¬
tion skills and transitional backward or forward speed. Softball players can en¬
hance base-stealing skills through drills in which they anticipate the pitcher and
then apply acceleration, maximizing the first steps by using the bag. In baseball,
players can improve base-stealing performance by assuming the proper stance.
Players can do this by sliding back and slightly opening up the right foot to the
instep of the left, achieving positive angles with both legs. The back should be
flat with a slight lean forward. The player should lean to put 70 percent of the
 Agility and Coordination 163

weight on the forefoot, and keep the arms relaxed in front of the body. During
the steal, the arm action should be rotating the right elbow back, linking the
crossover program to acceleration. The player should aggressively drive the arms
and legs “back, back, back.” For baserunning, baseball and softball players should
practice their stride patterns, using body lean in the turns. Be sure that players
run both ways around the bases.

Soccer
A fundamental rule to remember is that movement is king in soccer. Consider
that the average player touches the ball less than 2 percent of the time. Of course,
a player who develops movement skills can win more balls and increase that
percentage! Soccer movement requirements depend on the position. Distance
from the goal is a useful way to categorize requirements.
Goalkeepers need to work especially hard on stance, reaction skills from all
positions, crossover steps linked to jumping and diving, landing and tumbling,
and a modified base stance to give them the best opportunity to react in every
direction, including vertical and horizontal jumping.
Fullbacks must work on acceleration and deceleration linked to a modified
lateral and base so that they can position themselves to react to the offensive
player. To make these linked skills more specific in drills, have athletes take a
position against an opponent. As with all positions in soccer, fullbacks will greatly
benefit from working on S-style runs.
Front-line players (forwards) should concentrate on being able to link many
different skills. They cover significantly greater ground than other players and
benefit from being able to link acceleration to transition. Players should train
modified absolute speed while being bumped along the way by another player.
Many drills require the linking of movements while moving fast. Soccer players
should become proficient at all special and specific stride-frequency drills to en¬
hance their ability to dribble at speed.

Basketball
Movement requirements in basketball depend on the position, but the distinc¬
tions are becoming blurred as bigger athletes gain more movement skills. The
primary movement in basketball is lateral, not vertical. On the defensive side of
the ball, every player must have mastery of the lateral and base movements, with
the emphasis on both toes facing fairly straight ahead and pushing with the back
leg, not pulling with the front leg and the toe opened up. Players must be able to
move in this way while keeping a base so that they are always moving within
balance and able to react to their opponent. (The stealthy offensive player will
exploit the defender who brings his or her feet together!) Players must link move¬
ment skills to cutting and crossovers back to the base stance.
On the offensive side of the ball, it is critical to work on a stance that sets up
the right positive angles in order to gain the effective first-step quickness that
can create separation. Players should then link the stance to acceleration, decel¬
eration, vertical jump, and spinning.
164 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Cycling
Agility and coordination are essential requirements in cycling. Coordination
promotes a smooth and efficient pedaling action; cyclists must build specific co¬
ordination motor programs to pull the toe, heel, and leg up from the six o’clock
position to the one o’clock position. Agility comes into play as riders constantly
push their balance threshold by leaning and by bumping with competitors. Core
stability plays a huge role in efficiently controlling the normal cycling action and
in maintaining balance during turns. Serious cyclists should practice and master
the special skills of rolling and tumbling to decrease their injury potential in case
of a mishap.

Volleyball
Volleyball is a game composed of acts of agility. Defensively, blockers must work
on developing the base stance that readies them for lateral movement. They
must develop crossover to base components and then link them with vertical
jumping. These athletes must learn to link the inertia from lateral movement to
a vertical jump by redirecting ground reaction forces. Defensively, backcourt
players must master the stance; they must maintain positive angles, keep their
weight forward by bending the legs and hips, and maintain good posture in the
receiving position.
Offensively, setters need to be proficient at linking every movement skill. This
is their world. Outside hitters must be incredibly agile so that they can link sev¬
eral explosive accelerative steps, then decelerate and transfer this energy through
positive angles and a stable core to vertical movement. Once airborne, the stable
torso acts as a platform that allows athletes to maintain balance, generate spiking
forces, and stick the landing without going into the net.

Golf
Golf relies heavily on the coordination system to maximize the kinetic linking
required for a flawless swing. Balance and stability play a huge role in the goff
swing. Golfers must stay within a stable base of support in order to turn ground
reaction forces into rotational movement. They must transfer this energy into a
disassociation of the shoulders and hips, creating a coiling effect while maximiz¬
ing the stretch reflex cycle. Development of club-head speed is a result of the
ability to accelerate the body segments while maintaining balance. Golfers also
possess a highly evolved sense of kinesthetic awareness and can effectively use
sensory feedback.

Gymnastics
Gymnastics is a perfect example of a sport in which athletes master general and
special drills and then link them together to produce awe-inspiring physical acts.
We believe gymnastics demonstrates the underlying role that balance plays in
agility. Kinesthetic awareness is enhanced by a well-developed sensory feedback
system. Gymnasts learn to rely on nonvisual, nonauditory cues.
 Agility and Coordination 165

Track and Cross Country

Track and field and cross country are sports in which performance is measurable
and finite. They are also sports that require very special motor skills. Agility
plays some role within every event, probably reaching its highest expression in
some of the throwing events that require spins or rapid deceleration. Agility
drills complement all the workouts of runners and jumpers, enhancing coordi¬
nation patterns and muscle balance in strength and flexibility.

Wrestling
Wrestling relies heavily on agility. This combative sport is built around using
balance and leverage to disrupt the balance of the opponent.

SUMMARY
Enhanced movement skills make great athletes. Movement is sport. Athletes are
born with an inherent set of gifts that they can maximize with this approach.
Success in achieving these goals is up to the athletes. They must realize that
these are learnable skills. Every step they take builds the foundation for the fu¬
ture. Ensure success by demanding perfect technique. Perfect practice will lead
to peak performance by developing the multisensory feedback system. This
system enables athletes to learn rapidly through trial and error. Remember that
athletes learn efficiently through nonverbal, nonauditory input. The reward for
mastering general and special movement skills is a decreased potential for injury,
improved athleticism, and strong, efficient movement programs that link to¬
gether to produce efficient, high-performance, sport-specific movement.
Manipulating the dynamic nature of balance is the underlying foundation of
agility. Athletes need to develop all of the coordination and physical tools, in¬
cluding core stability, mobility, speed, elasticity, power, strength, and energy sys¬
tems. Doing so enables them to achieve incredible movement skills, sustaining
them throughout competition to achieve the ultimate victory—reaching their
potential! Enjoy the exciting process of teaching, learning, progressing, and chal¬
lenging athletes to become great “wired-up” movers.
,
'
Acceleration and Speed
George Blough Dintiman

/n most sports, athletes start from either a stationary or a partially moving pos¬
ture and attempt to reach maximum speed as quickly as possible. This is referred
to as acceleration, or the rate of change of velocity. Speed refers to the point at
which athletes can accelerate no more and have reached their maximum rate of
movement. At this point, athletes attempt to hold that pace as long as possible
and to minimize “slowing” due to fatigue, friction, and air resistance.
Rates of acceleration vary from one athlete to another. In some 100-meter
races, Carl Lewis was still accelerating at the 70-meter mark. Although his accel¬
eration rate was less than that of his competitors in the early part of the race, he
continued to increase speed longer, allowing him to pass athletes in the final 20
meters. Other athletes also accelerate more slowly only to reach higher speeds
later in the race. Speed (maximum miles per hour) can be mathematically deter¬
mined from world records in sprint events. The current world record of 19.32
seconds in the 200 meters is equivalent to an average speed of 23.5 miles per
hour. Splits of world-class sprinters provide a more accurate indicator of just
how fast humans can run. Studies indicate that 20-meter segments (from 60 to
80 meters, and from 70 to 90 meters) in a 100-meter race are covered in as little
as 1.6 seconds, equivalent to a speed of 27.9 miles per hour.

167
168 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Sports are played with multiple starts and stops and many changes in direc¬
tion. It is no surprise that the average speeds players attain during competition
are well below their maximums. On only a few occasions will athletes accelerate
for 60 meters, the approximate distance it takes a world-class sprinter to reach
maximum speed. A triple in baseball, a 100- or 200-meter sprint in track, and a
long run in football, rugby, soccer, or lacrosse would approach or exceed 60
meters. What people generally refer to as speed is more accurately termed accel¬
eration to maximum speed.
For decades, acceleration and speed have been recognized as two of the most
important qualities an athlete can possess. Skeptics cling to the belief that speed
is a God-given genetic quality that one is born with and that no type or amount
of training can bring about change. Since 1912, 100-meter world records have
improved from 10.6 (Donald Lippincott, USA) to the current record of 9.79 set
in 1999 (Maurice Green, USA)—a change of only 0.81 seconds, or 7.64 percent.
The 200-meter world record improved from 20.6 in 1951 (Andy Standfield, USA)
to 19.32 in 1996 (Michael Johnson, USA)—a difference of 1.28 seconds, or about
7.16 percent. Women’s 100-meter and 200-meter times showed larger improve¬
ments of 1.3 seconds (9 percent) in the 100 meters and 2.26 (9 percent) in the
200 meters (Lawson 1997).
It is difficult to determine the contribution of new training programs and new
equipment (starting blocks, all-weather synthetic tracks, modern shoes) to these
improved times. And the change from manual to electronic timing on January 1,
1977, undoubtably eliminated previously inflated times that obscured some of
the improvement in the previous analysis.
Although coaches still recruit “fast” athletes, they now realize that every ath¬
lete can improve speed. Coaches are also aware that dramatic improvement of
acceleration and speed in Olympic-caliber sprinters is difficult to attain; as ath¬
letes approach their maximum potential, less room is available for improvement.
This is not so, however, for most high school and college athletes, who can im¬
prove their 40-yard dash times by as much as 0.7 seconds in only eight weeks.
It is now widely accepted that everyone can improve acceleration and speed,
but rarely will any athlete approach his or her genetic speed potential unless the
correct training techniques are followed.
Decades ago physiologists uncovered changes to muscle fiber types (fast-twitch
white and the intermediate fast-twitch red) following the completion of the train¬
ing programs discussed in this chapter. Since the early 1970s, researchers have
also been aware that stride rate (steps per second), stride length, and speed in
short distances improve with proper training. This knowledge has broadened
training emphasis from programs that focused mainly on form and anaerobic
conditioning to a holistic approach that includes programs that also alter stride
rate and length.
If reaction time (RT) or response to a stimuli—the starting gun in track; the
center snap or movement of an opposing player in football; the crack of the bat
in baseball; the impact of the racket in tennis; the faking action of an opponent in
ice hockey, lacrosse, rugby, or soccer—is eliminated, only three areas of change
can directly cause improvement of acceleration and speed:

1. Taking faster steps (increasing stride rate) without decreasing the length of
each stride
 Acceleration and Speed 169

2. Increasing the length of each stride without decreasing stride rate

3. Using sound biomechanics (form)

A fourth area, anaerobic endurance (speed endurance), has an indirect effect on

acceleration and speed by reducing slowing at the end of a long sprint and per¬
mitting repetitive short sprints to occur at the same rate, relatively unaffected by
fatigue.
This chapter focuses on the training programs that affect these four areas and
that bring about improvements in acceleration and speed that are specific to
various sports.

FACTORS AFFECTING ACCELERATION AND SPEED

No body design is perfect for sprinting. Numerous body types and variations in
height, weight, and length of levers have proved effective. Present-day Olympic
sprinters are slightly heavier and taller than those of 30 to 50 years ago, but
geometrically they are no different. Fast sprinters come in all sizes and shapes,
with smaller athletes taking shorter strides but faster steps than their taller coun¬
terparts.
Several physiological factors, however, affect both acceleration and speed, in¬
cluding genetic factors such as fast-twitch and slow-twitch fiber percentages,
body fat, age, gender, and anaerobic or speed endurance.

Muscle Fiber
Three types of muscle fiber are found in various parts of every athlete’s body:

• Slow-twitch red (type I)—This fiber type relies on oxygen to produce energy
(aerobic). It develops force slowly, is fatigue resistant (high endurance), and
has a long twitch time, low power output, high aerobic capacity for energy
supply, and limited potential for rapid force development and anaerobic power.
• Fast-twitch red (type Ila)—This intermediate fiber type can contribute to both
anaerobic and aerobic activity. It develops force moderately fast and has mod¬
erate fatigability, twitch time, power output, aerobic power, and anaerobic
power.
• Fast-twitch white (type lib)—This fiber type does not rely on oxygen to pro¬
duce energy (anaerobic). It develops force rapidly, and has fatigability (low
endurance), a short twitch time, high power output, low aerobic power, and
high anaerobic power.

Muscles with a high percentage of fast-twitch fibers exert quicker, more pow¬
erful contractions. Individuals born with a high percentage of fast-twitch fiber in
the muscles involved in sprinting have a higher speed potential than those born
with a preponderance of slow-twitch fiber, which is more suitable for cross coun¬
try, marathon running, and other sports requiring high aerobic endurance. In¬
herited percentages of fiber type are similar in both men and women. Although
the theory that slow-twitch fibers can be changed into fast-twitch fibers is con¬
troversial, new evidence suggests that prolonged high-intensity training may
produce that effect and improve the ratio of fast-twitch to slow-twitch fibers.
170 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Table 9.1 Approximate Percentages of Fast-Twitch Fiber in Speed

and Endurance Athletes

Type of activity Men Women

Speed-based activities
Sprinters (100 or 200 meters) 48-80% 72-75%
Ice hockey players 44-62%
Shot-putters, discus throwers 50-88% 45-52%

Endurance-based activities
Cross-country skiers 25-45% 25-50%
Cyclists 25-50% 35-65%
800-meter runners 40-64% 25-55%
Untrained individuals 25-62% 25-72%
Source: Dintiman, George B., 1984. How to Run Faster: Step-by-Step Instructions on How to
Increase Foot Speed. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press.

The right kind of high-intensity training (heavy load) will recruit and train the
fast-twitch fibers and aid in the improvement of acceleration and speed. Although
“training fast to be fast” is a key principle for improving acceleration and speed,
it is the intensity (load), not speed, that activates fast-twitch muscle fibers.
Table 9.1 compares the amount of fast- and slow-twitch muscle fiber found in
a study of speed and endurance athletes. Postural muscles such as the soleus are
composed mostly of slow-twitch fibers whereas large locomotor muscles such as
the quadriceps contain a mixture of both fiber types, which permits both jogging, a
low-power output activity, and sprinting, a high-power output activity. Numerous
studies have found sprinters to possess high amounts of fast-twitch fiber.

Body Fat
Body fat of 6 to 10 percent of body weight for men and 12 to 17 percent for
women is desirable for sprinting short distances. It is important to be aware that
the lower range for both men and women may be unhealthy even for athletes,
depending on the individual. On the other hand, excess fat provides useless weight
that negatively affects both acceleration and speed.

Age
Age eventually affects all aspects of athletic performance. The average age of 41
male world record holders in the 100 meters from 1912 to 1999 was 23; for 21
female record holders it was 24.5. Only three male athletes, Barnes Ewell (age
30) of the USA, E. McDonald Bailey (age 31) of Great Britain, and Carl Lewis
(age 30) of the USA, set world records after the age of 30. Two record-setting
female athletes, Fanny Blankers-Koen of the Netherlands and Shirley Strickland
of Australia, were also 30. The late Florence Griffith Joyner of the USA was 29
when she set the current world records in the 100 and 200 meters in Seoul,
South Korea, in 1988.
 Acceleration and Speed 171

With the onset of hefty endorsement contracts and the resurgence of interest
in track throughout the world, sprinters are now motivated to remain active for
longer periods. Consequently, Carl Lewis and others have been able to maintain
their speed well into their 30s, something unheard of in the past. No physiologi¬
cal reason exists for speed to diminish significantly from age 2 5 to age 3 5 unless
the athlete ceases training, loses strength and power, or adds body fat.

Gender
Gender is a factor in sprinting. World records by men in the 100 meters are 0.75
seconds faster than those by women. Studies in the 1980s indicated that Olym¬
pic male sprinters had a stride rate of about 5.00 steps per second whereas female
sprinters had a stride rate of 4.48 steps per second. The faster stride rates and
longer strides of males appear to account for the time differences. Although hor¬
monal and anatomical differences exist that have implications for acceleration
and speed, now that female athletes are finally receiving proper training, they
are increasing in strength and power, and improving at a faster rate than men in
both the 100-meter and 200-meter events.

Speed Endurance
Speed endurance (anaerobic energy) will not change stride rate or stride length,
at least on the first short sprint. But it will determine the amount of slowing at
the end of a long sprint, the pace at which acceleration to maximum speed oc¬
curs, and even speed on repetitive short sprints. In other words, athletes with
poor speed endurance are unable to accelerate and sprint at the same high level
repeatedly during competition because of fatigue. Ideally, athletes run the fourth
or fifth sprint as fast as the first. This often does not occur because of inferior
speed endurance.
Anaerobic metabolism occurs at the onset of any type of exercise to provide an
immediate source of quick energy until circulatory and respiratory adjustments
occur. All sprints under six seconds rely almost exclusively on the phosphagen
system; those lasting six to nine seconds begin to rely on lactic acid. In short¬
term, heavy exercise, the only significant energy available is the breakdown of
the phosphagens, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP),
and glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate and lactic acid. Speed-
endurance training develops both systems. Sprinting always takes place in the
absence of oxygen, a condition under which the skeletal muscles can function for
only a short time. When oxygen requirements exceed the ability of the body to
uptake oxygen, pyruvic acid forms from glucose and is reduced to lactic acid. This
process (anaerobic glycolysis) occurs only in the absence of oxygen, producing
energy-rich phosphate bonds to allow muscle contraction to continue. About
eight seconds of maximum-effort sprinting nearly depletes these quick-energy
stores.
At this point (much sooner for the poorly conditioned athlete) slowing occurs
because of lactic-acid buildup. Improved lactic-acid tolerance, increased quick-
energy stores, and improvement in the rate that quick energy is available are
related to factors such as anaerobic fitness, age, and nutrition.
172 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Mechanics
Although no two athletes run the same way, proper sprinting mechanics are similar
for everyone. Removing errors in arm action, body lean, foot contact, overstriding,
understriding, and tension can improve acceleration and speed.

TESTING AND EVALUATION

Before personalized programs can be designed to improve acceleration and speed
for any sport, the strengths and weaknesses, or limiting factors, of each athlete
must be identified. This approach also helps athletes avoid the common ten¬
dency to work on strengths and avoid weaknesses. Although chapter 2 covers the
subject in detail, the critical test areas for acceleration and speed are briefly dis¬
cussed in the following sections.

Sprinting Speed
A stationary 120-yard dash with 40- and 80-yard splits, combined with a stride-
length test, reveals an athlete’s stride rate and acceleration. Unless a high-speed
camera is available, stride rate is determined mathematically using the second
40-yard time and length of stride; acceleration is rated acceptable if the differ¬
ence between the two 40-yard times is less than 0.7 seconds.

Speed Endurance
The drop-off index compares the time taken to cover the last two 40-yard seg¬
ments in a 120-yard dash—the 40- to 80-yard segment and the 80- to 120-yard
segment. A series of 6 to 10 repeated 40-yard dashes using a rest interval similar
to the rest period in a specific sport, such as the length of the huddle in football
(25 to 30 seconds), also provides an excellent indication of speed endurance.
Standards for these two tests devised by the National Association of Speed and
Explosion (NASE) are no more than a 0.2-second difference for the drop-off
and no more than a 0.4-second deviation from the best time for any of the re¬
petitive 40-yard sprints. This test can be done manually with stopwatches and
flags on each finish tape or by electronically timing splits.

Stride Length
Stride length can be easily measured without high-speed cameras by having ath¬
letes run naturally through a 20-yard area. It is a simple matter to measure the
distance between two footprints.
Athletes can compare their strides to those of top sprinters using the following
formulas (which indicate guidelines for ideal stride length):

Male sprinters: 1.14 X height (+/- 4 inches), or

1.24 X height (for athletes under age 16), or
1.265 X height
Female sprinters: 1.15 X height, or
2.16 X leg length
 Acceleration and Speed 173

Coaches should also watch for understriding and overstriding and make a note
of either in order to help each athlete find his or her ideal stride length.

Strength
Use the one-repetition maximum (1RM) for a free-weight squat or the leg press
on a Nautilus station to determine a ratio of strength to body weight. A ratio of
1:2.5 or 1:3 or more—a free-weight squat or a leg press score of two and a half to
three times body weight—suggests a desirable ratio for optimum development
of acceleration and speed.

Explosive Power
The standing triple jump, vertical jump, and double and single 20-yard leg hops
provide some indication of an athlete’s potential for speed improvement and
mild insight into the amount of fast-twitch fiber in the muscles involved in sprint¬
ing.

Muscle Balance
The prime movers in sprinting are the knee extensors, hip extensors, and the
ankle plantar flexors. Comparing the strength and power of left limbs to right
limbs, agonists to antagonists, upper body to lower body, and strength to total
body weight provides valuable information. Improving the strength of muscle
groups that are already near optimum levels and avoiding areas of weakness is
unlikely to produce much improvement in acceleration and speed.
An imbalance usually exists between the knee extensors and the flexors. An
even greater imbalance is often found between the posterior leg compartment
muscles (plantar flexors) and the anterior compartment muscles (dorsiflexors).
A strength imbalance between two opposing muscle groups, such as the quad¬
riceps (agonists) and the hamstrings (antagonists), also produces serious limita¬
tions. The strength of the hamstring muscle group is a sprinter’s weakest link.
It should be improved to 70 to 90 percent of the strength of the quadriceps
group. A minimum ratio of 70 percent is recommended for the prevention of
injury. Ideally, leg extension (quadriceps muscle group) and leg curl (hamstring
muscle group) scores should be the same. In almost every athlete at all ages,
however, the quadriceps muscles are much stronger than the hamstring muscles.
The average leg curl score in 1,625 middle school and high school football
players tested in NASE speed camps was less than 50 percent of the leg exten¬
sion score.

Flexibility
Because flexibility is joint specific, a single test does not provide an accurate
assessment of range of motion (ROM), and it is impractical to measure the ROM
of every joint. In addition, the flexibility of some joints is not critical to accelera¬
tion and speed. Tests are available that involve little equipment and provide a fair
assessment of ankle flexion and extension, shoulder flexibility, and hamstring
flexibility.
174 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Body Composition
Unless underwater weighing equipment is available, the most accurate and prac¬
tical method of determining percent of body fat is the skinfold technique. Mea¬
sure at least four sites to get the most accurate test. Because people carry weight
differently, it is best to measure a site on the upper body (triceps, biceps,
subscapula, suprailiac, abdomen), lower body(hip, thigh), front of body, and back
if possible.

SPEED-IMPROVEMENT TRAINING PROGRAMS

Although speed-improvement training programs are similar for most sports, each
should be sport specific in terms of exercises, repetitions, duration, rest interval,
and distance or time. Some forms of training may require more emphasis de¬
pending on individual test results.
It is also important to apply the principles of periodization by structuring the
training into phases for improving acceleration and speed. Phases of each train¬
ing area should be organized according to the competition schedule to produce
peak performance at the most important times. See chapters 12 and 13 for more
on periodizing training.

Functional Strength and Power

The purpose of the functional strength and power program presented in table
9.2 is to develop a strong foundation that optimizes the improvement of accel¬
eration and speed and that develops the required force and tissue capacity for the
sport. Periodized weight training in this six- to eight-week phase emphasizes
strength, speed, and endurance and involves a program of general exercises for
the legs, back, shoulders, chest, arms, trunk, abdomen, and neck starting at 60
percent of a 1RM weight. The Olympic lifts (table 9.3) are added in the second
four week microcycle and involve heavy weight, near maximum muscular con¬
tractions, low repetitions, and full recovery between sets. Key exercises recom¬
mended for improving acceleration and speed follow. Chapter 4 describes the
techniques for the execution of many of these exercises.

• Olympic lifts: clean (barbell and dumbbell), jerk (barbell, dumbbell, and ma¬
chine rack), and snatch (barbell and dumbbell). The suggested program using
the Olympic lifts (see table 9.3) includes a wide range of intensity, with loads
increased to or near 1RM. Maximize rest between sets to reduce fatigue.
• Legs and back: dead lift, calf raises, front squat, leg extension, and leg curl.
• Shoulders and arms: incline press, bench press, dumbbell arm curls, lat raise,
lat pull-down, fly, sprinting arm movements holding dumbbells.
• Hamstring muscle group: Olympic lifts and leg curls. Specific hamstring exer¬
cises should be included in each workout because this is a neglected area.

Strength training in the weeks just prior to competition should focus on weight¬
training exercises that mimic the sprinting action such as sprinting arm move¬
ments with dumbbells, kick backs on a leg press station (from a sprinter’s starting
 Acceleration and Speed 175

Table 9.2 Functional Strength and P<3wer Program for Advanced Athletes

Exercise Mon. Tue. Wed. Thu. Fri.

Warm-up: Flexibility • • • • •

Power
Clean, power M M
Snatch, power M H
Jerk, rack H M L
Legs and back
Pull, clean M L H
Dead lift H M
Squat L M H
Squat, front M
Shoulders, chest, and arms
Bench press H M
Incline press M H
Rowing H M L
Flys, supine L M
Trunk and abdomen
Trunk hyperextension 3x10 3x10
(60%) (70%)
Sit-ups (bent knee) 3 x 25 3 x 25 3 x 25
(60%) (70%)
Neck
Partner four-way neck 3x8-12 3x8-12 3x8-12

Light (L) Medium (M) Heavy (H)

60% 1 x 5 60% 1 x 5 60% 1 x 5

65% 1 x 5 70% 1 x 5 75% 1 x 5
70% 1 x 5 68% 1 x 5 85% 1 x 5
69% 1 x 5

position), knee lifts, pull-downs, and other weight machine exercises that simu¬
late exact movements in the start, acceleration, and sprinting phases.

Plyometric Training
Plyometrics revolve around jumping, hopping, and bounding movements for
the lower body and swinging, quick-action push-offs, catching and throwing
weighted objects (medicine balls, shot puts, sandbags), arm swings, and pulley
throws for the upper body. These exercises are critical in developing strength
and power in the muscles involved in sprinting. Plyometric training was partially
responsible for the unusual progress and success of Russian sprinter Valeri Borzov,
a 100-meter gold medalist (10.14) in the 1972 Olympic Games. Borzov pro¬
gressed from a 100-meter time of 13.0 seconds at age 14 to 10.0 at age 20.
176 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Table 9.3 Olympic Lifts Program for Improving Acceleration and Speed

Monday Wednesday

Warm-up Warm-up

Cleans Jerks
Sets 3 to 6 Sets 3 to 6
Repetitions 3 to 5 Repetitions 3 to 5
% RM 66 to 100% % RM 66 to 100%
Rest 1 V2 to 5 minutes Rest 1 V2 to 5 minutes
between sets between sets

Jerks Cleans
Sets 3 to 6 Sets 3 to 6
Repetitions 3 to 5 Repetitions 3 to 5
% RM 66 to 100% % RM 66 to 100%
Rest 1 V2 to 5 minutes Rest 1 V2 to 5 minutes
between sets between sets

The plyometric exercises in table 9.4 are grouped by level of intensity to allow
improved progression from one phase of training to another to reach peak per¬
formance. Most of the exercises closely resemble specific sprinting movements
and can force similar muscle groups to work at high rates of speed. The proper
techniques to perform many of these exercises are described in chapter 5, and
many can also be found in Jumping Into Plyometrics, Second Edition, by Donald
Chu (1998, Human Kinetics).

Sprint Loading
Sprint loading is another key part of a holistic approach to improving accelera¬
tion and speed. The program is designed to improve explosive concentric
movements such as sprinting. Three basic techniques provide the necessary light
resistance that helps improve strength and power in the muscles involved in ac¬
celeration and speed.

1. Hill sprints. The degree of incline must allow proper starting and sprinting
form. A 10- to 30-yard incline of 8 to 10 degrees should be covered in 2.5 to
3.5 seconds, followed by a near full-speed sprint of 20 to 80 yards at the same
incline.
2. Stadium stairs. Stadium stairs or other stairs can be used in the same manner
as hill sprinting. Stairs should have the same approximate angles.
3. Weighted sleds. Numerous inexpensive sleds are available. A spare tire with a
rope and weighted belt can be made for little cost. Metal and plastic models
are available that allow quick and easy weight changes. It is important to use
a load that permits proper form and high-speed sprinting. Too much weight
decreases both stride length and rate and prevents explosive movements. The
objective in all high-speed work is to reduce ground contact time and main¬
tain a stride rate as high as or higher than the stride rate of the sprinting
action without resistance.
Table 9.4 Plyometrics to Improve Acceleration and Speed
Intensity Exercise Sets x reps Rest (min.) Progression
Low Squat jump 3x6-10 2 Add one rep each
(two weeks) Double-leg ankle bounce 3x6-10 workout until reaching 10
Lateral cone jump 2x6-10
Drop and catch push-up 4x6-10
Low to medium Lateral cone jump 3x8-10 2 Add one rep each
(two weeks) Split squat jump 2 x 8-10 workout until reaching 10
Tuck jump 2x8-10
Standing triple jump 2 x 8-10
Backward medicine
ball throw 2x8-10
Underhand forward
medicine ball throw 2 x 8-10
Clap push-up 2 x 8-10

Medium Standing long jump 3x8-10 2 Add one rep each

(two weeks) Alternate bound 3x8-10 workout until reaching 10
Double leg hop 3x8-10
Pike jump 2 x 8-10
Depth jump 2x8-10
Medicine ball throw 3 x 8-10
with Russian twist
Double-arm swings 2x8-10
Medium Tuck jump 3 x 10-12 2 Add one rep each
to high Single-leg zigzag hop 3 x 10-12 workout until reaching 10
(two weeks) Double-leg vertical
power jump 3x10-12
Running bound 3x10-12
Box jump 2x8-10
Dumbbell arm swing 3x12
Medicine ball sit-up 3 x 12-15

High Single-leg vertical 1 to 1.5 Stress form and

(rest of season) power jump 2x8-12 maximum explosion
Single-leg speed hop 2x8-12 on each rep.
Double-leg speed hop 2x8-12 Decrease reps from
Multiple box jumps 2x8-12 1 2 max to 8 max
Side jump and sprint 2x8-12 after 2 weeks.
Decline hops 2x8-12
Sprint arm action 2x8-12
Medicine ball sit-up 2x8-12
Exercises in italics are described in chapter 5 of this book (pages 88-95). For descriptions of other plyometric
drills listed here, see Chu 1998.

177
178 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Power starts and power sprints are essential aspects of sprint loading. Studies
show that the length of acceleration-power starts should be about 60 to 80 yards,
or 6 to 8 seconds. Athletes attain peak power at about 0.6 to 0.8 seconds (within
10 yards), and training should involve distances of only 10 to 20 yards. The best
way to train high-speed power is to perform sprint loading from a flying start
using 6 to 10 repetitions for 10 to 80 yards. The athlete is then near maximum
speed when the incline sprint begins.
A sprint loading program for hill sprinting, stadium-stair sprinting, and using
weighted sleds is shown in table 9.5.

Table 9.5 Sprint Loading Program

Pulling Rest
Week Repetitions distance* (heart rate) Progression

1 3-5 15 yards Walk back Use power starts at 75% speed in hill and
>1 20 bpm stadium sprinting or with no weight on the
sled. Complete two sets.

2 3-5 20 yards Walk back Repeat power starts at maximum speed.

>1 20 bpm

3 6-8 25 yards Full Repeat power starts at maximum speed.

recovery

3-5 30 yards Walk back Use power sprints at maximum speed in hill
>1 20 bpm and stadium sprinting with no weight on the
sled. Complete two sets.

4 7-9 40 yards Full Begin power starts at 90%.

recovery

3-5 40 yards Walk back Repeat power starts and power sprints; add
>120 bpm weight to sled that allows good form. Complete
two sets.

5 7-9 50 yards Full Repeat previous workout. Add more weight

recovery and complete three sets.

6-9 7-9 60 yards Full Repeat previous workout. Add more weight
recovery each week. Complete three sets. Include one
final run to exhaustion by continuing to sprint
as long as possible. Record the distance and
try to improve distance pulled each week.

*Actual distance sprinting uphill, sprinting up stadium steps, or pulling sled.

 Acceleration and Speed 179

Form Training
Describing ideal sprinting form in a manner that athletes can understand and
apply is difficult. Coach Tom Tellez, who trained 100-meter world record hold¬
ers Carl Lewis and Leroy Burrell and coached the USA Olympic sprint team,
provides an excellent summary of this complicated aspect of acceleration and
speed (Dintiman, Ward, and Tellez 1997) which is paraphrased here.
Unless athletes are aware of what is natural and what is unnatural, their efforts
could slow them down. Often, athletes feel that they have to bear down, stay low,
and pull to run fast. The scientific analysis of running suggests just the opposite.
Reaching maximum speed depends greatly on how relaxed one can keep the
body in a naturally upright position. The human machine is much better at push¬
ing than pulling, partly because the formation of the leg is unsuited to acting as
a pulling force. To run faster, remember that sprinting is primarily a pushing
action against the ground.
During the running stride, the leg cycles through three different phases: (1)
the drive phase, when the foot is in contact with the ground; (2) the recovery
phase, when the leg swings from the hip while the foot clears the ground; and (3)
the support phase, when the runner’s weight is on the entire foot.

se

During the drive phase, the power comes

from a pushing action off the ball of the foot.
Remember that stride length is the result
of a pushing action. The goal of the drive
phase is to create the maximum push off the
ground. The ball of the foot is the only part
of the foot capable of creating an efficient
and powerful push. Some misinformed sport
coaches believe that the pushing action of
the drive phase comes from the toes. Push¬
ing from the toes, however, reduces both
power and stability and slows the runner.
The drive phase contributes to overall speed
only when the runner pushes off the ground
using the ball of the foot.
180 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Recovery Phase

During the recovery phase, the knee joint

closes and the foot cycles through as it
comes close to the body. As the knee joint
opens and the leg begins to straighten, the
foot comes closer to the ground in prepa¬
ration for the support phase. An important
point to remember about the recovery
phase is that the runner does not reach for
the ground or perform a stamping action.
The leg should remain relaxed and allow
the foot to strike the ground naturally.

U se

During the support phase, the foot makes

initial contact with the ground on the out¬
side edge of the ball of the foot. The weight
of the body is then supported at a point
that varies according to the speed of the
athlete. The faster the speed, the higher
the contact point on the ball of the foot.
Striking the ground first with this part of
the foot maximizes speed but requires great
energy. At slower speeds, such as jogging,
the contact point moves toward the rear
of the foot between the arch and heel. Dur¬
ing longer and slower runs, using a flat foot
plant saves energy. At all running speeds,
the support phase begins with a slight load
on the support foot that then rides onto
the foil sole. Even during sprinting, the
heel makes brief but definite contact with
the ground. Analysis of the support phase
shows that it is impossible to reach maxi¬
mum speed by running on the toes.
 Acceleration and Speed 181

Arm action in sprinting is critical to developing the most efficient stride length. The arms work
in opposition to the legs, with the right arm and left leg coming forward as the left arm and
right leg go backward (see drive phase) and vice versa. The shoulders should be relaxed, with
the swing coming from the shoulder joint. The shoulders should stay perpendicular to the
direction of the run. The swing should be strong but relaxed. The hands should also be relaxed.
On the upswing, the hand should rise naturally to a point just in front of the chin and just inside
the shoulder. During the upswing, the arm angle is about 90 degrees or less, coordinating with
the quick recovery of the forward swing of the leg (see recovery phase).
During the downswing, a natural straightening at the elbow corresponds with the longer
leverage of the driving leg on the opposite side of the body to allow horizontal drive. As the arm
swings down, the elbow will extend slightly. At the bottom of the swing, the hand should be
next to the thigh (see support phase). Toward the end of its backward movement, the arm bends and
speeds up again to match the final, fast stage of the leg drive. The elbows should stay close to the
body; holding the elbows away from the body prevents relaxation of the shoulders and reduces
the efficiency of running mechanics. The arm action in sprinting is never forced or tense.
The mechanics of sprinting dictate that athletes who want to run faster must concentrate on
pushing off the ground, landing with the proper foot placement, using the correct arm action,
and staying relaxed.

Speed Drills
The following bounding, sprinting, and other form workout drills help establish
correct neuromuscular movement patterns to improve stride rate and length and
to eliminate wasted energy that does not contribute to forward movement. Ath¬
letes in practically every sport would benefit by using these drills in each work¬
out for 8 to 10 minutes, following proper warm-up and stretching. Bounding
drills are designed to develop the explosive leg power required in starting and
acceleration. Sprinting drills are designed to develop the mechanics, strength
and power needed to produce maximum sprinting speed.

Straight Bounding

Beginning from a slow jog, bound as high into

the air as possible, emphasizing high knee lift.
Land on the opposite leg and continue bound¬
ing down the field.
182 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Outside-Bounding

This drill is similar to straight bounding ex¬

cept that the foot is placed laterally outside
the normal landing position, and the body is
projected laterally outward as well as up and
forward.

This drill is similar to outside bounding ex¬

cept that the foot is placed laterally inside
the normal landing position, and the body is
projected laterally inward as well as up and
forward.
 Acceleration and Speed 183

Butt Kicker

From a jog, the lower leg is allowed to

swing back and bounce off the buttocks.
The upper leg should not move much;
focus on allowing (not forcing) the heel
to come up to the butt.

From a jog, the action is the same as that in the butt kickers except the heel of the recovery
leg must not travel behind the body. Imagine a wall of glass running down the back, and do
not allow the heel to break the glass. This action will produce knee lift without forcing the
action.

Start and Sprint

From a stationary position, start quickly and feel the power being applied behind the body.
Ten yards out, quickly shift from running in back of the body to sprinting in front of the body.

From a jog, increase stride rate and take as many steps as possible in a 10-yard interval. Jog
for 10 yards and repeat, emphasizing quick turnover, with the legs moving in front of the
body, not behind or under it.

Leaning against a wall, bar, or other support, the athlete cycles one leg through in a sprint¬
ing manner. Emphasize keeping the leg from extending behind the body, allowing the foot
to kick the butt during recovery, and pawing the ground to complete the action. Ten cycles
with each leg make up one set.
1 84 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Down-and-Off— -
From a high-knee position, the athlete brings the
foot down and back up. The emphasis is on de¬
creasing foot-ground contact by hitting the
ground with the ball of the foot and getting off
as quickly as possible. The effort on the ground
should bounce the leg up into a high-knee posi¬
tion. Ten down-and-offs make up one set.

h
Extending the leg in front of the body like a hur¬
dler, the athlete brings the leg down and through
ground contact in a power motion. Ten pull-
throughs with each leg make up one set.

Stick Sprint
Place 20 sticks (18 to 24 inches in length) 18 inches apart on a grass surface. Athletes sprint
through the sticks as fast as possible, touching one foot down between each. Emphasize
high knee lift and quick ground contact. One run equals one set.
 Acceleration and Speed 185

African Dance

While running forward, the athlete raises each leg to

the side of the body as in hurdling and taps each heel
with the hand. A 10-yard run equals one set.

While running forward, the athlete rotates the leg

inward to the midline of the body and taps the heel at
the midline. A 10-yard run equals one set.

Speed-Endurance Training
As mentioned earlier, speed-endurance training will prevent athletes from slow¬
ing down late in the game, at the end of a long sprint, or after sprinting several
times with little rest in between. Poor speed endurance becomes evident when a
halfback is tackled from behind by a slower player, when a sprinter is passed in
the final 10 to 20 meters of a race, when a baseball player runs out of steam and
is tagged out at home, or when a basketball player is beaten to the ball by a
slower player. High levels of speed endurance provide athletes with a fresh start
on each short sprint.
186 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Speed-endurance training programs are designed using the distances of the

sprint and the recovery intervals commonly performed in the sport. The num¬
ber of sets and repetitions simulate the competitive situations that occur in each
sport. A typical program for soccer, rugby, and lacrosse would involve gradually
increasing the sprint distance from 10 to 50 yards, increasing the number of
repetitions from 5 to 15, and decreasing the jogging recovery or rest interval
from 20 seconds to 5.
Pickup sprints are an easy, effective program for improving speed endurance
in most sports; the sprinting distances and rest intervals are simply adjusted to
those that normally occur in the particular sport. In football, for example, short
sprints of 10 to 40 yards occur three to seven times at 25- to 30-second (length of
huddle) intervals. Speed-endurance training for football players uses these val¬
ues to develop the foundation of the program. Using pickup sprints, an athlete
jogs 25 yards, strides at three-quarter speed for 25 yards, sprints 25 yards, and
ends the set with a 2 5-yard walk. The walking period provides the only rest
period between sets. As improvement occurs, lengthen the distance of the seg¬
ments to 40 and 60 yards. Sprints of longer distances can be used occasionally along
with a series of maximum-effort drills (300- and 400-meter sprints, sprinting in
place to exhaustion, etc.) at the end of the workout.

Sprint-Assisted Training
The purpose of sprint-assisted training is to increase stride rate and stride length
by forcing faster and longer steps than the athlete can take without assistance.
Experts feel that such exercises train the nervous system by exposing both the
nervous and muscular systems to higher contraction rates. A neurosurgeon, speak¬
ing at the national convention of NASE, put it in layman’s terms: “After several
weeks of sprint-assisted training, the nervous system allows you to continue these
higher rates without any assistance.” Although this is only theory, research shows
that the number of steps taken per second and the length of the stride improve
following four to eight weeks of sprint-assisted training.
To achieve maximum results, sprint-assisted training of any kind must be ex¬
ecuted according to the following guidelines.

• Begin each workout with a general warm-up routine designed to increase core
temperature. Use the large muscle groups first with a slow jog for one-fourth
to one-half mile, followed by a faster jog and striding at three-quarter speed
for an additional one-fourth mile or more. After perspiring freely, athletes
stop and stretch for 8 to 10 minutes. Next are walk-jog-stride-sprint segments
(walk 15 steps, jog 15 steps, stride 15 steps at three-quarter speed, and sprint
15 steps), continuing for at least one-fourth mile.
• Expect muscle soreness for one to two days after the first workout. Sprint-
assisted training is demanding and will recruit motor units and muscle fibers
previously unused.
• Use sprint-assisted training in the beginning of the workout, immediately af¬
ter completing the warm-up and stretching session. Sprint-assisted training
should be avoided if athletes are fatigued from drills, calisthenics, scrimmage,
anaerobic training, weight training, or plyometrics. The object is to take faster
 Acceleration and Speed 187

and longer steps than ever before, not to improve anaerobic conditioning.
• Emphasize quality form in all repetitions. Athletes should avoid sprinting out
of control.

The four basic methods of sprint-assisted training are (1) downhill sprinting,
(2) high-speed stationary cycling, (3) towing with surgical tubing and pulley de¬
vices, and (4) high-speed treadmill sprint training.

Downhill Sprinting
Locate a 50-meter area with a slope no greater than 3 to 7 degrees, which offers
only a slight decline. Slopes greater than 7 degrees increase the risk of a fall and
produce overstriding, landing on the heels, and ground contact beyond the cen¬
ter of gravity, which produces a braking effect. The braking effect and deviation
from natural sprinting form are even noticeable in some athletes when using
slopes of no more than 3 or 4 degrees. The ideal area allows a 20-meter sprint on
a perfectly flat surface (to accelerate to near maximum speed) followed by a 15-
meter sprint on a downhill slope of 3 to 7 degrees (to force higher than normal
stride lengths, stride rates, and speed) and ends with a 15-meter sprint on a flat
area (to allow athletes to hold the higher speed without the assistance of gravity).

High-Speed Stationary Cycling

During high-speed stationary cycling, the effects of wind resistance, gravity, and
body weight are eliminated, allowing more revolutions (similar to steps in sprint¬
ing) per second than the sprinting action. This sprint-assisted training technique
should be combined with another method, such as towing or downhill sprinting
(as shown in table 9.5), to guarantee success.

Towing
Towing, or pulling athletes to sprint faster, is not a new approach. Before the use
of surgical tubing and two-person pulley arrangements, motorscooters, motor¬
cycles, and even automobiles were used. Towing produces higher stride rates
and increases stride length more effectively than downhill sprinting or high¬
speed cycling.
Use towing only on a soft, grassy area, after inspecting the surface for broken
glass and other objects. Towing requires a 20- to 25-foot piece of elastic or sur¬
gical tubing attached to the athlete’s waist by a belt. The opposite end can be
fastened to another athlete or a stationary object such as a tree or a goalpost to
allow individuals to work out alone. Athletes back up to stretch the tubing slightly
and run at three-quarter speed with the pull until they make adjustments and
master balance. It is possible to stretch the tubing seven times its length (20 feet
X 7 = 140 feet) before sprinting at high speed with the pull. Athletes can also
make stationary runs from a three-point start. Some athletes have completed
stationary 40-yard dashes in 3.7 seconds while being pulled with surgical tubing.
Several towing drills are available:

• Attach one end of the tubing to the front of the waist and the other to the
goalpost. The athlete stretches the tubing by walking backward about 20 yards.
He or she jogs forward toward the goalpost with the pull. The athlete repeats
188 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Table 9.6 Downhill Sprinting and Cycling Program

Repetitions Acceleration Sprint-assisted Progression Rest

Week
distance distance* (repetitions) (minutes)

2-3 10-15 yards 20-25 yards Add one to two 2:00

1
(1.5-2 seconds) (1-1.5 seconds) per workout

2 4-6 15-20 yards 20-25 yards Add one each 2:30

(2-2.5 seconds) (1.5-2 seconds) workout

3 7-9 20-25 yards 20-25 yards Add one each 3:00

(2.5-3 seconds) (1.5-2 seconds) workout

4 9-10 20-25 yards 20-25 yards Add one each 3:30

(2.5-3 seconds) (1.5-2.5 seconds) workout

5 9-10 20-25 yards 20-25 yards Add one each 3:30

(2.5-3 seconds) (1.5-2.5 seconds) wokout

*Sprint-assisted distance is the actual distance (or time) athletes are sprinting downhill or pedaling at high
speeds.

this drill four times, two with a run at three-quarter speed and two with a full-
speed sprint. Within the next three sprints, the athlete backs up an extra 5 to 8
yards each time to increase the pull and the speed.
• Repeat the last part of the drill described above using high knee lifts.
• Athletes required to sprint backward or sideways in their sports (defensive
backs in football and soccer, rugby and lacrosse players) repeat the drills using
those movements.
• Complete the two-person drill by attaching one end of the tubing to the waist
and the other to a partner’s back. The partner sprints 25 to 30 yards ahead
against the resistance, then stops. The other athlete then sprints toward the
partner in an overspeed run.

Follow the sprint-assisted training program given in table 9.7 two to three
times per week (every other day) during the preseason period and one to two
times per week during the competitive season. Keep in mind that using surgical
tubing can be dangerous. Provide adequate supervision and a soft grassy area.
Two other pieces of equipment that can be used for sprint-assisted training are
the UltraSpeed Pacer and the Sprint Master. The Ultra Speed Pacer is a simple
pulley device based on leverage. The pulley can be fastened to a fixed object or
held by a partner. Two athletes can also lock on the belts, with one sprinting at a
45-degree angle away from the pulley and the other toward the pulley to receive
considerable pull. The device has the potential to provide a strong pull and pro¬
duce very high stride rates, stride lengths, and sprinting speed.
The Sprint Master machine is precisely engineered to pull athletes at speeds
faster than any human can sprint. It attaches to the goalposts of a football or
soccer field and provides controlled, variable speed for each athlete. The device
increases safety by providing the athlete who loses balance the option of simply
releasing his or her grip.
 Acceleration and Speed 189

Table 9.7 Sprint-Assisted Training Using Surgical Tubing and the Sprint Master
Week Repetitions Distance* Rest Progression
(minutes)

1 3-5 10-15 yards 2 Three-quarter speed runs only to acclimate

2 3-5 10-15 yards 2 Maximum speed

3 5-7 15-20 yards 3 Maximum speed

4 7-9 20-25 yards 3 Maximum speed

5 7-9 20-25 yards 3 Maximum speed

6-9 7-9 25-30 yards 3-5 Maximum speed with weighted vest,
progressing from one to five pounds over
three weeks. Used only for the final two
repetitions of the workout.

*Represents the total distance an athlete can sprint at maximum speed.

High-Speed Treadmill Sprint Training

In the Virginia Commonwealth University laboratory, the A.R. Young high-speed
treadmill (capable of speeds of 0.0 to 26.0 miles per hour) has been used to im¬
prove stride length, stride rate, form, acceleration, speed endurance, and speed.
Cinematography identifies differences in stride length and rate at various speeds
in both treadmill sprinting and unaided, flat-surface sprinting. An expert stand¬
ing on a stool facing and looking down at the subject corrects form during high¬
speed sprinting. The treadmill is also an excellent piece of equipment for sprint-
assisted training.

Sequence of Training Programs

Although opinions differ among conditioning coaches, there is a logical sequence
to using the programs in this chapter, particularly when several training pro¬
grams are used within the same workout.
Start with a formal warm-up routine involving actions specific to the sport
that bring about perspiration. Perform stretching exercises next. Follow imme¬
diately with sprint-assisted training, keeping in mind that the purpose is to im¬
prove stride rate and length, not speed endurance. Scrimmage and drills are
fourth in sequence, completed while the body is still relatively fresh, capable of
high speeds under game conditions, and less apt to be injured. Conditioning
activities such as calisthenics, speed-endurance training, plyometrics, and weight
training are the last items on the workout schedule. It is best to avoid scheduling
plyometrics and weight training within the same training session. A final 5- to
10-minute cool-down period may include additional stretching, particularly fol¬
lowing a plyometric or weight-training session.
Table 9.8 identifies the role of each training program in altering the four ways
of improving acceleration and speed. This information allows coaches and ath-
190 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Table 9.8 Training Programs to Improve Acceleration and Speed

How sprinting speed is improved Specific training programs

Improved acceleration Starting-time training specific to the sport

Plyometrics
Muscle imbalance strength training
Functional strength and power training
Sprint loading
Sprint-assisted training

Increased stride length Functional strength and power training

Muscle imbalance strength training
Plyometrics
Sprint loading
Sprint-assisted training
Form training
Flexibility training

Increased stride rate Sprint-assisted training

Muscle imbalance strength training

Improved form and speed Form training

endurance Speed-endurance training
Sprint loading
Note: The table assumes that athletes already possess an acceptable level of body fat, general
conditioning, and strength.

letes to select the major areas of emphasis and to focus on the training programs
that are likely to bring about improvement.

SUMMARY
The major areas of emphasis for speed improvement for each athlete depend on
the sport and individual testing results. The object is to adjust each training
program to simulate the activities of the sport while focusing on the areas of
weakness uncovered.
Key points in this chapter include the following:
• In most sports, what is referred to as speed is really acceleration because ath¬
letes rarely reach maximum speed during competition.
• Although some athletes are born with more fast-twitch muscle fibers than
others and are more genetically suited for sprinting, all athletes, regardless of
their genetic makeup, can improve their speed and acceleration with proper
training. Sprint loading, strength-power training, speed-endurance training,
plyometrics, and sprint-assisted training produce the greatest changes in the
exercised fast-twitch muscle fibers.
• Acceleration and speed can be improved by taking faster steps, taking longer
steps, and improving sprinting form. Performance deterioration in short sprints
as the game progresses can be avoided by improving speed endurance.
 Acceleration and Speed 191

• Fast sprinters come in all sizes and shapes; no body type provides a significant
edge. Excess body fat can significantly impair acceleration and speed. Although
the gap is closing, male sprinters possess better times in the 100 meters and
200 meters, and take faster and longer steps than female sprinters.
• An analysis of correct sprinting form has allowed researchers to identify the
significant factors contributing to efficient movement. Research has also re¬
vealed a diversity of style and technique among champion sprinters, suggest¬
ing that athletes should improve their basic style without trying to mimic the
exact technique of others.
• Before a personalized program can be designed to improve acceleration and
speed, it is important to evaluate speed, stride length, stride rate, strength,
power, flexibility, body composition, and muscle balance. Programs can then
be designed to eliminate the areas of weakness that are limiting improvement.
• Apply the concept of working fast to be fast in all training programs.
• All athletes need a solid foundation of functional strength and power before
proceeding to training programs designed to improve acceleration and speed.
One area that must receive more emphasis in these programs is the hamstring
muscle group, the sprinter’s weakest link.
• To ensure proper progression and to enable athletes to reach peak perfor¬
mance at the appropriate time for their sport, use periodized training in the
speed-improvement program. This approach groups each training program
and workout into phases or cycles to help athletes achieve their peak perfor¬
mance at just the right time.
• Plyometric training bridges the gap between strength and speed by using ex¬
ercises that simulate sprinting movements and use a “down” time (foot-ground
contact time) less than that used during the actual sprinting action.
• Sprint loading is a program that involves placing the exact muscles used in
acceleration and maximum sprinting under resistance using a sled, a slight
incline, or stadium stairs in order to improve power and acceleration while
emphasizing correct form.
• Form training can improve acceleration and speed, and should be a part of an
athlete’s regular workout in all sports. Although the workout drills are difficult
to execute correctly at first, once they can be performed with ease neuromus¬
cular patterns become established that ensure proper sprinting mechanics in
all activities.
• Speed-endurance training should be tailored to each sport in terms of the
typical distance covered, rest interval, and number of repetitions in order to
improve training specificity and carryover to a sport.
• Sprint-assisted training forces athletes to take faster and longer steps than
they are capable of taking without assistance by using surgical tubing, pulleys,
a slope, stationary bicycle, Ultra Speed Pacer, Sprint Master, or treadmill.
Full recovery is necessary before performing the next repetition. The purpose
of this workout is to train the neuromuscular system so diat athletes can even¬
tually take faster and longer steps without assistance. This normally occurs in
6 to 10 weeks.
192 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

• If maximum improvement is to occur, the training programs must be sequenced

logically. Athletes should begin with a general warm-up, move on to stretch¬
ing, sprint-assisted training, drills or scrimmage, and end with conditioning
activities (calisthenics, plyometrics, or weight training) and a cool-down pe¬
riod that may include brief stretching.
Aerobic Capacity
for Endurance
Jack Daniels

^ikerobic capacity refers to the greatest amount of oxygen an individual can

consume while performing physical exercise. The form of physical exercise that
a person might perform can vary greatly, of course, from a simple act involving
just a few small muscles to a gross motor movement that demands the use of
large muscle groups. With this in mind, an individual’s aerobic capacity can range
from a limited consumption of oxygen to one that is 20 or more times greater
than that associated with rest. For example, running and cross-country skiing
are forms of exercise that involve large muscle groups. The amount of oxygen an
elite runner or skier can use when exercising at a high intensity can easily be 70
or 80 milliliters per kilogram of body weight per minute, which is clearly over 20
times the resting metabolism of 3.5 milliliters per kilogram per minute. On the
other hand, the amount of oxygen that could be consumed while operating an
eggbeater may not exceed twice that consumed at rest. Therefore, aerobic ca¬
pacity is specific to a group of muscles, although we tend to think of it as the
most oxygen an individual can consume while engaged in an exercise that brings
into play as many muscles as possible.

193
194 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Aerobic involvement during exercise actually has two major components. The
first is the central component, which refers to the oxygen delivery system. The
ability of the lungs to oxygenate the blood that is pumped through the pulmo¬
nary vessels, the ability of the blood to carry oxygen, and the ability of the heart
to pump blood to the exercising muscles are all parts of the oxygen delivery
system. The second is the peripheral component, which refers to the ability of
the exercising muscles to take in and use the delivered oxygen to convert fuel
aerobically to energy for muscular contractions.
Factors of importance here are the degree of vascularization of the exercising
muscles and the number, size, and distribution of mitochondria (the intracellular
structures in the exercising muscles where oxygen is used to convert fuel fat
and carbohydrate—to energy). In addition, the status of oxidative enzymes (chemi¬
cals that aid in the consumption of oxygen at the cellular level) is important in
just how much oxygen can be consumed in a given time. In effect, the central
component delivers oxygen, and the peripheral component uses some, or possi¬
bly all, of the oxygen that it receives.
Clearly, the ideal situation would be to have a central component capable of
delivering as much oxygen as the muscles might ever need and for the peripheral
component to be able to use as much oxygen as can be delivered. But this is not
the case. If it were, we would have no need for the term aerobic capacity, which
implies that there is a limit to how much oxygen can be consumed by any par¬
ticular group of muscles.

ENDURANCE AND AEROBIC CAPACITY

Endurance is the relative intensity (to the individual’s aerobic capacity) of exer¬
cise that an individual can maintain for a period of time. It is better to think of
endurance as a relative factor rather than an absolute one. An improvement in
endurance refers to either being able to endure a particular intensity of exercise
for a longer period or being able to endure an increased intensity for the same
period. Most often endurance is described as the ability to maintain a certain
fraction of aerobic capacity for a specific period.
Naturally, an athlete can improve endurance either by increasing aerobic ca¬
pacity (because even the same fraction of an improved aerobic capacity will lead
to performance at greater intensity) or by increasing the fraction of the same
aerobic capacity that he or she can maintain for any particular period. For ex¬
ample, early in a season of training a distance runner may be able to sustain a
pace that demands 80 percent of his or her aerobic capacity for a period of one
hour. Later that season the same runner may be able to endure a pace that de¬
mands 84 percent of the same aerobic capacity for the same abount of time.
Alternatively, an increase in aerobic capacity may result in an 80 percent inten¬
sity being related to a faster pace for one hour.
In a sense, aerobic capacity can be viewed as a somewhat absolute, yet variable,
factor and endurance as a relative and variable factor.

Energy Production
To perform any type of physical activity, energy must be provided to the muscles
involved. The necessary energy is provided either anaerobically (without oxy¬
gen) or aerobically (with oxygen).
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 195

Anaerobic Metabolism
The anaerobic metabolism of fuel results in the production of pyruvic acid, which
later is converted to lactic acid. Both of these by-products of anaerobic metabo¬
lism are eventually removed from the body aerobically, either during recovery
from exercise or, if the intensity is low enough, during continued exercise. Both
anaerobic and aerobic processes are going on at the same time, all the time.
Anaerobic energy production is more rapidly available than aerobic energy, and
athletes rely on it heavily at the beginning of any bout of exercise and during
exercise at high intensity. Note that the body also uses lactic acid as fuel that can
be burned aerobically.

Aerobic Metabolism
Both carbohydrate and fat are metabolized aerobically in skeletal muscles, with
water and carbon dioxide being the waste products of aerobic metabolism. The
longer the bout of exercise, the more heavily the body relies on aerobic metabo¬
lism for the production of energy. It takes a couple of minutes for the body to
adjust to a continuous bout of exercise. While this adjustment is occurring, anaero¬
bic metabolism carries a diminishing share of the load (see figure 10.1). Think of
the start of exercise as a rocket taking off. At the start of the process, powerful
booster engines produce the bulk of the energy necessary for flight. But the

Figure 10.1 It takes a couple of minutes for the body to adjust to a continuous bout of exercise.
While this adjustment is occurring, anaerobic metabolism carries a diminishing share of the load.
196 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Anaerobic Increased
Energy demand (liters of 02 • min b

3 energy energy demand

Excess (recovery)
demand
Initial energy demand

2 Anaerobic
energy Reduced energy demand

—- Energy provided for aerobically

Resting
energy
demand
\

0 1 2 3 4 5
Duration of exercise (minutes)

Figure 10.2 If given time to be rejuvenated, the body’s “booster engines” can provide considerable
power any time it is needed.

boosters can provide power for only so long. Once under way, the main engines
take over as the primary energy providers. These engines are capable of func¬
tioning more continuously. With adequate fuel and when operating within their
capabilities, they can go on for a long time. Still, the booster engines can be
called on for sudden bursts of energy at almost any time during the flight. If
given time to be rejuvenated, they can produce considerable power whenever it
is needed, as depicted in figure 10.2. Furthermore, any time the energy demand
exceeds an individual’s VO,max, anaerobic metabolism must provide all the ad¬
ditional energy.

Aerobic Power for Anaerobic Events

But what about the benefits of high aerobic power in more anaerobic sports or in
sports that are intermittent in nature, such as football? Pyruvic acid and lactic
acid are removed aerobically, which means that good aerobic capability will
have a positive effect on recovery, even from high-intensity exercise. Being
able to tolerate repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise is beneficial not
only in competition but also in training. An athlete with good aerobic capac¬
ity can perform more quality repeats during a specific amount of practice time.
So, although a given sport may not be particularly aerobic in nature, additional
quality practice time can certainly help produce better performance in a com¬
petitive situation.
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 1 97

Exercise energy demand

Energy provided
for anaerobically

Aerobic
c capacity
E
OJ
o
o
C/5

4 2
■O
C
(T3
E
0
T3
>
05
1—
O
iS i
Resting
energy
demand
\

1 2 3
Duration of exercise (minutes)

Figure 10.3 Aerobic power plays the dominant energy-production role in competition and serves
the competitor well during long practice sessions as well as competitions in which he or she com¬
petes in more than one event.

Aerobic Power for Aerobic Events

It should be obvious that a high aerobic capacity is of tremendous importance in
sporting events that require prolonged exercise. In aerobic sports the participant
relies heavily on his or her aerobic capacity. Aerobic power plays the dominant
energy-production role in competition and serves the competitor well during
practice sessions in which repeated bouts of exercise are often the goal of train¬
ing. Furthermore, in track and swimming meets it is common for a competitor
to race in more than one event. The enhanced recovery rate associated with a
high aerobic capacity plays a significant role in how well the athlete can deal with
a second or third event (see figure 10.3).

Relationship of Aerobic Capacity

and Economy of Exercise
An athlete with a high aerobic capacity who is not economical when performing
his or her sport may not match the performance of an athlete with less aerobic
capacity but more economical form. Figure 10.4 shows a typical economy curve
generated by the steady-state oxygen consumption (VO,submax) of a runner
running at 2 30,250,270, and 290 meters per minute (m • min1). The aerobic capac¬
ity of this runner is placed on an extension of the economy curve, and from this,
198 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

V02 (ml • kg-1 • min"1)

270 310 390

Velocity (m • min-1)

Figure 10.4 The aerobic capacity, economy curve, VO,max, and a vV02max of a runner.

a corresponding velocity at VO,max (vVO,max) can be determined (see figure

10.4). The aerobic capacity for this runner (60 ml • kg"1 • min1) corresponds
to a V02max of 300 meters per minute (m • min1). This vVO,max value can
be considerably more revealing about this runner’s distance-racing capability
than the V02max value by itself because it includes the added variable, run¬
ning economy.
As an example, figure 10.5 shows the economy curve, VO,max, and vVO,max,
for two elite female distance runners. Both these runners raced 3,000 meters in
nearly identical times, yet VO,max varied by about 20 percent. Notice that
vVO,max, which adds running economy to the picture, varied only slightly be¬
tween the runners.
Of course, variations in V02max and economy will occur during different phases
of training, and the same athlete may show a marked change in VO,max or
economy during a single year (or even a single season) of training. The point is
that changes in performance may occur in the absence of changes in aerobic
power or any other variable chosen as a performance marker.
In keeping with my definition of endurance—being able to endure a particular
intensity (running speed, for example) longer, or an increased speed for a spe¬
cific time—it becomes obvious that a change in economy of exercise also affects
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 199

V02max = 72.3

Poor economy

60 V02max = 60.4

Good economy

vV02max = 328 ir u vV02max = 335

230 270 310 350 390

Velocity (m • min-1)

Figure 10.5 The economy curve, V02max , and vVCfmax for two elite female distance runners.
From Daniels et al. 1984, page 70.

endurance. For example, a distance runner with a VCfmax of 60 who races at a

6:00-per-mile pace (268 m • min'1) for 30 minutes at 90 percent of his or her
VCfmax (54 ml • kg1 • min1) will increase race speed if improved economy
leads to this VCfmax (54 ml • kg'1 • min1) being associated with a faster speed
(280 m • min1, for example). Figure 10.6 illustrates this.
So, aerobic capacity, endurance, and economy all play major roles in perfor¬
mance, particularly in sports that demand prolonged, steady exercise at relatively
high intensity.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
Before discussing specific training designed to develop or improve aerobic ca¬
pacity, endurance, or economy, it is useful to understand some of the basic prin¬
ciples of conditioning that affect these components of performance.

Principle 1: Body Reaction to Stress

Actually, two general reactions to stress can be considered. The first is the reac¬
tion to an acute bout of exercise, for example, getting up from a bench and running
200 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

max

54.0 = 90% V02 max Race pace

demand

o> 50

Original economy curve

Race
Improved economy pace

268 280

230 250 270 290 310

Velocity (m • mirr1)

Figure 10.6 A change in economy of exercise also affects endurance.

several hundred meters to the other side of a park. On arriving there, the indi¬
vidual would notice some immediate reactions to this stress: an increase in heart
rate, increased breathing, and possibly some leg-muscle fatigue. If some blood
were collected, a rise in the lactic-acid level of the blood might be detected.
Noticeable sweat might have started to accumulate on parts of the skin. All these
reactions would take place any time the individual attempted such a bout of exer¬
cise, regardless of his or her level of fitness.
The second type of reaction to physical stress is in the form of changes that
take place in the body as a result of chronic stress—undergoing a particular stress
repeatedly, maybe in a single session of exercise but perhaps with regular fre¬
quency on different days. For example, one might get up from the same park
bench and run to the other side of the park five times each week for several
weeks. When chronic stress of this type (which we would usually refer to as
training) is imposed on the body, the body makes changes that will allow the
individual to perform the same bout of exercise with greater ease. The heart
muscle will get stronger, as will the running muscles and the ventilatory muscles.
Changes will take place in the muscle cells that will result in lower accumula¬
tions of lactic acid in the blood. The soreness associated with earlier bouts of
exercise will disappear as the body strengthens itself against this particular activ¬
ity. A desirable training effect will take place; the individual will attain a new
fitness level.
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 201

Figure 10.7 Exercising at a greater degree of stress produces an increase in fitness

that levels off after a period of time.
From Daniels 1998, page 19.

Principle 2: Predictable Rate of Improvement

A person at a stable level of fitness who begins to exercise at a greater degree of
stress will reach a higher level of fitness. The rate at which the individual will
achieve this new fitness, however, is not linear. Rather, as weeks of performing
the same routine go by, the benefits become less until the person reaches the
new fitness level. Further training at this particular stress will not produce fur¬
ther improvements in fitness. Figure 10.7 depicts how a person might achieve
a new level of fitness by regularly performing a consistent schedule of training.
A beginning runner might train three days each week, running two one-mile
runs in 12 minutes each, with a 5-minute recovery between the two runs (written
as 2 X 1 mile at 12:00 with 5:00 rest, 3 X week). Each training session involves a
workload (two miles in this case), an intensity of training (12:00 pace for the miles
being run), and an amount of recovery time between individual work bouts (5
minutes). Frequency of performing this training (three times each week) is also
indicated. All training can be described in this manner: workload, intensity, re¬
covery (sometimes there is a single work bout so recovery between bouts is not a
consideration), and frequency. Furthermore, increasing the stress of any of these
factors will lead to achieving a new level of fitness.

Principle 3: Limits to Improvement

Principle 2 suggests that as long as a person keeps increasing the stress of train¬
ing, fitness will continue to improve. Everyone, however, has limits. These lim¬
its are often seasonal. A young beginning runner may have an immature body
that can take only so much stress before it starts to break down. A college student
202 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

may try to add additional training time to an already crowded schedule, resulting
in insufficient rest and illness. For numerous reasons, an individual might not be
able to go beyond a particular state of fitness one season and then move to much
greater heights in the next season of training.
We must also accept that each individual has absolute limits to how much he
or she can achieve in any sport. Certainly, differences exist in body structure, degree
of motivation, level of opportunity, and quality of direction (coaching) available.
All these factors play a part in the degree of success that an individual can reach.

Principle 4: Diminishing Returns

This principle of training implies that as the stress of training continuously in¬
creases, the benefits of the training become less. A beginning runner who in¬
creases training from 20 to 40 miles each week will not realize as great an im¬
provement with the additional 20 miles as he or she did when training went from
no running to running 20 miles each week. The greater the stress, the less the
increase in benefit.
At some point of increased stress, a decrease in fitness may occur if accompa¬
nying rest and recovery time are inadequate, a condition typically referred to as
overtraining. A good approach to avoiding overtraining is to be aware of how
training feels to the athlete, not just how fast the training sessions are going. Also, if
an increase in training stress is not associated with better performance, the athlete
should reevaluate what he or she is doing; it may be time to back off for a while.

Principle 5: Accelerating Setbacks

This principle goes hand in hand with principle 4. It states that relatively mini¬
mal training stress is associated with few problems (injuries, illnesses, overtrain¬
ing, loss of interest, etc.), but, at some point of increased stress, even a small
amount of additional stress can result in a much greater chance of something
going wrong. Figure 10.8 depicts how principle 4 (upper curve) and principle 5
(lower curve) appear if fitness potential and chance of a setback are both plotted
against increased training stress.

Principle 6: Specificity of Training

This principle refers to the fact that the part of the body that is stressed is the
part that stands to benefit from that stress. The running muscles must be stressed
to become more efficient during the act of running, the heart must be stressed
for it to become stronger, and so forth. This principle does not deny the benefits
of cross-training, but it does suggest that an athlete carefully consider the conse¬
quences to avoid producing undesirable results (for example, too much gain in
muscle mass that is nonproductive in the sport of primary interest).

Principle 7: Ease of Maintenance

The ease of maintenance principle states that once an individual achieves a cer¬
tain level of fitness, the degree of stress necessary to maintain it is not as great as
was necessary to reach that level of fitness in the first place. Part of this effect
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 203

Training stress (miles per week)

Figure 10.8 Increasing training stress beyond a certain point can lead to dimin¬
ishing returns and a greater chance of injuries and overtraining.
From Daniels 1998, pages 26 and 28.

comes from an elevated level of confidence achieved through specific perfor¬

mances, but part of it is strictly physiological. Various systems of the body will
continue to perform at an achieved level with only occasional stress, allowing the
individual to attend to another, possibly weaker, system with greater enthusiasm.

INGREDIENTS OF SUCCESS
In addition to an understanding of the basic principles of conditioning there are
several other attributes that are necessary for athletic success.

Ability
Every individual is born with specific physical characteristics that largely deter¬
mine potential success in a given sport. It is easy to see that a very tall person may
have good potential for a sport like basketball but not necessarily for gymnastics.
On the other hand, small individuals are designed more for gymnastics than for
throwing the discus. In many sports like boxing, wrestling, and weightlifting
differences in body size are so important to competitive success that weight classes
have been established to level the playing field.
Although not as obvious as differences in anatomical design—height and
weight—physiological makeup varies gready among individuals. Some people have
systems ideally designed to perform endurance activities. Others seem to be put
together to excel at sprinting. Add to these variations that an immature body is
different from a fully developed one, that males differ from females, that physi¬
cal characteristics vary across a wide range of ages, and it is apparent that addressing
the issue of training for sport is not always straightforward. It is difficult to say that
a set amount of stress will produce the optimum training effect for anyone.
204 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Motivation
Even among individuals with equal or nearly equal ability to perform a particu¬
lar physical activity, vast differences exist in the desire shown toward the same
activity. Being tall and coordinated doesn’t guarantee success on the basketball
court if the person’s motivation is in another area, such as music or art. With
thoughtful and enthusiastic direction, an outside influence can sometimes instill
motivation, but intrinsic motivation is normally essential to achieving real suc¬
cess in any sport or physical endeavor. The athlete involved must be the one with
the motivation, not a parent or coach.

Opportunity
Further muddying the waters of developing an ideal approach to training is the
extent of opportunity available to the individuals involved. In many sports,
climate, facilities, and equipment are major concerns. Skiers need snow, swim¬
mers need water, rowers and paddlers need water and boats. Money can be an
obstacle, as in sports like yachting and equestrian events. Naturally, just having
the opportunity to compete against others is a factor in how far an individual can
develop in any sport.

Direction
Another ingredient that should be addressed is the matter of having a coach or
teacher, or at least a training plan to follow. Possessing this ingredient may be a
detriment if the plan or person directing the training of an individual or team is
not in tune with proper training principles or is not patient enough to let the
athletes progress at a reasonable rate. The most serious fault that someone in
charge of the conditioning of others can make is not being sensitive to individual
differences and needs.

Age and Body Composition

Before reaching physical maturity (in the late teens for most individuals), age
can be a major factor in the success that an endurance athlete might achieve.
When one realizes the important role that muscle mass plays in oxygen con¬
sumption—the greater the mass of exercising muscle, the greater the need for
oxygen to feed that mass and the greater the weight the runner must carry—it is
easy to accept the various degrees of success that youngsters reach as distance
runners. Some late-maturing individuals have light bodies to carry around and
often have great success when they start out as distance runners. When they
mature, many have a rapid growth spurt, adding not only additional muscle mass
but also fat deposits and larger bones. An immediate effect is a drop in endur¬
ance as the body struggles with its new dimensions.
On the other hand, some individuals grow steadily, and the adjustment is gradual
enough for them that performance may never take a backward slide, even tem¬
porarily. In either case, once the body has had a chance to adjust to its new
dimensions, performance will usually continue to progress as long as training
continues.
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 205

Actually, over time, from very young ages to about 18, the major physiological
change that accompanies an improvement in performance is better economy.
V02max (ml • kg'1 • min1) often remains nearly constant as increases in total oxy¬
gen consumption are matched by increases in body mass. The improvement in
running economy appears to be partly associated with normal growth and partly
with training that may take place during the growth years. Even in the absence
of an increase in relative VO,max, the improvement in economy results in
vV02max becoming significantly better. This change is directly associated with a
change in performance, as described earlier. Figure 10.9 shows the changes that
took place in relative V02max and running economy among a group of young
runners who were followed over a period of five years.
A word of caution is appropriate regarding body mass as it relates to the per¬
formance of a distance runner. First, oxygen consumption (VO,) can be expressed
in either absolute or relative terms. Absolute oxygen consumption refers to the
actual amount of oxygen that an individual consumes each minute, usually ex¬
pressed in liters or milliliters per minute. For example, a runner might be con¬
suming 3,000 milliliters of oxygen per minute while running at a maximum aerobic
effort. If this runner weighs 60 kilograms (132 pounds), then he or she will have
a relative VO, of 50 milliliters per kilogram per minute (3,000 mO 60 kg = 50 ml
per kg). If this represents the individual’s VO,max, it can be improved in either of
two ways—by increasing the absolute 3,000-milliliter maximum or by reducing
the body mass, which is divided into the absolute VO, to arrive at a relative
\D,max. Remember that relative V02max is the one more closely associated with
running performance.

c
E

Age (years)

Figure 10.9 The changes in muscle mass, fat deposits, and bone size that occur as
athletes reach physical maturity affect their relative VO,max.
From Daniels et al. 1978, page 202.
206 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

The danger comes in getting overzealous in an attempt to reduce body mass

(in hopes of increasing relative \U2max). If the body is carrying unnecessary
body fat, some drop in body mass will improve performance. But if one curtails
nutrition to the extent that muscle mass or energy stores are reduced, the result
will be a reduction in absolute VO,max. Continued loss of weight will not im¬
prove performance and, in fact, can degrade performance. Growing youngsters
sometimes try to avoid growing up “too much” by reducing their food intake so
much that muscle growth is held back and nutrients are not adequate to sustain
nutritional needs.

COMMON PROBLEMS IN GAINING ENDURANCE

AND AEROBIC POWER
Given the many factors that influence success in sport, it is not difficult to appre¬
ciate that some individuals have much greater success than others do in particu¬
lar sports. Unlike sports in which skill plays a dominant role, some sports that
rely on high aerobic capacity or superior endurance actually have rather limited
skill components. Of all competitive sports, distance running probably demands
the least from its participants in skill development. Conditioning is the most
important element in the success of runners. Even in endurance sports with a
high technique component, such as cross-country skiing and distance swimming,
at some point conditioning the aerobic system becomes of primary importance.

Rushing to a Goal
Nothing can become a greater problem for an endurance athlete than shortcutting
a sound, consistent training plan. Not adhering to the simple training principles
presented earlier in this chapter can lead to a setback that curtails training for an
undetermined time. Training setbacks are a particular problem because they not
only stop steady progress toward a goal but often motivate the participant, once
he or she regains health, to try to make up for lost time by training even harder.
This increase in training stress usually leads to further setbacks.

Copying the Champion

The careers of many potentially outstanding endurance athletes have undoubt¬
edly been cut short by trying to duplicate the training habits of a current cham¬
pion or record holder. This is particularly true among young, inexperienced ath¬
letes, who idolize the outstanding individuals in their sport and will attempt to
do exactly what their hero does in training. A key word here is does because be¬
ginners in a sport often don’t realize the many hours and years of training that
the current stars went through as youngsters. They just read about what the
champion does now and figure that is what they need to do.

Not Listening to the Body

Not even the best thought-out training plan in the world will always be right for
everyone. It seems so simple to lay out a training program and conscientiously
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 207

follow it to the letter. How can a person go wrong? How can a person overtrain
if the program is a proven, successful approach to greatness? The answer is that
no matter how perfect the plan, things go wrong now and then. People become
injured, people become ill, people have other things to do in their lives that
sometimes limit the rest or nutrition they get. Some days don’t go so well, and
this is when it pays for an athlete to listen to his or her body. A variety of meth¬
ods are available to examine the effects of training, such as monitoring heart
rate, timing segments of a training session, taking blood samples to check on
blood-lactate levels, and so forth. But the simplest and most often overlooked
method is learning to read the body. Most great athletes excel at this (which is
probably why they became so great), but enthusiastic beginners often overlook
this important aspect of training. Endurance athletes need to learn to feel how
things are going. They need to know when to end a workout and when to change
a workout to something that may be just as stressful but of a different nature.
Learning to read the body takes some time but is well worth the effort.

Assuming Everyone Is the Same

Not recognizing individual differences is often the weakest part of a training
program for youngsters and older individuals. Youngsters mature at far different
rates, and some oldsters age rapidly. But this problem is not limited to the young
and old. Besides normal physiological changes that take place among individu¬
als, a variety of psychological factors come into play. Because people react differ-
endy to the same training stresses, it is not uncommon to see two distance runners,
for example, attain quite different race times even though they have followed the
same program and are equally motivated. Recognizing individual differences goes
hand in hand with learning to listen to the body.

Not Caring for Illness and Injury

In the heat of training for an important competition, it is tempting to try to train
through an injury or illness. Some injuries will clear up just as fast during normal
training as they will by taking time off; other injuries need true rest, at least from
specific stresses. Learning which injuries fall into which categories is not easy,
but experience and a good coach can go a long way in making the determina¬
tion.

Lacking Flexibility
Just as trying to train through an injury or illness is not always desirable, not
being willing to alter training or competition schedules can be counterproduc¬
tive. Situations sometimes dictate a change in plans. A typical example is when
an important planned training session with a specific time goal coincides with
adverse environmental conditions that negate any chance of meeting the hoped-
for time. Two ways to deal with this situation are to change the workout com¬
pletely or to move the same workout to another day in the same week when
conditions may be more conducive to success. A third possibility would be to go
on with the planned workout but to go by feel rather than time for the various
stages of the session.
208 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Lacking Confidence in the Training Plan

An athlete will usually achieve better results by following a less-than-ideal train¬
ing scheme presented by a person in whom the athlete has complete confidence
than he or she would by adhering to a sound plan set up by a coach in which the
athlete has less confidence. Clearly, the ideal situation is having confidence in
someone who is presenting a good program. It is always beneficial to commit to
a program, but if results are not reasonable for the effort put forth, the athlete
may want to try a different approach.

Underestimating Aerobic Fitness and Endurance

It is not uncommon for an endurance athlete who has lost a couple of races
during the final “sprint” to the tape to feel that he or she must do more speed
training. Spending more time on speed (anaerobic) training may actually detract
from aerobic fitness, which can cause the athlete to be so far behind the leaders
that he or she receives no benefit from a kick to the finish. Often, a better expla¬
nation for losing races in the final minute is not being aerobically fit enough to
run away from an opponent during the middle part of a race. A strong finishing
kick is accomplished by athletes who arrive at that part of a race with high energy
reserves, not necessarily superior all-out speed.

MEASURING AEROBIC CAPACITY

An athlete’s aerobic capacity, or V02max, can be measured by a “max” test. Dur¬
ing a max test the subject should be constantly monitored to evaluate the stress
being imposed so that the test can be terminated if necessary. Tests of less-fit
individuals should include monitoring of the subject’s heart rate, blood pressure,
and ventilatory responses. The electrical activity of the heart may also be moni¬
tored with an electrocardiograph. The tester should ask the subject periodically
how he or she is feeling and whether it is possible to go on another minute or
half minute before the test ends. With fit individuals (those involved in regular,
strenuous training and competitions), it is good to monitor these variables, but
in field tests it may be possible only to ask the subject to express his or her feel¬
ings. An important consideration is that with most trained endurance athletes
the individual will reach V02max before he or she feels that the test must be
terminated. Thus it is best to be able to monitor the rate of carbon dioxide pro¬
duced (VCO,) as well as the rate of oxygen uptake (VO,) throughout the test.
The ratio of these two respiratory values provides a good measure of how hard
the subject is working and when it is appropriate to stop the test.
Regardless of the extent to which a max test is being monitored, the subject
should first perform a normal warm-up (as if getting ready to compete in a race)
and then be fitted with any equipment necessary for the test itself. If the test is
being conducted on a treadmill and the person is unfamiliar with treadmill run¬
ning, let the subject perform at least some of the warm-up on the treadmill.
If resting values are to be recorded before the test gets under way, it is best to
take them while the subject is sitting and has recovered from any warm-up rou-
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 209

tine. The tester should make sure the subject understands how the test will be
conducted and when it will be terminated. Then the actual test can begin. With
runners, I prefer the following protocol.

1. Start the treadmill at the speed of the individual’s 10,000-meter race pace (if
only a 5,000 time is known, use a pace just a little slower than 5,000-meter race
pace, which is 30 to 40 seconds per mile slower than current one-mile race pace).
2. The individual runs at this speed throughout the entire test but on a level (0
percent) grade for only the first two minutes.
3. Each minute after the second minute has been completed, the treadmill will
be elevated 1 percent. The speed stays the same.
4. Any physiological variables that are being monitored should be recorded dur¬
ing the final 15 seconds of each minute.
5. About 10 seconds before the end of each minute, the tester asks the subject if
he or she can go on for another minute. If the answer is yes (indicated by a
thumbs-up sign), then the current treadmill grade is increased by 1 percent
and the test continues. If the answer is no (indicated by a back-and-forth
horizontal waving of the hand), then the tester may ask the subject if a half
minute more is possible. Based on the response, the test is either terminated
or continued for a final half minute.
6. If recovery data are to be collected, the subject should be seated (on a chair
on the treadmill), with the feet elevated or the legs moving somewhat to
stimulate circulation. Final blood collection for determination of maximum
lactate accumulation should be made about two to three minutes after the
test ends.

If a running max test is being conducted over ground on a running track or road
(to simulate race conditions more closely), then the following protocol is used.

1. For the first 400 meters of the test, the subject runs at about 10,000-meter
race pace or a little slower.
2. After completing 400 meters of running, the subject increases the pace to one
that is equal to his or her most current 5,000-meter race pace.
3. The subject holds the 5K race pace for three more 400-meter laps of a track
(or equivalent distance on a road) with 30-second expired-air collections be¬
ginning with the third of these three laps.
4. Upon completion of lap four (1,600 meters of running), the subject increases
the pace to one that is as hard as he or she can go for a final 400 meters of
running. Expired-air collections (lasting about 30 seconds each) are continu¬
ally collected during this final all-out run.
5. Heart rates can be monitored and recorded during the final 400 meters of
running (or immediately upon termination of the final 400 meters if a heart-
rate monitor is not available).
6. If recovery data are to be collected, the subject should sit quietly with the feet
elevated or with the legs moving around somewhat to stimulate circulation.
Blood samples for maximum lactate determination should be taken about two
to three minutes after the test ends.
210 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

In over-ground running tests, the test administrators must be driven alongside

the subject throughout the test to make the expired-air collections. Figure 10.10
shows an over-ground running test being administered.

MEASURING ENDURANCE AND ECONOMY

A good test for endurance is one that measures blood-lactate accumulation upon
termination of a series of increasingly faster submaximal runs. Economy is often
measured during a similar series of submax runs, but it can also be evaluated
using just one or two submaximal efforts.
Blood samples and expired-air samples can both be collected during the same
series of runs. Following a normal warm-up, use the following protocol, which is
practical for either a treadmill test or an over-ground test. Flook up the subject
for collecting expired air samples and for monitoring heart rates.

Figure 10.10 Test administrators collect data during an over-ground running test.
 Aerobic Capacity for Endurance 211

1. From the following chart of running velocities (in meters per minute) and
corresponding mile paces, pick the fastest velocity that is slower than the current
5,000-meter race pace.
190 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350 370
8:28 7:40 7:00 6:26 5:58 5:33 5:11 4:53 4:36 4:21
2. Count back three or four paces, depending on whether a four- or five-stage
test is used, to determine the first (slowest) test speed.
3. The subject runs for five minutes at the first test speed, and an expired-air
sample is collected for the final 60 seconds of the five-minute run. Heart rate
is also monitored during the final 15 seconds of the run.
4. After the five-minute run, a blood sample is collected during a 60-second
break that the subject receives after each run.
5. Heart rate is recorded, expired air is analyzed for determination of VO, and
VCO,, and the blood sample is used to determine blood-lactate accumulation.
6. A similar five-minute run is performed at each progressively faster test speed
(selected from the preceding chart), until the fastest speed identified in step 1
has been completed.
7. VO,, blood lactate, and heart rate are determined and recorded for each of
the four or five submaximal tests that are completed.

Plotting these data will generate a heart-rate response curve, a blood-lactate

profile, and an economy curve.

Using Economy Data

The resulting economy curve can be used to compare running economies among
athletes or for the same athlete at different stages or seasons of training. This is
accomplished by comparing the VO, values at identical test speeds. In addition,
by extending the economy curve out to the individual’s V02max, a value for
vVO,max can be determined. Figure 10.11, on page 212, illustrates.
A single value for running economy can be calculated by converting the VO,
at any measured velocity to a standard value that represents the “cost” of run¬
ning one kilometer. For example, a VO, of 50 milliliters per kilogram when run¬
ning at a velocity of 250 meters per minute would result in one kilometer of
running costing 200 milliliters per kilogram per kilometer (1,000 -=- 250 X 50 =
200). Similarly, running at 300 meters per minute with a VO, of 60 milliliters per
kilogram would also cost 200 milliliters per kilogram per kilometer (1,000 -r 300
X 60 = 200). This method of expressing running economy has the advantage of
comparing an individual’s economy over a variety of velocities.

Using Blood-Lactate Data

The blood-lactate profile can be used as a measure of endurance. A simple way
to accomplish this is to connect the lactate data points and determine the V02
and running velocity that correspond to a standard lactate value. This is done in
figure 10.11, using a blood-lactate value of 4.0 millimoles per liter (mmol • L1)
of blood. The corresponding VO, and running velocities can then be expressed
as a percentage of V02 and vVO,max, respectively. The values for percentage of
212 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

0 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350 370 390 410
Velocity (m • min-1)

Figure 10.11 A comparison of the oxygen consumption (V02—circles), heart rate (HR—squares),
and blood-lactate level (Bla—triangles) of an elite runner.
From Daniels 1998, page 50.

V02max and vVO,max are 85 and 89 in figure 10.11, which are typical values for
a trained distance runner.

Heart-Rate Data
The heart-rate data collected during the submaximal and maximal tests can be
compared with data from subsequent test sessions. In addition, a percentage of
max heart rate can be determined that corresponds to the blood-lactate value of
4.0 millimoles per liter (about 90 percent in figure 10.11).
Developing a
Sports Performance
Training Program

■frith the information provided in part II, yon will be able to apply the scien¬
tific principles from part I to meet your sport-specific conditioning needs. Chapter
11, “Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills into Conditioning,” features a number
of sport-specific drills from coaching experts for the following nine sports:

Baseball—Fernando Montes
Basketball—Bill Foran
Distance Running—Jack Daniels
Football—Kent Johnston
Golf—Pete Draovitch
Hockey Peter—Twist
Soccer—Vern Gambetta
Tennis—Barrett Bugg and E. Paul Roetert
Volleyball—Courtney Carter

Eric Lawson, of the United State Olympic Training Center provides an over¬
view for the chapter.
Tudor Bompa’s chapter 12, “Periodizing Training for Peak Performance,” takes
a close look at what is involved in setting up an annual periodization plan for
athletes of different sports and specifically discusses factoring in training phases
for strength, endurance, and speed. Chapter 13, “Designing Periodized Train¬
ing Programs” combines the information from chapter 12 with a way of setting
up a specific periodized training program for each of the nine sports covered in
chapter 11. Todd Ellenbecker’s chapter 14, “Restoring Performance After In¬
jury,” covers applying fitness components to effectively rehabilitate injured ath¬
letes while keeping them as fit as possible for their specific sports.
Incorporating
Sport-Specific Skills
Into Conditioning
&/CRVICW Eric Lawson

I he days of the generalized “one program fits all” strength and conditioning
model are quickly coming to an end. It is clear now that incorporating sport-
specific skills into strength and conditioning programs helps athletes target spe¬
cific performance requirements and helps coaches account for individual athletic
idiosyncrasies.
Today’s strength and conditioning expert should work in conjunction with the
head coach, athletic trainer, positional coach, sport psychologist, sport nutri¬
tionist, and the athlete to meet the specific performance needs of the sport and
the athlete. Working together, this sport-performance enhancement team en¬
sures that the athlete can improve performance and also mitigates the likelihood
of injury.

215
216 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

In attempting to formulate a comprehensive strength and conditioning pro¬

gram for a particular athlete, the sport-performance team begins by determining
the athlete’s requirements, that is, assessing the athlete’s strengths and weaknesses.
See chapter 2 for specific tests and a functional assessment form (page 42).

Assessing the Athlete

The specific performance concerns of an athlete fall into the following catego¬
ries: sport-specific movements, planes of motion, muscular action, metabolic
demands, strengths (offensive and defensive), and weaknesses (offensive and de¬
fensive). A strength and conditioning coach can arrive at the specific perfor¬
mance concerns by using the entire body of knowledge available, starting with
the head coach’s input followed by input from the positional or assistant coach.
Then he or she can gather information from the physiologists, trainers, psy¬
chologists, and, if available, biomechanists. The strength and conditioning coach
should spend many hours in practice and film sessions to become familiar with
the metabolic and kinematic demands of the sport.
Generally, the higher the level of the athlete, the more specific the training
protocol. Younger and inexperienced athletes should spend more time with foun¬
dational strength building (see chapters 4 and 7).

Tailoring Drills to a Particular Sport

When determining specific skills to train athletes for their sport, think about the
types of training the sport requires: foundational strength, neuromuscular power,
kinesthetic proprioception core stability and functional strength, dynamic flexi¬
bility and range of motion (ROM), speed, agility, quickness, and metabolic con¬
ditioning.
The next step is to determine the power-to-strength requirements and the
specific metabolic requirements of the sport and to emphasize the most impor¬
tant components within the drills you choose. One way to accomplish this is to
review kinematic and repetitive-motion analyses and then to design appropriate
speed and agility drills for the sport.
Take volleyball, for example, as a typical interval sport with short exercise pe¬
riods (6 to 7 seconds) of high intensity alternating with 12- to 14-second rest
periods; these metabolic requirements are primarily supported by the ATP-CP
(alactic anaerobic) and the 02 (aerobic) systems. Thus, the conditioning drills
are formulated to tax the ATP-CP and 02 systems and to simulate the move¬
ments and metabolic requirements of competition. To tax the ATP-CP and 02
energy systems effectively for a sport like volleyball, the scheme of sets and repe¬
titions should allow for 5 to 10 seconds of intense activity interspersed with 9- to
12-second rest intervals; the goal is to elevate and keep the heart-rate reserve
(HRR) between 75 and 85 percent and to maintain a steady pace for a minimum
of 20 minutes. The entire conditioning volume depends on the intensity and
duration of the practice and the athlete’s current juncture in the periodized cycle
(see chapters 12 and 13).
Elite-level volleyball play also requires repetitive, explosive movements; there¬
fore, many coaches use drills that stress repetitive arm swing, dig position, de¬
fensive position, transition steps, and print block positions. The conditioning
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 217

program menu should contain a variety of drills to help thwart mental and physi¬
cal staleness.
When devising the overall plan for increasing an athlete’s jumping and game-
day quickness, keep three major determinants in mind: muscle mass, proportion
of fast-twitch muscle units, and the effectiveness of the voluntary neuromuscular
activation, that is, the ability to activate many motor units quickly during a vol¬
untary contraction (Schmidtbleicher 1992). The speed of a movement is always
the result of the produced acceleration impulse. Therefore, speed-strength per¬
formances are characterized by the steepness of the rise in force and the height
of the force maximum.
The weight-training and core-stability portion of a program blends general
closed kinetic chain total-body exercises with sport-specific exercises. The core-
stability routines incorporate medicine balls, physio balls, and bands and are
designed to develop core strength and kinesthetic proprioception (see chapter
7). The routines are usually performed immediately following a light warm-up.
The model for successfully incorporating sport-specific skills into training in¬
tegrates many areas of expertise and knowledge. Today’s strength and condition¬
ing coaches must understand the specific physical requirements of the sport they
are coaching. Interactions with positional coaches and athletes and access to the
scientific body of knowledge for a particular sport are critical for proper devel¬
opment of a comprehensive strength and conditioning program. The age of spe¬
cialization and individualization has arrived.

Fernando Montes

Baseball has long been known as America’s pastime. The game is rich in tradition
and, when it comes to sport-specific strength and conditioning, rife with myth.
The challenge for the strength and conditioning professional is to understand
the traditions of the game and the myths that surround strength and condition¬
ing. The first major obstacle is the player. The baseball player of today lacks the
overall fitness and conditioning of competitors in other sports. The source of
this problem is not the game of baseball but the lack of early physical develop¬
ment and exposure to basic movements in early childhood. The basic issue can¬
not be overlooked; it must be addressed as a fundamental training issue through¬
out the overall training program.
First, you should establish the needs and current physical limitations of each
player. It is important to have a starting point from which to work when design¬
ing movement agility drills. This framework is helpful in keeping you focused
on quality preparation and good program design.
Consider the following steps before planning a sport-specific movement pro¬
gram for baseball players.

1. Determine and understand the following areas:

• The athlete’s current physical development—what type of strength does
this athlete have? Can he or she negotiate these drills with his or her
current level of strength?
 218 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

• The athlete’s training history—what exposure has this athlete had to this
type of training?
• The athlete’s fitness level—what kind of shape is the athlete in? Is the
energy system that he or she will use ready?
Baseball

• The position the athlete plays—which movements match the player’s needs
and the position he or she plays?
• The basics of a drill continuum—understand the levels of drill adaptation
from basic to advanced drills.
• The training parameters—consider the number of athletes you need to
train, the location and equipment available, and the feasibility of performing
the drills both indoors and outdoors. Evaluate when in the training pro¬
gram to conduct the drills, how much time to assign to them, and what
total volume to use.
2. Understand the factors for drill selection.
• Body control—how much does this come into play in the position the
athlete plays?
• Balance—establish the specific kind of balance needed by the individual
for the position he or she plays (pitching, hitting, fielding, and
baserunning).
• Timing—determine the time it takes to execute these movements by po¬
sition (pitching, baserunning, fielding, hitting).
• Chaotic movements—what reactive situations take place in baseball?
3. Identify the skills and movements unique to each position.
• Basic athletic position—what type of stance is needed in hitting, fielding,
pitching, and baserunning?
• First-step movement—what type of start is needed for hitting, fielding,
pitching, and baserunning?
4. Identify the movements and specific injury information of the individuals and
any potential hazards by position.
• Identify what potential injury zones are common to baseball (e.g., pitcher
fielding a bunt, base runner sliding into a shortstop, etc.).
• Identify the injury history of individual athletes.
5. Evaluate the drill using the SMART test:
• Specific—does the drill meet the needs of the player and the position he
or she plays?
• Measurable—is this drill measurable in testing or progression?
• Attainable—will this drill achieve the desired expectations and training goals?
• Realistic—is the drill realistic in its implementation?
• Time manageable—can the desired training goals be accomplished in a
timely manner?
Before designing any sport-specific movement drill, ensure that all aspects of
the program design meet the needs of the sport and the individuals being trained.
Only then can expectations and training goals be reached. The following drills
may meet the needs of your athletes.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 219

Single-Hoop Agility
Purpose
To identify specific movement limitations in body control and foot movement for players
of all positions in order to work on baserunning and fielding skills
Procedure
1. Use a hoop or mark a circle that has a 12-foot diameter.
2. The player starts at any point around the hoop but must end at the same location.
3. The player sprints around the hoop as fast as possible without allowing the body to pull away
from the hoop. He or she should stay as close as possible to the hoop throughout the drill.
4. The athlete should lower the inside shoulder as he or she rounds the hoop while keeping outside
foot placement away from his or her center of gravity. This action prevents falling and facilitates
body control as the athlete negotiates future obstacles or hoops.

Limitations
• Poor body control as the athlete rounds the hoop (player moving away from the hoop)
• Foot placement too close together as the athlete rounds the hoop (the feet become tangled up)

Variations
• Double-hoop figure-8 agility—Follow the instructions used in the single-hoop drill, however
there are two 12-foot hoops forming a figure-8. The athlete must continue to adjust both body
control and foot placement as he or she moves through the second hoop.

• Figure-8 rabbit run—The player negotiates around the two hoops in the figure-8 pattern
while being chased by another player. The lead player should stay as close to the hoops as
possible throughout the drill and prevent the chasing player from tagging him or her.
• Four-hoop rabbit run—This drill includes four 12-foot diameter hoops. The player should
sprint as fast as he or she can around the hoops in a figure-8 pattern, staying as close to the
hoops as possible throughout the drill, and prevent the chasing player from tagging him or her.
After the lead player has completed one figure-8 pattern, he or she can go in any direction
using any combination of hoops.
220 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Purpose
To teach body control and change of direction in preparation for future agility drills and to
identify specific movement limitations

Procedure
1. The coach assigns the starting position and the type of athletic (baseball-specific) stance the
athlete should use for the drill. The coach then assigns the specific movement (i.e., speed ca-
rioca, carioca step, shuffle, sprint, backpedal, and so forth).
2. Using the assigned movement, the player negotiates the cones as quickly as possible, moving in
a straight line from cone #1 to cone #2, back to cone #1, and on to cone #3.
3. The athlete should repeat as assigned.

\/
Limitations
Poor body control and weight shift during reactive change of direction
Variation
Three-cone T—Same as the previous drill, but the player moves from cone #1 up the line
until parallel to cones #2 and #3. The athlete changes direction and moves toward cone #2,
then changes direction again and moves to cone #3. Once at cone #3, the player returns by
changing direction again until he or she reaches the middle between cones #2 and #3. The
player then returns to cone #1 (starting position).
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 221

Agility Bag Lateral In-Out Shuffle Step

Purpose
To develop the lateral shuffle-step movement
Procedure
1. Set up 6 to 10 agility bags in a straight line about five feet apart from one another.
2. The player starts in good athletic position, with weight over the balls of the feet.
3. The athlete negotiates the agility bags using a lateral shuffle step as quickly as possible.

Limitations
Poor lateral movement patterns, poor hip flexibility, inadequate foot quickness, and im¬
proper foot placement
Variations
The coach can add other movements at the end of the agility drill, such as agility hoops and
quick-foot ladders.

Pickup
Purpose
To teach basic sprint and backpedal movements to prepare for reactive and chaotic move¬
ments
Procedure
1. Set up 6 to 10 agility bags, cones, and baseballs as shown in the diagram.
2. The player starts in a good athletic position, with weight over the balls of the feet.
3. He or she moves quickly around each agility bag to field each baseball.
4. The athlete backpedals and straddles the bag while placing the ball on the assigned cone.
5. The player repeats the pattern until he or she has picked up all the baseballs.

Limitations
Poor concentration, lack of foot quickness, and poor foot placement

©©©©©©
222 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

BASKETBALL Bill Foran

Basketball is a game of high-intensity work followed by a quick recovery period.

This sequence continues throughout a game. Conditioning is paramount. If bas¬
ketball players are not in top physical shape, their skill level drops considerably
during the game as fatigue sets in. The worst way to lose a game is because of
fatigue.
Basketball players must be able to run the court efficiently, have a quick first
step, read and react to game situations, move in any direction at any time, and
jump high and quickly in rapid succession. To accomplish this, basketball players
need a strength base and a conditioning base. The player who is well conditioned
will obtain the best results from sport-specific functional training.
A conditioning base is developed through a 6- to 10-week progressive pro¬
gram of 400s (meters), 200s, and 100s on a track, football field, or soccer field.
A strength base is developed through a total-body weight-training program
with emphasis on the power center of the body (hips and legs) and the core
(midsection). The upper body needs to be strong, balanced, and flexible, but it is
third priority behind the legs and midsection.
The sport-specific conditioning drills for basketball include on-court condi¬
tioning drills with and without a basketball, jumping and quick-feet plyometrics,
agility drills, and medicine ball drills.

On-Court Conditioning Drills

After athletes have developed a conditioning base, they are ready to build on that
base with on-court conditioning drills that involve sprinting, dribbling, and shoot¬
ing skills. There are many different on-court conditioning drills. Five are listed
here, but be creative and come up with others.

Five and One-Half

Purpose
To develop basic on-court conditioning
Procedure
1. The athlete runs five and one-half lengths of the court as fast as possible (baseline to baseline five
times and then a finish at half-court).
2. After each run, the athlete should rest two to two and one-half times his or her running time. For
example, if an athlete runs the drill in 32 seconds, he or she should rest between 64 and 80
seconds before the next run.

Variation
Add dribbling a basketball to the drill for variety.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 223

Suicide Shuttl e
Purpose
To develop basic on-court conditioning
Procedure
1. Players start at one baseline, run to the closest free-throw line and back to the baseline, run to
half-court and back, run to the opposite free-throw line and back, and then run fullcourt and
back.
2. The rest is two to two and one-half times the running time.

Variation
Add dribbling a basketball to the drill for variety.

Purpose
To develop basic conditioning as well as shooting skills
Procedure
1. The player shoots a jumper at the right elbow of the free-throw line.
2. He or she then sprints to the opposite sideline, and sprints back to the left elbow for another
jumper.
3. The player then sprints to the other sideline and back to the right elbow for a jumper.
4. This continues for a set time or until a certain number of baskets are made. Have another player
serve as a rebounder or passer during this drill.

Variation
Have the athlete lateral slide to the sideline and sprint back.

Endline Touch and Top-of-the-Key Jump Shot

Purpose
To develop basic conditioning as well as shooting skills

Procedure
1. The athlete shoots a top-of-the-key jumper within a comfortable range, then sprints to the
opposite baseline and back for another jumper.
2. The player repeats this for a set time or until a certain number of baskets are made. Have
another player serve as a rebounder or passer during this drill.
224 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Corner Touch and Perimeter Jump Shot

Purpose
To develop basic conditioning as well as shooting skills

Procedure
1. The athlete shoots a perimeter jumper, then sprints to one of the court’s four comers and back
for another perimeter jumper.
2. The player then sprints to a different comer and back for a jumper.
3. This continues for a set time or until a certain number of shots are made. Have another player
serve as a rebounder or passer during this drill.

Plyometric Drills
After developing a strength base in the hips and legs with squats, lunges, step-
ups, and so on (see chapters 4 and 7), jumping plyometrics are the best way to
improve the vertical jump. A good jump-training program involves box jumps,
weighted box jumps, double jumps, and single-leg hops.
Be aware that box jumps can be dangerous if done incorrectly. Make sure the
height of the box is appropriate for the athlete’s jumping ability. Soccer shin
guards may protect an athlete from a badly braised shin if he or she loses concen¬
tration and misses a jump. Do not allow an athlete to hyperflex the knees on
landing. If this occurs, the box is too high.
The quick-feet plyometric drill (page 225) helps athletes practice moving their
feet as fast as possible.

Box Jump
Purpose
To improve vertical jumping ability
Procedure
1. The athlete stands in front of the box (the starting height is usually between 20 and 30 inches),
jumps as high as possible, and lands softly on the box.
2. He or she then steps down. The athlete repeats these steps for 10 jumps.

Variation
After the athlete can do three sets of 10 jumps, he or she is ready for weighted box jumps.
The athlete executes weighted box jumps by holding dumbbells in each hand (5 to 10
pounds for starters) while performing the box jump. The athlete must wot jump down. The
player performs 10 jumps. During weighted box jumps the athlete should not use the arms.
The arms should stay in a fixed position, either straight or slightly bent.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 225

Double Jump
. • ---->-—. -- .. , ..:.:il,,0,: ; I n, 11 I i-.n ■;::■■■ . ■ , __

Purpose
To improve vertical jumping ability and jumping quickness
Procedure
1. The athlete starts on a small box (12 inches high) and jumps off the box to the floor.
2. As soon as his or her feet touch the floor, the athlete jumps onto a higher box (20 to 30 inches) as
quickly as possible.
3. The athlete steps down, returns to the starting position, and repeats the jump up to 10 times.

Purpose
To improve vertical jumping ability, balance, stability, and one-legged power
Procedure
1. The athlete stands in front of a small box (8 to 16 inches high) on one foot.
2. He or she hops with one leg up on the box and holds the position for one to two seconds.
3. The athlete then hops down on the same leg and holds the position for one to two seconds.
4. The player hops back onto the box for up to 10 repetitions, using one leg throughout the entire
exercise before repeating the sequence using the other leg.

Quick-Feet Plyo
Purpose
To develop quick foot movements
Procedure
1. Mark four spots 12 to 18 inches apart on a good surface (not concrete).
2. Number the spots 1 through 4 in this pattern: 3 2
4 1
3. The athlete follows the number pattern with the feet, moving as quickly as possible.
4. Count the number of times the athlete lands on the starting spot during the allotted time.
5. Allow enough rest time for a good recovery between drills (20 to 90 seconds, depending on the
fitness level of the athlete). Do four to six two-feet drills and four to six one-foot drills per
workout.

Variations
Several different movement patterns can be set up using the same four spots. Players can
do the drills with two feet for 10 to 20 seconds or with one foot for 10 seconds.
• Two-number patterns—1-2, 1-4, 1-3, 4-2
• Three-number patterns—1-2-3, 1-3-2, 1-4-3, 1-3-4
• Four-number patterns—1-2-3-4, 1-4-3-2, 1-3-2-4, 4-2-3-1
 226 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Agility Drills
Of all the movement skills basketball players need, being able to read and react,
to move in any direction quickly and under control, may be the most important.
Agility drills performed all out with proper technique will help develop these
movement skills. Be creative and design your own agility drills using cones and
quick-feet ladders (see chapter 8 for several ideas). They should last 10 to 20
seconds with all-out effort and can involve quick starts and stops, changes of
direction, and movements in all directions.
Basketball

Lane Shuffle
Purpose
To learn to move in any direction quickly and with control

Procedure
1. Players start on one side of the lane and move laterally as quickly as possible to the other side of
the lane and back.
2. They continue the back-and-forth movement for 20 seconds.
3. Count the number of times players cross the lane.

Around the Lane

Purpose
To learn to move in any direction quickly and with control
Procedure
1. Players start at the baseline where the lane sideline intersects it. They sprint up the lane line to
the free-throw line and then move laterally across the free-throw line to the opposite lane line.
2. They backpedal to the baseline and move laterally back to the starting position.
3. Players immediately repeat the movements, moving in the opposite direction.

____________
Lateral Resistance Quick Step
Purpose
To learn to move in any direction quickly and with control
Procedure
1. Attach resistance-training rubber tubing or bands to each athlete.
2. Athletes move laterally against the resistance for three quick steps and come back to the starting
position under control.
3. They immediately repeat the explosive quick steps, performing the drill for reps (5 to 10) or time
(15 to 30 seconds).
4. Players then execute the movement to the opposite side.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 227

MEDICINE BALL DRILLS

Medicine ball drills are functional and versatile; they are effective for developing
strength (especially core strength), power, and quickness. The following two drills
develop core strength, and the third teaches athletes to sit deep and stay low on
defense. Feel free to be creative and design your own drills.

Purpose
To develop core strength, power, and quickness
Procedure
1. Two athletes face each other about 10 to 12 feet apart.
2. One athlete holds the medicine ball with both hands next to the right hip.
3. He or she fully rotates the midsection to the right and tosses the ball while rotating back to a
neutral position.
4. The athlete tosses the ball to the right side of the partner, who rotates to the right as well and
then tosses it back.
5. After each partner does 10 tosses, the athletes repeat the drill on the left side.

Over Under and Under Over

Purpose
To develop core strength, power, and quickness

Procedure
1. Two athletes stand back to back about a foot apart.
2. The partner holding the medicine ball lifts it over his or her head and hands it to the other
partner, who passes it between the legs and back to the other partner.
3. After 10 reps, they reverse the direction for 10 more reps.

Mep liquuI-Overhead-Pass— -- •

Purpose
To develop core strength, power, and quickness

Procedure
1. Two athletes stand facing each other about 10 to 12 feet apart.
2. They both assume a deep squat position with heels on the floor, knees over the feet, head up,
shoulders back, and hips as low as the knees.
3. In this position, the partners play catch using overhead bounce passes for 20 passes.
228 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

DISTANCE RUNNING JackDaniels

Although it is useful to understand the principles of training and the needs of the
body in preparing for athletic performance, what most coaches and athletes want
to know is what types of workouts they should do and why. The following types
of sport-specific training do not so much highlight specific “drills” that a dis¬
tance runner—track or cross country—would do as provide guidelines as to the
most important sport-specific conditioning workouts for endurance athletes.

Cellular Adaptations
A variety of changes take place in and around the exercising muscle cells as a
function of exercise. These include improved blood supply to the muscle cells;
increased number, size, and distribution of the mitochondria (sites of aerobic
metabolism); and increased enzyme activity (chemicals that aid in the process of
metabolism). Fortunately, most of these desirable adaptations do not require ex¬
ercise at more than moderate intensity. For runners, this means easy running of
the type used on warm-up runs, cool-down runs, and long, easy runs. Running at
an intensity of about 70 percent of the runner’s VO,max (about 75 percent of
maximum heart rate) is adequate. This intensity could be referred to as “conver¬
sational.” Keep in mind that running at greater intensities will produce more
fatigue but not necessarily a more rapid, or better, training adaptation.

Easy Pnne.
IVUIlD .

Purpose
To encourage cellular adaptation
Procedure
The easy runs can vary widely in duration. Runners do easy running as a warm-up for a
more intense session, during recovery between harder runs, and as a cool-down following
a demanding session. The amount of running performed for these various reasons is a
function of personal preference, with the runner doing as much as necessary to accomplish
an adequate warm-up or recovery. If an easy run is all that the runner is performing in a
particular training session, the duration of the run will typically vary from about one-half
hour to as much as two and one-half hours. The shorter easy runs are just that—easy runs
used to recover from harder training days that still produce some beneficial effects. The
longer easy runs are performed specifically to train the body to exercise for prolonged
periods as well as to stimulate even greater cellular adaptations.

To determine the length of a long run, place a relative limit on the amount of time spent
running. For example, identify a long run as one that is not more than 25 percent of the
total mileage for the week, or two and one-half hours, whichever is the lesser amount.
Obviously, the 2 5 percent value is appropriate only for those training more than four days
each week.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 229

During long runs the runner should be aware of good mechanics, use a comfortable, rhyth¬
mical breathing pattern, and consider taking in some fluids while running. A true long run
would normally be performed not more than once each week and in some programs only a
couple times over a three-week period.

Lactate Threshold
As discussed in chapter 10, each runner has an intensity, or speed of running
(lactate threshold), beyond which lactic-acid clearance cannot keep up with lactic-
acid production. At this point blood lactate accumulates at a rapidly increasing
rate. A runner’s lactate threshold is a good indicator of how long the runner can
endure a particular intensity. Marathon runners, for example, race the majority
of a marathon just below “threshold” intensity, and a blood-lactate measurement
at the end of a marathon would usually show lactate levels that are no different
from normal resting values (about 1 mmol per liter). The higher the intensity
(the farther above lactate threshold) at which a race is run, the faster blood lac¬
tate accumulates, with 800- and 1,500-meter races showing very high levels even
though they last only a few minutes. The longer the race, the slower blood lac¬
tate accumulates until the intensity associated with lactate threshold is reached,
after which lactate clearance can keep up with or exceed production. Blood lac¬
tate then may actually decrease as the race progresses.
To improve a particular function in most types of running, that function must
be stressed but not overstressed. For training performed with a goal of increas¬
ing lactate threshold (endurance), choosing the proper intensity of training is
particularly important.
If a trained runner were to run a race that takes about one hour to perform, the
pace that he or she would average for the race would closely mimic threshold
pace. Threshold pace is the preferred intensity for any threshold training used in
a running program. “Comfortably hard” is a good, subjective way to describe
threshold pace. A heart rate of a little over 90 percent of maximum would also
give a good estimate of threshold intensity.
The best measure of whether a runner is performing at threshold intensity is
to perform a series of runs that last about 5 to 12 minutes, each at what is felt to
be threshold intensity, and measure blood lactate following each run. If the re¬
sulting value stays the same after each run, that indicates that the pace properly
reflected threshold intensity. On the other hand, if blood lactates climb with
each subsequent run, the pace was too fast. If lactates steadily decrease, the pace
was too easy. Naturally, weather and terrain will cause the running pace to vary
somewhat even with the same intensity of effort.
Another way to estimate whether a pace is too fast is to become aware of breath¬
ing patterns. Having to breathe more rapidly than a two-two rhythm (taking two
steps while breathing in and two steps while breathing out) is usually a sign that
threshold intensity has been surpassed.
Two basic types of training fall into the category of threshold training: tempo
runs and cruise intervals. The intensity (speed of running) is the same for each—
threshold intensity.
It is typical to include one session of threshold training in each week’s sched¬
ule, but some phases of training may include no threshold runs while others may
have two sessions per week.
230 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Tempo Runs
Purpose
To stress the lactate-threshold system and thereby increase the lactate threshold (endurance)

Procedure
A tempo ran is typically a steady ran that is about 20 minutes in duration. The runner
performs a tempo ran following a good warm-up and follows it with a good cool-down.
The tempo ran itself is run at a steady pace throughout, with the emphasis on going nei¬
ther too fast nor too slow. The runner should relax and concentrate on the task rather than
what is going on around him or her. The runner should usually perform a tempo ran on a
calm day over flat terrain so that he or she can maintain a consistent intensity of effort
throughout.

Cruise Intervals
Purpose
To stress die lactate-threshold system and thereby increase the lactate threshold (endurance)
Procedure
Cruise intervals are minitempo runs separated by brief recovery periods. A session of cruise
intervals might involve five or six repeated one-mile runs with a one-minute recovery after
each one. It is usually best to repeat runs that are 4 to 15 minutes in duration, with a
recovery time that is about one-fifth as long as the preceding ran time. A rale to keep in
mind regarding sessions of cruise intervals is that the total amount of “quality” running
(total time or distance at threshold pace) should not be greater than 10 percent of the total
mileage accumulated for that particular week. Minimum and maximum durations of qual¬
ity running can also be set at 2 5 minutes and 40 minutes, respectively.

Aerobic Capacity (V02max)

To stress the capacity of the running muscles to produce energy through aerobic
metabolism, running intensity needs to be about equal to the pace at which a
runner could race for 10 to 15 minutes (one to three miles, depending on the
runner’s ability). It is common for coaches and runners to consider 5,000-meter
pace as most closely reflecting VO,max intensity. This rale, however, produces a
rather conservative estimate for runners who take 20 minutes or longer to race a
5,000.
Subjectively, the intensity of running appropriate for aerobic capacity training
can be referred to as “hard,” and this type of training is indeed the hardest that
runners will encounter. If heart rate is used to monitor a training session de¬
signed to stress aerobic capacity, the slowest pace that elicits maximum heart rate
is the pace to shoot for. Of course, any pace faster than that will also elicit maxi¬
mum heart rate, but the goal is to work as hard, aerobically, as possible, and to
minimize anaerobic involvement. Going too fast in this type of training session
may produce the desired results, but it puts much greater stress on the body and
requires a longer recovery period without producing any greater benefit.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 231

Training
Purpose
To stress the capacity of the running muscles to produce energy through aerobic metabo¬
lism

Procedure
This is hard training that typically involves repeated runs of three to five minutes in dura¬
tion at a speed the runner could maintain for only 10 to 15 minutes. The recovery time
(which should be active in nature) between individual work bouts is usually about equal to
the time spent in the previous quality run.

Interval training can involve a series of shorter runs (even as short as 30 seconds each), but
the accompanying recovery periods must then be kept even shorter. Furthermore, when
performing shorter work bouts, it is important not to run too fast, which is tempting be¬
cause the runs are so short. It is better to shorten the recoveries than to speed up the runs.
In other words, each runner will have an appropriate interval training pace, which he or
she should adhere to regardless of the duration of the individual runs within the session.

An upper limit to place on the quality portion of an interval session is 8 percent of the total
mileage for the week or 10,000 meters, whichever is less.

Interval training is demanding. Even during a phase of training when intervals have top
priority, it is not common to include more than one (sometimes two if no races are sched¬
uled for that week) interval sessions in a single week. Furthermore, interval training is best
scheduled for a period of several weeks during a single season, then set aside in favor of
other types of training.

Speed and Economy

Improvements in speed and economy tend to reflect as much attention to bio¬
mechanical changes as to physiological changes. In fact, much of the training
associated with speed and economy is more anaerobic than aerobic in nature.
What the runner is trying to do in this aspect of training is to minimize unnec¬
essary movement and perform the most work with the least effort. The runner is
trying to learn to run faster while staying relaxed, which demands shorter bouts
of exercise separated by relatively long periods of active recovery.
For the distance runner, the speed of running used to improve speed and
economy need not be nearly as fast as what would be appropriate for a sprinter.
Training at an individual’s current mile pace is adequate in almost all cases. Still,
the training can be referred to as “fast,” whereas training designed for lactate
threshold and aerobic capacity improvement was referred to as “comfortably
hard” and “hard.” Bear in mind that fast is usually not as demanding as hard,
primarily because the faster training sessions are made up of shorter work bouts
and longer recovery periods.
232 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

tition Training

Purpose
To minimize unnecessary movement and to perform the most work with the least effort

Procedure
Repetition training is similar to interval training in that it involves repeated work bouts
separated by periods of recovery, but the reps are typically shorter, faster, and separated by
periods of “full” recovery. The shortness of the work bouts caters to the faster speed of the
runs, which in turn demands longer recoveries. The speed of repetitions is usually at current
one-mile race pace. If the individual is training for races shorter than one mile, rep pace is
more often adjusted to coincide with race pace.
Running relatively fast not only develops better speed but also improves running economy.
The prolonged recovery periods ensure good recovery and allow the runner to feel good
enough to perform each subsequent run in a relaxed way with good technique. The key is
to learn to run fast and relaxed and to feel in control of desirable running mechanics.
Most repetition sessions involve individual runs (work bouts) that last up to about two
minutes each (distances of 200, 400, and 600 meters are common). The runner performs
enough quality runs in the session to reach about 5 percent of the week’s total mileage or a
maximum of four miles.
Usually one repetition session per week is adequate. During a phase of training that empha¬
sizes reps, however, the runner often performs two sets of reps in the same week. Although
interval training may be eliminated from the latter weeks of a training program, it is com¬
mon to include at least some reduced repetition sessions throughout a season of training.
Various types of training and the corresponding levels of intensity are shown below. E/L is
easy/long; T is threshold; I is interval; R is repetition.

E/L
-70%

>. T
'<7i 86-88
c
0
c
0
Q.
O)
c
'c

'ca I
2 98-100%
h=

R
>100%

0 10 20 30 40 50
Time of training (min)
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 233

Table 11.1 presents lists of performances that can be converted to “VDOT”

values. In short, VDOT values are based on performance-based V02max values
to provide an estimate of an individual’s aerobic capacity based on actual race
time. To use table 11.1, a runner first finds his or her best VDOT based on a
recent race performance (the performance that generates the highest VDOT is
used when more than one performance is considered). The identified VDOT is
then used with table 11.2 to establish the paces for each type of training.

Table 11.1 VDOT Values (or Popi jlar Race Distances

VDOT 1500 Mile 3000 2-mile 5000 10,000 15,000 Half- Marathon
Marathon

30 8:30 9:1 1 17:56 19:19 30:40 63:46 98:14 2:21:04 4:49:17 Q

31 8:15 8:55 17:27 18:48 29:15 62:03 95:36 2:17:21 4:41:57 jj
32 8:02 8:41 16:59 18:18 29:05 60:26 93:07 2:13:49 4:34:59 g
m
33 7:49 8:27 16:33 17:50 28:21 58:54 90:45 2:10:27 4:28:22 ^
34 7:37 8:14 16:09 17:24 27:39 57:26 88:30 2:07:16 4:22:03 §
35 7:25 8:01 15:45 16:58 27:00 56:03 86:22 2:04:13 4:16:03 |*
36 7:14 7:49 15:23 16:34 26:22 54:44 84:20 2:01:19 4:10:19
37 7:04 7:38 15:01 16:1 1 25:26 53:29 82:24 1:58:34 4:04:50
38 6:54 7:27 14:41 15:49 25:12 52:17 80:33 1:55:55 3:59:35
39 6:44 7:17 14:21 ^15:29 24:39 51:09 78:47 1:53:24 3:54:34
40 6:35 7:07 14:03 15:08 24:08 50:03 77:06 1:50:59 3:49:45
41 6:27 6:58 13:45 14:49 23:38 49:01 75:29 1:48:40 3:45:09
42 6:19 6:49 13:28 14:31 23:09 48:01 73:56 1:46:27 3:40:43
43 6:1 1 6:41 13:1 1 14:13 22:41 47:04 72:27 1:44:20 3:36:28
44 6:03 6:32 12:55 13:56 22:15 46:09 71:02 1:42:17 3:32:23
45 5:56 6:25 12:40 13:40 21:50 45:16 69:40 1:40:20 3:28:26
46 5:49 6:17 12:26 13:25 21:25 44:25 68:22 1:38:27 3:24:39
47 5:42 6:10 12:12 13:10 21:02 43:36 67:06 1:36:38 3:21:00
48 5:36 6:03 1 1:58 12:55 20:39 42:50 65:53 1:34:53 3:17:29
49 5:30 5:56 1 1:45 12:41 20:18 42:04 64:44 1:33:12 3:14:06
50 5:24 5:50 11:33 12:28 19:57 41:21 63:36 1:31:35 3:10:49
51 5:18 5:44 1 1:21 12:15 19:36 40:39 62:31 1:30:02 3:07:39
52 5:13 5:38 1 1:09 12:02 19:17 39:59 61:29 1:28:31 3:04:36

(continued)
Table 11.1 (continued)

VDOT 1500 Mile 3000 2-mile 5000 10,000 15,000 Half- Marathon
Marathon

53 5:07 5:32 10:58 1 1:50 18:58 39:20 60:28 1:27:04 3:01:39

54 5:02 5:27 10:47 11:39 18:40 38:42 59:30 1:25:40 2:58:47
.55. 4:57 5:21 10:37 1 1:28 18:22 38:06 58:33 1:24:18 2:56:01
56 4:53 5:16 10:27 11:17 18:05 37:31 57:39 1:23:00 2:53:20
57 4:48 5:11 10:17 1 1:06 17:49 36:57 56:46 1:21:43 2:50:45
58 4:44 5:06 10:08 10:56 17:33 36:24 55:55 1:20:30 2:48:14
59 4:39 5:02 9:58 10:46 17:17 35:52 55:06 1:19:18 2:47:47
60 4:35 4:57 9:50 10:37 17:03 35:22 54:18 1:18:09 2:43:25
61 4:31 4:53 9:41 10:27 16:48 34:52 53:32 1:17:02 2:41:08
62 4:27 4:49 9:33 10:18 16:34 34:23 52:47 1:15:57 2:38:54
63 4:24 4:45 9:25 10:10 16:20 33:55 52:03 1:14:54 2:36:44
64 4:20 4:41 9:17 10:01 16:07 33:28 51:21 1:13:53 2:34:38
65 4:16 4:37 9:09 9:53 15:54 33:01 50:40 1:12:53 2:32:35
66 4:13 4:33 9:02 9:45 15:42 32:35 50:00 1:11:56 2:30:36
67 4:10 4:30 8:55 9:37 15:29 32:11 49:22 1:1 1:00 2:28:40
68 4:06 4:26 8:48 9:30 15:18 31:46 38:44 1:10:05 2:26:47
69 4:03 4:23 8:41 9:23 15:06 31:23 48:08 1:09:12 2:24:57
70 4:00 4:19 8:34 9:16 14:55 31:00 47:32 1:08:21 2:23:10
71 3:57 4:16 8:28 9:09 14:44 30:38 46:58 1:07:31 2:21:26
72 3:54 4:13 8:22 9:02 14:33 30:16 46:24 1:06:42 2:19:44
73 3:52 4:10 8:16 8:55 14:23 29:55 45:51 1:05:54 2:18:05
74 3:49 4:07 8:10 8:49 14:13 29:34 45:19 1:05:08 2:16:29
75 3:46 4:04 8:04 8:43 14:03 29:14 44:48 1:04:23 2:14:55
76 3:44 4:02 7:58 8:37 13:54 28:55 44:18 1:03:39 2:13:23
77 3:41 + 3:58+ 7:53 8:31 13:44 28:36 43:49 1:02:56 2:11:54
78 3:38.8 3:56.2 7:48 8:25 13:35 28:17 43:20 1:02:15 2:10:27
79 3:36.5 3:53.7 7:43 8:20 13:26 27:59 42:52 1:01:34 2:09:02
80 3:34.2 3:51.2 7:37.5 8:14 13:18 27:41 42:25 1:00:54 2:07:38

234
Table 11.2 Training Intensities Based on Current VDOT
VDOT E/L Pace M Pace T Pace I Pace R Pace
km mile mile 400 1000 mile 400 1000 1200 mile 200 400 800
30 7:37 12:16 1 1:02 2:33 6:24 10:18 2:22 — — — 67 2:16 —
32 7:16 1 1:41 10:29 2:26 6:05 9:47 2:14 — — - 63 2:08 —
34 6:56 1 1:09 10:00 2:19 5:48 9:20 2:08 - _
60 2:02 —
-

36 6:38 10:40 9:33 2:13 5:33 8:55 2:02 5:07 5:07 5:07 57 1:55 5:07
38 6:22 10:14 9:08 2:07 5:19 8:33 1:56 4:54 — — 54 1:50 —
40 6:07 9:50 8:46 2:02 5:06 8:12 1:52 4:42 — — 52 1:46 • _0*

Distance Running
42 5:53 9:28 8:25 1:57 4:54 7:52 1:48 4:31 - — 50 1:42 —
44 5:40 9:07 8:06 1:53 4:43 7:33 1:44 4:21 — — 48 98
45 5:34 8:58 7:57 1:51 4:38 7:25 1:42 4:16 - - 47 96 —-
46 5:28 8:48 7:48 1:49 4:33 7:17 1:40 4:12 5:00 — 46 94 —
47 5:23 8:39 7:40 1:47 4:29 7:10 98 4:07 4:54 — 45 92 —
48 5:17 8:31 7:32 1:45 4:24 7:02 96 4:03 4:49 - 44 90 —
49 5:12 8:22 7:24 1:43 4:20 6:55 95 3:59 4:45 - 44 89 -
50 5:07 8:14 7:17 1:42 4:15 6:51 93 3:55 4:41 — 43 87 —
51 5:02 8:07 7:09 1:40 4:11 6:44 92 3:51 4:36 •— 42 86 —
52 4:58 7:59 7:02 98 4:07 6:38 91 3:48 4:33 - 42 85 —
53 4:53 7:52 6:56 97 4:04 6:32 90 3:44 4:29 - 41 84 —
54 4:49 7:45 6:49 95 4:00 6:26 88 3:41 4:25 - 40 82 —
55 4:45 7:38 6:43 94 3:56 6:20 87 3:37 4:21 — 40 81 —

56 4:40 7:31 6:37 93 3:53 6:15 86 3:34 4:18 — 39 80 —

57 4:36 7:25 6:31 91 3:50 6:09 85 3:31 4:15 — 39 79 —

58 4:33 7:19 6:25 90 3:45 6:04 83 3:28 4:10 - 38 77 -

59 4:29 7:13 6:19 89 3:43 5:59 82 3:25 4:07 - 37 76 —

60 4:25 7:07 6:14 88 3:40 5:54 81 3:23 4:03 — 37 75 2:30

61 4:22 7:01 6:09 86 3:37 5:50 80 3:20 4:00 - 36 74 2:28
62 4:18 6:56 6:04 85 3:34 5:45 79 3:17 3:57 - 36 73 2:26
63 4:15 6:50 5:59 84 3:32 5:41 78 3:15 3:54 - 35 72 2:24
64 4:12 6:45 5:54 83 3:29 5:36 77 3:12 3:51 - 35 71 2:22
E/L is easy/long; M is marathon; T is threshold; I is interval; R is repetition.

(continued)

235
Table 11.2 (continued)
VDOT E/L Pace M Pace T Pace I Pace R Pace

km mile mile 400 1000 mile 400 1000 1200 mile 200 400 800

65 4:09 6:40 5:49 82 3:26 5:32 76 3:10 3:48 - 34 70 2:20

66 4:05 6:53 5:45 81 3:24 5:28 75 3:08 3:45 5:00 34 69 2:18

67 4:02 6:30 5:40 80 3:21 5:24 74 3:05 3:42 4:57 33 68 2:16

68 4:00 6:26 5:36 79 3:19 5:20 73 3:03 3:39 4:53 33 67 2:14
69 3:57 6:21 5:32 78 3:16 5:16 72 3:01 3:36 4:50 32 66 2:12
70 3:54 6:17 5:28 77 3:14 5:13 71 2:59 3:34 4:46 32 65 2:10
71 3:51 6:12 5:24 76 3:12 5:09 70 2:57 3:31 4:43 31 64 2:08
72 3:49 6:08 5:20 76 3:10 5:05 69 2:55 3:29 4:40 31 63 2:06
73 3:46 6:04 5:16 75 3:08 5:02 69 2:53 3:27 4:37 31 62 2:05
74 3:44 6:00 5:12 74 3:06 4:59 68 2:51 3:25 4:34 30 62 2:04
75 3:41 5:56 5:09 74 3:04 4:56 67 2:49 3:22 4:31 30 61 2:03
76 3:39 5:52 5:05 73 3:02 4:52 66 2:48 3:20 4:28 29 60 2:02
77 3:36 5:48 5:01 72 3:00 4:49 65 2:46 3:18 4:25 29 59 2:00
78 3:24 5:45 4:58 71 2:58 4:46 65 2:44 3:16 4:23 29 59 1:59
79 3:32 5:41 4:55 70 2:56 4:43 64 2:42 3:14 4:20 28 58 1:58
80 3:30 5:38 4:52 70 2:54 4:41 64 2:41 3:12 4:17 28 58 1:56
81 3:28 5:34 4:49 69 2:53 4:38 63 2:39 3:10 4:15 28 57 1:55
82 3:26 5:31 4:46 68 2:51 4:35 62 2:38 3:08 4:12 27 56 1:54
83 3:24 5:28 4:43 68 2:49 4:32 62 2:36 3:07 4:10 27 56 1:53
84 3:22 5:25 4:40 67 2:48 4:30 61 2:35 3:05 4:08 27 55 1:52
85 3:20 5:21 4:37 66 2:46 4:27 61 2:33 3:03 4:05 27 55 1:51
E/L is easy/long; M is marathon; T is threshold; I is interval; R is repetition.

236
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 237

FOOTBALL

Speed pays enormous dividends for almost every athlete in almost every sport.
The faster an athlete can perform, the better. For this reason, I find specific
speed and agility drills to be most important for football players of all positions.
Once a football player has acquired the necessary basic strength and aerobic
fitness, he is ready to develop his speed and quickness through drills that develop
reaction time (the motor reaction to a signal), movement time (the ability to
move a limb quickly), and general running speed (the frequency and synchroni¬
zation of the arms and legs).
Some of the most important components of a football player’s speed develop¬
ment include the following:

• Starting strength—the power required to begin a movement, such as the ini¬

tial push required by an offensive lineman off the snap. Starting strength in¬
volves reaction time, dius the neurological center is important. It also is one of
the first abilities we lose to age, so older athletes have to emphasize it more in
training. You can improve starting strength in the weight room by using tech¬
niques such as pausing partway through a repetition. You can also improve
starting strength by using visual or audio cues to trigger the explosive move¬
ment.
• Acceleration—the ability to gain speed, beginning with the initial movement
(starting strength) and continuing until reaching full speed. Acceleration in
the weight room is defined as bar speed.
• Maximum velocity—top speed that can be held for only a few seconds. Most
football players seldom attain maximum velocity during a game; starting speed
and acceleration are much more important for football. Still, there are drills
and sprinting form fundamentals that can help any athlete run faster.
• Lateral speed and agility—the ability to change direction as quickly as pos¬
sible while maintaining body control and mechanics. Outside of the weight
room, if I were asked to choose only one method of training for football, I
would choose lateral speed and agility drills (see chapters 8 and 9 for more
agility drills).
• Power endurance—the ability to perform a maximal explosive effort over and
over again. An offensive lineman not only has to explode off the snap, he has
to do it 60 to 80 times a game. Power endurance is built by doing a high
number of repetitions in an exercise.
• Speed endurance—the ability to run or accelerate at full speed over and over
again. A wide receiver has to run pass pattern after pass pattern at nearly full
speed. Speed-endurance drills help increase speed and are good general con¬
ditioners.

The following four drills help football players develop all six of these compo¬
nents of football-specific speed.
238 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

.— Mil

Lying-Start Sprint

Purpose
To develop starting speed, acceleration, maximal velocity, and power and speed endurance

Skills Used
Explosive starts, acceleration, and good sprinting form

Procedure
1. Set a distance of between 10 and 30 yards, and have the athlete start from a lying position at
the start line.
2. At the starting sound from the coach, the athlete quickly gets up and sprints at 100 percent
of maximum speed to the finish line.
3. The athlete walks back to the starting line and repeats the exercise for a total of 10 repeti¬
tions.

Variations
Try longer sprints from a three-point starting stance (track start) or from a flying start
(standing start from 10 yards behind the “starting line”). The number of repetitions the
athlete does of these variations depends on the intensity of the sprint. For example, if the
athlete is to sprint at 60 percent of maximum speed, he should do more repetitions than if
he is sprinting at 80 percent to 90 percent of maximum speed. The amount of rest between
each sprint will also depend on the intensity and volume. For 80 percent to 100 percent
maximal sprints, athletes should rest 90 seconds (or full recovery) between sprints. Try
mixing in sets of different intensities of sprints.

Build Up Acceleratio n
Purpose
To develop starting speed, acceleration, maximal velocity, and speed endurance
Skills Used
Changing speed, acceleration, and good sprinting form
Procedure
1. Mark off a 40- to 60-yard course.
2. The athlete starts from a three-point stance (track start) and accelerates up to 75 percent of
maximal speed by the halfway point of the distance.
3. At the halfwaypoint, the athlete holds the speed at 75 percent through the end of the sprint.
4. The athlete walks back to the starting line to recover and repeats the exercise for a total of
6 to 10 repetitions.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 239

Four-Corner Agility
Purpose
To develop starting speed, acceleration, lateral agility, and endurance
Skills Used
Explosive starts, lateral movements, and quick changes of direction
Procedure
1. Mark off a 20- by 20-yard to 40- by 40-yard square using cones to mark the comers.
2. The athlete starts from a three-point stance at one cone.
3. Using quick movements, he performs a lateral shuffle to the second cone, turns and backpedals
to the third cone, cariocas to the fourth cone, and sprints back to the start.
4. The athlete perfomis three repetitions with one minute of rest between them.

Sprint Backpedal

Shuffle
Start /\

Variations
Choose other lateral movements, shuffles, or sprints for each leg of the drill and try chang¬
ing directions.
 240 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Ladder Backpedal Sprint

Purpose
To develop agility, general conditioning, and acceleration with changes of direction
Skills Used
Explosive starts, acceleration, deceleration, backpedalling, and quickness in changing di¬
rection
Procedure
1. The athlete starts from a two-point stance with the back to the starting line.
2. He backpedals 10 yards, pivots to the right 180 degrees, sprints 10 more yards, and touches the
line with either foot.
3. The athlete then backpedals 10 yards, pivots to the left 180 degrees, and sprints 10 yards back to
the starting line.
4. He rests 60 seconds before repeating the drill.
Football

Key Points
• Shoulders and body weight should be kept slighdy forward during backpedaling.
• The athlete accelerates after the turn.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 241

Pete Draovitch

History has shown that golfers are typically not willing to spend long hours work¬
ing out to improve their game. But just as in sports such as football, basketball,
and baseball, the role of fitness in golf has evolved and increased in importance.
With younger, more athletic players taking up the game, fitness may be not just
an advantage but a necessity for competition at an elite level.
The power demands of golf are unique. A player must launch a ball 300 yards
during a drive and follow that blast with a 65-yard wedge shot to the green. Golf
requires physical development similar to that of other athletic activities. The
amount of force the hips generate can equal that developed by the hips of an elite
discus thrower. Like a gymnast or diver, the golfer needs a powerful trunk to
create the stability that protects the spine. The arms must possess the same com¬
bination of firmness and softness that an NFL receiver needs to make a catch. A
sense of mobility, stability, and coordination is necessary to execute every golf
shot.
The four fitness components of the golf swing are sport-specific muscular
strength, functional flexibility, dynamic postural balance, and segmental coordi¬
nation. Perhaps the most important element, however, is motor learning. Re¬
search has shown that motor output is guided by sensory input except in the case
of ballistic movements such as jumping, punching, throwing, and swinging a golf
club. These brief, all-or-nothing, high-speed movements cannot rely on the sen¬
sory system for feedback during the short period of their execution. Training the
body to move with the forces required by a discus thrower, elite-level gymnast,
or NFL receiver is difficult. Golfers ask the lower part of the body to create an
explosion like that produced by an NFL running back trying to break tackles,
and at the same time, ask the middle of the body to become a rigid lever for
transferring forces. To add to the complexity, golfers should also let the arms
hang like pieces of spaghetti (to borrow a line from Jack Nicklaus). Lee Trevino
noted that the arms should hang from the body such that if you allowed golf balls
to roll out of your mouth, they would land directly in your cupped hands. Given
factors such as structural and functional imbalances, swinging outside the limita¬
tions of the body, and not knowing what it feels like to make a great swing,
golfers are often faced with trying to improve a skill by trial and error.
According to research, sensory analyzers fall into five basic categories:

• Proprioceptive, or body movement and awareness

• Tactile, or sense of touch
• Vestibular, or balance and equilibrium
• Optic, or visual
• Acoustic, or auditory

Any time we attempt to teach a new skill, we must first make the person aware
of his or her limitations. After the player becomes consciously aware of a limita¬
tion, we attempt to correct it consciously. Following the conscious correction,
we try to ingrain the correct motor program into the brain so the player can
242 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

subconsciously recall it. The task of hitting a ball correctly and consistently is
extremely difficult, as any of us who have tried the game know. The problem is
that a player cannot know how to hit a good shot if he or she has not felt what it’s
like to hit a ball correctly. Using the following functional screen movement, how¬
ever, can help teach a player how an efficient golf swing should feel.

Golf Functional Screening

Before beginning a program, the player should undergo baseline fitness testing
(see chapter 2) in combination with some specific golf activities. The functional
screening movement that follows provides invaluable information about imbal¬
ances within the body by exposing structural and functional limitations. Other
golf-specific drills reveal coordination and balance shortcomings.

Starting Position
Attach tubing to a door at about shin level. The player wraps the waistband
around the left shoulder and turns in a clockwise direction until the tubing is
wrapped once around the body. The player assumes a golf stance. A jump-rope
handle may be adjusted to rest along the rib cage so that the tubing does not rest
directly on the body. Once the player has assumed the golf stance, he or she is
ready to do the drill.

Movement
The player stands away from the anchored location to develop a workable ten¬
sion in the tubing. He or she then assumes the address position and crosses the
arms so that they rest on the chest. The tubing should be resting so that it comes
off the left hip between the seven and eight o’clock positions. (In the address
position, straight ahead is twelve o’clock.) The player assumes the golf stance
and takes a backswing. The tubing will create resistance to help build the muscles
during the backswing. The tension created in the tubing will help pull the player
forward as he or she attempts the downswing. This helps with weight transfer
from the back leg to the front leg. If the player does not develop stability in the
front leg, the tubing will pull him or her forward, simulating the sliding motion
common among recreational golfers. Sliding results in loss of power and re¬
duced club-head speed at impact.

End Position
The player returns to the starting position. To alter the degree of difficulty or
work on individual components, adjust the tension in the tubing by having the
player move farther away from or closer to the anchor point. I sometimes use
this drill with rehabilitation patients directly on the driving range. Because no
door is available for an anchor point, I drive a tent peg into the ground and
secure the tubing to it. If you are going to do this, however, you should work in
groups of two. After every golf shot the person monitoring the routine should be
certain that the tent peg is still firmly in the ground.
By working with a partner, the golfer can use all five of the sensory analyzers.
The partner helps by providing auditory feedback. The eyes will automatically
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 243

work. The vestibular and balance systems get to experience the feeling of a good,
effortless golf shot. The tactile analyzer is being satisfied because the golfer feels
the tubing creasing in the correct areas if he or she is properly making the shoul¬
der turn. Finally, the body now knows, proprioceptively, what it feels like to hit a
good golf shot.

Golf Drills
It is difficult to relieve a golfer’s limitations without developing a custom pro¬
gram for the individual. Nevertheless, we can identify some common shortcom¬
ings that contribute to inconsistent golf. These include poor coordination, a faulty
swing, weak hip-girdle musculature that causes sliding in both directions, and
poor balance. Finally, the right side of the right-handed golfer will often be short¬
ened and tight, and the left side will be elongated and weak. The opposite effect
will occur in left-handed golfers. The primary focus of a custom program should
be to correct neuromuscular imbalances created by the nature of the sport.
Although it is not possible to choose four drills that relate specifically to every
golfer’s swing, the following drills address the most common limitations. Per¬
form two to three sets of 8 to 10 repetitions of each drill.

Hip-Trunk Separation
Purpose
To disassociate the hips from the trunk during the golf swing
Skills Used
Strength and flexibility in the trunk and coordination between the upper- and lower-body
segments
Procedure
1. The player assumes a golf stance in front of a mirror and places the hands across the chest.
2. Hinging at the hips, not bending at the back, the player rotates loading on the back leg while the
upper body assumes the backswing position. By using this action, the player disassociates the
lower body from the upper body, which is what creates separation in the golf swing. The motion
should not be painful. To decrease the stress, the player should remain in an upright position.
3. The player returns to the starting position.

Key Points
• The player should go only as far as the point where he or she feels a light stretch.
• It is best to do the drill in front of a mirror because this provides immediate feedback.

Variation
To feel loading on the back leg, the player may want to stagger the stance a bit, with the
right leg back for the right-handed golfer. Doing this will allow the player to feel more
loading on the right side.
244 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

. ... ............ ....

Hip-Trunk Separation and Connection

Purpose
To disassociate the hips from the trunk and to feel the transfer of weight to the front side

Skills Used
Weight shift and rotation
Procedure
1. The player assumes a golf stance in front of a mirror and places the hands across the chest.
2. The player performs the motion described in the Hip-Trunk Separation drill but finishes the
motion by transferring the weight from the back foot to the front foot, centering the hips toward
the target. The player hinges at the hips, not the back. This action creates movement recall,
which the player needs to consistendy reproduce the golf swing.
3. The front of the body faces the target, with weight rolled onto the left foot and the toes of the
right foot providing the main support on the ground.

Key Points
The player should swing within the limitations of the body so that the body is not over¬
stretched. Purposeful movement within a limited range of motion will provide better feed¬
back than movement through a much larger range, which provides feedback that may be¬
come harder to decipher as body strength and flexibility improve.
Variations
The variations are the same as those for the Hip-Trunk Separation.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 245

Tubing Abductor and Adductor

Purpose
To improve single-leg balance and develop strength of both the hip abductors and adduc¬
tors
Skills Used
Strength, flexibility, balance, and posture
Procedure
1. Attach tubing to the door and place a waist belt around the waist.
2. The player walks outward from the wall, creating tension in the tubing.
3. He or she lifts the outer leg off the ground and attempts to balance on the inner leg. This
stretches the inside part of the leg.
4. The player raises the inner leg off the ground and attempts to support his or her weight with the
outside leg. This works the outer muscles of the buttocks and leg.
5. The player returns to the starting position so that the tubing offers minimal tension and he or
she is able to balance with both feet on the ground.

Key Point
When the leg farthest from the tubing attachment is being worked on, good balance is
difficult to achieve, especially when the leg is loaded. The player may have to move in a bit
at first. Balance will improve within a few weeks.

Variation
If loading with tubing is too difficult, the player may begin doing something as simple as
standing in a doorway with the eyes open and progressing to eyes closed. When the player
is able to accomplish this for approximately 10 seconds, he or she can move outside the
doorway and initiate the progression again.
246 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Double-Leg Rotation Stretch

Purpose
To improve flexibility of the right side of the body and the hip girdle for the right-handed
golfer. (For left-handed golfers, substitute the opposite side throughout these instructions.)

Skills Used
Flexibility of tight side created during repetitive golf swing
Procedure
1. The player lies on the floor on the left side with the knees pulled toward the chest.
2. He or she rolls the right shoulder back to the floor while keeping the knees still. The right elbow
stays close to the body.
3. The left arm is placed on the right knee so that the knees are held close to the ground as the
player rolls the right shoulder toward the floor.

Key Points
• The player should roll only as far as the point where he or she feels a light stretch.
• The player must keep breathing and must not overstretch.
• Keeping the hip girdles flexible and the trunk and abdominal muscles strong helps to ensure
pain-free golf.

Variation
The player may attempt to do this in a seated position if he or she is unable to get on the
floor.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 247

Peter Twist

A sport scientist’s exploration of the biomechanical, anatomical, physiological,

bioenergetic, and neuromuscular demands of ice hockey produces an extensive
‘to do” list for the coach, and this is without even addressing the sport skills,
individual tactics, and team systems that will ultimately be needed for competi¬
tion.
The foundation of the game relies on an unnatural mode of locomotion—
moving on thin blades across a slippery surface, that is, skating. The complexity
of skating is exacerbated by the read-react-and-explode requirements of hockey,
which call for repetitive stop-and-start movements, tight turns, backward skat¬
ing, crossovers, and lateral movement, often while receiving contact. Add to the
mix carrying a long stick, controlling a tiny puck, passing, shooting, physically
warding off opponents, and delivering bodychecks, and it becomes obvious that
designing and prescribing a conditioning program specific to this unique sport is
an intriguing coaching challenge.
Performance enhancement and game preparation must draw on a multidimen¬
sional conditioning paradigm. Hockey is a high-velocity anaerobic sprint sport,
including acceleration, deceleration, abrupt stops, and explosive starts. Although
the anaerobic system fuels full-out 45-second shift activity, the aerobic energy
system can play an important role in between-shift recovery. The aerobic system
also makes an on-ice metabolic contribution if training is intense enough to ele¬
vate the lactate threshold. As a fall-collision sport, hockey requires large muscle
mass and exceptional strength, but it also demands high relative strength for
efficient movement. Extraordinary visual skills and the ability to execute fine
motor skills under fatigue and duress are critical components. Furthermore, hand-
eye coordination, reaction abilities, core power, balanced flexibility, propriocep¬
tion, unilateral balance, coordination, and agility all contribute to success. Speed
is important but quickness and speed endurance are even more crucial.
The are numerous factors to take into account in developing a conditioning
program for hockey: the individual player’s position, role on team (pure scorer
versus fourth-line physical checker), physical maturation, past training experi¬
ence, injury history, coach evaluations, scouting reports, physiological assess¬
ment data, on-ice testing, schedule density, and travel schedule.
Coaches attempt to develop a better athlete and an improved hockey player,
not just a stronger, more fit person. Fitness training has little to do with develop¬
ing better hockey players. General strength and fitness simply produce the foun¬
dation on which sport-specific conditioning is built. Individual player-develop¬
mental programs must consider hockey movement patterns, range of motion,
joint angles, contraction types, sequential activation of muscle firing, velocity,
sprint duration, force, time-motion analysis, work-to-rest ratios, fatigue indexes,
and positional demands.
Some of these considerations, such as movement pattern and mechanics, drive
exercise construction and drill design. Others, such as lifting tempo and sprint
duration, affect the variables that coaches manipulate to generate specific adap¬
tations. A meticulous study of the characteristics of the sport should drive exer¬
cise prescription. Without developing the exact physical tools that players draw
248 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

on for successful execution of skills, repetitive technical practice produces few

results.
Sport-specific conditioning must also incorporate skill rehearsal, individual
tactics, and segments of team systems. In a game, hockey players must cooperate
with their teammates, quickly moving into position for passes. They must be
able to read the play and position themselves to block opponents or draw them
away from the play. Sport conditioning programs to improve hockey players must
address game demands and incorporate technique and offensive and defensive
tactics. Offensive players select from a repertoire of maneuvers and deceptive
tactics to beat a defender. Likewise, defensive players and backchecking forwards
draw on select techniques and tactics to defend successfully in a one-on-one con¬
frontation.
For example, a dryland drill designed to improve the anaerobic system and
lateral movements under fatigue can also demand shifty moves and fakes com¬
mon during one-on-ones. A “forward” may try to move quickly to evade the
“defensive player” (a training drill partner), who in turn works hard to shadow
and contain his or her training partner. On the ice, a drill designed for quickness
and reaction skills may require the player to retrieve a puck quickly from the
corner and execute a breakout pass. These are two-layered drills. The basic goal
in the second example—to improve foot quickness and reaction skills—is masked
within a drill that practices a segment of a team system (a breakout).

Purpose
To condition stopping quickness, agility, explosive quickness, mobility, puckhandling,
anaerobic conditioning, one-on-one tactics, and visual awareness
Skills Used
Multidirectional skating, passing, shooting, containment, angling, offensive and defensive
tactics, communication, and mental skills such as rethinking their positioning, remember¬
ing which net they are attacking, and deciding how they will defend
Procedure
L The game takes place inside the neutral zone. Game boundaries are boards to boards and blue
line to blue line.
2. Two skaters (SA, SA, SB, and SB on diagram) and one goalie are active on each team. Skaters
attack and defend. They can pass to their goalie or to their stationary passer. Goaltenders are
encouraged to quarterback plays, move to support the play (i.e., turn it into a three on two), and
be prepared for quick counterattacks.
3. Each team also has one stationary passer (PA and PB) who is locked into position at the center
red line against the boards. Passers can receive passes and send passes but cannot move from
their exact position.
4. Resting players remain outside the neutral zone. Depending on die number of players, they can
be resting or participating in other drills. But die next four players (two per team) must be ready
to jump into the play on the whisde, which signals a “shift” change.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 249

5. Two coaches, one near each blue line, have a pile of pucks
that they are ready to inject onto the ice.
6. Nets are right at the center red line, back to back. The game
begins when a coach sends a puck into the neutral zone.
7. Any time a goal is scored or the puck travels over the blue
line, a coach immediately fires a puck back into the game,
reminding wandering players by yelling “puck.” Coaches
should dump most pucks toward tire net to maintain non¬
stop attacking and defending, but sometimes they can send
the puck over to a stationary passer.
8. Skaters are credited with 1 point per goal. A goalie who
scores earns his or her team three points.
9. At each shift change, the coach dumps a puck in on the
whistle. Finishing players must clear the neutral zone with¬
out touching the puck or interfering with new skaters. Two
new skaters jump in, one for each team. Two new station¬
ary passers also jump in.

Key Points
• Play continues with no stops, and players change shifts
without hesitation, immediately jumping into play.
• Skaters must keep their heads up, cycle to the net, sup¬
port the play, and move relative to their passer at the boards.

Partner Medicine Ball Full-Body Put With Lateral Shuffle

Purpose
To condition anaerobic endurance, generating explosive power under fatigue, lateral move¬
ment, and linking full-body power application into multijoint full-body put
Skills Used
Lateral movement, transfer of power from low to high, and mental toughness
Procedure
1. To establish game boundaries, test each athlete for his or her best-effort, full-body dirow using
the heaviest medicine ball and add 12 feet to that length. For example, a 20-foot full-body put
sets the length from end zone to end zone at 32 feet. The width is 12 feet. Mark the boundaries
with cones.
2. Two players position themselves in diagonally opposite comers, 6 feet out from their end-zone
line, standing upright, each with a medicine ball at die feet.
3. The drill begins on the whisde. Each player squats down, picks up the ball, and throws from the
legs up, aiming down the sideline.
4. As soon as they release, they must use quick lateral shuffles to get to the ball the partner threw.
5. Again they squat down, pick up the ball, and throw it down the sideline. They immediately
shuffle across to pick up die ball the partner is throwing.
(continued)
250 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

6. The goal is to prevent the partner from sending a ball into the player’s own end zone within a set
time and, likewise, to throw as many balls as possible into the partner’s end zone. If a ball crosses
an end-zone line, the defending player still continues the drill, gets to the ball, and throws it back
down the sideline.

Key Points
• To gain an edge and progress toward the partner’s end zone, a player must deliver a more
powerful throw that travels farther or move laterally more quickly (under fatigue) to get to the
ball sooner, preventing it from bouncing down the floor and thus setting up sooner for the
return throw.
• Players always let the incoming ball hit the floor at least once; they should not try to catch it in
the air if they arrive early.
• This is an extremely fatiguing drill. Players’ heart rates will reach maximum. Lactate accumu¬
lation is full body.

Purpose
To condition skating mobility, footwork, quickness, speed endurance, and anaerobic con¬
ditioning
Skills Used
Forward and backward skating with puckhandling, stopping and starting, transition from
forward to backward while facing play, shooting, hand-eye coordination, and tip-ins

Procedure
1. Each drill uses one goalie, one defensive player, and one forward. The defensive player starts in
the middle of the ice at the blue line. The forward begins in the middle of the slot.
2. Set up two piles of pucks toward the boards inside the blue line. Make sure all pucks in the slot
and behind the net are cleared.
3. On the whistle, the defensive player sprints over to one pile of pucks, drags a puck back to the
center of the ice, and aims a low and controlled slap shot for the forward to tip.
4. On the starting whistle, the forward begins by skating backward around the net to the middle of
the net. At that point, he or she must open up at the hips and turn fonvard to keep facing the play.
The forward’s objective is to move around the net and back into the slot quickly, to travel as close
as possible to the back of the net, and to watch the defensive player at all times.
5. The defensive player alternates sides until he or she has taken six point shots (three coming off
each side). The forward alternates direction of travel around the net, always jumping up into the
midslot position.

Key Points
• If the forward is much quicker than the defensive player, move the pucks in from the boards
(less distance for the defensive player to skate).
• If the defensive player is getting a shot away before tire forward reaches the midslot position,
make sure the pucks are right over at the boards and add a coach for the defensive player to
move around.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 251

• After each tip-in, make sure the forward starts backward, not turning from the slot to skate
forward toward the net and then turning backward around it. The movement is immediately
backward from the stationary slot position to midway around the net. Then the player turns
forward and jumps out and up into the slot as efficiendy as possible.

y Stride Lunge With Contact

Purpose
To condition stride power, leg strength, dynamic hip and groin flexibility, proprioception,
core stability, and single-leg dynamic balance
Skills Used
Hockey striding and keeping balance during contact
Procedure
1. Athletes work out in groups of three—one lunging and two walking alongside and providing
contact.
2. The lunge pattern is a long stride with a controlled descent. The player lunges out with the left
leg at an angle similar to his or her hockey stride, approximately 45 degrees, by outwardly rotat¬
ing at the hip. The player lands with the left foot out at the same angle so the knee is in line with
the foot (this also places the player in T-start position so the next lunge moves back across the
floor at 45 degrees).
3. Rather than pushing back to the start position, the player pushes off'with the right foot, strides
through to an upright position, and pauses to check balance. When balance is solid, the player
strides off to the opposite side, landing with the right foot. The player continues lunging left and
right down the floor.
4. Once the player can lunge under control with good balance, add contact. Two teammates walk
alongside, adding light contact at various locations and random times, including the arms and
shoulders at the starting and the landing positions.
5. The lunger must fire the appropriate muscles to counteract the contact and maintain solid bal¬
ance and a controlled lunge. The lunger should ward off contact to the arms.
6. The next progression is lunging with the eyes closed, still receiving random fight contact.

Key Point
The player should initially open the eyes just before landing and progress to having the
eyes closed throughout the entire sequence.

The efficacy of a hockey conditioning program is determined not only by physi¬

ological testing but, more important, by improvement in game performance.
Skill rehearsal, individual tactics, and segments of team systems must be inte¬
grated with conditioning for optimal player development and game readiness.
252 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

gfc...

Vern Gambetta
-1SOCCER

The primary goal of all soccer drills is to simulate the physiological, biomechani¬
cal, and psychological demands of the game. The basic paradigm for designing
and implementing drills is based on three main criteria: the demands of the sport,
the demands of the position, and the qualities of the individual athlete.

Sport Demands
Drills and conditioning (as you’ll read in chapter 13) should meet the specific
demands of the game of soccer. Soccer is a skill-dominant game that requires
quick starts and quick stops executed in a state of fatigue. The game calls for a
constant interplay of force production and force reduction. Most of the injuries
and performance errors occur during the force-reduction phase of stopping and
kicking. Consequently, drills that emphasize speed, speed endurance, and power
production are most effective for soccer players.
Notational analysis reveals some telling statistics about the game that have
direct implications on how to design drills that condition for soccer. Less than 2
percent of the total distance covered by a player during a match is with the ball.
Each match requires 1,000 to 1,200 bouts of action, which include walking, run¬
ning, sprinting, jumping, planting, and cutting. All require quick changes of di¬
rection as well as precise execution of game skills. About 16 percent of move¬
ment is backward or sideways. Sprints average about 15 meters in length and
generally occur about once every 90 seconds.

Position Demands
Although players are designated by positions in modern soccer, it is better to
think of a series of interchanging roles that change with the ebb and flow of the
game. Each position has unique demands as well as overlapping responsibilities.

• Forward—acceleration ability, explosiveness, and skill

• Midfield—skill, high level of specific fitness, and agility
• Defender—explosiveness, agility, and power
• Goalkeeper—reaction speed, agility, and explosive power

Qualities of the Individual Athlete

What are the physical qualities of the individual player relative to the demands
of soccer and the position? Every player is different. The toughest challenge is
designing effective drills that meet the demands of the individual player in a
team context. Evaluate each player relative to the following parameters:
• Work capacity
• Strength and power
• Speed
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 253

• Coordination and skill

• Flexibility
• Body composition

It is important to consider the player’s developmental level. The demands on

the young player who is still trying to master the intricacies of the game from a
technical and tactical viewpoint are quite different from the demands on the
mature professional player.
The following conditioning drills and exercises are divided into three catego¬
ries that help define their purpose. The goal of all the drills is to prepare to play.
Soccer practice and individual skill work will address the skill component.

• General—drills composed of generic movements that emphasize fundamental

movement skills. These are often done without the ball but, as in the “Leg
Circuit” below, can also be done with ball touches.
• Special—drills that imitate specific movements of the game, usually without
the ball. If the ball is involved, it is with an individual player and not in a team
situation (see “Carolina Shuttle,” page 254).
• Specific—drills that incorporate the actual movements of the game, with the
ball (see “Gates Workout,” page 255).

Skill level in a skill-dominant sport such as soccer will obviously have a signifi¬
cant impact on ability to play the game. Without mastery of skill, all aspects of
conditioning are for naught. At the same time, deficiency in any component of
conditioning will cause skill to erode quickly. A proper conditioning base will
create a favorable learning environment, which will enable players to attain a
higher level of skill development.

Leg Circuit

Purpose
To work on fundamental movement skills and develop strength endurance

Skills Used
Executing quality touches on the ball (during active recovery) while fatigued

Equipment
• One ball per player
• Box or bench 12 to 15 inches high
• Timer

Procedure
The circuit consists of 30 seconds of exercise and 30 seconds of active recovery involving
contact with the ball. The goal is to perform as many repetitions of each exercise as pos¬
sible during the 30-second work period.

• Body-weight squat
(continued)
254 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

• Active recovery—play solo with the ball at the feet

• Body-weight lunge
• Active recovery—one-touch pass with a partner
• Body-weight step-up
• Active recovery—volley with a partner
• Body-weight jump squat

Key Points
Do this workout twice a week with two days of recovery between sessions during the off¬
season to develop strength endurance.

• Week #1—three circuits with three minutes of rest between circuits

• Week #2—three circuits with two minutes of rest between circuits
• Week #3—three circuits with no rest between circuits
• Weeks #4 through #6—When the player can do three circuits without stopping, add one
circuit each week. In the sixth week of the progression, the player can perform six circuits
without stopping.

For the high school player or developing player, the first three weeks are sufficient. The
college and professional player should follow the full six-week progression. For the devel¬
oping player who does not have the skill to execute quality touches on the ball, do not
include the ball.

Purpose
To develop speed endurance as well as the ability to stop and change direction
Skills Used
Stopping and changing direction
Equipment Needed
• Six 12-inch cones
• A stopwatch

Procedure
1. Set 12-inch cones in a line spaced at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 yards.
2. Players run the cones in a shutde fashion (5 yards and back, 10 yards and back, and so on),
attempting to achieve the following target times:

• Basic level—complete all shuttles in 40 seconds with 20 seconds of rest after each shuttle.
• Intermediate level—complete the first 5 or 6 shuttles in 3 5 seconds with 2 5 seconds of rest
between each shuttle. Run the last 4 or 5 (to complete a set of 10) in 40 seconds with 20 seconds
of rest after each shuttle.
• Highest level—complete all shuttles in 35 seconds with 25 seconds of rest after each shuttle.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 255

Key Points
• Emphasize the mechanics of stopping and starting. Although this is a conditioning drill,
players must never compromise good technique.
• If you add the ball, remember that energy cost rises significantly, so be sure to adjust the
volume of the work.
• This drill is appropriate throughout the training year. In the early season and midseason,
it is an effective team conditioning activity. Group players by position with specific goals
for each position group.

Variations
• Alternate one shuttle run without the ball and one shuttle run dribbling the ball around
the cone.
• Alternate one shuttle run without the ball and one shuttle run stopping and turning the
ball at the cone.

Gates Workout

Purpose
To work speed endurance into curved running and to couple that with quality passes
Skills Used
Accelerating, changing body position, and one-touch passing
Equipment Needed
• Two cones, one for the start of the flagged course and one for the finish
• Six corner flags (three pairs). Flags within each pair are placed 5 yards apart to form the
gates. Each pair of flags is positioned about 10 yards from the pair closest to it.
• One ball

Procedure
1. Players line up in two lines (a line of starters and a line of receivers). Starter #1 (at the
starting line) passes the ball to receiver #1 (on the receiving line). Starter #1 then immedi¬
ately accelerates through the flagged course to the finish cone. After crossing the finish line,
starter #1 jogs to the end of the receiving line.
2. Once receiver #1 receives the ball from starter #1, he or she immediately passes the ball
back to the starting line (to starter #2) and sprints 10 yards before jogging to the end of the
starting line.
3. Starter #2 passes the ball as soon as he or she receives it to continue the process.

Key Points
• Players accelerate through the flags.
• Players jog back to the receiving line.
• Players in the receiving line should be moving constantly—no standing!
(continued)
256 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Variations
• Execute for a set number of repetitions: 6 to 8 repetitions for developing players, 8 to 10
repetitions for high school players, and 12 to 15 repetitions for college or professional
players.
• Execute for a set time and keep track of how many repetitions players attain in the pre¬
scribed time. Developing players perform the workout for 3 minutes, high school players
for 5 to 8 minutes, college and professional players for 8 to 10 minutes.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 257

TENNIS E. Paul Roetert and Barrett Bugg

In a French Open Final, Sergei Bruguera and Jim Courier battled for over five

Tennis
hours. Postmatch analysis revealed that a total of only 15 minutes of actual ten¬
nis involving sprinting and constant shot adjustment with the feet—was played
during that time span! That is, within the obvious aerobic component of a match
of tennis (in this case, five hours), the sport also requires explosive bursts of quick¬
ness and power. Due to enhanced technology and increased knowledge about
how to properly execute strength training and conditioning for tennis, the game
now demands more and better agility than ever before.
Here are some common tennis statistics that help a coach develop effective
conditioning drills for the sport:

• Players are allowed 25 seconds between points.

• Players are allowed 90 seconds on a changeover.
• An average point on clay courts lasts 10 seconds.
• An average point on hard courts lasts 5.2 seconds.
• An average point on grass courts lasts 2.8 seconds.
• The average proportion of effective playing time versus non-playing time is
3 5 percent to 65 percent.
• The average distance run per stroke is four meters.
• The average number of directional changes per point is four.

Although improving strength and conditioning involves intensity, duration,

frequency, mode, and progression, tennis drills focus most direcdy on intensity
and duration. Intensity is essential because of the anaerobic demands of the sport.
The duration of each tennis point is typically very short; training should reflect
this sport-specific characteristic. Following are some sample drills focusing on
these training variables.

Box Drill

Purpose
To develop anaerobic capacity, first-step quickness, agility, split-step timing, balance, and
good posture
Skills Used
Acceleration, deceleration, change of direction, and unpredictable movement

Procedure
1. Mark off a square or rectangular area that is large enough to allow the athlete to move two to six
steps in every direction from the middle.
2. The player starts in the middle of the box while a coach stands outside of the box ready to supply
a directional signal.
258 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

3. The coach signals which direction the player should move by pointing high toward one of the
rear corners of the box or low toward one of the near comers of the box.
4. Upon the signal, the player runs to the specified comer, touches it with the foot, returns to the
starting position in the middle of the box, and performs a split step (similar to the technique
skiers use to turn, a split step is an unweighting technique in which the athlete quickly bends the
knees to take the weight off the feet for a split second) before the next signal is given. The coach
should supply the next signal when the player is two to four inches off the ground in order to
assure minimal, but manageable, response time.
5. The player repeats two to five sets of the drill either based on time (5 to 10 seconds) or number
of repetitions (5 to 10) using a 1:2 work-to-rest ratio and taking no more than 25 seconds for
recovery.

Key Points
A split step must be performed each time the player reaches the middle of the box. The
next signal should be given based on the athlete’s individual response time capabilities. For
instance, if a player cannot respond in time, then the signal should be given while he or she
is higher off the ground (before landing) during the split step.
Variations
• Attach rubber tubing to the player’s waist or hips at various angles to increase resistance.
• Vary the surface for the drill (grass, clay, hard surface, or sand) to improve agility.
• Add a straight-ahead movement to mimic the retrieval of a drop shot.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 259

Triangle Drill

Purpose
To develop hip mobility, anaerobic capacity, first-step quickness, agility, split-step timing,
and balance
Skills Used
Acceleration, deceleration, change of direction, unpredictable movement, vertical jump¬
ing and landing
Procedure
1. Set up a triangle big enough to allow the player to move one to four steps in each prescribed
direction. The wide portion (bottom) of the triangle should represent the room needed for
forehand and backhand volleys, while the point (top) of the triangle should allow room for
overhead shots.
2. One player stands in the middle of the triangle. A coach standing to the side signals the point of
the triangle the player should move toward. The coach points low to either side for a low fore¬
hand or backhand volley and points straight up for an overhead.
3. Upon the signal, the player runs to the specified comer, per¬
forms the specified action, returns to the starting position,
and does a split step before the next signal is given. The
coach should supply the next signal when the player is
two to four inches off the ground in order to assure
minimal, but manageable, response time.
4. The athlete repeats two to five sets either for time
(15 to 20 seconds) or number of repetitions (5 to
15) using a 1:2 work-to-rest ratio and taking no
more than 25 seconds for recovery.

Key Points
• Emphasize that a drop step (such as a football quarterback uses after the snap) is preferred over
backpedaling to most efficiendy and effectively get back for the overhead.
• Encourage athletes to get low on the volleys. Performing a shoulder-high, hip-high, or knee-
high volley is not the goal here; rather players should position the racket so low that it is nearly
touching the ground. Patrick Rafter and Jana Novotna are known for getting incredibly low
like this for volleys.

Variations
• Attach rubber tubing to the player’s waist or hips at various angles to increase resistance.
• Vary the surface for the drill (grass, clay, hard surface, or sand) to improve agility.
• Add a straight-ahead movement to mimic the retrieval of a drop shot.
 260 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Step Off, Split, and React

Purpose
To develop first-step quickness, agility, split-step timing, and balance
Tennis

Skills Used
Acceleration, deceleration, and the recovery step

Procedure
1. The athlete starts by standing on an 18- to 24-inch high bench or wood box. A coach stands to
the side ready to signal.
2. As the athlete steps off the bench and is in the air, the coach points quickly to the athlete’s
forehand or backhand side.
3. The athlete lands with a split step and quickly explodes in the designated direction for two to five
steps.
4. He or she then recovers back to the split-step point with proper footwork.
5. The athlete performs three sets of two to six repetitions.

Key Points
• Perform this drill on an appropriately soft surface (not cement).
• This drill is intended for intermediate to advanced athletes who have developed trunk and leg
strength. Good posture and a quiet landing are essential requirements for performing this drill.
• Heavy athletes may want to limit pounding activities such as these to avoid lower-body joint
injuries.

Variations
Use a lightweight vest on the upper body or a rubber tubing cord attached at the waist to
add resistance. A sport cord can also supply an overspeed training stimulus.

Purpose
To develop first-step quickness, high-intensity movement training, response time, and
heightened awareness during high-intensity training
Skills Used
Acceleration, deceleration, agility, the recovery step, weight transfer, and split-step timing
as well as tennis-related skills such as unit turning, loading, and racket preparation
Procedure
1. Set up two cones or place tape approximately two to five steps from where the player will be
starting. These will serve as the lateral limits for the drill.
2. A coach or partner stands five feet in front of and facing the player to provide the movement
signal by pointing in the intended direction.
3. When the player is in the ready stance, the coach points quickly to the athlete’s forehand or
backhand side.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 261

4. The athlete quickly explodes in the designated direction for two to five steps and correcdy
completes the shadowing of the shot.
5. He or she then recovers back to the starting point with proper footwork and split steps before
the next signal is given.
6. The athlete performs two to three sets of 4 to 10 movements. The work-to-rest ratio should be
1:2 and the athlete should rarely take more than 25 seconds rest.

Key Points
• The coach should give the next signal just before the athlete touches the ground during the
split step.
• The player should concentrate on proper technique for best results.

Variations
• Use rubber tubing attached to the player’s waist or hips at various angles.
• Vary the surface for the drill (grass, clay, hard surface, or sand) to improve agility.
• Have the player start the drill with his or her eyes closed, responding to an aural stimulus.
• Encourage the player to move at an angle to cut the ball off instead of moving direcdy to the
side.
 262 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

VOLLEYBALL Courtney Carter

Volleyball is a game of skills and strategies. One skill is the ability to place the
ball in the desired location, with the right height, direction, and speed. An ath¬
lete must be able to time the approach and jump to attack or block the ball. The
athlete must also be able to react to the opponent’s placement of the ball and
move quickly in the correct direction. These are the skills that players work on
during practices, scrimmages, and games. Without a doubt, the best and most
specific way to become a better volleyball player is to play volleyball. The pri¬
Volleyball

mary objective of the volleyball strength and conditioning program is to develop

explosive power and agility and to improve volleyball-specific endurance.
The mode of training included in a strength and conditioning program must
match the physical adaptations that are specific to volleyball. By first performing
a needs analysis, the coach can design a conditioning program that uses the rel¬
evant energy systems, movement patterns, and power.

Volleyball-Specific Endurance
To develop a better understanding of endurance as it relates to volleyball, it is
helpful to look closely at how energy is supplied. The energy source that players
use depends on the intensity and duration of the exercise. Examining the energy
requirements of the sport reveals that the average play in volleyball lasts about 6
seconds, followed by 14 seconds of rest, not including timeouts or player substi¬
tutions. This analysis underscores the need for volleyball players to focus on
maximum-intensity efforts by performing short, quick drills followed by adequate
recovery. Conversely, the practice of using short rest periods between drills to
“push through” the pain threshold is counterproductive to developing maximum
performance potential. Without adequate recovery, maximum efforts are not
possible, and the training is no longer specific to volleyball. Furthermore, swim¬
ming or bicycling for long distances does not duplicate what the athlete needs to
play volleyball. This kind of training causes an athlete’s muscle tissue to take on
aerobic characteristics, which are counterproductive to developing the explo¬
sive, powerful muscle contractions that volleyball requires.

Agility
When designing a volleyball conditioning program, consider the specific types
of movements needed to play the sport. Essentially, a volleyball player needs to
be able to attack, block, and dig effectively for an entire game. To get in the
proper position to carry out these tasks, the player must be able to execute the
basic motor skills of changing direction, starting, stopping, shuffling, and jump¬
ing. Therefore, agility drills specific to volleyball should be part of the program.
In setting up an agility program for volleyball, remember that the court is
about 30 feet by 30 feet. Doing sprint drills that incorporate only straight-ahead
running is not particularly helpful to volleyball players. The average number of
steps taken in any one direction during a match is two to three. What is important
is being able to start, stop, and change direction quickly. A volleyball player must
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 263

be able to move forward, backward, and side to side, and to execute front-to-side
angles and back-to-side angles. Being able to move quickly from a horizontal
plane to jump into a vertical plane is also important. This horizontal to vertical
movement must be executed regardless of the initial direction of movement. The
size of the court and the types of movements used in playing the sport clearly
illustrate the importance of including a variety of movements and footwork skills
in a volleyball program.

Power and Explosiveness

After agility, the next important element in a conditioning program for volley¬
ball is power or explosiveness. Although speed is not a concern in volleyball, the
ability to accelerate is essential. The more powerful the athlete, the faster he or
she can accelerate. The superior volleyball athlete can go from having no move¬
ment to maximum speed in two or three steps. This comes from the ability to
accelerate quickly. Volleyball is also a game of deceleration. Players should have
the ability to stop on a dime and change direction quickly.
Newton’s second law states that force = mass X acceleration. Therefore, the
greater the force, the greater the acceleration. Furthermore, the development of
power is as important for agility as it is for jumping. Both eccentric contractions
(stretching of a muscle) and concentric contractions (shortening of a muscle)
occur when executing many sports skills that require a maximum rate of force
development. An eccentric contraction followed by a concentric contraction is
known as the stretch-shortening cycle. When an athlete jumps or changes direc¬
tion, an eccentric contraction, or stretch, occurs in the muscles of the hips, knees,
and ankles. When the muscle is stretched, elastic energy builds up in it. The
muscle then fights to return to its normal resting length, similar to the way a
stretched rubber band pulls back to its original size. If the muscles shorten im¬
mediately after the stretch, greater force and power can be generated.
Conditioning drills for volleyball players are divided into these two categories:
power development and agility. Both types of movement require explosiveness
and use the stretch-shortening cycle. The downward movement when executing
a jump stretches the muscles and tendons of the hips, knees, and ankles. This
causes elastic energy to build up in these muscles. If the direction of the jump is
reversed quickly, a greater force is generated, thus enabling the body to go higher.
Agility also uses the stretch-shortening cycle. As an athlete stops quickly to change
directions, the same muscles are stretched (in the hips, knees, and ankles). Again,
elastic energy builds up in these muscles. If the athlete changes direction quickly
a greater force is generated, enabling the body to accelerate faster.
The volleyball conditioning program uses the split-routine method of train¬
ing. This simply means that the program is split into working different types of
exercise movements on alternating days. The split routine allows the body to
recover and rebuild from one type of exercise movement while the player works
on a different type of exercise movement. With the split routine, at least two full
days of recovery occur between similar exercise movements. The split routine
used in this conditioning program is divided into plyometric (power) drills and
agility drills.
 264 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Before beginning a plyometric program, athletes must learn to land properly.

This is accomplished by doing a series of landing drills followed by a series of
box drills. The purpose of the landing drills is to develop proper jumping and
landing technique and prepare the body for more intense power drills. The first
landing drill that players perform is the drop jump. After athletes learn to land
correctly, they perform a series of box drills. The box-drill routine continues to
emphasize proper landing and begins to develop explosive vertical and lateral
movements.
Volleyball

Drop Jump

Purpose
To strengthen the legs and hips and learn how to land
Skills Used
Proper neuromuscular landing and jumping
Procedure
1. The athlete stands on a plyometric box with feet parallel and about hip-width apart.
2. He or she steps off the box, landing on the balls of both feet.
3. Upon landing, the athlete flexes the knees and hips and holds the position for a five-second
count.
4. He or she then relaxes the legs and immediately gets on the box for the next repetition.
5. The athlete completes five repetitions.

Key Point
Start with a 24-inch high box and gradually increase the height of the box (up to 3 6 inches)
as strength increases.

Depth Jump

Purpose
To develop explosive vertical movements
Skills Used
Proper landing and jumping technique
Procedure
1. The athlete stands on top of a box with feet hip-width apart.
2. He or she steps off the box, lands on both feet, and immediately jumps as high as possible.
3. The athlete swings both arms straight up while jumping as if making a block or attacking.
4. He or she does five jumps.

Key Points
• When landing, die body should flex at the knees to absorb the weight.
 Incorporating Sport-Specific Skills Into Conditioning 265

• The athlete must not stay on the ground; he

.•■••••■.-i
or she must jump up as quickly as possible.
• Make sure the landing surface is firm, yet has
some resiliency (carpet, rubber flooring, etc.).
Variation
Have the athlete jump to a target overhead to
assure maximum-effort jumps.

e Transition

Purpose
To develop footwork patterns and improve agility
Skills Used
Proper backpedal and shuffle technique
Procedure
1. Set up 7 to 10 cones three yards apart in a zigzag pattern.
2. The athlete stands in a two-point stance with knees slightly bent, torso upright, and head up.
3. He or she backpedals diagonally behind the first cone.
4. The athlete then shifts feet and shuffle steps to the side of the next cone.
5. He or she squares the body and makes a bumping action with the arms.
6. The athlete repeats the same footwork pattern throughout the rest of the cones.

Key Points
• The athlete should stay low throughout the drill.
• The shoulders must be over the feet on the backpedal movement.
• The athlete should eliminate false steps when making the transition from one movement to
tire next.
 266 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

.::::..:....1,11111
Purpose
To improve footwork and quickness
Skills Used
Maintaining proper position throughout continuous changes of direction
Procedure
1. The athlete stands facing a row of 10 cones that have been placed one yard apart.
Volleyball

2. He or she steps with the right foot diagonally forward to the right of the first cone and then
slides the left foot to the right foot.
3. Taking the next step, the athlete leads with the left foot to the left side of the next cone and then
slides the right foot to the left foot.
4. He or she zigzags through all the cones.

Start

Facing this direction-

Key Points
• Movement is quick and explosive.
• The hips and shoulders are kept square.
• Both feet should go around each cone.
• The athlete pushes off with the outside foot.

Variation
Have the athlete perform this drill while holding a medicine ball with the arms extended
up to ensure proper passing position.
Periodizing Training
for Peak Performance
Tudor O. Bompa

It is well known that organized people are more productive than others. This
holds true in sports training; an athlete who plans a program well is more effi¬
cient in his or her conditioning. An effective plan, which normally translates into
better performance, strongly depends on periodization.
The term itself is derived from period, which in this case refers to a particular
phase of training. But the periodization concept is more than that; it includes the
following two aspects of a training program:
• Periodization of the annual plan, or how to divide the annual plan into smaller
phases that are easier to manage
• Periodization of the motor abilities (strength, speed, and endurance), or how
to manipulate a sequence of training methods and concepts to produce a sport-
specific quality such as power, power endurance, or muscular endurance

267
 268 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Anyone using periodization will feel its benefits. First, it provides a better,
more effective way of arranging the annual plan, in which training loads and
stress alter from phase to phase. Similarly, periodization builds specific emphasis
on volume (quantity) and intensity (quality, speed, and power) of training into
each phase (see pages 278 to 280). By varying the intensity of stress and empha¬
sizing physical, technical, tactical, and psychological training elements during
preparatory and competitive phases, the athlete facilitates better peaking and
more consistent performance during the competitive phase.
Many athletes have benefited from periodization. Canadian sprinters and track
cyclists, for instance, never broke a world record and were not even visible on
the world sports scene before applying periodization in the 1980s and 1990s.
Since their exposure to periodized training, especially the periodization of
strength, they have been ranked among the best in the world, breaking world
and Olympic records. Many rowers, tennis players, swimmers, and triathletes
from other countries have also noticed dramatic improvements from using this
method of planning. The application of periodization to team sports has also
been effective. Several U.S. college football teams that used periodization have
climbed from the bottom of their league standings to the top.

PERIODIZATION OF THE ANNUAL PLAN

Figure 12.1 illustrates the structure of an annual plan with only one peak, or
single periodization, where peak performance is planned to be achieved at the
time of the national championships (NC).
Most team sports and some seasonal individual sports such as skiing, rowing,
triathlon, and cycling use the one-peak cycle, or mono-cycle. Other sports such
as track and field and swimming use a two-peak annual plan, often called a bi¬
cycle or double periodization, which has two separate cycles, one for each peak.
For track and field, the two cycles are the indoor and outdoor competitions.

Figure 12.1 Annual plan for periodization.

 Periodizing Training for Peak Performance 269

Figure 12.2 Structure of a bi-cycle applicable in track and field.

Figure 12.2 illustrates such a plan. Note the difference in the peaking curve
between a mono-cycle and a bi-cycle.
As exemplified by figure 12.2, a bi-cycle annual plan has two main peaks: the
first in late February or early March, the indoor championships (IC), and the
second in late July, the national championships (NC). The dates of the two major
competitions dictate the length of training phases and subphases. Thus, prepara¬
tory 1 is longer than preparatory 2, and the two competitive phases are of almost
equal length. For the same reason, the general preparatory (GP) and the specific
preparatory phases (SP) are longer for the first cycle than the second cycle. Be¬
tween the first and second cycles is a two-week transition (T) phase, whereas
after the national championships in July a four- or five-week transition occurs.
Other sports such as gymnastics, wrestling, and martial arts have three main
competitions per year. This plan is a tri-cycle, or triple periodization. As seen in
figure 12.3, the proximity of the three main competitions results in shorter training
phases and subphases. Note also that the curve of peaking has more abrupt in¬
creases and decreases; the athlete must shift abruptly from GP to SP to peak at
the desired times of the year.
In figure 12.3, the months of the year are numbered rather than named. This
is simply because the main peaks of the sports using tri-cycles do not occur in the
same months.
Equally visible is the shortness of training time before each peak. The longest
preparatory time (PI) is in the first cycle. The other two preparatory periods are
shorter, especially in the third cycle (P3). These conditions also dictate that the
general preparatory (GP1, GP2, and GP3) subphases become shorter as the ath¬
lete advances through the cycles, especially in the third cycle. This brief analysis
shows that a good performance in all three peaks is possible only if solid physical
training is achieved through both general and specific (SP1, SP2, and SP3) physical
preparation at the beginning of each cycle, especially the first.
 270 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Figure 12.3 Tri-cycle with three peaks.

Selective Periodization
Training programs for junior athletes often duplicate those of elite athletes. Yet,
in most cases, those using the programs of successful athletes fail to analyze
whether junior athletes are ready for a multipeak plan or whether they can toler¬
ate the high-intensity training that accompanies the training programs of elite
athletes.
Irrespective of whether an athlete competes in a multipeak sport or a single¬
peak sport, the following types of annual plans must be considered.

• A mono-cycle is strongly advisable for junior athletes. The advantage is that it

has long preparatory phases free from the stress of competition. This allows
the coach to concentrate on developing skills and building a strong founda¬
tion of physical training.
• A bi-cycle is suggested for national-class athletes, individuals who can qualify
for national championships. Even in this situation, the preparatory phase should
be as long as possible to allow time to train the fundamentals.
• A tri-cycle and a multipeak plan are recommended only for advanced or
international-class athletes. It is assumed that these athletes have a solid
foundation and a background that allows them to handle with greater ease an
annual plan with three or more peaks.

Although the duration of training phases depends on the schedule of competi¬

tions, table 12.1 provides a guideline for the distribution of weeks per training
phase.

Characteristics of Annual Plan Training Phases

Irrespective of the number of peaks or cycles in an annual plan, all have three
standard phases: preparatory, competitive, and transition.
 Periodizing Training for Peak Performance 271

Table 12.1 Distribution of Weeks for Various Types of Annual Plans

Annual plan Preparatory Competitive Transition

(weeks) (weeks) (weeks) (weeks)
Mono-cycle 52 32 or more 10-15
Bi-cycle 26 1 3 or more 5-10 3-4
Tri-cycle 17-18 8 or more 3-5 2-3

Preparatory Phase
The preparatory phase is of enormous importance to the entire year of training.
During this period, the general framework of physical, technical, tactical, and
psychological preparation is developed for the competitive phase. Inadequate
training performed during this period will cause repercussions during the com¬
petitive phase, which no form of training can remedy. A significant amount of
training, based especially on increased volume (quantity of work), will in the
long run result in a relatively low level of fatigue after training and may enhance
recovery. Therefore, throughout the preparatory phase, and especially during
the initial part, a high volume of training is essential to cause adequate body
adaptation to the specifics of training.
In general terms, the objectives of training in this phase are the following:

• To acquire and improve general physical training

• To improve the motor abilities required by the sport
• To develop specific psychological qualities
• To develop, improve, or perfect technique
• To familiarize athletes with the basic strategic maneuvers to be employed in
subsequent phases

The preparatory phase should last between three and six months depending
on the climate, the characteristics of the sport, and the type of annual plan em¬
ployed. For individual sports such as track and field, rowing, and winter sports,
the duration should be between one and two times as long as that of the com¬
petitive phase. For team sports it may be shorter but should not be less than two
to three months.
The preparatory phase is divided into two subphases: general and specific prepa¬
ration. The general preparatory subphase has the objectives of developing work¬
ing capacity and general physical condition, improving technical elements, and
teaching basic game strategy. The foremost objective, however, should be to de¬
velop a high level of physical conditioning that will facilitate future training and
performance.
The specific preparatory, or the second part of the preparatory phase, represents
a transition toward the competitive season. Though the objectives of training
are similar to those of the general subphase, the character of training becomes
more specific. Although the volume of training is still high, most work (70 to 80
percent) is directed toward the specific exercises related to the skills or technical
patterns of the sport. Toward the end of this subphase, the volume tends to drop
 272 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

progressively, allowing an increase in the intensity or quality of training. For

sports in which intensity is an important attribute, such as sprinting, jumping,
and team sports, the volume of training must be decreased to allow the coach to
concentrate on sport-specific training.

Competitive Phase
The competitive phase has among its main tasks the perfecting of all training fac¬
tors; this enables athletes to improve their abilities and thus compete success¬
fully in the main competition or championship meet. Among the general
objectives of the competitive phase are the following:

• To improve motor abilities and psychological qualities according to the spe¬

cifics of the sport
• To perfect and consolidate technique
• To perfect tactical maneuvers and gain competitive experience

During the competitive phase, which for team sports includes precompetitive
or exhibition games, the goal is to improve performance from game to game
and, obviously, to qualify for the playoffs for the major competition of the year.
Before the playoffs or championship competition, a short taper, or unloading
phase, occurs. The goal of the taper is to facilitate peak performance, the best
performance of the year.
Let us examine the specifics of tapering for two types of sports: speed-power
sports (team sports, many of the track and field events, martial arts, etc.) and
endurance sports (most swimming events, triathlon, cross-country skiing, row¬
ing, canoeing, etc.). For each of the two types of sports, we will analyze the last
two weeks before the major championships of the year.
As illustrated by figure 12.4, in the first week the volume of training is reduced
by approximately 50 percent of previous levels. Intensity is reduced slightly and
progressively over the two-week phase. Intensity may have one peak in the first

Figure 12.4 Dynamics of volume and intensity for unloading phase in speed-power sports.
 Periodizing Training for Peak Performance 273

part of the second week, on Tuesday, although it will not be of high intensity.
Obviously, repetitions or drills of high intensity may be performed on any of the
days, bearing in mind the following: The number of repetitions or drills should
be much lower than during a normal week, and the rest interval should be longer
than normal to eliminate the possibility of accumulating fatigue before the
championships begin.
Figure 12.5 illustrates the tapering strategy of a sport where endurance is the
most important physical ability. Unlike speed-power sports, in which intensity
of training must be maintained, endurance sports require the participant to guard
against doing too much training at high intensity, which is the most fatiguing
element. Throughout the two weeks of tapering, therefore, intensity must be
progressively reduced. The volume of training, though decreased as well, re¬
mains slightly higher. In this way, the athlete preserves his or her fitness level
while removing the fatigue of high-intensity training because intensity drops
below 40 percent.

Transition Phase
After months of stressful training and many competitions or games, the transi¬
tion phase is a welcome change for athletes and coaches alike. The objective of tran¬
sition is to remove fatigue from both the body and mind, to relax psychologically,
and to regenerate biologically before a new annual plan starts. During transition,
however, the athlete must maintain an acceptable level of physical training, about
40 or 50 percent of the level of the competition phase. If this amount of training
is not performed, detraining of most of the qualities developed during the year
occurs, in the form of protein degradation and an inability to recruit the same
number of muscle fibers. Consequently, the rate of strength loss may be as much
as 3 or 4 percent in the first week, with even greater losses in the following weeks.
When strength decreases, so does speed because speed and quickness rely
heavily on the force of muscle contraction. Inactivity also affects endurance ca-

100 |-
n Volume
, . .. C C
90 rn Intensity
0 0

:: m
P
e
m
P
e

§::■ n
Days

Figure 12.5
in
Mon
ill III
Tue Wee Thu Fri Sat

The week pr eceding the competition

Sun Mon Tue W ed
1,j;
Thu Fri

The we ek of main competition

Dynamics of volume and intensity for unloading phase in endurance sports.

Sat Sun
274 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

pacity. A loss of some 7 percent occurs in the first two weeks (a 30 percent de¬
crease in the level of hemoglobin and a loss of up to 50 percent of mitochondria
volume).
To avoid excessive biological degeneration, the athlete must maintain two to
four workouts per week. Informal and relaxed training can be the norm.

PERIODIZATION OF MOTOR ABILITIES

One of the key elements in the success of periodization is how the main motor
abilities such as strength, speed, and endurance are trained during the annual plan.
In several sports, the benefits of periodization of motor abilities are not yet
recognized and therefore not applied. For instance, I have seen football players
worldng on maximum speed from February on without building any base, with¬
out doing any tempo running to develop an anaerobic-aerobic foundation. With¬
out a proper base, the athlete will reach a plateau in maximum speed training. In
addition, maximum nervous system stimulation, which occurs in maximum speed
training, cannot be maintained for long without fatiguing the central nervous
system (CNS). A well-developed periodization of speed, as shown in figure 12.6,
will eliminate such problems.
Figure 12.6 illustrates the periodization of main motor abilities. A brief expla¬
nation of the periodization of strength, endurance, and speed will define the
sequence and training methods employed in each phase. Adherence to the
periodization sequence of specific phases develops the necessary combination of
abilities for each sport. All but a few sports require a certain combination of
motor abilities. Developing the correct mixture, through periodizing motor abili¬
ties, is the secret to achieving the best specific conditioning for each sport.
Figure 12.6 refers to a mono-cycle annual plan. It is easy to apply the same
concept to a bi- or tri-cycle. The same sequence, with more condensed phases, is
repeated as many times as the number of competitive phases in a plan.

Periodization of Strength
During the training phases of the annual plan, strength-training plans and meth¬
ods vary depending on the requirements of a given sport. Although the critical
ingredient for many sports is power, for others muscular endurance is the key
element. Power, or the ability to apply force in the shortest time, is a combina¬
tion of speed or quickness and strength. Football, baseball, most other team
sports, martial arts, sprinting, jumping, throwing, and so forth are all sports in
which the level of power has a strong impact on final performance.
Muscular endurance, on the other hand, refers to the ability to apply force
against a lower resistance for a long period. Athletes in most swimming events,
rowing, canoeing, triathlon, cross-country skiing, and so forth benefit from im¬
proving muscular endurance to the highest level realistically possible. Let us briefly
examine the specific training phases and methods of the periodization of strength.

Anatomical Adaptation
Following a transition phase, when athletes usually do little strength training, it
is scientifically and methodologically sound to begin a strength program aimed
 Per iodizing Training for Peak Performance 2 75

Phases Preparatory Competitive Transition

General Specific Main

Subphases Precompetitive Transition
preparatory preparatory competitions

Conversion:

• Power
Anatomical Maximum
Strength • Muscular Maintenance C Compensation
adaptation strength
endurance
• or both

• Aerobic
Aerobic endurance Specific Aerobic
Endurance
endurance • Specific endurance endurance
endurance

• Specific • Specific
speed speed
Aerobic and • Alactic • Agility
Play and
Speed anaerobic
• Lactic • Reaction games
endurance
• Speed time
endurance • Speed
endurance

Figure 12.6 Periodization of motor abilities.

at adapting the anatomy to a new strength program. The main objective of the
anatomical adaptation phase is to involve most muscle groups, thus preparing
the muscles, ligaments, tendons, and joints to endure the subsequent long, strenu¬
ous phases of training. A general strength program, using many exercises (9 to
12) performed comfortably without pushing too hard, is desirable. Apply the
following to help achieve the objectives of this first phase: a load of 40 to 60
percent of the athlete’s maximum, 8 to 12 repetitions in two or three sets, per¬
formed at a low to medium rate, with a rest interval of one to one-and-a-half
minutes between exercises, over 4 to 6 weeks. Longer periods of anatomical ad¬
aptation (8 to 12 weeks) should certainly be considered for junior athletes and
those without a strong background in strength training.

Maximum Strength Phase

The level of maximum strength affects both types of strength—power and mus¬
cular endurance. The athlete cannot reach a high standard of power without
achieving a high level of maximum strength. Because power is the product of
speed and maximum strength, it is logical to develop maximum strength first
and then convert it into power. During the maximum strength phase, then, the
goal is to develop maximum strength to the highest level the athlete is capable of
reaching. The duration of this phase (one to three months) is a function of the
sport’s events and the athlete’s needs. This phase may be quite long, perhaps
276 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

three months, for a shot-putter or football player, whereas an ice hockey player
may allocate only one month for the development of this type of strength.

Conversion Phase
To meet the needs and characteristics of the sport or event, maximum strength
must be converted into sport-specific qualities such as power, muscular endur¬
ance, or both. Through the application of the appropriate training method for
the type of strength sought and the use of training methods specific to the se¬
lected sport, maximum strength is gradually transformed into power or muscu¬
lar endurance. Throughout the conversion phase (one to two months), the ath¬
lete must maintain a certain level of maximum strength. Otherwise, power may
decline slightly toward the end of the competitive phase.
Although the maximum strength phase is specific to the preparatory phase, the
duration of the conversion period begins toward the end of the preparatory phase
and continues into the beginning of the competitive phase (precompetitive phase).

Maintenance Phase
As the term suggests, the main objective of strength training for this phase is to
maintain the standards achieved in the previous phases. Again, the program fol¬
lowed during this phase is a function of the specific requirements of the sport.
The ratio between maximum strength, power, and muscular endurance must
reflect such requirements. For instance, a shot-putter and a lineman in football
may plan two sessions for maximum strength and two for power, whereas a jumper
may consider one for maximum strength and three for power. A baseball player,
a wide receiver in football, or a 100-meter swimmer may plan one session for
maximum strength, two for power, and one for muscular endurance. A 1,500-
meter swimmer may dedicate the entire strength program to building muscular
endurance.
The athlete should dedicate two to four sessions each week to maintaining the
required strength, depending on his or her level of performance and the role
that strength plays in the skills and performance of the particular sport. Consid¬
ering the objectives of the competitive phase, the time allocated to the mainte¬
nance of strength is secondary. The coach, therefore, must develop an effi¬
cient and specific maintenance program. Two to a maximum of four exercises
involving the prime movers (the muscles performing the technical skills) should
maintain strength levels.

Cessation (C) Phase

The strength-training program ends five to seven days before the main compe¬
tition so that all energy is available to achieve a good performance.

Compensation Phase
This phase completes the annual plan and coincides with the transition phase
from the present to the next annual plan. The objectives of the transition phase
are to remove fatigue and replenish exhausted energies. An informal strength¬
training program, therefore, should have the goal of involving muscle groups
other than the prime movers in order to build the weaker muscles that are not
often trained.
 Periodizing Training for Peak Performance 277

Periodization of Endurance
During an annual training plan, endurance is developed in several phases. For an
annual plan with one peak, endurance training is accomplished in three main
phases: (1) aerobic endurance, (2) aerobic and specific endurance, and (3) spe¬
cific endurance.
Each of the suggested phases has specific training objectives. Aerobic endurance
is developed throughout the transition phase and early preparation phase (one to
three months). Although each sport may require a slight alteration, the athlete
could achieve the goals of aerobic endurance through the uniform and steady-
state method, with moderate to medium intensity. As a general consequence of
such a program, the athlete’s working capacity and cardiorespiratory system pro¬
gressively improve. As the athlete adjusts to training, he or she must elevate the
workload, especially the volume (quantity) of training.
Aerobic endurance and specific endurance play an extremely important role in
achieving the objectives set for endurance training. Throughout this phase, which
represents a transition from aerobic endurance to a type of endurance specific to
each sport, aerobic endurance is still emphasized. Elements of anaerobic activity
specific to the sport are introduced. Particularly in team sports, the rhythm of
activity and the pace of specific drills become progressively sport specific. Inten¬
sive training specific to the competitive phase may fail unless the foundations of
endurance are solidly developed during the second phase. The prevailing meth¬
ods are uniform, alternating, and long and medium interval training (toward the
end of this phase). The volume of training reaches the highest levels during the
aerobic phase and the aerobic and specific endurance phases of the annual plan.
Specific endurance coincides with the competitive phase. The selection of the
appropriate methods depends strictly on the demands of the sport and the needs
of the athlete. For many sports, however, the intensity of training must be em¬
phasized so strongly that it often exceeds racing intensity. The alternation of
various types of intensities should facilitate a good recovery between training
sessions, leading to a good peak for the final competition.

Periodization of Speed
Training for periodization of speed depends on the characteristics of the sport,
the athlete’s level of performance, and the competition schedule. Training for
team-sport athletes will therefore be different from that for sprinters. The first
group of athletes usually follows a mono-cycle annual plan, whereas sprinters, who
in most cases participate in both indoor and outdoor seasons, follow a bi-cycle plan.
Whether for individual or team sports, the periodization of speed may follow
several training subphases. Aerobic and anaerobic endurance should be considered
the training base for the phases that follow it. Whether through tempo running
for sprinters, football players, baseball players, and basketball players or through
steady-state training for athletes in other sports, this first phase is necessary for
building a solid aerobic foundation for speed training. Training progressively
incorporates activities that are more specific to the particular sport. At the be¬
ginning of the phase, fartlek (speed play) is used to build a strong aerobic base.
Later, various types of interval training and repetition training, which are one
step closer to specific speed, are added.
278 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Alactic speed and anaerobic endurance training become more intensive, event spe¬
cific, refined, and specialized as the competition phase approaches. Specificity of
training prevails in methods and specific exercises. Maximum velocity for sprint¬
ers, wide receivers, basketball players, and similar athletes is emphasized, pro¬
gressing from 10 to 15 meters to 30 to 60 meters.
Specific speed could incorporate some or all of the speed components (alactic,
lactic, and speed endurance), depending on the specifics of the sport. Drills for
the development of agility and reaction time are also introduced.
Specific speed, agility, and reaction time require specific methods and drills that
are designed to work toward the goal of developing specific speed and refining
related abilities such as agility and reaction time.
During the competitive phase, the intensity of training is elevated through
specific training methods and participation in competitions. Although exercises
specific to the chosen sport prevail, general ways of training, including games
and play for fun, relaxation, and active rest, should also be incorporated. A cor¬
rect ratio between these two groups of exercises will lower stress and strain in
training. Many sprinters and team-sport athletes are prone to injuries because of
high-intensity training; alternation between various means and intensities is an
important training element.

DYNAMICS OF THE VOLUME

AND INTENSITY OF TRAINING
The volume and intensity of training play an important role in the loading strat¬
egy of training during the annual plan, as well as being crucial elements to con¬
sider for peaking purposes.
The volume of training is the quantitative element of training, which includes
the duration of activity; the distance covered or weight lifted in a training ses¬
sion; and the number of repetitions of an exercise, skill, or drill. The volume also
refers to the sum of work performed in a given training phase. Thus, an athlete
may perform 24 training sessions in August and 21 in October. The same athlete
may run 80 kilometers per week in April and only 72 kilometers per week in July.
In both examples, the volume of training is higher in the first month.
The quantity of work, or the volume of training, is an important element to
train in all sports, especially in sports in which endurance is the key physical
quality. High volume is an important training ingredient, especially during the
preparatory phase when the foundation of strong conditioning is built. As the
competitive phase approaches, the volume of training decreases more visibly for
speed-power sports such as sprinting, jumping, throwing, martial arts, football,
and baseball. For endurance sports such as distance events in track, swimming,
cross country, rowing, road racing in cycling, and triathlon the volume of train¬
ing is still high during the competitive phase because aerobic endurance must be
constantly emphasized to maintain good performance.
The intensity of training, on the other hand, represents the qualitative compo¬
nent of the work performed in a given period. It usually refers to how fast an
action is performed (speed), the power or strength displayed in training or com¬
petition, and the psychological stress experienced by the athlete while compet¬
ing or performing a difficult skill or routine.
 Periodizing Training for Peak Performance 279

Both the volume and intensity of training have specific dynamics during the
main phases of the annual plan. The following two examples illustrate the dy¬
namics of volume and intensity in endurance and speed-power sports.
Figure 12.7 illustrates the dynamics of volume (aerobic endurance) and inten¬
sity (lactic-acid training) used in training for a 400- or 800-meter swimming
event. Peak performance is scheduled for the winter and summer nationals. On
the left of figure 12.7 is the kilometrage per week. The dynamics of the aerobic
endurance (volume) and lactic-acid (intensity) training change according to the
phase. In the early preparatory phases (PI and P2), the volume of training in¬
creases in steps every three to four weeks, alternating with a lower volume, with
the goal of removing fatigue, regenerating the body, and relaxing the mind. To¬
ward the end of the preparatory and early part of the competitive phases (Cl and
C2), the volume stabilizes around 100 to 105 kilometers per week. As the main
competitions approach and the taper for the nationals begins, the volume of
training decreases progressively to 50 kilometers per week. These less fatiguing
conditions promote removal of fatigue, regeneration of the body, and relaxation
of the mind so the athlete can achieve peak performance.
Since the 400-meter or 800-meter event is one in which the proportions of
aerobic and anaerobic lactic acid are about 85 percent and 15 percent, the
kilometrage of lactic-acid training is quite low. Even in the hardest months,
December, January, May, and June, the height of lactic-acid training is not above
20 kilometers per week. Training designed to tolerate lactic-acid buildup is not
to be neglected, however, in most months of the year.
Figure 12.8 illustrates the dynamics of volume and intensity for a speed-power
sport such as football. The same approach is possible for any other speed-power
sport, but the dates of competitions might change. The dynamics of volume and
intensity for a football team are far different from those for the swimmer in the
previous example. In football, both volume and intensity are measured by hours
per week. The types of training done for volume are tempo running (200 to 600

jx:
CD
CD
5
E

Figure 12.7 Dynamics of volume and intensity for training for a 400- or 800-meter swimming event.
 280 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Figure 12.8 Dynamics of volume and intensity for a college football team.

meters with repetitions at 60 to 70 percent of maximum velocity for that dis¬

tance), strength training using lower loads (below 80 percent of 1RM), and tech¬
nical drills of low intensity. For intensity, on the other hand, training includes
technical and tactical drills performed with high velocity and quickness, speed
training, and power and strength training with loads over 80 percent of 1RM.
During the early preparatory phase (P), most work may be done independendy
by the individual player, anywhere between 10 and 16 hours per week. Tempo
training is used to build an anaerobic-aerobic endurance base. Repetitions of
400 meters at 60 percent (i.e., 8 X 400 meters) and then 600 meters at 60 percent
(i.e., 6-8 X 600 meters) are successful in building this base. As June approaches,
tempo running is performed at shorter distances (i.e., 10-12 X 200 meters at 70
percent and 12—15 X 80-100 meters at 70 percent). From July on, players must
work on position-specific maximum speed: 40 to 80 meters for wide receivers
and 20 to 40 meters for players at other positions (i.e., 8-12 X 50 meters at 95 to
100 percent of maximum). Strength training must follow the periodization of
strength discussed in this chapter.

INTEGRATED PERIODIZATION
Periodization, as the key element in successful planning and training, is not lim¬
ited in application to how to cycle an annual plan or how to sequence the devel-
 Periodizing Training for Peak Performance 281

opment of motor abilities for a given sport. Periodization also incorporates nu¬
trition and mental and psychological training.
Sport psychologists, physiologists, and nutritionists often develop their train¬
ing plans and programs without considering the planning-periodization process
or the specific objectives in each phase of training. Mental and psychological
training focuses on the athlete, often in connection with the competitive envi¬
ronment. This is also true for nutrition programs. Seldom are the sport scien¬
tists in these disciplines aware that athletes and coaches need their help through¬
out the annual or long-term training process, not just before competitions.
Integrated periodization represents the process of combining all components
of training and matching them to the periodization of motor abilities. The
periodization of the motor abilities dictates the diet and psychological skills best
suited for a given training phase. An instructor, therefore, should learn what
kind of diet and which psychological skills are best for training aerobic endur¬
ance, maximum strength, or any combination of such abilities. Armed with such
information, the coach will be able to improve athletes’ abilities and, as a result,
their performance.
Figure 12.9 illustrates a model of integrated periodization for a sport in which
speed and power are the dominant abilities. In the top of the chart are the months,
training phases, and subphases. Because training dates differ among sports, the
months of the plan are numbered rather than named.
Because this model of integrated periodization refers to a sport in which speed
and power are the dominant abilities, the figure refers only to the periodization
of speed, strength, mental and psychological attributes, and nutrition. Under
normal conditions, the periodization of nutrition would also incorporate the
periodization of training supplements.
Both psychological training and nutrition are periodized according to the
periodization of strength because strength training represents a vital quality for
all speed-power sports. Therefore, for each of the strength-training phases, the
corresponding psychological techniques to employ and the primary nutrients
necessary to supply the body with the fuel needed in training are given. To estab¬
lish integrated periodization, use the following process: (1) define the periodization
of motor abilities, (2) select the psychological technique to support the physical
endeavors, and (3) produce the diet necessary to energize the body.

SUMMARY
The fundamental concept for good annual planning is periodization, which is
especially useful in structuring the phases of motor abilities and maximizing train¬
ing efforts. The periodization of strength, speed, and endurance represents the
manipulation of different training phases with specific goals, organized in a spe¬
cific sequence, with the ultimate goal of creating sport-specific adaptation. When
this adaptation is complete, the athlete will be physiologically equipped to pro¬
duce better sport-specific performances.
A good understanding of periodization will assist the coach in producing bet¬
ter annual plans and training programs. The schedule of games or competitions
guides the timing of training phases. The coach should also integrate the
periodization of nutrition and psychological training into the plan.
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282
Designing Periodized
Training Programs

In the previous chapter, Tudor Bompa provided the principles and a prototype
of an annual conditioning program. This chapter now takes the generic prin¬
ciples of periodization and identifies the specific considerations coaches should
make when designing workouts and programs for their particular sport. As with
the sport-specific drills provided in chapter 11, nine sports are sampled in this
chapter: baseball, basketball, football, golf, hockey, soccer, tennis, track and cross
country, and volleyball.
Every coach must have an organized conditioning plan that takes into account
the sport’s competition schedule and the events athletes need to be in peak con¬
dition for. By clearly defining the seasons and the phases within each season,
coaches can design a conditioning plan that ensures that athletes will peak when
they need to peak.

283
284 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

The first part of each sport section in this chapter covers the overall frame¬
work of an annual periodized training plan. From there, many of the contribu¬
tors design and share some specific workout plans that combine some of the
drills introduced in chapter 11 with other key training methods athletes need for
all-around sport-specific conditioning.
Some sports, including most team sports with seasons that culminate in a cham¬
pionship game or series, have one peak per year (mono-cycle programs). Other
sports, such as some track and field events that have both an indoor and outdoor
championship, have two peaks in a year (bi-cycle programs). Some individual sports,
such as golf or tennis, may have several peaks throughout the year but, depend¬
ing on the athlete’s individual goals, the coach and athlete may decide to focus on
a specific major tournament or championship. And while most of the following
programs follow Bompa’s basic examples in the previous chapter, the breakdown
of seasons and phases may differ slightly from sport to sport to allow for specific
application to the particular sport being discussed.
You’ll see that each of the sample annual plans work to establish a base level of
fitness, sport-specific skill training, strategic development, and the conversion of
base strength into functional power and speed, all within the context of peaking
at the proper time during the competition phase.

BASEBALL Fernando Montes

In professional baseball today, players must participate in some type of year-

round physical training program. Designing and monitoring such a training pro¬
gram is a monumental task. A major complication is that only during spring
training are all the players on a team physically in one location. They spend the
rest of the year playing at their respective locations, and after the season ends
they return to their hometowns throughout the United States, Latin America,
Canada, Japan, and Australia. As a coach of a professional team, I can tell you
that there are many things a coach must keep in mind when designing a training
program.
Eight months of traveling with, living with, and training players during a strenu¬
ous season has given me knowledge and insight about the physical and mental
stress to which players are subjected. Baseball presents a unique situation for the
strength and conditioning coach. A marathon season that demands peak perfor¬
mance day after day makes managing the grueling physical and mental stress
associated with this game a challenge. The season starts in February and ends in
late October, with only the month of November off. Proper preparation is nec¬
essary to endure this season and stay healthy. However, high school and colle¬
giate players also endure long seasons and often play fall ball as well as spring
ball. The high school, collegiate, and professional player needs a well-constructed
year-round training protocol that includes strength training, cardiovascular con¬
ditioning, and mobility and agility training, as well as other types of individually
tailored sport-specific training.
The program itself must be simple, safe, and interchangeable. It must be simple
because many programs have limited equipment and facilities. It must be safe
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 285

Table 13.1 Baseball Periodization Model

Month Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct
Phase Transition Preparation Precompetitive Competitive
Off-season Spring training In-season Postseason
Focus Anatomical Max. Conversion to Maintenance Power Power endurance
adaptation strength power

because supervision will be limited. It must be familiar to all players in the orga¬
nization, regardless of location or level of play. It is therefore important to de-
sign a program that the athlete can use successfully, no matter what the location,
weather, or facilities.
This section provides guidance for creating such a training plan based on over
15 years of experience training professional and collegiate athletes. Keep in mind
that the ability to adapt and adjust is the most critical element in the philosophy.
Without built-in flexibility on a daily, weekly, and yearly basis, even “perfect”
programs fall short of expectations. As you will see, the basic core program is
consistent throughout the year.
The exercise variations are by design, sometimes for variety, other times be¬
cause of facility availability, or the lack of it, on the road. The periodization
structure of the year-round program will change according to the time of year.
The program is designed around four training periods: off-season, spring train¬
ing, in-season, and postseason (see table 13.1). Each must have specific goals and
expectations. Remember, you must be able to adjust during any of these pro¬
grams. As you will see, no perfect training program exists; however, it is possible
to create an effective training program. Establish one that is safe, has scientific
basis and is specific to the goals of the sport and the individual.

Off-Season
The off-season program allows each player to recover from the long season and
prepare for the upcoming one. The player needs to recover during the month of
November, not only physically, but mentally; thus, during this first month of the
off-season the athlete is given a rest period. The rest of the off-season, from
December to February, is designed to retool the body and get it ready to play.
The 18- to 22-week off-season program is broken down into four phases: ana¬
tomical adaptation, strength, conversion, and power. The off-season ends with
explosive power exercises specific to individual positions.

Off-Season Subphases
• Anatomical adaptation phase—four to five weeks
• Strength phase—four to five weeks
• Conversion phase—three to four weeks
• Explosive power phase—three to four weeks
• Download phase—every fourth or fifth week (circuit training)
286 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Note that three major holidays occur during the off-season. Therefore, it makes
sense to provide flexibility in the program to allow the athlete to enjoy this time
off with family and friends. I like to include active rest days during this time in
which athletes have the flexibility to engage in several different exercises that
simply keep them active. Design your program around these major events to
avoid lost training days.
The basic structure of the off-season program centers around a one- to two-
hour workout per day. We work with a four-day split routine; Monday and Thurs¬
day we focus on the upper-body lifts and exercises, and Tuesday and Friday we
focus on the lower-body exercises (see table 13.2). We do basic aerobic condi¬
tioning six days a week and add in mobility, agility, and skill work three to four
times a week as we get closer to in-season (during the conversion and explosive
power phases).

Table 13.2 Off-Season Program (Four-Day Split)

Upper-body exercises Lower-body exercises Special exercises

Chest Quads Physio ball movements

Back Calves Balance movements

Shoulders Trunk Stott-Pilates training

Arms (triceps and biceps) Hamstrings

Forearm, wrist, fingers Rotational movements

Shoulder-specific exercises

Anatomical
adaptation phase Strength phase Conversion phase Power phase

Reps 20-15-12-10 Reps 8-6-4, 6-4-3 Reps 6-5-4 Reps 4-3-2

Sets 4 or 5 Sets 4 or 5 Sets 3 or 4 Sets 4 or 5

Off-Season Workout in Anatomical Adaptation Phase

Upper body Lower body
Dumbbell incline press 4 X 15 Safe squat 4 X 15
Seated row 4 X 15 Calf raise 3 X 15
Dumbbell shoulder shrugs 4 X 15 Seated leg curls 4 X 15
Triceps push-downs 4 X 15 Good mornings 4 X 10
EZ-bar curls 4 X 15 Step-ups 3 X 10
Medicine ball push-ups 3 X 10 Shuttle 2000 4 X 10
Dumbbell row 3 X 10 Dumbbell lunge 3 X 10
Dumbbell shoulder front and lateral raise 3 X 10 Plate twist 4 X 10
Cable French press 3 X 10

Towel pull-ups 3 X 10
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 287

A professional baseball club may include as many as 150 players. This fact,
coupled with the challenge of working at various locations with differing equip¬
ment, creates a unique situation for training. The program must be flexible but
consistent in structure and simple in application.

Baseball
Spring Training
During this period from February through March (six to eight weeks), the focus
changes from physical preparation to baseball fundamentals and skills in prepa¬
ration for the upcoming season. The strength and conditioning coach must strike
a balance in providing a training program that prepares the athlete for the season
without producing an overtraining effect. For this reason we build in one to two
days of active rest per week into this phase. The player lifts twice a week, does
general conditioning and mobility and agility work two to three times per week,
and works on baseball skills daily. Workouts last from 30 to 45 minutes.
A typical spring training week might be set up as shown here:

• Monday—upper-body lifting
• Tuesday—conditioning and sprint work
• Wednesday—agility work (outdoor)
• Thursday—lower-body lifting
• Friday—off day
• Saturday—agility (indoor)
• Sunday—conditioning (pool)

One way to work in this training with a large team is to divide the team into
training groups (see table 13.3).

Table 13.3 Spring Training Group Assignments

Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

„ ---

Group 1 Off Lift Agility Condition Lift Agility Condition

Group 2 Condition Off Lift Agility Condition Lift Agility

Group 3 Agility Condition Off Lift Agility Cond Lift

Group 4 Lift Agility Cond Off Lift Agility Cond

Group 5 Condition Lift Agility Cond Off Lift Agility

Catchers Agility Condition Lift Agility Condition Off Lift

infielders Lift Agility Condition Lift Agility Condition Off

Lift Agility Cond Lift Agility Condition

Outfielders Off

(Groups 1- 5 are pitchers)

Note: Adjustments are made with group and individual programs as they start to play games in March. During
the last two weeks of spring, pitchers are moved into their in-season routine.
288 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

In-Season
The in-season program from April to October (for professional players) is de¬
signed to maintain the physical strength the athlete needs to be ready to play
every day (or every fifth day if a starting pitcher) and recover quickly afterward.
The best way to judge a training program is not by how strong the player is but
by how well he plays late in the season and deep into the playoffs.
The program must be flexible enough that the strength and conditioning coach
can adjust for the demands of daily baseball competition, the conditions of travel,
and the ability of players to focus on the work at hand during physical and emo¬
tional stress. The players’ focus is now on playing every night. Distractions are
numerous, so the ability to motivate athletes is important.
It’s good to break the in-season into two phases—the first and second halves of
the season. Total training time each day (outside of games) should be between 30
and 45 minutes long. Athletes should lift twice per week during the in-season,
perform a conditioning routine two to three times per week, and do mobility and
agility drills once or twice a week. Skill work is included in playing games.
The following sections provide some samples of how to break down in-season
weekly workouts for pitchers and players.

Starting Pitchers
The following breakdown is based on a five-man starting rotation:

• Game day—postgame shoulder exercises and 15-minute bike workout

• Day 1—lifting and 45 minutes of conditioning workout
• Day 2—side bullpen work and hard conditioning day (85 to 98 percent target
heart rate). Simulated six- or seven-inning game (heart-rate baseball game)
• Day 3—heavy lifting day and moderate conditioning day (75 to 85 percent
target heart rate)
• Day 4—optional day (no assigned training)
• Day 5—game day

Relievers and Situation Pitchers

Relievers do all lifting after the game, adjusted by game activity and game usage.
Use a split routine or individualized program that will meet the needs of each
pitcher, considering age, injury, and physical limitations that prevent any type of
normal training. Consider the same variables when designing a conditioning pro¬
gram.
For example, the workweek of a reliever might look like this:

• Monday—pitch one inning, lift postgame (upper body)

• Tuesday—cardiovascular postgame workout for 30 to 45 minutes (80 to 85
percent target heart rate)
• Wednesday—no work (team travel day)
• Thursday—pitch to four batters, lift postgame (lower body)
• Friday—no postgame work
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 289

• Saturday—cardiovascular postgame workout for 30 to 45 minutes (80 to 85

percent target heart rate)
• Sunday—no work (team travel day)

Baseball
Position Players
In setting up a program for position players, the strength and conditioning coach
must consider that they perform every day and that each position has particular
needs and physical stresses.
For example, a position player’s program for a week might look like this:

• Monday—lift postgame (upper body)

• Tuesday—agility (pre- or postgame)
• Wednesday—conditioning or treadmill sprints
• Thursday—off (team travel day)
• Friday—no work
• Saturday—lift postgame (lower body)
• Sunday—optional day
Assign specific in-season exercises by considering the athlete’s preference,
medical limitations, and, when on the road, the availability of equipment and
facilities. Players perform forearms and special exercises on either lifting days or
conditioning days. Table 13.4 shows an example of an in-season workout.

Table 13.4 In-Season Workout

Maintenance phase Lower body Upper body

Reps 6-4-3 Quads 8-6-4-4-4 Chest 8-6-4-4

Sets 2-4 Calf raise 3 x 8-10 Back 3-4 x 6

Hamstrings 4 x 6-8 Shoulder 3-4 x 6

Low back 3 x 8-10 Triceps 3-4 x 6

Step-ups 3 x 6-8 Biceps 3-4 x 6

Postseason
Lifting is optional during this phase. Players who choose to lift will perform a
10- to 12-exercise circuit routine, consisting of 15 to 20 seconds of work and 30
seconds of rest. The pitchers, both starters and relievers, continue with their
weekly routines. The position players have endured the long season, playing
over 150 games on average. The adjustment in their program is a welcome
change.
290 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

BASKETBALL Bill Foran

A year-round training program for basketball has four distinct seasons: preseason,
in-season, postseason, and off-season. Every level from middle school through
the NBA can use this sequence, varying the length of each season as needed to
take into account the respective major championships and tournaments. Table
13.5 illustrates the training year for NBA, collegiate, and high school players.

Table 13.5 Annual Schedules

NBA Annual Schedule

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

In-season Playoffs * Post- Off-season Pre- In-season

season season

*Postseason can start anytime between mid-April and mid-June.

College Annual Schedule

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

In-season Tourn¬ * Post¬ Off-season Pre- In-season

ament season season

*Postseason can start anytime in March.

High School Annual Schedule

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

In-season Tourn¬ * Post¬ Off-season Pre- In-season

ament season season
. .1 .
*Postseason can start anytime in March.

Off-Season
The off-season is the time for basketball players to become better players. They
can improve their skills, speed, agility, jumping ability, strength, power, quick¬
ness, flexibility, and conditioning. To develop all these components, athletes need
a well-rounded program that incorporates skill development, weight training,
agility drills, conditioning, stretching, jumping plyometrics, quick-feet
plyometrics, and medicine ball work.
The first four weeks of the off-season can be devoted to basic weight training
and general conditioning to start the process of building a new strength and
conditioning base. The next 12 to 16 weeks of the off-season training program
emphasize the periodization phases of hypertrophy, basic strength, and building
strength and power. Each component of off-season training listed in table 13.6
 Designing Perioclizecl Training Programs 291

Table 13.6 Off-Season Training Schedule

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Skill development Skill development Skill development Skill development Skill development
—.——...

Weight training Quick-feet Medicine ball Weight training Quick-feet

(upper body) plyometrics work (upper body) plyometrics
Agility drills Jumping Agility drills Jumping
plyometrics plyometrics

Basketball
Conditioning Weight training Conditioning Weight training
(lower body) (lower body)

Stretching Stretching Stretching Stretching

progresses from high volume, low intensity to higher intensity, lower volume.
Repetitions should be 8 to 12 for the hypertrophy phase, 6 to 8 for the basic
stregth phase, and to 4 to 6 for the strength and power phase.
With so many components involved in developing a basketball player, work¬
outs must be efficient. The following one-week off-season training schedule in¬
cludes all the components of a total program.
Each workout starts with some aspect of skill development—shooting, drib¬
bling, ballhandling, passing, or other skills. As shown in table 13.6, the Monday
and Thursday workouts include upper-body weight training, agility drills, sport-
specific conditioning, and flexibility. The Tuesday and Friday workouts include
lower-body weight training, jumping plyometrics, quick-feet plyometrics, and
flexibility. Wednesday is the recovery day with only medicine ball work after skill
development.
Weight training is the key to developing a solid strength base. Athletes with a
solid strength base benefit the most from plyometrics (both quick-feet and jump¬
ing plyometrics) and agility drills.
The following sections offer an example of a weight-training program that
works the total body, split into two routines that the athlete performs on different
days. One routine works the upper body, and the other works the lower body.

Upper-Body Day
To build a strong and balanced upper body, this program uses an equal number
of pressing movements and pulling movements, four of each in the standard
program. For time efficiency, each pressing movement is followed by a pulling
movement and then a rest period. (These are commonly called supersets.) A
beginner’s program, dropping the incline press and seated row, could start with
three pressing movements and three pulling movements. The abdominal work should
be three to five sets of a variety of crunches, leg raises, and twisting crunches.
Two to four sets

• Bench press
• Fat pull
• Military press
• Shrugs
292 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Two to three sets

• Incline press
• Seated row
• Triceps press-down
• Arm cnrl

One to two sets

• Rotator-cuff work
• Wrist curls

And three to five sets of abdominal work.

Lower-Body Day
This is the more important day of weight training because it concentrates on the
power center of the body, the muscles involved in running, jumping, and moving
quickly in all directions. The hang cleans, high pulls, and squats are excellent
exercises for developing the power center but can be dangerous if the athlete
uses poor technique. The lunges and step-ups are important because they work
each leg independently. Most basketball players have a strength imbalance in the
legs that independent work with each leg can eliminate. The leg extension, leg
curl, calf raise, and dorsiflexion can be done as a four-exercise minicircuit for
time efficiency.

Three to four sets

• Hang cleans or high pulls

• Squats or leg presses

One to two sets

• Lunges
• Step-ups

Two sets

• Leg extensions
• Leg curls
• Calf raises (seated and standing)
• Dorsiflexion

And three to five sets of lower-back work.

Preseason
The preseason is the two- to four-week period from the start of practice until the
first game. The first 7 to 10 days may have two practices per day. This is the time
to introduce the in-season weight training program.
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 293

In-Season
The basketball season is when players use the strength, power, quickness, speed,
agility, and conditioning that they developed in the off-season. A solid in-season
program will maintain the improvements developed in the off-season. Intense,
quality basketball practices will eliminate the need for extra conditioning, jump-
ing plyometrics, and agility drills. The players who are not getting playing time
in games may need extra conditioning to maintain their fitness. The extra condi¬
tioning can include agility drills, on-court conditioning, quick-feet plyometrics,
and medicine ball work (see chapter 11, pages 224 to 229).
To maintain their strength and power throughout the season, basketball play¬
ers need to be involved in a quality, in-season weight-training program. Players
should perform in-season weight training twice a week. The program should
involve the total body, and be time efficient and able to be modified according to
the needs of the individual athlete.
The program illustrated in table 13.7 uses five minicircuits with three or four
exercises in each. In the first minicircuit, for example, the player performs a push¬
ing movement (bench press), a pulling movement (lat pull), and a leg exercise
(squats) and then rests for two minutes before repeating the sequence at a higher
weight. After two or three sets of the first minicircuit, the athlete moves to the
next circuit. A total-body program can be accomplished in a short time with
minicircuits.

Table 13.7 In-Season Weight Training Program

Minicircuit 1 Minicircuit 2 Minicircuit 3 Minicircuit 4 Minicircuit 5

(2 or 3 sets) (2 or 3 sets) (2 sets) (1 or 2 sets) (2 or 3 sets)

Bench presses Military presses Triceps press-downs Calf raises Ab work

Lat pulls Shrugs Arm curls Dorsiflexion Low-back work

Squats Lunges or step-ups Leg extensions Rotator-cuff work

Leg curls Wrist curls

Postseason
The postseason is a two- to four-week period of active rest. Athletes recover
from a long season and prepare for a productive off-season.
294 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

DISTANCE RUNNING Jack Daniels

The first step in designing a training program for distance runners is to look at
the overall season that lies ahead, including all competitions, and determine how
many weeks are available for training, how much time is available (within each
week), and what performance achievements (goals) are realistic. Besides these
broad considerations, give considerable thought to some specific factors, such as
the

• current level of fitness,

• primary event or events being trained for,
• expected conditions during the most important competitions at the end of the
season,
• individual strengths and weaknesses,
• types of training that are of particular interest to the individual involved, and
• intermediate goals or competitions along the way to the season-ending goal.
After the various factors that influence the training program for the season are
spelled out, it is possible to lay out the program itself. One of the more impor¬
tant considerations in designing a training program for distance runners is that it
should be specific to each individual. Generic programs set up for a group of
runners seldom work well for the individual members of the group.

Phases of Training
Before writing out workouts, divide the season into a number of training phases.
The approach I prefer is to identify four phases of training, with the first phase
set aside for injury prevention and foundation work. For runners, this initial
phase is for easy running, stretching, and strengthening. This phase can be re¬
ferred to as a foundation and injury-prevention (FI) phase of training. The re¬
maining three phases of training are then identified as early quality (EQ), transi¬
tion quality (TQ), and final quality (FQ), respectively. The ideal amount of time
to spend in each of these four phases would be about six weeks. Figure 13.1
shows how the four phases of training are laid out.
If 24 weeks are available for a season of training, each of the four phases may
well receive 6 weeks of attention. Some coaches and runners may feel that more
attention should be given to phase I and less to other phases, based on individual
strengths and weaknesses and time available. Still, 24 weeks provide ample time
to make solid preparation for any competition.
Often, 24 weeks are not available, and a runner or coach may have to deal with
a season that is considerably shorter than this ideal model. Figure 13.2 provides
a way to deal with this dilemma. In this figure are the four 6-week training phases,
progressing from left (foundation and injury prevention) to the far right (final
quality training). Each phase has six numbers associated with it. These numbers
indicate an order of priority that the runner or coach can use to determine how
much time to allocate for each phase of training if less than the ideal 24 weeks are
available. For example, if only 3 weeks are available for an entire season, all three
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 295

Phase 1 Phase II Phase III Phase IV

6 weeks 6 weeks 6 weeks 6 weeks

FI EQ TQ FQ A

Peak
(Always complete the phases in order)

Figure 13.1 Sample plan for setting up a 24-week training program. Insert the dates
(into the four boxes) to train in each phase starting with the peak performance date
and working backwards.

Phase 1 Phase II Phase III Phase IV

1 2 3 10 11 12 7 8 9 4 5 6

13 18 14 17

21 19 15 22

23 20 16 24

FI EQ TQ FQ
--W-

(Always complete the phases in order)

Figure 13.2 Priority weekly numbering system to determine the number of weeks
of training per phase according to the number of weeks available for training.
Adapted from Daniels, J. June 1993. “World’s best peaking program.” Runner’s World 28 (6): 43.

weeks should be made up of foundation and injury-prevention (FI) training. If

12 weeks are available, each phase would receive 4 weeks of attention, as shown
in the various four phases of training. Note, for example, that if only 9 weeks are
available, phase II is completely ignored. It is better to place a fair bit of emphasis
on fewer phases of training than to put a little emphasis on all types of training.
Note that regardless of how many weeks the coach or runner arrives at for any
phase (or that lower priority numbers may be assigned to phase IV than to phase
III, for example), the runner performs the assigned weeks of training for each
phase in order. That is, a runner performs the assigned training at level I before
going on to the next phase, does all assigned weeks of phase II before doing any
weeks assigned to phase III, and so forth.

Phase IV
As figure 13.2 shows, the runner will always begin by spending some time on
phase I training. Despite this and regardless of how much time the runner will
devote to phase II, III, or IV, the coach or runner should first consider phase IV
training. I suggest this because phase IV training prepares the runner for opti-
296 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

mum performance and the other phases should be set up to prepare the runner
for this all-important final phase.
Some considerations for phase IV include the following:

• Work on specific strengths (speed, endurance, etc.).

• Include workouts that are favorites or are particularly satisfying.
• Train during the time of day that is appropriate for the upcoming important
competitions.
• In the case of major competitions, train in the same time zone and climate as
the events for which the runner is preparing.
• Always be sensitive to the needs of the specific goal race or races. For example,
a smaller amount of faster training is usually more applicable to racing a good
1,500-meter race, whereas less intense work is better when preparing for a
marathon.

Phase III
Once the specifics of phase IV have been worked out, place major emphasis on
the type of training in the earlier phases that will prepare the runner for phase
IV. In general, phase III is the most demanding phase of training, regardless of
the event or events the runner is training for. By this time, the runner has had
enough time to build a solid foundation (in the initial foundation and injury-
prevention phase) and also to get involved with some early quality training in
phase II.
Another characteristic of phase III is that event-specific training is extremely
important. For example, a 1,500-meter runner will become highly involved in
longer repetition training, which is more anaerobic in nature but develops speed
and ease of movement at race pace. On the other hand, runners who mainly race
distances of 5,000 and 10,000 meters will become more involved in longer inter¬
vals. Although some of the same type of training may have already taken place in
phase II and may continue into phase IV, phase III will usually feature greater
emphasis on these specific types of training.

Phase II
Just as the training emphasis in phase IV determines the training to be performed
in phase III, so should phase III training dictate what goes into phase II. For
example, if phase III will heavily emphasize fast running, then some faster run¬
ning should be introduced in phase II. The training sequence should follow a
logical progression from what the runner is currendy doing to what will come
next. The specific decisions fall largely into the category of coaching philosophy.
What suits one coach’s method of operation may not fit as well into another
coach’s way of doing things. The main point here is that the runner should fol¬
low a logical path from the beginning to the end of a season of training.
Coaches and runners should remember that phase II is the first phase in which
quality training occurs (something other than just steady easy runs and possibly
some strides—20- to 40-second runs using a light, quick turnover at a speed that
is about equal to current mile pace). These early quality workouts should not be
excessively demanding, but they should provide a springboard on which the run-
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 297

ner can build future quality training. For example, I generally like to start repeti¬
tion training during phase II because reps are relatively fast but, because of their
brevity and the long recovery between runs, not particularly stressful. Then dur-
ing the following phase III training, harder intervals can be introduced. Though
the speed of these phase III intervals is actually less demanding than the reps that
they followed, they stress the aerobic system more than phase II intervals be¬
cause they are longer and allow for less rest between them. In other words, phase
II is a good time to work on running mechanics. Phase III can then be used to
increase the stress put on the entire aerobic system.

Phase I
This initial phase is set aside to build a foundation through easy runs, strength¬
ening routines, and stretching. This phase is crucial to help an athlete prevent
injury when workouts get more intense in phases II, III and IV
Note that more than one type of quality training goes into each phase of train¬
ing. So, for example, although reps may receive primary emphasis in a particular
phase, other quality workouts will also occur. The section that follows should
clarify this concept.

Individual Weeks of Training Within Phases II, III,

and IV
During each phase of training it is a good idea to include two or even three
quality days of training. My preferred method of handling this is to identify a
type of training that will receive primary emphasis and another type of training
that will receive secondary emphasis. There may even be a third type of training,
maintenance training, during some weeks. I place the training of primary empha¬
sis early in the week, as the first quality session of the week, and the secondary
emphasis workout second in the week. If three quality sessions occur in the same
week, the third session is either another primary session or a maintenance ses¬
sion. Of course, if a day of competition occurs within any week of training, it
should replace a workout.
Figure 13.3, a and b, shows a number of quality days in each week of training.
All other days are listed as E (easy days of training). It is important to clarify the
meaning of “easy.” In a general sense, easy refers to the intensity of running on
that particular day. For a marathon runner accustomed to running 120 miles
each week, an easy day may involve two runs, each lasting over an hour. But the
intensity of these runs is easy. For someone else, an easy day may be one easy run
of just 30 minutes or no running at all (no running can certainly be viewed as an
easy day). It is often desirable to include a few strides in the middle or at the end
of most easy runs. Strides are 20- to 40-second runs performed at about current
mile pace using a light, quick leg turnover. Strides are not sprints and should not
resemble all-out running.

Weeks Without Competition

Figure 13.3, a and b, presents three approaches to a weekly training schedule.
Weeks 1 and 2 show a primary day, a secondary day, and a second primary day
298 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Training Plan-Weeks Without Competition

a
Day 1 2 3_4 5 6
P S P (or M)
Week 1
E E E E

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P S P P (or M)
Week 2
E E E E

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P S
Week 3
E E E E E

E = easy day of running

P = primary quality emphasis
S = secondary quality emphasis
M = maintenance quality emphasis

Training Plan-Weeks With Competition

b
Day 1 2 3 4 5_6_7
P S
Week 1
E E E E R ace

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P s
Week 2
E E E E R ace

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P
Week 3
E E E E E Fiace

Figure 13.3 Careful planning will ensure that appropriate emphasis is placed on
each type of training.

(which could also be a third type of training, or a maintenance day). In week 1

the first two quality days have an easy day between them. The week 2 example
shows the first two quality days coming back to back, with no recovery day in
between. An advantage of back-to-back quality days is that runners tend not to
overdo the primary day, knowing the next day will also be of high quality. Being
too enthusiastic is a common fault of young runners, so the back-to-back system
is often a good approach for them. Back-to-back quality days are also desirable
when the runner competed on the previous weekend and needs an extra day of
recovery before getting into another quality training session. Back-to-back qual-
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 299

ity days offer the additional advantage of simulating competitions in which pre¬
liminary events are held on one day and finals on the next.
Week 3 in figure 13.3a includes just two quality days. This approach is good
when the quality days are particularly strenuous. It can also be used as a relatively
easy week between weeks that include three quality days each. In other words, it
is sometimes an excellent scheme to alternate either a week 1 or week 2 schedule
with a week 3 schedule, throughout the season.

Weeks That Include Competition

Week 3 in figure 13.3b shows three different schedules for weeks during which a
race occurs at the end of the week (the order of days could be arranged to accom¬
modate a race on any day of the week). Weeks 1 and 2 both involve two quality
training days in the week leading up to a competition. As discussed earlier, the

Distance Running
only difference is whether to schedule the two quality days back to back or to
separate them with an easy day. Again, this may be dictated by the severity of the
previous week’s competition or training or the rigor of the back-to-back days.
Figure 13.3b shows just one quality day before race day. This quality training
day could just as well be on day 2 as day 3, depending mainly on how many easy
days are desired before the week-ending race. It is noteworthy that the initial
quality day of each week is designated as a primary quality session. In the week 3
plan, the one quality day may be of any type; the main concern is that whatever
training is performed on that day does nothing to detract from the upcoming
race. The week 3 plan is usually the preferred approach to season-ending com¬
petitions.

Putting It All Together

A big advantage of the scheme presented here is that the runner can follow the
same weekly approach throughout the season. Only the type of training that
receives primary, secondai'y, and maintenance emphasis changes. For example, the
following is my preferred approach to a general training program for most dis¬
tance runners.

Phase I

• Primary emphasis = easy runs

• Secondary emphasis = strength training
• Maintenance emphasis = flexibility training

Phase II

• Primary emphasis = repetitions

• Secondary emphasis = threshold training
• Maintenance emphasis = long, steady runs

Phase III

• Primary emphasis = intervals

• Secondary emphasis = repetitions
• Maintenance emphasis = threshold training
300 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Phase IV

• Primary emphasis = threshold training

• Secondary emphasis = repetitions (of a reduced nature)
• Maintenance emphasis = intervals (of a reduced nature)

The preceding scheme is not suited to all runners. Those training for a mara¬
thon will not do as much repetition work but will do more threshold training.
Runners mainly interested in racing 1,500 meters or the mile will do less thresh¬
old running and more repetitions. Although coaching philosophies vary, the model
presented here can be used with adjustments to fit almost any situation. The
main concern should be to design a program that will address the needs of each
athlete. And, for the coach’s benefit, the program can always answer the ques¬
tion, “What is the purpose of today’s workout?”
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 301

FOOTBALL Kent Johnston

An annual conditioning program for football aims to improve each athlete’s on¬
field performance throughout the season by improving explosiveness in both the
upper and lower body. As Tudor Bompa noted in the previous chapter, breaking
up the year into phases gives a coach a method of structuring a complete work¬
out plan based on the needs and goals of the players on a team.
No two athletes are the same. In a perfect training world, coaches would create
individual programs for every athlete. Unfortunately, time constraints at the high
school and college levels can work against coaches trying to get the best out of
their athletes. The truly innovative coach recognizes this and makes the best of
the situation, adapting a conditioning program to fit his team and athletes while
remaining true to the end goal of the program.
One tried-and-true method of structuring an annual plan is to divide the year into
three types of phases: transition, off-season, and in-season phases (see table 13.8).

Table 13.8 Football Periodization Model

Month Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov
i

Phase Transition Offseason Transition In-season

Focus Active rest Alternate base an development focus Peak Contact Maintenance
each month, starting with base building in
January
. .rmi

Transition
Transition phases provide athletes with a way to recover while staying active. Most
athletes take short breaks from training at the end of their season. These breaks
are necessary physical and mental respites from the game and training; however,
athletes should not lose all the conditioning they have gained. Athletes may want
to do some activities such as basketball, racquetball, swimming, or tennis on a
noncompetitive basis before moving into the anatomical adaptation phase.
The primary objective of the anatomical adaptation transition phase is to en¬
hance each athlete’s general condition. Before specific explosiveness training for
football can be trained, the athlete must have a respectable cardiovascular fitness
level, including a good aerobic base. The program shown in table 13.9 is for
athletes in average to above-average condition.
Engaging in vigorous strength training without properly adapting the tendons
and ligaments can cause injuries to muscle attachments and joints. Circuit train¬
ing, emphasizing a full range of motion in all lifts, and increasing the number of
repetitions per set can condition tendons and ligaments. Later, in the off-season,
athletes will begin to develop acceleration, speed, and agility while maintaining
solid position-specific football skills.
During the transition from off-season to in-season, athletes gradually prepare
for and readjust to the demands of in-season training and competition.
 Table 13.9 Sample Anatomical Adaptation Transition Workouts

Running
Week Day Warm-up Jumps Agility Weight training drills Conditioning

Week 1 Monday Jog 2 min. 2x10 2 x 20- Perform 3 circuits 2x10 6 X 60 yd.
and 2 sets of squat yd. shuttle (50% 1RM) vd. butt build ups
Thursday 30-yd. drills jumps from 3- -10 body-weight kickers 6 X 50 yd.
-skipping point squats 2X10 strides
-lateral shuffle stance. -10 push-ups yd. hiqh
-carioca 2 min. -10 crunches knees
-backward run rest - 5 pull-ups
Stretch -10 hyperextensions
-8 walking lunges
-6 dips
-10 barbell curls
-10 dumbbell lateral
raises

Tuesday Stationary 3x3 3 X four- Perform 3 circuits None Stationary

and bike 3 to corner (50% 1RM) bike 30 min.
Friday 5 min. long drill. -8 squats or
jumps 1 min. leg presses
rest -8 bench presses
-8 incline sit-ups
-8 hyperextensions
-8 upright rows
-8 leg curls
-8 lat pull-downs
-8 narrow grip bench
presses
-8 calf raises

Week 2 Monday Jog 2 min. 3x10 2 x 200- Perform 3 circuits 3x10 6 X 60 yd.
and 2 sets of squat yd. shuttle (50% 1RM) yd. butt buildups
Thursday 30-yd. drills jumps from 3- -10 body-weight squats kickers 8 X 50 yd.
-skipping point -lOpusn-ups 3x10 strides
-lateral shuffle stance. -10 crunches yd. hiqh
-carioca 2 min. - 5 pull-ups knees
-backward run rest -10 hyperextensions
Stretch -8 walking lunges
-6 dips
-10 barbell curls
-10 dumbbell lateral
raises
Tuesday Stationary 4x3 3 x four- Perform 4 circuits None Stationary
and bike 3 to standing corner (55% 1RM) bike 30 min.
Friday 5 min. long drill. -8 squats or leg
jumps min. presses
rest -8 bench presses
-8 incline sit-ups
-8 hyperextensions
-8 upright rows
-8 leg curls
-8 lat pull-downs
-8 tricep press-downs
-8 calf raises

302
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 303

Off-Season
Strength training during the off-season, what we call “force training,” is best
divided into two- or three-week cycles incorporating five distinct lifting methods:

1. The dynamic method uses the relationship between force and velocity to
improve starting strength and acceleration using submaximal weights. With
this method athletes bench press 8 to 10 sets of 3 reps at 60 percent of 1RM
and squat 10 to 12 sets of 2 at 50 to 70 percent of 1RM.
2. The maximal-intensity method involves overcoming maximum resistance—
the most weight an athlete can lift for 1 to 5 reps at 80 to 100 percent of 1RM.
It is especially important to warm-up properly before these maximum lifts.
3. Isometric exercises and the functional method are for more advanced
players. This method involves attaching large chains or surgical tubing as
additional resistance to lifting apparatus. The athlete then lifts the apparatus
until the mini-max is achieved and holds one to three seconds or to failure.
Like the maximal-intensity method, these exercises develop absolute strength.
4. The repetition method increases the excitability of the central nervous sys¬
tem. Athletes complete to failure 1 to 3 sets of 6 (barbell) to 10 (dumbbell) reps.
5. The conjugate method is combined with the maximal-intensity method to
help perfect classical lifting form and increase coordination and special strength
in weaker muscle groups. The athlete or coach selects the appropriate bar
exercise that is closest in nature to the classical lift the athlete is performing
(clean and jerk, snatch, bench, squat, or dead lift).
Off-season force training is best guided by the following five principles:

1. Every workout is performed with maximum effort. This is not to be confused

with maximum intensity—lifting the maximum for one to five repetition sets.
Rather, maximum effort is performing each repetition explosively each time,
even if the athlete is lifting to failure.
2. Divide training into typical two- or three-week cycles on maximum intensity
days. One workout a week will require 100 percent intensity.
3. Change the core exercise(s) used on the maximum intensity day every two- to
three-week cycle to prevent overtraining.
4. Follow every four to six weeks of maximum intensity training with two to
three weeks of repetition method training to improve power endurance, build
muscularity, and prevent overtraining the maximum intensity group.
5. Once a week use the dynamic method to emphasize bar speed and accelera¬
tion. The dynamic method should include upper and lower body exercises.

Table 13.10 (see page 3 04) shows one way to structure six weeks of off-season
workouts using a three-workouts-per-week schedule. Some coaches prefer a four-
workouts-per-week schedule, especially if they work with more advanced players.

In-Season
Once the regular season starts, the emphasis shifts from the strength and condi¬
tioning program to actual practice and improvement of live game skills. The job
of the strength and conditioning coach is to maintain the levels achieved during
304 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Table 13.10 Sample Off-Season Workouts

Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

1-3 4x5 squats (last three Position- 4x5 clean high Position- 4x5 bench presses (last
sets to failure) specific pulls (last three specific three sets to failure)
3x10 lunges (with work sets to failure) work Push-ups to exhaustion
weight) 2x10 reverse 10 X front-plate raises
2 X 8 leg curls leg presses 10 X straight-arm
10x3 bench presses 4x5 standing side raises
(50%, 52.5%, 55% military presses 10 X negative chin-ups
1 RM by week) 2 X 10 X bent flies
4x5 rows -10 good mornings 12x2 box squats
3x10 dips -10 step-ups (50%, 52.5%, 55%
10 x weighted sit-ups -10 hyperextensions 1 RM by week)
10 X crunch pull-downs -50 body weight 3x8 glute-ham
10 X weighted crunches squats raises or leg curls
10 X weighted leg raises 3x15 calf raises 10 X weighted sit-ups
2x10 neck 10 X 1/2 sit-ups
exercises 10 X start at top of sit-up
and slowly resist into down
position
10 X sit-ups with no weights
20 X scissor kicks

4-6 5 x 3 leg presses Position- 5x3 dumbbell Position- 5x3 dumbbell cleans
3 X 10 leg extensions specific cleans and specific and presses
or hack squats work presses work 5x3 bench presses
3x10 lunges 3x8 clean shrugs to limit
10x3 bench presses 3x10 plyometric 2x10 dumbbell incline
(57.5%, 60%, 62.5% push-ups 10 X upright rows
1 RM by week) 2 X 10 X dumbbell front
5x3 rows -10 reverse raises
Medicine ball circuit hyperextensions 50 X push-outs
-10 sit-ups off chest -10 abdominal 10 X negative pull-ups
-10 overhead sit-ups plate rotations 12x2 box squats
-10 Russian twists -10 abductors (57.5%, 60%, 62.5%
-10 leg raises with ball -50 body weight 1 RM by week)
-10 knee-ups with ball squats 3x10 glute-ham raises
-10 overhead push 3x10 calf raises 10 x weighted sit-ups
(isometric) 2x8 neck exercises 10 X 1/2 sit-ups
10 X start at top of sit-up
and slowly resist into down
position
10 X sit-ups with no weights
20 X scissor kicks

the off-season conditioning workout period. Coaches at every level must adjust
their manner of thinking in order to do the following:

• Improve actual sport skill traits

• Perfect fundamentals and techniques of the sport
• Allow for game simulated conditioning
• Maintain power, maximum strength, and power endurance

It is vital that an in-season strength and conditioning program focus on main¬

taining the maximum strength levels gained during the off-season and on high
power or force velocity outputs.
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 305

Pete Draovitch

As discussed in chapter 11, a delicate balance must exist between posture, motor
learning, strength, flexibility, balance, and conditioning to produce a successful,
consistent golf swing. The percentage of each component may be based on age,
gender, physical status, period of season, or skill level. Science has made it pos¬
sible to manipulate training programs so that athletes receive the appropriate
mix of these components to peak at the right time in the competitive season.
Designing an annual program for conditioning for golf begins with breaking
down the year into seasons. Seasons are typically broken down into three spe¬
cific training periods—preseason, in -season, and off-season. Because golf is played
globally year-round, many of today’s competitive golfers may find it difficult to
identify an off-season in which they are not playing. Still it is important to plan
for an off-season, or a building time in the season, in order to ensure peak con¬
dition for certain tournaments later in the annual plan.
Although volume and intensity may vary between the specific training sea¬
sons, it’s important to address all of the fitness components required in the golf
swing during each training season. During the off-season, weight training and
conditioning may take precedence over skill training. As the athlete approaches
the time when he or she wishes to peak, however, strength training and power
training will take a back seat to developing and sharpening skills for the impor¬
tant competitive events. For example, an athlete may use the medicine ball to
develop trunk stability during the off-season, work on motor learning during the
preseason, and train for explosive power during the in-season. During the three
competitive seasons, the variables of volume and intensity are changed by ma¬
nipulating either the resistance, the speed of the activity, or the time or number
of repetitions during each workout. Without exception, the athlete’s health and
well-being are paramount.
Research has shown that the amount of compressive force placed on the spine
during a golf swing, regardless of skill level, is about eight times body weight.
Therefore, because golf is a sport that can cause either traumatic or overuse
injuries, each training session must consider the fitness of the athlete’s body at
the time. Good players tend to practice often and sometimes grind more at the
range than they should. Many times during the year, then, the program should
be adjusted for changes in the way the athlete is feeling or the way the body is
reacting to the skill training sessions that have taken place.
Debate may rage over whether golf is a sport or a skill, but from a force stand¬
point, golf certainly qualifies as a sport. Consider the enormous amount of force
to which the spine is subjected. Because golfers must practice every single type
and distance of shot, a tremendous amount of skill training takes place within
the sport. Let’s put to rest the idea of golf fitness. Coaches do not refer to foot¬
ball fitness or basketball fitness. There is sport-specific conditioning and train¬
ing for those sports, and there is sport-specific training for golf.
Most professional golfers strive to play their best competitive golf in the four
major tournaments (Masters, U.S. Open, British Open, PGA Championship)
and probably one or two other events they view as important during the year;
the examples in this section are structured on this model. You can adapt the
306 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

information in this chapter, however, to your particular circumstances and goals—

winning the club championship, winning the high school county championship,
or winning that 50-cent Nassau off your most competitive friend.
To satisfy off-season, preseason, and in-season training needs, break down the
year according to the climate in which you live. In areas of the country that
feature a harsh winter, this is straightforward. In states such as Florida, Califor¬
nia, and Arizona, which tend to have playable weather year round, it’s sometimes
hard to establish distinct training seasons because athletes can work on their
skills at any time of year. The advent of indoor driving ranges, practice nets,
practice putting greens, and large basements allows athletes to work on skills
year round even in colder climates, but the weather will dictate whether they can
be out on a golf course.
One way to break down an annual program follows:

• Off-season—November through February

• Preseason—March
• Competitive season, or in-season—April through October

Off-Season
November can be a month in which athletes establish strength and an aerobic
base by working out four days a week. Volume of training is higher and intensity is
lower to accommodate increased workloads and reduce the stress being placed on
the body.
In December, after athletes have established the strength and aerobic base, the
program can begin to be periodized with more attention paid to volume and less
to intensity.
In January and February, it is time to incorporate true periodization. Increase
the percentages of weight lifted and move from high volume and low intensity to
high intensity and low volume. A player should reach peak strength at the end of
February.

Preseason
In preseason a player works out three days per week instead of four. Increase the
intensity and decrease the volume at this time because athletes are beginning to
prepare for the season.

In-Season
During this period, set up three periodized programs in order to reach maxi¬
mum intensity and decreased volume at or about June 1, near the end of the
school season. Another periodized program takes place between June 1 and Au¬
gust 31, corresponding to end of the summer events in the amateur ranks. A
third periodized program occurs from September 1 through October 31, which
corresponds to the fall season that occurs in some states.
In the beginning part of the in-season periodized programs, at least for the
first two weeks, a player may work out as many as three times per week (see table
13.11). The first day after finishing a weekly competition should be the hardest
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 307

day of work and should include strength training, flexibility, balance, and some
postural activities. The second day of the week may emphasize explosive training
at the appropriate progressive levels, and the third day may stress postural train¬
ing. Some events are set up so that athletes play early one day and late the next.
If that’s the case, a player will want to work-out early the third day of the week so
that he or she will have almost a full day to recover before the event. Note also
that the third day of working out should not be extremely stressful. It is meant
only to activate the trunk musculature in either a weight-bearing or non-weight-
bearing position, depending on the number of balls hit, injury status, or the amount
of work needed to keep the player functioning at an acceptable level.

Table 13.11 Sample In-Season Training Week

Day of week Competitive golfer Recreational golfer

Day 1 (first day Weight-room work Weight-room work

after tournament) Explosive training
Day 2 (one to two Explosive training Posture training
days before next Stabilization ball and tubing
tournament)
Day 3 (day after Posture training
playing morning Stabilization ball and
round) tubing

Depending on the player’s level of fitness and the time available, he or she
should train using one of the four weekly workout schedules shown in table 13.12.
Level 1 workouts are perfect for beginning golfers who have just started train¬

Golf
ing, whereas Level IV workout weeks are geared for the competitive player. If an
athlete plans to train year-round, it might be best to start training at Level I,
progress through Levels II and III, and end the season with Level IV.

Table 13.12 Weekly Workout Schedules

Level 1 Off-season In-season

Flexibility 3-5 X week (10 min. 3 X week (6 min.)

Strength training 3 X week (10 min. 2 X week (8 min.)

Lower body 2 X 20 reps 1 X 20 reps

Upper body 1x15 reps 1x15 reps

Trunk (day 1 /day 2) Time/reps Time/reps

Balance 3 X week (5 min.) 2 X week (5 min.)

Skill training 2 X week (5 min.) 2 X week (5 min.)

(continued)
 Table 13.12 (continued)

Level II Off-season In-season

Flexibility 3-5 X week (1 2 min.) 3 X week (10 min.)

Strength training 3 X week (15 min.) 2 X week (8 min.)

Lower body 3 X 20 reps 2 X 20 reps

Upper body 2x15 reps 1x15 reps

Trunk (day 1 /day 2) Time/reps Time/reps

Balance 3 X week (5 min.) 2 X week (5 min.)

Skill training 2 X week (5 min.) 2 X week (5 min.)

Level III Off-season In-season

Flexibility 4-5 X week (1 2 min.) 4 X week (1 2 min.)

Strength training 3-4 X week (15-20 min.) 2 X week (12 min.)

Lower body 3 X 20 reps 2 X 20 reps

Upper body 2x15 reps 2x15 reps

Trunk (day 1 /day 2) Time/2 reps Time/2 reps

Balance 4 X week (5 min. 2 X week (5 min.)

Skill training 3 X week (5 min.) 4 X week (3-5 min.)

Level IV Off-season In-season

Flexibility 5-7 X week (15 min.) 5 X week (1 2 min.)

Strength training 3-4 X week (20-25 min.) 2 X week (12-15 min.)
Balance 4 X week (5-7 min.) 2 X week (5 min.)
Skill training 4 X week (5-7 min.) 2 X week (3-5 min.)

308
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 309

HOCKEY Peter Twist

Various sport-specific factors affect program development for hockey. Many of

the biomechanical, physiological, and technical considerations of hockey are de¬
tailed in chapter 11 (pages 247 to 251). Other general influences in the profes¬
sional and amateur hockey environment include game schedule and schedule
density. Tables 13.13 and 13.14 illustrate typical variations in training.
Teams in the NHL play almost every second night with long road trips. The
volume of training on practice days and the opportunity for recovery are much
less than that available in other leagues. Minor professional and college league
teams schedule most games around the weekend, the former to draw fans and
the latter out of respect for class schedules. A minor professional league team
often plays three games in three nights—Friday, Saturday, and Sunday—with
four days between games. College hockey teams usually play Friday and Satur¬
day; Sunday is a rest day followed by four good practice days. The college sched¬
ule provides an optimal weekly schedule for quality practices, quality workouts,
and adequate recovery time between games.
At the NHL level, players occasionally do strength training the morning of
games and always do postgame workouts, sometimes to accelerate recovery but
more often to fit in enough workouts while allowing adequate recovery time
before the next game.

Table 13.13 Continuum of Change Throughout the Year

Phase Postseason Off-season Preseason Pre-camp In-season
„..'" '.. .
Focus Recovery Build base Specificity Taper Maintenance

Sample April 15-May 9 May 10—July 4 July 5-Aug 29 Aug 30-Sept 5 To April or May
time period
Length 3 Vi weeks 8 weeks 8 weeks 1 week About 8 months

Theme R and R Grab the lead Intensity wins Peak to compete Teamwork

Key Unloading Aerobic capacity Anaerobic Taper to camp Maintain all,

components: Rest and recovery (V02max) systems Refuel for camp together as a
Regeneration Strength base Explosive power On-ice timing team. Also work
Muscle mass Speed Speed on individual
Use variety and
Flexibility Agility endurance weaknesses
cross-training to
Quickness Cross-training (specific focus for
maintain fitness Perform break-in
Plyometrics Flexibility each individual).
and strength workouts for
Speed endurance Emphasize
(outside the rink anaerobic power,
Read-and-react recovery and
and weight speed, agility
skills regeneration
room). Upgrade and quickness,
On-ice skills more than
flexibility with plyometrics, and
micro-Stretching. speed endurance. building.
Also work on
Also work on aerobic capacity,
balance, strength, balance,
proprioception proprioception,
and athleticism. and athleticism.
 310 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

During the season, injuries, trades, demotions, and call-ups all alter condi¬
tioning requirements. On the long road trips experienced by the western teams,
players become accustomed to the travel-play-travel-play circus, continually
moving to the next city. Conditioning is a greater challenge on the road because
less time is available and no team facility is at hand. Thus, teams feel added
pressure to schedule high-quality workouts when at home.
Each league has a different off-season, as does each team, depending on the
amount of playoff success achieved. College seasons finish by March, and pro¬
fessional teams missing the playoffs finish in April, leaving four and a half months
for the out-of-season training phase. Teams that go to the championship, how¬
ever, finish in mid-June, leaving them with only two and a half months—and
that period must allow for postseason recovery and the entire conditioning
phase!
All levels of hockey—high school, college, and pro—emphasize leg and speed-
center strength training. Players at the high school and college levels, however,
are younger and consequently physically immature; thus they have a greater need
for upper-body strength and hypertrophy programs. These athletes are usually
still building their foundations. This is a fact that coaches should keep in mind
when designing programs for them (see table 13.13 on page 309 and table 13.14
below).

Table 13.14 Frequenc/ Per Week

Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug
Testing Retesting ’ostseasor
On-ice 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 0 1 or 2 4 or 5

Continuous 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 0 2 2 1 1
aerobic

Aerobic 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 2 1 0
interval

Anaerobic 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 3 3
sprints

Strength 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 5 5 4 4
and power
.
Speed, i 2 1 2 1 2 1 0 1 1 3 3
agility, and
quickness

Flexibility 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Balance and 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 6.. 1 1 2 2
and pro¬
prioception

Cross¬ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.. 2 1 1 0
training*
_
Cross-training activities. 2-on-2 basketball; 3-on-3 soccer with small boundaries; 2-on-2 hockey; one zone, high-level
singles tennis
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 311

Off-Season
The goal during the off-season is to build the foundations of strength, muscle
mass, aerobic power, and balanced flexibility. To achieve this, I prescribe both
high volume and high intensity but more recovery days for each muscle group.
May and June are skewed toward aerobic and strength development. As the play¬
ers proceed into preseason training (in July and August) they progress to anaero¬
bic intervals, speed agility and quickness, and explosive lifting. Players continue
to work on flexibility, balance, and proprioception throughout the summer.
Off-season strength training works the muscles in two groups: (a) chest, shoul¬
ders, and triceps, and (b) legs (with hips), back, and biceps. My athletes lift four
days per week during this phase, alternating twice for each grouping. Abdominals
are the only group worked three times a week. Because many proprioception and
balance-oriented core-stability drills link the back and hips with abdominals, I
group the abs with legs, hips, and back. (On one day they stand alone as a core
workout, with no other lifting that day.)
Players start with the legs, hips, and abs and continue with the back, biceps,
and forearms. Athletes perform exercises at extremely high intensity (max over¬
load weight) rather than simply huge volume. Most sets are between 12 and 20
reps total (broken into 2 to 3 sets). One day’s workout starts with intense lifting
(see chapters 4, 5, and 7 for some specific exercises), then 65 minutes of aerobic
intervals on a stationary bike (10-minute warm-up, 10 sets of 2.5 minutes at 95
percent followed by 2.5 minutes at 75 percent, finishing with a 5-minute cool¬
down) followed by 15 to 20 minutes of stretching (see chapter 3). This lift-bike-
stretch sequence is a long workout that can be broken into a two-a-day approach.
I prefer that players work with greater intensity on their work days than most
coaches recommend. On the other hand, my players take more frequent high-
quality rest periods and more recovery days. Working harder and resting smarter
pays greater dividends.
Players build lower-body strength predominately through squat and lunge varia¬
tions. Exercises to increase core strength include upper and lower abdominals,
hips, lower back, and some rotational movements.
The aerobic intervals are designed to drive up V02max and to elevate the lac¬
tate threshold. The grueling aerobic training always pushes this boundary.

Hockey
Flexibility prescription is the opposite end of the continuum—slow and easy
stretching, partial range of motion, gentle micro-Stretching©. Micro-Stretching
achieves superior long-term flexibility, balances flexibility of muscle groups, and
better facilitates recovery from tough workouts.

Preseason
In the main noncompetitive periods, as the player moves from the off-season and
into the preseason in midsummer, workouts become more hockey specific. A
shift occurs toward anaerobic intervals and high-speed multijoint and single-leg
activity. Exercises maximize the transfer of conditioning improvements to on-ice
performance. The workouts are denser, with shorter rest periods.
Once players are skating daily and training on the ice; their dryland condition¬
ing must be modified accordingly. The contribution of the legs and anaerobic
31 2 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

system must be carefully analyzed. Coaches sometimes recommend frequent leg-

strength training and anaerobic intervals all summer for hockey players. What
they overlook is that the legs and the anaerobic systems are taxed by upper-body
multijoint lifts, circuit training, plyometrics, quickness and agility drills, on-ice
practices, game activity or scrimmages, anaerobic intervals, intense running and
biking aerobic intervals, and cross-training such as two-on-two basketball and
mountain hiking. Younger high school athletes are (or should be) also playing
other sports. Coaches must assess all of this to determine the workload on the
legs and anaerobic systems, not just count the number of times they type in “leg
strength” or “anaerobic sprints” on a player’s program.
This preseason workout begins with a 12-minute dynamic warm-up to pre¬
pare the body for explosive multidirectional quickness drills, which follow while
the athlete is fresh. The quickness drills are more accurately defined as footwork
drills than plyometrics (see chapter 6). They are modified to use a smaller verti¬
cal component with less impact and more efficient sport movement, but they still
harness the neuromuscular mechanisms for explosive action. Single-leg, bilat¬
eral, stop-and-start, and lateral movement drills predominate.
To build leg strength, the program uses more single-leg exercises, stride-specific
work, crossovers, and higher strength-endurance reps. Additional exercises for
the adductors balance out strength in those small muscles. Most sports use a
progression to IRMs and low reps, but during the competitive season hockey
players need to exert force repetitively over a 45- to 60-second shift, not lift
something once or twice and then rest.
The abdominal work done during this phase of the season should include more
exercises done in a standing position. Endless lying curl-ups do little to build
strength 360 degrees around the core and have little application for a game in
which the core must contribute from an athletic and dynamic position. Include
numerous partner drills with torso rotation in which players produce leverage or
withstand contact.
Players eat and rest and then return to complete an extremely intense 60 minute
bout of anaerobic sprints on a stationary bike. These are without a doubt lactate-
tolerance sprints—each sprint is similar to the Wingate bike test with only a 1:1
work-to-rest ratio:

• Warm up for 15 minutes to elevate heart rate

• 12 sets of the following: 60-second full-out sprint followed by 60-second
active rest (70 percent)
• Cool down for 11 minutes

In-Season
Most hockey seasons begin in September. The focus is driving up conditioning
on the ice, learning team systems, and getting timing down to game intensity.
Testing is done in training camp in September to assess the strengths and weak¬
nesses of each player. Testing is repeated in January or early February to check
midseason conditioning and to allow enough time to gear up down the stretch
for the playoffs. Players strength train three times per week and work the energy
systems three times per week (dryland) from September to November, when
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 31 3

they are also on the ice daily. Toward the middle of the season, in December and
January, the volume and frequency decrease and more emphasis is placed on
recovery and regeneration to ease players over the hump of a long season.
Strength training and energy-system work decrease. I prescribe a lower vol¬
ume and lower frequency of drills and include variety in every workout. This is
as much for mental rejuvenation as it is for physical growth and repair. After
retesting in late January, conditioning is reemphasized. Maintaining peak output
for over 100 games every second night (exhibition, regular season, and playoffs)
is an extraordinary task compared with peaking for an Olympic event once every
four years. Coaches must monitor players to ascertain their energy level and
motivation. Proprioception and flexibility work continue throughout to mini¬
mize likelihood of injury.
A good in-season conditioning workout to complete after a practice of quick-
feet drills, mobility drills, and regular on-ice practice moves players into the
weight room for an anaerobic strength circuit. Exercises are at a fast pace, usu¬
ally with a one-to-one tempo. I prescribe mainly full-body, closed kinetic-chain
multijoint exercises that simulate the on-ice demands of the legs, speed center,
and upper body; exercises such as squats, standing chest passes, side-to-side stick
handling, jump squats, medicine ball sit-up passes, and cleans into a push press
are good choices. These exercises build on the premise that the body must oper¬
ate as a linked system to produce hockey actions.
Because the circuit is an anaerobic endurance workout, similar to sprint inter¬
vals, the athlete who forges through it will be under extreme fatigue with a heart
rate very near maximum. If the athlete does not reach this level, he or she is not
attacking the workout aggressively enough. No rest is permitted between sets.
The athlete should bang off each set.
The reps are moderate to high (2 sets of 10 to 20) because the goal is to build
strength endurance on the ice; this is not a hypertrophy phase. The in-season
program requires a mix of workouts to maintain mass and absolute strength.

Postseason
After the season, players need an unloading phase to make the transition from
the intensity of playoffs to this rest-and-repair phase. For up to four weeks, play¬
ers maintain a base of strength and fitness through workouts outside the weight
room and by cross-training. They should stay away from the rink and the weight
room for complete mental, emotional, and physical regeneration. In the example
given in table 13.14, players finish competing in March and begin their postseason
in April. This is a month for family and friends, for alternative activities, for rest
and relaxation. By participating in other sports activities three times a week,
micro-Stretching three times per week, and strength training using just body
weight as resistance three times a week, athletes will maintain a fitness base into
May and thus not start from scratch in a deconditioned state.
 314 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Vern Gambetta

As with most sports, the soccer competition schedule determines the plan for
training. Physical training should be part of daily training throughout the year.
The various components of training should be distributed throughout each train¬
ing week and should meet the following three primary objectives:

• Injury prevention—With good coaching and a solid work ethic, a healthy player
will improve.
• Performance enhancement—A sound, well-designed training program will
improve performance.
• Education—A good program will teach players how the various drills and ex¬
ercises relate to the game.

To accomplish these objectives, the coach must emphasize three key concepts:

1. Warm up to play. Do not play to warm up.

2. Condition the body to kick and run. Don’t kick and run to condition.
3. Condition and prepare the whole body using the kinetic-chain concept.

Failure to understand and use these concepts will predispose players to injury
and obstruct their skill development. The body is a linked system in which all
parts work together to produce efficient movement.
To prevent injuries, it is important to understand how and when they occur. A
significant portion of conditioning must be devoted to injury prevention. Ankle
sprains, groin pulls, and knee injuries are prevalent in soccer. All these occur in
the force-reduction (eccentric) phase of movement. Therefore, it is necessary to
spend considerable time on force reduction, which involves stopping and chang¬
ing direction. Remedial injury prevention work must be included as part of the
warm-up daily and in individual sessions as needed. This is true regardless of the
level of development.
All aspects of an effective soccer conditioning program must meet the 3M
criteria. Everything must be manageable. Can it be accomplished given the facili¬
ties, equipment, and personnel available? Facilities and equipment should not be
limiting factors. All training should be done on the field. Any activities off the
field are supplemental. The results must be measurable. Can the work and progress
be quantified? The program must be motivational. The player and coach must
understand the reason for the training and be able to relate it to greater success
as a soccer player.
What are the physical qualities of the individual player relative to the demands
Soccer

of soccer and the position? Every player is different. The toughest challenge is
designing an effective program that meets the demands of the individual player
in a team context. Evaluate each player relative to the following parameters:

• Work capacity
• Strength and power
• Speed
• Coordination and skill
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 315

Testing is the highest form of training stress outside the actual game, and thus
is useful in determining the individual player’s athletic qualities relative to the
demands of his or her position and the game. The information collected from
testing, along with game performance, provides a coach with a good basis from
which to build a soccer program.
Rather than comparing a player against arbitrary norms, compare a player
against himself or herself. Be careful not to draw too many conclusions from one
series of tests. Only after conducting several tests periodically throughout the
training year is it possible to develop an in-depth profile of each player. In most
instances, the tests will indicate deficiencies that have already been identified
through observation of training and game performance. The following tests give
specific numbers that can quantify improvement and serve as motivation, but
remember that the ultimate test is the match itself.
Test results are used to develop recommendations for the coaches, who then
implement the training prescriptions in daily and weekly training sessions. The
goal is to use testing to design individual training programs and make training
more specific to the physiological and biomechanical demands of the game. All
tests should be electronically timed to ensure accuracy.

10-Meter Start
Use a standing start, first off the right foot (with the right foot forward) and then off
the left foot. This tests the ability to accelerate. A deficiency here indicates a lack of
strength or poor starting technique. It would be best if the two times were almost the
same. That would indicate symmetry between legs, which is desirable in soccer.

20-Meter Fly
The player begins running 20 meters back from the start so that he or she is at
top speed during the 20-meter test distance. This test indicates top-end speed and
closing speed expressed in meters per second, which is how much distance a player
can cover in a particular time. A deficiency here indicates inadequate speed due
to lack of power (also indicated on the repetitive jump test) or poor technique.

Illinois Agility Test

The athlete starts by lying prone near the
first bottom-corner cone. He or she gets
up and sprints to the closest top-corner
cone, goes around it, weaves back around
the middle cones, sprints to the other top-
corner cone, turns around the corner, and
sprints to the finish. This tests the ability
to change direction and control the cen¬
ter of gravity. It also indicates body aware¬
ness, body control, and footwork. A defi¬
ciency here indicates a lack of functional
core strength and leg strength. A score un¬
der 15 seconds is considered good.
 316 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

50-Meter "Ajax" Shuttle

Establish two lines 10 meters apart. The player begins at line A, runs and touches
line B, and plants and returns to line A. The player does this five times for a total
of 50 meters. The test indicates the ability to start, stop, restart, and change
direction quickly. A deficiency here indicates a lack of functional leg strength
and core strength. A score under 10 seconds is considered very good.

Bangsbo "Intermittent Recovery" Beep Test

This is a multistage test to assess the athlete’s soccer-specific endurance in terms
of use of oxygen. The athlete performs 20-meter running intervals at progres¬
sively increasing speeds. At each running speed, the player completes between 7
and 15 repetitions of the 20-meter interval. The player starts each interval when
an audiotaped beep sounds (or when the coach blows a whistle) and tries to reach
the end of the interval and turn before the next beep (or whistle). The athlete is
tested at 20 running speeds. The score for a player who is able to continue run¬
ning through 8 intervals at the 16th running speed would be reported as 16-8.
Bangsbo includes a conversion from the running speed and repetition completed
(which actually corresponds to aggregate distance run during the test) to VO,max.
Early in the test the beeps are spaced out every two to four minutes; as the test
progresses the time between the beeps decreases. Each athlete should be able to
cover 1,000 meters sprinting between the beeps; this is the minimum standard
for readiness to play 90 minutes at the highest level. If an athlete cannot cover
this distance (5 X 20 meter intervals), he or she needs to work on developing
aerobic work capacity.

Squat Jump
The athlete assumes a stationary squat position with the thighs parallel to the
floor and attempts to jump as high as possible. This tests the contractile proper¬
ties of the muscles, which relate to basic strength and the standing start. The
score of this test should be lower than that of the countermovement jump that
follows.

Countermovement Jump
The player starts up, quickly squats down, and then jumps as high as possible.
This tests the elastic properties of muscle, or basic explosive power. Performance
on this test relates to performance in the 20-meter fly. The player should be able
Soccer

to jump higher on this test than on the squat jump test as this is a higher intensity
jump.

Repetitive Jump
The player performs as many countermovement jumps as possible in 15 seconds.
This test indicates power and power endurance. Performance on this test also
relates to performance in the 20-meter fly.
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 317

Using hypothetical test results, the following are specific training recommen¬
dations that might be made to the coaches:

Player # J
10-meter left Best: 1.83 sec. Average: 1.86 sec.
10-meter right Best: 1.80 sec. Average: 1.80 sec.
20-meter fly Best: 2.45 sec. Average: 2.48 sec.
Maximum velocity, meters per sec.: 8.16
Illinois agility Best: 16.00 sec. Average: 16.05 sec.
Ajax shuttle Best: 10.73 sec. Average: 10.79sec.
Beep test Speed/level: 21/4 Distance: 920 m
Squat jump Height: .464 m
Countermovement jump Height: .484 m
Repetitive jump Number of jumps: 15 Average height: .414 m
Power: 31.16
Recommendations: Acceleration work twice a week, all short burst with an
emphasis on good technique. This player tends to take too long a first step. Work
agility on the same day as acceleration, and possibly do some agility work each
day. Emphasize quick change of direction and footwork. His 15-second repeti¬
tive jump test indicates good power potential, but it does not show up in the
speed and agility tests. I also think the need for speed and agility improvement is
reflected on the field in this player’s inability to gain a step on the opposition.

Player #2
10-meter left Best: 1.72 sec. Average: 1.77 sec.
10-meter right Best: 1.84 sec. Average: 1.85 sec.
20-meter fly Best: 2.35 sec. Average: 2.36 sec.
Maximum velocity, meters per sec: 8.51
Illinois agility Best: 14.60 sec. Average: 14.65 sec.
Ajax shuttle Best: 10.00 sec. Average: 10.05 sec.
Beep test Speed/level: 21/6 Distance: 1,000 m
Squat jump Height: .383 m
Countermovement jump Height: .394 m
Repetitive jump Number of jumps: 14 Average height: .445 m
Power: 26.73
Recommendations: This player needs to work on acceleration. Emphasize cor¬
rect mechanics! His agility is good, but his endurance is just barely acceptable for
a player at this level. Jump tests indicate that he needs to emphasize a plyometric
program two times a week. Poor jump results are reflected in his lack of ability to
accelerate. Emphasize jumps and hurdle jumps. He should do strength training
Soccer

with emphasis on legs and trunk two times a week.

31 8 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

E. Paul Roetert

Only five players have ever won the Grand Slam in tennis (winning all four Grand
Slam tournaments in the same year), and it appears that achieving this feat is
becoming more difficult. Better competition, more court-surface specialists, and
an amazing number of lead-up tournaments make it extremely difficult for play¬
ers to prepare properly for the Grand Slam events. By the end of 1998, Pete
Sampras had won 11 Grand Slam titles and was chasing Roy Emerson’s record of
12. Yet Pete decided not to play the Australian Open Championships in January
1999. He was tired and needed a break.
Although some criticized his decision, from a sport science perspective it may
have been a wise move. Tennis does not have an official off-season like most
other sports; this makes it difficult for players to peak for specific tournaments,
recover fully from injuries, and build in any rest periods. This problem is not
restricted to the pros—junior and adult players can also participate in tourna¬
ments just about every week of the year.
So how can a player prevent injuries, burnout, and poor tournament results
related to overplaying? The answer is to design an appropriate periodization
training program. As mentioned in the previous chapter, periodization training
has been used for many years, mostly in Olympic sports such as weightlifting,
swimming, and track and field. It is a method for organizing the training activi¬
ties of an athlete to minimize the chances of overtraining and optimize the chances
of achieving peak performance. Coaches and players must balance competition,
rest, practice, and physical training throughout the year. Table 13.15 and figure
13.4 show an example of how to manipulate these four components depending
on where the player is in the cycle. First, because tennis does not have official
seasons, they must be created. Each of the four “seasons” makes up a cycle. In a
full year the player may go through three or four cycles.

Table 13.15 Periodization Phases

Phase 1 Phase II Phase III Phase IV

Preparation Precompetitive Competitive Active rest

Goal Firm base Tennis-specific Physiological Recovery

fitness level training peak
Fitness Mostly aerobic; Anaerobic/ Tennis-specific Light fitness
training 20-40 minutes aerobic mix drills; short, training,
continuous explosive especially in
other sports
Strength 2-3 sets; high 2-4 sets; lower Circuit training, 3 sets; 8-10
training repetitions, repetitions, 1-2 sets; 12-15 repetitions
12-15 8-10 repetitions (optional 3-7 day
rest depending on
athlete's needs)
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 319

The percentages in figure 13.4 refer to the relative amount of time to spend on
each of the four components. The percentages are just guidelines. For optimum
benefit each of the seasons” should last about three or four weeks. Notice that
even in the active rest phase the player will play some tennis—very little initially,
but the amount steadily increases throughout the period. During the first few
days of the active rest period, the player will play no tennis. As the period goes
on, the rest days will steadily decrease and the other components will increase.
Introducing seasons to the player’s games increases the likelihood of the player
remaining injury free and enhancing his or her performance.

Preparation Precompetitive
Rest
Rest
10% Competitive
match play 10%
\ 30%
Competitive
match play
Physical 50%
training
30%

Practice
30%

Competitive Active rest

Rest
Competitive
Physical 10%
traininq Competitive
10% match play
70%
Practice
10%

training
30%

Figure 13.4 Sample distribution of time spent on each training component during
each of the four phases.

Keep in mind that a program should be designed for the individual. Each player
has different genes, a different tournament schedule, and a different fitness level.
Many players will need to take a short break after two or three tournaments.
Furthermore, it makes a big difference whether a player (a) loses in the first
round or makes it to the finals, (b) has a short or long match, (c) travels a long
way to get to the tournament, or (d) must deal with extreme environmental con¬
ditions. Figure 13.5 illustrates programs for players at the junior, collegiate, and
professional levels.
 320 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

] Prep. □ Precomp. H Comp. H Rest

Sample program for a ranked junior player

Tennis

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Sample program for a collegiate player

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Sample program for a professional tennis player

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Figure 13.5 Programs must be tailored to the player’s level of play as well as his or
her individual characteristics and circumstances.

The most important (and difficult) component of preparing a proper

periodization training program is scheduling a time to rest the body. One way to
structure a periodization schedule is to choose tournaments that carry the most
significance and then build a training program based on performance peaks for
those events. To obtain the best results, control the following five variables:

1. Volume or duration—the amount of work performed or how long the player

trains
2. Intensity—how hard the player trains
3. Frequency—how often the player trains
4. Specificity—how similar the training is to the demands of the sport
5. Variation—how much the player varies the training

Depending on the training phase of the year—preparation, precompetition,

competition, and active rest—the training program will change to allow for the
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 321

particular goal of that phase (strength improvement, increased power, and main¬
tenance). The following program example for a week in the competition phase
of training provides a guide. Keep in mind that individual differences are respon¬
sible for the most significant changes to the program. For instance, just as the
goals of a lineman and a defensive back in football differ, so too do the goals of a

Tennis
baseliner and a serve and volleyer differ.
Some proponents of strength and conditioning programs feel that periodization
is not possible in tennis because the sport doesn’t have an off-season. But by
applying the programs and exercises outlined here and figuring out when to use
them, the athlete and coach can determine how best to build the athlete’s
periodized program.
The sample in-season training programs shown in table 13.16 are for use dur¬
ing the competitive phase. Athletes should perform these circuits three times per
week.

Table 13.16 In-Season Strength Training Programs

Program 1 Program 2 Program 3

Squats 2x12 Step-ups 2x12 Lunges 2x15

Bench press 2x12 Push-ups 2x12 Chest press 2x15
Seated row 2x12 Biceps curl 2x12 Bent-over row 2x15
Sit-ups 2x12 Lat pull-downs 2x12 Medicine ball 2x15
ab work

Back 2 x 12 Swiss ball 2x12 Lower-back work 2x15

extensions trunk work

Trunk 2x12 Light plyometric Hamstring work 2 X 15

rotations work if no tennis
that day

Calf raise 2x12 Leg extensions 2x15

Dorsiflexion 2x12 Calf raises 2x15
 322 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

VOLLEYBALL —-Gourfney-Gorier

The strength and conditioning program for volleyball changes throughout the
year depending on the game and practice schedule. Volleyball has two basic types
of strength and conditioning programs: in-season and off-season. The two off¬
season periods are the summer program and the winter program. There are also
two in-season periods: the fall season and a much shorter spring season.
Beginning in January, the first segment of the annual cycle begins with a tran¬
Volleyball

sition period immediately following the regular in-season. The winter program
begins in late January and continues through February. The spring in-season
then begins in March and continues through April.
The second segment of the annual cycle begins with another transition con¬
sisting of active rest throughout May. The summer program then begins in early
June and continues through July. The regular in-season program begins on the
week that two-a-days start in August and continues for the remainder of the year.
Regardless of the level of the athlete, the strength and conditioning program
for volleyball must focus on ground-based, multiplane, multijoint movements
that specifically match the biomechanical needs of the volleyball athlete. This
type of program will develop the strength and explosive power that athletes need
to improve performance. See table 13.17 for an example.
Coaches must handle athletes with little or no lifting experience differently
than they do advanced lifters. The primary difference in the program is the skill
level required to complete the workouts. A program for beginners, such as high
school athletes, includes no explosive lifting or conditioning in the base phase.
The explosive lifts are broken into parts and performed as strength lifts. They
are introduced later as explosive lifts in the strength phase. Furthermore, a
beginner’s program does not include a peak phase.
An intermediate program, or perhaps a college athlete’s program, is more tech¬
nical than the beginner’s program. The primary difference is that the intensity is
greater and the athletes perform more explosive lifts.
The advanced program for professionals includes the most technical moves,
more plyometric exercises, snatch movements, and more overhead lifts. As part
of the base phase, the advanced program uses the circuit, an extremely intense
workout consisting of nine exercises. The athlete performs three sets of 10 rep¬
etitions at 60 percent of 1RM with approximately one minute of rest between
sets. The athlete must be physically prepared for the intensity that the circuit
requires. The professional, or most advanced program, requires the athlete to
possess solid technique in all lifts and conditioning drills.

Off-Season
The primary objective of the off-season is to bring athletes to a peak of strength
and conditioning. This is accomplished by a series of three phases totaling eight
weeks featuring variations in training loads and exercises. Each phase has certain
objectives and procedures that lay the foundation for the next phase. The cycle
typically begins with the base phase, progresses to the strength phase, and ends
with the peak phase. The base phase includes the highest volume of training
 Designing Periodized Training Programs 323

Table 13.17 Volleyball Strength and Conditioning Program Basics

Average
length of
Primary focus workout Target results

January Active rest (cross¬ Varies, but Recover and build lean body mass,
training) and usually 90- improve technique, and maintain sport
winter program 1 20 min. skills

February Winter program 90-120

Volleyball
Develop strength and explosive power,
minutes develop agility, and maintain sport skills

March Spring in-season 30 min. Maintain strength and explosive power

April Spring in-season 30 min. Maintain strength and explosive power
.
May Recovery through Varies Prepare mentally and physically for
active rest to summer program
prepare for
summer program

June Summer program 1 20 min. Build lean body mass, increase work and
power capacity, improve technique on
explosive lifts, and maintain sport skills

July Summer program 1 20 min. Maximize strength and explosive power,

develop agility, and maintain sport skills

August In-season program 30-45 min. Maintain strength and explosive power

September In-season program 30-45 min. Maintain strength and explosive power

October In-season program 30-45 min. Maintain strength and explosive power

November In-season program 30-45 min. Maintain strength and explosive power

December In-season program 30-45 min. Maintain strength and explosive power

Allow a period of complete rest after the season ends.

coupled with the lowest intensity. The peak phase has the opposite characteris¬
tics—the least volume with the highest intensity. The summer program and the
winter program are the two off-season programs for volleyball. The winter pro¬
gram, being just six weeks long, accomplishes only the base phase of training
before the spring season begins.
The off-season strength and conditioning program for volleyball uses the split-
routine method of training, which works exercises on alternating days. This effi¬
cient method of training allows at least two full days of recovery between types of
exercise movements. The split routine used with this program is divided by ex¬
plosive lifts and strength lifts and by plyometric drills and agility drills.

Base Phase
The primary objectives of the base phase are to build lean body mass, increase
work and power capacity, improve technique on the explosive lifts, and maintain
 324 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

sport skills. Doing high-volume workouts (three sets of 10 repetitions) increases

the work capacity and prepares the body for the higher intensity workouts of the
later phases. Some single-jointed exercises are included in the base phase to stimu¬
late muscle growth. In performing the explosive lifts, players should concentrate
on proper technique. The conditioning drills in this phase have the objective of
maintaining volleyball-specific endurance and preparing the body for more in¬
tense drills in the following plyometric and agility phases.

Strength Phase
Volleyball

The primary objective of the strength phase is to build on the base phase by
decreasing the volume and increasing the intensity of the strength workout (three
sets of 5 repetitions) and increasing the volume of the conditioning workout.
During this phase, the objectives are to develop maximum strength and explo¬
sive power, to develop agility, and to maintain sport skills. The core of the strength
program is squats and hang cleans. Players do no more than three explosive lifts
in one workout and only a few single-jointed exercises at the end of the workout
to maintain muscle size.

Peak Phase
The final phase of the off-season program is the peak phase, which emphasizes
doing a higher volume of volleyball-specific plyometric and agility drills. The
strength program focuses on explosive lifts to produce peak explosive power.
Single-jointed exercises are dropped completely from the program to avoid over¬
training. Table 13.18 shows a typical off-season (summer) strength and condi¬
tioning program for volleyball. In each phase, players do plyometric drills after
the strength workouts on Mondays and Thursdays and do agility drills before
the strength workouts on Tuesdays and Fridays.

In-Season
The primary objective of the in-season strength and conditioning program for
volleyball is to maintain the strength and conditioning levels that players at¬
tained during the off-season. The emphasis shifts to improving sport skills and
knowledge of volleyball strategies and tactics (see chapter 11). Players do the
maintenance program two days per week, typically in the morning, as distant
from practice time as possible. This schedule ensures that the athletes are rested
for both the morning strength workout and the afternoon practice. The exer¬
cises included in the in-season program (table 13.19) are combined to include
both strength and explosive exercises in both workouts. Players do no condition¬
ing outside practice during the in-season. The two days of lifting vary from week
to week depending on the game schedule.

Transition
The transition phases throughout a season offer athletes a necessary physical and
mental break from volleyball and the usual workout routine, while still keeping
the athletes active through other activities such as swimming, jogging, tennis,
racquetball, and so forth on a noncompetitive basis.
Table 13.8 Off-Season Strength Training

Monday and Thursday (for all phases)

Snatch squat 2x5

Rack or hang clean 3x5

Squat jump 3x5

Trunk twists 2x5

Volleyball
Abdominals

Tuesday and Friday

Base phase weeks Strength phase weeks Peak phase weeks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Squat 2x10 3x10 3x10 3x5 3x5 3x5 3x5 3x5

Romanian dead lift — — — 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2x10 2 x 10

Leg curl 2 x 10 3x10 3x10 — — — — —

Leg extension 2 x 10 3x10 3x10 — — — — —

Bench press
or jammer press 2 x 10 3x10 3x10 3x5 3 x5 3x5 3x5 3x5

Shoulder press 2 x 10 3x10 3x10 — — — — —

Triceps extension 2x10 3x10 3x10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 xlO — —

Low lat pull 2 x 10 3 x 10 3 x 10 — — — — —

Bent-over row — — — 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10

Lat pull-downs
or pull-ups 2 x 10 3 x 10 3 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2x10 2 x 10

Biceps curl 2 x 10 3 x 10 3 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 2 x 10 — —

Table 13.19 In-Season Program

Snatch squat 2x5

Hang clean 2x5
Trunk twists 2x5
Squat 2x5
Jammer press or bench press 3x5
Pull-ups 2x10
Abdominals

325
Restoring Performance
After Injury
Todd S. Ellenbecker

I he purpose of this chapter is to discuss the integral components of high-

performance sports training that occur during the critical stage in an athlete’s
recovery following injury. Specifically, the chapter focuses on the activities that
bridge the gap between formal clinical rehabilitation and commencement of nor¬
mal competitive activities. This critical period, which typically begins once the
athlete has been cleared medically for a return to his or her sport and ends on
successful reattainment of maximal-level performance, truly dictates the success
of the surgical procedure or rehabilitation program.
Communication between the individuals responsible for returning an athlete
to full activity is essential. The integrated approach contained in this chapter
relies on open channels of communication between the physician, physical thera¬
pist, athletic trainer, strength and conditioning professional, coach, parent, and
athlete. With all those levels of interaction, it is easy to see why communication
is important.

327
328 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Recent advances in surgical and rehabilitative techniques have allowed fast

recovery for athletes from injuries that 10 or 15 years ago would have ended
careers. Perhaps the best example is the use of arthroscopy for surgical explora¬
tion and treatment of the knee, shoulder, and elbow joints. It is not uncommon
for an athlete to have his or her knee scoped and return for play at the highest
level in three or four weeks. Although some prominent athletes have returned
within one or two weeks following arthroscopic knee surgery, such returns are
often below previous performance levels and may be temporary and somewhat
risky.
Communication between the player and the surgeon, physical therapist, and
athletic trainer is needed early in the rehabilitation process to ensure a fast and
expedient recovery. Following the initial stages of healing and recovery after
injury, however, the team approach becomes evident as the athlete begins to
integrate some functional activity into rehabilitation under the guidance of many
sports medicine professionals, coaches, and ancillary personnel.
One critical example of communication is the relay of information between
the coach and player to the sports medicine team regarding the specific demands
and expectations that will be placed on the player, as well as optimal timing for
the athlete’s return to activity. The honest exchange of information between the
athlete and the sports medicine team regarding pain levels and symptoms of
instability or weakness is critical for the successful integration of all the input
from the sports performance team.
How can communication be optimized between professionals? One sugges¬
tion beyond verbal communication or staff meetings is using written reports or
tests to measure the athlete’s progress and status following surgery or injury (see
table 14.1). This information helps to ensure clear, concise understanding of the
status of the healing in the operative or injured tissues that is imperative for
successful program development. Assurance that the bone is completely healed,
that the ligament is not torn, that the joint is not unstable, and so forth is a
prerequisite for postrehabilitation training and return to full activity.

Table 14.1 Reports to Facilitate Communication

Region or factor Test or report

Bone X ray, bone scan, MRI, or arthrogram

Tendon MRI, arthrogram, operative report

Ligament MRI, arthrogram, KT-1000, stress X ray, operative report

Muscle MRI

Range of motion Goniometric measurements, flexibility tests

Strength Isokinetic testing, manual muscle testing
Function Functional tests such as vertical jump, horizontal jump,
push-up, sit-up, 20-yard dash, etc.
 Restoring Performance After Injury 329

COMPONENTS OF THE POSTREHABILITATION PROGRAM

Virtually all the conditioning components discussed earlier in this text are im¬
portant to the postrehabilitation training program, including frequency, dura¬
tion, volume, intensity, rest, and recovery. Several of these components need
specific mention regarding their application in this phase of training. Overlying
all these components are the concepts of pain- and symptom-free training. Al¬
though these may be important considerations in all types of training, they are
particularly critical when the athlete is most vulnerable to reinjury. The athlete
must perform all training activities at a level at which he or she feels no pain. Any
activity that re-creates symptoms similar to the injury or in the recently injured
region must be modified or discontinued.

Intensity and Pain

The concept of “no pain, no gain” clearly does not apply in this phase of train¬
ing. The athlete must perform training at a frequency, duration, and intensity
that does not create pain or mimic the symptoms associated with the injury.
Using the pain levels in table 14.2 helps sports medicine professionals and coaches
constantly monitor the presence of pain and understand the athlete’s current
condition.
One of the most useful aspects of the pain scale is that it helps prevent an
athlete from resuming activity unless he or she can perform it without compen¬
sating. Performing a sport or activity with compensation can lead to injury in
other areas of the body, cause the development of improper sport biomechanics,
and delay the return to optimal performance.

Table 14.2 Pain-Level Classification

Pain level Description

Level 1 No pain.

Level 2 Mild soreness after activity, usually gone in 24 hours.

Level 3 Mild soreness and stiffness before activity, disappears

during warm-up, return of mild soreness after activity.

Level 4 Stiffness before and mild pain during activity, not enough to
alter activity. Pain and stiffness do not interfere with ability to
use normal sport or activity mechanics.

Level 5 Pain during activity that alters ability to perform and does
not allow athlete to use normal sport mechanics.
Compensatory mechanics are obvious.

Level 6 Constant pain, even at rest. No performance possible.

Modified from Nirschl & Sobel.

330 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Specificity
After incorporating the component of monitoring pain, the team developing the
training program assembles the more traditional components. During this stage,
the training program must be specific to the demands of the activity or sport in
as many ways as possible. Figure 14.1 demonstrates some of the areas that must
be considered in order to develop a specific training program for a sport activity.
Knowledge regarding the physiological demands of the activity will assist in de¬
termining optimal work-to-rest intervals and the type and amount of muscular
loading that should occur. Biomechanical information is also necessary in order
to understand the position in which the athlete’s joints work and the amount of
stabilization, acceleration, and deceleration required during the intended activity.

Needs analysis

Exercise movements

• Muscles used

• Joint angles

• Contraction type (eccentric or concentric)

Energy system (metabolism) used

• Estimated contribution from aerobic/anaerobic

metabolism

• Work-rest cycles, performance duration,

frequencies

Injury prevention

• Most common sites (shoulders, trunk, elbow,

knee)

• Player’s history of injury

Figure 14.1 Athletic needs and demands for tennis.

Rest and Recovery

Finally, the concept of rest and recovery must be strictly enforced during this
stage of training. Many healthy, uninjured athletes can perform every day. During
this stage of training, periods of rest longer than what athletes and coaching staff
are used to must often be interjected between training and performance sessions.
This greater rest interval is often needed to allow muscular recovery and time for
the injured tissues to adapt to the return of sport-specific training stresses.
 Restoring Performance After Injury 331

APPLYING FITNESS COMPONENTS IN REHAB

To illustrate the primary fitness components and their application, a more de¬
tailed explanation is offered by the specific example of an elite junior tennis player.
Breaking down the athlete’s sport activity and analyzing its physiological de¬
mands can help in developing a program that will ease the athlete’s return to
activity.
Physiologically, one of the important variables is energy-system utilization.
Failure to address the physiological parameters of the athlete in a rehabilitation
program will not only delay the functional return but also increase the risk of
injury and hurt performance. In tennis, a player performs 300 to 500 acute bursts
of activity during an average match. An average point in tennis lasts less than 10
seconds, and a rest of 25 seconds is allowed following each point. During a point,
the athlete changes direction an average of 4.2 times and runs, on average, less
than 4 meters in any one direction. Professional tennis players run as fast as 18
miles per hour (world-class sprinters reach 22 to 23 miles per hour) and cover
over 6 miles in a match.
This sport-specific information assists in developing physiological program¬
ming. Based on the time spent in maximal-level exertion (approximately 10 sec¬
onds) and rest (25 seconds), a work-to-rest ratio of 1:2 or 1:3 is established. For
every unit of work performed, the athlete is able to rest for two or three units.
This interval type of activity relies primarily on the anaerobic energy system for
the supply of energy during points, yet it demands a superior aerobic base to
allow recovery during the rest periods between points. Moreover, a tennis match
can last three to five hours, further emphasizing the importance of the aerobic
energy system.
Tennis is not the only interval-type sport activity. Sports such as soccer and
basketball also fall into this category. Through analysis of the sport, it becomes
obvious which training parameters to include. For example, tennis players work¬
ing on rehabilitation drills or movement training should work at near maximally
tolerated levels for short periods of 10 to 15 seconds, with a recovery period of
approximately 20 to 30 seconds. Even a simple exercise such as riding a station¬
ary cycle can be made more activity specific for the athlete by having interval
riding programs on the bicycle include near maximal periods of cycling followed
by submaximal recovery periods specific to the sport. Exercises such as carioca
steps and sideways shuffling, often included in postrehabilitation programs, can
be adapted to fit this model. Using shorter distances and more frequent direc¬
tional changes, while adhering to the appropriate work-to-rest interval, is an
example of an important modification for the tennis player.
Inclusion of some type of aerobic training in the postrehabilitation program is
also important. When aerobic training cannot be totally sport specific—playing
tennis for two or three hours would potentially harm or injure the athlete—the
aerobic activity must be modified to allow aerobic conditioning to occur. The
critical components of aerobic activity include large muscle group activation,
repeated and rhythmic movement patterns, performing at 60 to 85 percent of
the athlete’s maximal heart rate, and maintaining an elevated heart rate or
workload at a steady state for at least 20 minutes.
332 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Following a lower-extremity injury, the postrehabilitation program must of¬

ten use creative methods and strategies to allow aerobic training because run¬
ning or other weight-bearing movement is inherent in many popular aerobic
training activities. Using an upper-body ergometer (UBE) (figure 14.2) can
strengthen the upper body and elevate the athlete’s heart rate to obtain an ac¬
ceptable aerobic workout, as can swimming. During the transition to weight¬
bearing activities following a lower-body injury, athletes can perform extensive
aquatic running and sports performance drills, reaping the benefits of reduced
body weight while working in the water. Unweighting systems, which allow tread¬
mill running at diminished loads to the lower extremity, are popular but require
additional equipment. Allowing the athlete to return to his or her sport without
the appropriate aerobic training base leads not only to early fatigue but also to
risk of reinjury.

Figure 14.2 An athlete at work on an upper-body ergometer.

ADAPTING REHAB PROGRAMS TO SPECIFIC SPORTS

In addition to physiological variables, the muscular status of the athlete must be
addressed by a sport-specific program. Information regarding intensity, dura¬
tion, rest, and frequency can all be collected by performing a needs analysis and
breaking down the athlete’s sport activity (refer to figure 14.1). The example of a
tennis player or throwing athlete will again be used to develop these concepts.
Almost all upper-extremity throwing or racquet sports require explosive yet re¬
petitive muscular activity. Breaking down the throwing motion or tennis serve
identifies the important role of both concentric and eccentric muscular activity. Both,
therefore, should be stressed in the postrehabilitation program for these athletes.
An additional important factor is the repetitive nature of these sport activities,
which often requires a low-resistance, high-repetition program to ensure that
local muscular endurance returns to the involved musculature to meet these de¬
mands. Figure 14.3 shows how the number of repetitions performed per set re¬
lates to muscular development in a repetition-maximum (RM) training program.
 Restoring Performance After Injury 333

RM load 3 6 10 12 20 25

Strength/power Strength/power Strength/power Strength/power

High-intensity High-intensity High-intensity High-intensity

endurance
endurance endurance endurance

Low-intensity Low-intensity Low-intensity Low-intensity

endurance endurance endurance

Maximal power Low power

_ i_ ! <'''1- -
output ^- -output

Figure 14.3 A theoretical repetition-maximum continuum.

An RM training program is a preferred method of regulating exercise intensity

and volume during both performance-enhancement training and rehabilitation.
Using the RM system allows for control of both volume and intensity of resis¬
tance training. For example, a 10RM load allows an athlete to perform 10 repeti¬
tions, encountering significant fatigue by the 9th and 10th repetitions. The ath¬
lete is able to perform the 10 repetitions without substitution, compensation, or
breaking proper form. When this system is applied to the throwing or racquet-
sport athlete in upper-body exercise programming, the athlete typically lifts in a
load range between 10RM and 15RM. This develops local muscular endurance
and strength and differs from the training program that a less endurance-
oriented athlete such as a shot-putter or weightlifter would perform. An RM
training program in the 10 to 15 range is often performed during rehabilitation
because the loads are far less than those used in a more explosive, power-training
program in which only 4 to 8 repetitions are used to achieve fatigue. The athlete
must train in the postrehab phase in a pain-free manner and with respect for the
healing tissues. The combined benefits of increased endurance training and loads
that do not overstress the healing tissues make the use of 10 to 15 repetitions in
RM training an appropriate framework during this important phase.

FUNCTIONAL PROGRESSION OF INJURY RECOVERY

A common description for training at this phase in the recovery process is functional
progression. As stated earlier, exercises for the athlete coming off a rehabilitation
334 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

program following an injury or surgery must gradually become more functional

and specific for the activity and the demands that the athlete will be placing on
his or her body. In this section, some specific drills and tests commonly used for
the upper and lower extremities are addressed using two sport-specific examples.

Progression for the Upper-Body Athlete

Shoulder injury is a common occurrence among athletes who perform overhead
movements. The postrehabilitation training program for this situation involves
the use of exercises that further develop and reinforce the principles set forth
during rehabilitation and that increase the intensity of performance without risk¬
ing injury. Knowledge of the specific position of the shoulder and arm during
throwing or serving provides critically important information about where the
muscles of the shoulder and surrounding regions must function. For example,
overhead throwing and serving take place with the shoulder elevated about 90 or
100 degrees (approximately shoulder level). Although it may appear that the
release point (throwing) or contact point (serving) is overhead, the shoulder re¬
mains essentially in the 90- or 100-degree position of elevation. The overhead
appearance is achieved through careful trunk positioning called lateral flexion
(see figure 14.4).
Training exercises should be geared to increasing strength and endurance near
the position the athlete uses during sport activity. Therefore, using exercises to
strengthen the upper back (scapular musculature) and rotator cuff is recom¬
mended. These exercises should place the shoulder in the functional position
described in this section but not jeopardize the shoulder’s supporting structures
or tendons. Figure 14.5 contains examples of recommended exercises for base¬
ball and tennis players to increase rotator-cuff strength and endurance for both

Figure 14.4 The overhead throwing or serving position is not achieved by raising
the arm straight up.
 1. Side-lying external rotation
Lie on the uninvolved side, with the involved arm
bent at 90° and resting at the side. Keeping the
elbow of the involved arm bent and fixed against
the side of the body, raise the arm into an
external rotation. Slowly lower the arm and
repeat.

2. Shoulder extension
Lie on the table on the stomach with the
involved arm hanging straight to the floor.
With thumb pointed outward, raise the arm
straight back into extension toward the hip.
Slowly lower the arm and repeat.

3. Prone horizontal abduction

Lie on a table on the stomach side with
the involved arm hanging straight toward the
floor. With the thumb pointed outward, raise
the arm out to the side parallel to the floor.
Slowly lower the arm and repeat.

4. Supraspinatus-“empty can”
Stand with the elbow straight and the thumb
pointed down toward the floor. Raise
arm to shoulder level at a 30-degree angle
to the body. Slowly lower the arm and repeat.

5. 90/90 external rotation

Lie on the table on the stomach with the shoulder
abducted to 90 degrees and the arm supported
on the table with the elbow bent at 90 degrees.
Keeping the shoulder and elbow fixed, rotate
the arm into external rotation, slowly lower to the
starting nposition and repeat.

Figure 14.5 These exercises will help athletes increase their rotator-cuff strength and endurance.

335
336 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Figure 14.6 A piece of Thera-band can be used to exercise the shoulder musculature both con¬
centrically and eccentrically.

rehabilitation and performance enhancement. Figure 14.6 shows how a piece of

Thera-band can be employed to exercise the shoulder musculature both concentri¬
cally and eccentrically in a sport-specific way for baseball and tennis players.
The volume of exercise should be high, with performance of three sets of 10 to
15 repetitions traditionally recommended to foster local muscular endurance
within the exercising musculature. These exercises target the rotator-cuff mus¬
culature to provide a solid strength base in the shoulder. Additional upper-body
functional exercises that are often employed include medicine ball tosses using
the movement patterns of a chest pass, side throw, forehand toss, and backhand
toss. For additional challenge, the individual can perform them seated on a Swiss
ball. Doing so will test the individual’s balance and increase the amount of trunk
muscular activity.
Execution of these training exercises is an important precursor to more ag¬
gressive functional activities. Pain-free range of motion and strength in the re¬
habilitating rotator cuff almost equal to that in the uninjured side are recom¬
mended before returning to functional activities and other types of weightlifting.
Clinically, therapists and trainers often use a Cybex isokinetic device to measure
the strength and muscular balance of the rotator cuff. This type of test can be
useful to the sports medicine team in deciding when to return an athlete to ag¬
gressive activities following an injury or surgery. If this type of test is not avail¬
able, the sports medicine team should make sure that the athlete can execute the
exercises listed in this section in a pain-free manner as well as move the shoulder
and elbow through a full range of motion without symptoms.
Finally, when the return to tennis or throwing activity is indicated, it should
take place using an interval program. Table 14.3 lists an interval tennis program
used by clinicians for athletes after injury or surgery. A common element in any
interval program is that the athlete performs activities only on alternate days.
This gives the athlete’s arm additional time to recover between events. Of course,
Table 14.3 Interval Tennis Program

Guidelines

• Begin at stage indicated by the therapist or doctor.

• Do not progress or continue the program if joint pain is present.

• Always stretch the shoulder, elbow, and wrist before and after.

• Apply ice after completion of the program.

• Do not use a backboard because it leads to exaggerated muscle work without rest between
strokes.

• It is strongly recommended that strokes be evaluated by a USPTA certified teaching professional.

• Play on alternate days, giving the body a recovery day between sessions.

• Perform each stage one to two times before progressing to the next stage. Do not progress to the
next phase if pain or excessive fatigue was present during the last outing.

Preliminary stage

• Use a foam ball to perform 20 to 25 forehands and backhands, beginning with ball feeds from
the net from a partner.

Stage 1

a. Have a partner feed 20 forehand groundstrokes from the net. Feeds should be looping and
waist high.

b. Have a partner feed 20 backhand groundstrokes from the net, looping and waist high.

c. Rest 5 minutes.

d. Execute another 20 forehands and backhands from ball feeds.

Stage 2

a. Begin as in stage 1 above, with the partner feeding 20 forehands and backhands from the net.

b. Rally with a partner from the baseline, hitting controlled groundstrokes, mixing both forehands
and backhands for 50 to 60 repetitions.

c. Rest 5 minutes.

d. Repeat step b.

Stage 3

a. Rally groundstrokes from the baseline for 15 minutes.

b. Rest 5 minutes.

c. Hit 1 0 forehand and backhand volleys, emphasizing a contact point in front of the body.

d. Rally 15 minutes from the baseline.

e. Hit 10 forehand and backhand volleys.

(continued)

337
338 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Table 14.3 Interval Tennis Program, continued

Pre-serve interval (perform prior to stage 4)

a. After stretching with racket in hand, perform a serving motion 10 to 15 times, without a ball.

b. Using a foam ball, hit 10 to 15 serves without concern for performance results (consider only
form of racket arm and contact point).

Stage 4

a. Hit 20 minutes of groundstrokes, mixing in volleys using a 70 percent groundstroke/30 percent

volley format.

b. Hit 10 serves.

c. Rest 5 minutes.

d. Hit 10 to 15 more serves.

e. Finish with 5 to 10 minutes of groundstrokes.

Stage 5

a. Repeat stages 4a and 4b listed above, increasing the number of serves to 20 to 25 instead of
10 to 15.

b. Before resting, have a partner feed easy short lobs to attempt a controlled overhead smash.
Repeat overhead 5 to 10 repetitions.

c. Finish with 5 to 10 minutes of groundstrokes.

Stage 6

• Prior to attempting match play, complete stages 1 to 5 without pain or excess fatigue in the
upper extremity. Do not progress from stage to stage if pain develops.

stretching and a proper warm-up precede each stage, and stretching and a proper
cool-down follow each stage.
In an interval throwing program for baseball, the intensity of the activity is
manipulated primarily through progressive increases in throwing distance. The
player throws as little as 30 to 45 feet initially with progression to as much as 120
feet for pitchers and 150 to 180 feet for position players. The rate at which the
athlete progresses is individually determined by the presence or absence of symp¬
toms and the degree of injury or disability. Generally, the athlete should com¬
plete one to two successful, pain-free trials at each stage before progressing to
the next stage. The number of repetitions and the volume of the interval throw¬
ing program are increased at each throwing distance as the athlete demonstrates
an initial tolerance to that level of activity.
In the interval tennis program presented in table 14.3, the athlete progresses
from executing simple groundstrokes from ball feeds, which minimizes impact
to the arm and maximizes controlled movements and stroke execution, to rally¬
ing with a partner from the baseline. The volume and intensity are gradually
increased. Volleys, and eventually serves and overheads, are added. Only after a
 Restoring Performance After Injury 339

Table 14.4 Modification of Traditional Resistive Training Exercises for

Athletes Following Shoulder Injury or Surgery
Exercise Mod if Ration (s)

Bench press Use narrower grip, bring bar only halfway toward chest

Chest fly Perform in standing position rather than on back, bring

hands back only two-thirds of the way to minimize stress
on front of the shoulder

Military press Use incline bench, narrower grip on bar, and raise arms
up only to level where elbows are in line with chin

Triceps pullover Substitute standing triceps press-down with elbows held

toward sides

Dip Substitute standing triceps press-down with elbows held

toward sides

Lat pull Pull toward chest in front only, not behind head or neck

tolerance to forehands and backhands develops are serving and overhead activity
attempted because these activities impart greater stress to the shoulder and re¬
quire a high activation level of the rotator cuff for safe execution.
The interval program format has been applied for other upper-extremity sports
such as volleyball and swimming. The basic format includes alternate-day activ¬
ity and progression from safer, less aggressive movements within a sport to more
aggressive and stressful activities. For the athlete who needs additional strength
in the upper extremity, traditional upper-body weight-training exercises are of¬
ten modified following shoulder or arm injury. During this stage of the recovery
process, modification of weight exercises is recommended to decrease stress to
the rotator cuff and the supporting structures of the shoulder. Table 14.4 lists
examples of recommended modifications of traditional upper-body weightlifting
movement patterns.
Rotator-cuff exercises and rehabilitation exercises should be continued during
the period in which the athlete is performing the interval programs and tradi¬
tional upper-body weight training. Balance between the rotator-cuff muscula¬
ture and the surrounding primary-mover musculature including the deltoid,
latissimus dorsi, trapezius, and pectorals is critical. The athlete who abandons
rotator-cuff and upper-back strengthening exercises following a return to activ¬
ity risks reinjury and suboptimal performance.

Progression for the Lower-Body Athlete

The postrehabilitation training program for a lower-body athlete such as a run¬
ner or basketball player involves all the variables covered in the beginning of this
chapter, but it uses different exercise progressions and addresses different con¬
cerns. Whereas testing strategies for the upper-body athlete are scarce beyond
clinical isokinetic testing, several tests can be used with the lower-body athlete.
340 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

These tests can give valuable information to the sport scientist and coach by
indicating the athlete’s ability to generate and dissipate forces in the lower limbs
and to perform lateral movements and changes of direction.
As mentioned earlier, one of the common strategies when working with ath¬
letes during this critical stage is to manipulate (minimize) the athlete’s body weight
by using water exercise or unweighting devices. This allows the athlete to per¬
form a higher volume and intensity of aerobic and anaerobic training while pro¬
tecting the joint by minimizing impact forces.
During the functional progression, the athlete is gradually challenged by in¬
creasing the impact loading on the injured extremity. Using proper footwear,
orthotics, and running form is essential not only to enhance performance but
also to minimize the effects of compensation on other joints in the lower-ex¬
tremity kinetic chain. Favoring the right knee, for example, can lead to injury to
the right hip or left-lower extremity because of improper impact absorption. It is
the responsibility of the sports medicine or sport science professional and coach
to monitor the biomechanical form of the individual during all weight-bearing
activities. One important example is included in figure 14.7. This figure shows
an athlete doing a simple one-leg squat maneuver. In figure 14.7a, the athlete is
able to align the lower extremity properly during the execution of the squat
while standing on the half-cut foam roller. This roller is often used in the func¬
tional progression because it challenges the balance and proprioceptive system
of the body more than an exercise performed on flat ground. In figure 14.7b, the
athlete is unable to maintain proper alignment, probably because of muscular
 Restoring Performance After Injury 341

fatigue and inadequate quadriceps and hip stabilization. Proper, pain-free execu¬
tion of these training exercises is of paramount importance and is the basis for
progression of the lower-body athlete during this stage.
Another important adjunct in the progression of the lower-body athlete is the
use of functional tests. Several tests that are traditionally applied can be used
outside the clinical environment to gauge lower-extremity strength. Typically,
tests for the lower extremities have been analyzed relative to the uninjured side.
The uninjured extremity forms a good baseline for testing and allows an objec¬
tive measurement that can guide the progression of exercise during this phase.
One example is the vertical jump test. This test has been used as a measure of
explosive lower-body strength in fitness tests and in rehabilitation as well. Bilat¬
eral symmetry is expected with this test in most athletes. Take care during test¬
ing to use the same procedure for each extremity, particularly in whether a step
is allowed before the jump. Most vertical jump fitness and rehabilitation testing
is done without a step, relying solely on the explosive contraction from a resting
position to generate force.
Another test used extensively in rehabilitation is the single-leg hop test. This
test involves using the same leg for taking off and landing. This test is helpful in
measuring not only gross take-off power and jumping distance but also ability to
land and eccentrically absorb the force of body weight. An athlete’s hesitancy
during testing of the involved extremity is every bit as indicative of his or her
ability as the distance jumped. Besides comparing the single-leg hop distance of
one extremity to the other, the sports medicine professional can use normative data
established by Davies and Zilmer (Ellenbecker 2000) to interpret the results further.
Normal healthy male athletes should be able to single-leg hop 80 to 90 percent of
body height. Female athletes should attain 70 to 80 percent of body height.
One additional test that can be useful in testing athletes is the hexagon test
(see the hexagon drill in chapter 7, page 127 for a description. The advantage of
this testing using this drill is that it involves the use of directional changes and
cutting movements that are inherent in many sports activities. Table 14.5 lists
the normative data for males and females for the hexagon test. Although the test
is designed to be performed using both legs, a challenging alternative is to have
the athlete perform it on one leg at a time. Comparing performance of the left
and right legs is then possible.

Table 14.5 Hexagon Test Norms (in seconds)

Needs
Female Excellent Good Average improvement

Adult <12.00 12.00-12.10 12.10-12.40 >12.40

Junior <10.48 10.48-11.70 11.70-12.30 >12.30

Needs
Male Excellent Good Average improvement

Adult <11.80 11.80-13.00 13.00-13.50 >13.50

Junior <11.10 11.10-11.80 11.80-12.70 >12.70
342 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

Using the tests discussed in this chapter will enable the athlete’s progress to be
monitored during the postrehabilitation program. Like exercises for the upper
extremity, exercises for the lower body often must be modified following specific
injuries. Care must be taken not to jeopardize or overstress the ligamentous re¬
pair or the patellofemoral joint (kneecap) during exercise in an attempt to chal¬
lenge the athlete more aggressively. Using the modifications shown in table 14.6
will enable the athlete to perform many of the traditional lower-body exercises
safely and in a progressive manner.
Progression beyond the traditional types of resistive exercise listed in table
14.6 is warranted when the athlete can perform these exercises without pain or
compensation. Again, knowledge of the athlete’s sport or intended activity is
essential for setting up work-to-rest cycles and determining the amount of aero¬
bic and anaerobic emphasis in the training program. Exercises that mimic the
activity and use elastic cords to produce overload allow the trainer to simulate
sport-specific demands. Integration of traditional exercises with balance and prop¬
rioceptive challenges such as the use of half-cut foam rolls, trampolines, and
balance platforms can further stimulate the injured segment and help prepare
the athlete for optimal performance. Research has documented that significant
losses in balance and proprioception occur following upper-extremity injuries
such as shoulder dislocations and lower-body injuries like ankle sprains and knee-
ligament reconstruction.
These sport-specific exercises should be incorporated while maintaining the
base of rehabilitation exercises that are geared at reducing injury-specific deficits
in muscular strength. Figure 14.8 shows graphically many of the important com¬
ponents outlined in this chapter. Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter
to cover all aspects in the pyramid, many of the concepts such as balance, core-

Table 14.6 Modification of Traditional Lower-Extremity Exercises for

Athletes Following Injury or Surgery
Exercise Modification and type of injury indicated

Knee extension Use "short arc" extension from either 0 degrees (knee
straight position) to 30 degrees of bend or flexion, or
from 90 degrees of knee bend to 60 degrees of knee
bend to protect the kneecap (patella) in athletes
recovering from patellofemoral problems.
Knee extension Use "short arc" extension from 90 degrees of knee
flexion to approximately 60 degrees of knee bend to
protect the ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) in athletes
following ACL injury.

Squat and lunge Limit the amount of knee bend, keeping the knee bent at
less than a 60- to 90-degree angle in athletes recovering
from knee injury.
Step-up Use a 3- to 6-inch step instead of an 8- to 1 2-inch step to
decrease the amount of knee bend and reduce stress to
the patellofemoral joint in athletes following knee injury.
 Restoring Performance After Injury 343

stabilization training, and aerobic and anaerobic training are covered elsewhere
in this comprehensive text.

TIME GUIDELINES FOR RETURN FOLLOWING INJURY

One of the first things we all realize when dealing with athletes is that individual
variation is large. In addition, many factors complicate accurate prediction of
recovery time, such as whether the injury was acute or more of a chronic injury
stemming from a long history of repeated injuries. The age and underlying fit¬
ness level of the athlete are also important factors to consider. Despite these
confounding variables, several general guidelines can be given on the average
return times following certain types of injuries or surgeries.
In general, three to four weeks are required to return an athlete safely to activ¬
ity following arthroscopic knee surgery. This is true for most patients who have
minor damage to the cartilage and who do not have extensive damage to the
surfaces of the femur and patella (kneecap). Following an injury to the ligaments
of the knee, specifically the anterior or posterior cruciate ligament, 6 to 12 months
are usually required before the athlete can return to sports with cutting and
contact. San Francisco 49ers wide receiver Jerry Rice missed most of the season
when he tore his anterior cruciate ligament and reinjured his knee, fracturing his
kneecap on a reception in the end zone on his return to activity. In sports in
which contact or unpredictable activity is common, predicting an appropriate
recovery time is even more difficult, as it was with Jerry Rice, who had achieved
a full recovery of range of motion and strength in his leg following surgery.
Although there are exceptions to every rule, 6 to 12 months are generally re¬
quired for the reconstructed ligament to heal and mature enough to give the
knee stability. Advances in the way surgeries are performed, using less invasive
surgical procedures and better instrumentation, are producing faster recoveries.
Four to six weeks are required before an athlete can return to most sports
following shoulder arthroscopy, but 6 to 12 months are required when the shoul¬
der is opened and the completely torn rotator cuff is repaired. In cases of ten¬
dinitis of the shoulder or elbow as little as two weeks and as much as six to eight
weeks are required to return to full activity. An example of an arm injury that
requires at least a year of recovery is a tear in the ulnar collateral ligament of the
elbow. Chicago Cubs pitcher Kerry Wood missed an entire baseball season fol¬
lowing surgery to reconstruct his elbow so that he could throw again at the ma¬
jor-league level. Considered one of the worst injuries that a baseball pitcher could
have, it requires a long rehabilitation period.

SUMMARY
In summary, the design and implementation of a training program following
injury or surgery requires integral knowledge of the athlete’s activity or sport, as
well as an integrated exercise and conditioning approach. The use of subpain or
subsymptom intensity is important. Careful evaluation of performance mechan¬
ics to avoid compensation and reinjury is critical. All the training concepts in this
text are important elements in developing a program that will successfully return
344 High-Performance Sports Conditioning

an athlete to activity, whether recreational or professional. Interval return pro¬

grams and modifications of traditional exercises bridge the gap between formal
rehabilitation and functional performance. Finally, a team approach, with open
communication among all its members, ensures application of these training con¬
cepts in the most efficient and expedient manner.
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Index
Note. The italicized letters / and t refer to figures and tables, respectively.

A program implementation 158-160

abdominals sport-specific
power development in 89, 89/ in football 237
strengthening 128-136, 129/-135/ in volleyball 262-263
ability, athletic success and 203 as subphase in periodization 278
absolute speed 86 testing 46, 315, 315/
acceleration types of 141
in agility and coordination 148, 157 agility bag drills 221,221/
defined 167 alactic speed phase 278
drills 181-185, 181/-185/ alternate bound 93/
football-specific 237-240 amortization phase. See countermovement
form training 179-181,179/481/ 191 anaerobic capacity 85. See also specific sports
genetic factors affecting 169-172 anaerobic endurance phase 277-278. See also speed endur¬
improving 168-169 ance
in power training 86 anaerobic glycolysis 171
in quickness 117 anaerobic power
submaximal 77-80 metabolism in 195,195/496/
testing 172-175,315 testing 46
training programs 174-190, 175?—178?, 179/485/ anaerobic training, for quickness 103
188?—190? anatomical adaptation phase 274—275
variation in athletes 167 ankles, testing 28-33,28/43/
acyclic power 95-96 annual plan
aerobic capacity defined 267
components of 194 mono- vs. multi-cycle 268-270, 268/470/
defined 193 training phases in 270-274, 271?, 272/473/
in distance running 230-231 arm action, in running 181
economy of exercise and 197-199, 198/499/ around, through, and over race 110, 110/
endurance and 194499,195/499/ around the lane drill 226
in power development 85 arthroscopic surgery, recovery time 343
testing 208-210,210/ assistance training 155
training principles affecting 199-203, 201/ 203/
VDOT values, for distance runners 233 ?—2 3 6? B
in work capacity training 85 back
aerobic endurance phase 277 power development in 88, 88/
aerobic power rehabilitation of 334-339, 334/436/ 337?-339?
in anaerobic events 196 strengthening 122, 125, 132-133, 132/ 135, 135/
for endurance 197, 197/ stretching 59-60, 59/40/
metabolism in 195496,195/496/ backpedaling 149, 240
problems in gaining 206-208 backward to forward transition drill 111, 111/
testing 46 balance
aerobic training in agility and coordination 145-146
postrehabilitation 331-332,332/ drills 121-127, 121/ I23f-\24f (See also specific sports)
for quickness 103 dynamic 125-127, 125/1454 46, 156
African dance drill 185 in flexibility 54—55
age muscular 120-125, 121/ 123/424/ 173
acceleration and 170-171 in quickness 104,107,112
athletic success and 204—206 static 145
agility in strength training 74
defined 140-141 training programs 136-137
described 7 balance threshold 145
drills 156-158, 160-165 (See also specific sports) ball drop 157
foundations of 145-149 Bangsbo “intermittent recovery” beep test 316
physical abilities and 141-142, 141/ baseball
program design 149-155 drills 219421,219/421/

353
354 Index

movement skills in 162-163 complex training 87-88, 154

periodized training 284—289, 285f—287289f conditioning. See training
postrehabilitation program 338 cone jump drill 126-127
training considerations 217-218, 284—285 cone wheel drib 157
baseline, determining 5-6. See also testing, baseline confidence, in coaches 208
basketball connective tissues, elasticity of 52
drills 222-227 contrast method 80
movement skills in 163 control, in flexibihty 54—55
periodized training 290-293, 290f-291t, 293f conversion phase 276
training considerations 222 coordination
biceps, strengthening 125, 131, 131/ defined 142
bi-cycle periodization 268-269, 269f 27It described 7
bioenergetics, quickness and 103 foundations of 145-149
biomechanics intramuscular vs. intermuscular 145
acceleration 169 motor learning in 142-144
agdity 151-152 stages in 144—145
movement 64—66, 64f 66/ core stability 128-137, 129/435/ See also stability
quickness 100-102 core strength 85
blood-lactate data, in endurance measure 211-212 countermovement 101-102, 108
body composition countermovement jump 316
acceleration and 170 cross country running 165. See also distance running
athletic success and 204—206, 205/ crossover 149, 156
quickness and 103 cruise intervals 230
testing 174 crunches 129, 134, 134/
in work capacity training 85 cutting 149, 156
body control tests 46 cyclic power 95-96
body fat. See body composition cycling (drib) 183
bounds cycling (sport)
for acceleration and speed 181-182, 181/182/ movement skills in 164
for power development 93-94, 93/94/ stationary training 187, 188?
box drib, tennis 257-258, 258/
box jump drill 224 D
box shuffle, lateral angled 114, 114f
dead fifts 71-74,72/73/
brief maximal efforts 76
death jump drib 95, 95/
build up acceleration drill 238
deceleration 148, 156, 158
butt kicker drill 183,183/
deltoids, strengthening 125, 129, 129/ 131, 131/

c depth, in powerlifting 71-73

depth jump drib 264—265, 265/
calves detraining, in transition phase 273-274
power development in 88-95, 88/—95/' diminishing returns principle 202, 203/
strengthening 122, 124—125, 124/ direction, for athletic success 204
stretching 55, 55/ distance running
cardiovascular fitness, described 9-10 aerobic capacity 230-231
Carolina shuttle drill 254—255 cellular adaptations 228-229
cellular adaptations 228-229 economy of exercise 231-232
center of gravity lactate threshold 229-230
controlbng 125-127, 125/ movement skills in 165
defined 145 periodized training 294-300, 295/ 298/
center of mass 145 speed 231-232
cessation phase 276 \4DOT values 2331-2 3 6t
chest, stretching 60, 60/ dorsifl exion 147
chest press 129, 129/ double jump drib 225
classic periodization 14—15 double-leg rotation stretch 246
closed skills 154—155 double periodization 268-269, 269/ 27lr
coaches double-T stop-and-start hurdle race 109, 109/
athletic success and 204, 208 down-and-off drib 184
professional development in 4—5 downhill sprinting 187, 188?
use of testing data by 21-22 dribs and exercises. See also plyometric dribs and exercises
combination bound 94/ specific sports
communication, in rehabilitation 328, 328? agility 155-158, 160-165
compensation phase 276 dynamic balance 126-127,156
competitive phase 272-273 flexibility 54-61, 55/61/
 Index 355

functional movement tests 26-41, 28/41/ benefits of 50

muscular balance 120-125, 121/ 123/125/ described 8-9
power development 87, 88/-95/
exercises 54—61,55/61/
quickness 105-117, 109/112/ 114/115/ 117/ for hockey 311
speed 181-185, 181/185/ in movement preparation 151
drive phase, of running 179, 179/
muscle strains and 50-52, 51/
drop jump drill 264
principles of 52—54, 53?
drop stepping 149
in quickness 104—105
drum major drill 185 role in movement 49, 54
duration in strength training 71
in flexibility 531, 54 testing 32-33, 32/33/ 173
principle of 12-13 FMS. See functional movement screen
dynamic balance 125-127, 125/ 145-146, 156 follow-the-leader drill 112, 112/
dynamic flexibility 151 football
movement skills in 160-161
E periodized training 301-304, 301r-302r, 3041
ease of maintenance principle 202-203 speed development in 237-240, 239/240/
eccentric strength 85 foot-ground interaction 147-148,156
economy of exercise forehand-backhand drill 260-261, 261/
aerobic capacity and 197-199, 198/199/ form training, for sprinting 179-181, 179/181/ 191
in distance running 231-232 40-yard sprint, as test 43, 45
physical maturity and 205, 205/ four-corner agility drill 239,239/
testing 210-212,212/ ffee-weight movements 67
training principles affecting 199-203, 201/ 203/ frequency
efficiency, potential 26 in flexibility 53, 531
elasticity, muscle 156, 316 principle of 12-13
elbows, injury recovery time 343 functional movement
endurance mobility 23-24, 25/26/
aerobic capacity and 194—199 stability 24—26
described 9-10 functional movement screen (FMS)
drills (See specific sports) described 26-27
periodization of 277 exercises for 28-41,28/41/
problems in gaining 206-208 golf-specific 242-243
sport-specific scoring and interpreting 27
soccer, testing 316 scoring sheet 42
volleyball 262 functional performance testing 43-46, 44/
success factors in 203-206, 205/ functional training, vs. traditional vii-viii
testing 210-212,212/
training principles affecting 199-203, 201/203/ G
endurance sports gastroc-soleus, flexibility test 36-37, 36/37/
vs. power sports 66 Gates workout drill 2 5 5-2 56,256/
tapering in 273, 273/ gender, sprinting and 171
volume and intensity in 273/ 278-280, 279/280/ genetic factors
end-zone medicine ball put 116 in acceleration 169-172
energy production 194-196,195/196/ in athletic success 12
engrams 144 gluteals
ergometer, upper-body 332,332/ strengthening 122, 124—125, 124/
exercises. See drills and exercises stretching 56, 56/
explosive power. See power golf
explosive strength 86 drills 243-246, 244/245/
functional screening 242-243
F movement skills in 164
periodized training 305-307, 307?—308?
fast-twitch muscle fibers 11, 84, 169-170, 170r
training considerations 241-242
fatigue
Golgi tendon organ 53-54
power output and 6
ground reaction forces 148
quickness and 103, 106
gymnastics, movement skills in 164
50-meter “ajax” shuttle test 316
fitness, baseline 5-6. See also testing, baseline
five and one-half drill 222
H
flexibility (mental) 207 hamstrings
flexibility (physical) strengthening 121, 121/ 122, 124—125, 124/
356 Index

testing 36-37, 36/437/ jumping drills

heart-rate data, in endurance measure 212, 212/ for balance 126-127
hexagon drill 127 for power development 88-92, 88/-92/ 95, 95/
hexagon test 341,341f for quickness 113
hill sprints 176-178,178? sport-specific
hip raise 130,130/ basketball 224—225
hip rotation 135,135/ volleyball 264—265, 265/
hips jumping tests 43-44,316,341
abductor, adductor development in 122, 245 jump shot drills 223-224
mobility in 259,259/
power development in 88-95, 88/-95/ 113 K
tests 28-33, 28/433/ kinetic linking 43, 128
trunk separation drills 243-244, 244/ knees
hockey injury recovery time 343
drills 248-251,249/ stabilizing 122
periodized training 309-313, 309?-310? testing 28-33, 28/-33/
training considerations 247-248, 309-310
hurdle jump drills 91-92, 91/ L
hurdle race drill 109
lactate threshold 229-230, 232/
hurdle step test 30-31, 30/431/
lactic-acid buildup 171
hyperextensions 132-133, 132/
ladder backpedal sprint drill 240, 240/
hypertrophy
landing drills 224-225,264—265,265/
flexibility7 and 8
lane shuffle drill 226
in periodization 14—15
lateral resistance quick step drill 226
quickness and 104
lateral speed 237
/ lateral wave 156
leg circuit drill 253—254
Illinois agility test 315,315/ leg press 124, 124/
illnesses, training and 207 leg raises. See abdominals; legs
improvement, principles of 201-202 legs. See also specific muscles
impulse 64—65, 64f power development in 113
impulse-timing hypothesis 65 strengthening 121, 121/ 124, 12^/ 126-127
individual differences 207 stretching 55-58, 5 5/-5 8/
injuries. See also postrehabilitation training testing 36-37, 36/437/
athletic success and 17,207 let go drill 115,115/
baseline testing and 22 linear periodization 14—15
muscle strains 50-52, 51/ line hop drill 127
preventing, in soccer 314 local muscular endurance 9
quantity vs. quality and 25 low-depth drop-and-cut drill 115, 115/
quickness and 105 lumbar extension 39, 39/
recovery from 327-328, 328?, 343 lunge jump, in-place 113
in-season training lunges
baseball 288-289, 289? in functional movement test 32-33, 32/433/
basketball 293,293? as strengthening exercise 123, 123/
football 303 lying-start sprint drill 238
golf 306-308, 307?-308?
hockey 312-313
tennis 321?
M
volleyball 324, 325? macrocycles, defined 15
intensity maintenance phase 276
in flexibility 53, 53? maximal strength 75?, 76, 85
in periodization 272/-273/ 278-280, 279/-280/ maximum strength phase 275-276
in postrehabilitation training 329 maximum velocity 237,238
principle of 12-13 max tests 208-210,210/
intermuscular coodination 145 medicine ball throws and drills
interval training, for distance running 230-231, 232/ as functional performance test 43^45,44f
intramuscular coodination 145 overhead 89/
for power development 88-89, 88/439/
J for quickness 116
for shoulder rehabilitation 336
jerk 70, 71/
sport-specific
Johnson, Rafer 5
basketball 227
joint mobility 85, 151
hockey 249-250
 Index 357

mesocycles, defined 15 oxygen consumption, absolute vs. relative 205-206. See also
metabolism, aerobic vs. anerobic 195-196, 195/196/ aerobic capacity
micro-Stretching 52-53, 104-105, 311
mobility P
described 23-24, 25f-26f
pain, postrehabilitation 329, 3291
drills (See specific sports)
pectorals, strengthening 129, 129/
stability and 25-26
performance
testing 26-42, 28/41/
factors in 6-10 (See also specific factors)
mono-cycle periodization 268, 268f 27It
physiology of 10-11
motivation, athletic success and 204
strategies for 16-17
motor abilities, periodization of 267, 274-278, 275f
performance flexibility. See flexibility (physical)
motor coordination, in free-weight movements 67
performance pyramid 22-23, 23/ 46-47, 47/ 48
motor learning 142-144,143/
performance-restoration pyramid 344/
motor programming 43
periodization
motor units 10-11
of annual plan
movement mechanics 64-66, 64/,' 66/
defined 267
movement preparation 151
mono- vs. multi-cycle 268-270, 268/—270/'
multij oint training 10, 122-125, 123/125/
training phases in 270-274, 27It, 272/273/
muscles
integrated 280-281,282/
in acceleration 169-170, 170r, 173
intensity of training in 278-280, 279/280/
balanced training of 120-125, 121/ 123/125/
linear vs. nonlinear 13-16
elastic strength 156,316
of motor abilities 267, 274—278, 275/
fiber types 11, 84, 169-170, 170t
success of 268
quickness and 101-102
training models
tensile strength of 50, 51/
baseball 284-289, 285r-287t, 289t
muscle strains 50-52,51/
basketball 290-293, 290r-291t, 2931
muscular endurance, vs. power 274
distance running 294—300, 295/ 298/
football 301-304, 301?-302f, 304f
N golf 305-307, 307?—308?
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) 4,5 hockey 309-313,309?-310?
National Strength Coaches Association 4 soccer 314—317,315/
neck, stretching 61,61/ tennis 318-321, 318?, 319/320/ 321?
needs analysis 5-6, 150, 216, 330/ volleyball 322-325, 323?, 325?
neural innervation 152 volume of training in 278-280, 279/280/
neuromuscular system physical factors, in athletic success 203
laws of 24—25 physiological strategies 16-17
physiology of 10-11 plyometric drills and exercises
quickness and 102 for acceleration 175-176, 177?, 191
nonlinear periodization 15-16 for agility and coordination 153?
NSCA. See National Strength and Conditioning Associa¬ basketball specific 224—225
tion (NSCA) for power 87-95, 88/-95/ 97
nutrition, in periodization 281 PNF stretch 50
positive angles 146,146/ 156
o postrehabilitation training
components of
off-season training
applying 331-332
baseball 285-287, 286t
described 329-330, 329?
basketball 290-292, 291f
functional progression of
football 301-303, 302?, 304t
in lower-body athletes 339-343, 340/ 341?—342?
golf 306
in upper-body athletes 3 3 4—3 39,33 4/3 3 6/ 337?—
hockey 311
339?
volleyball 322-324, 3251
pain during 329?
Olympic-style weightlifting 69-71,69/71/ 174—175,176?
specificity in 330/
See also strength training
sport-specific 332-333, 333/
100-meter sprint 100,117
postseason training
120-yard sprint, as test 45
baseball 289
one-on-one tag 158
basketball 293
one-peak periodization 268, 268/27U
football 301
open skills 155
hockey 313
opportunity, athletic success and 204
posture 147,257-258
overload 13
power. See also speed strength
overspeed stopping drill 107
acyclic vs. cyclic 95-96
overtraining 14, 128, 202
 358 Index

calculation of 83 reactive-elastic strength 86

described 6 read-react-and explode drills 106, 118
effect of stretching on 9 recovery phase, of running 180,180/
in movement mechanics 65-66, 66/ rehabiliation. See postrehabilitation training
muscle fibers and 84 relative strength 85
vs. muscular endurance 274 repetition-maximum (RM) training 332-333, 333/
speed and 83-84 repetition.training, for distance running 232, 232/
in speed improvement programs 174—175, 175? repetitive jump 316
in strength training 67 resistance training. See strength training
testing 173,316 rest, in postrehabilitation training 330
training programs for 87-95, 89f-95f RFD 64-65
training progression for 84—87 rhomboids, strengthening 131, 131/
volleyball-specific 263 rim jump drill 94, 94f
power clean 69, 69/ RM training 332-333, 333/
power endurance 2 3 7-2 38,316 rotary stability test 40—41,40/41/
powerlifting movements 71-74, 72/73/ See also strength rotator cuff
training injury recovery time 343
power sports, vs. endurance sports 66 rehabilitation of 334—339, 334/336/ 337?—3 3 9?
practice, perfect 144 testing 336
preparatory phase 271-272 rubber tubing drills and exercises
preseason training, golf 245, 245/
basketball 292 leg abduction and adduction 122
golf 306 quickness 108
hockey 311-312 sprinting 187-189, 189?
primary exercises, in strength training 68 running tests 43, 45, 208-210, 210/ See also distance
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretch 50 running; sprinting
psychological strategies 16-17 Russian twist 133,133/
psychological training, in periodization 281
pull-through drill 184 5
push press 125
SAID principle 12, 86
push-ups 38-39, 3 8/3 9/
SBC principle 54-55
scapular stability test 38-39,38/39/
Q seated row 131,131/
quadriceps seated truck circle 134,134/
strengthening 121, 121/ 122, 124-125, 124/ secondary exercises, in strength training 68
testing 32-33, 32/-33/ setbacks 202,203/206
quality vs. quanity shadow game drill 108
in injury prevention 25 shark-in-the tank-tag 158
in testing 20 shoulders
quantity. See quality vs. quantity injury recovery time 343
quick feet drills 183,225 mobility test 34-35,34/35/
quickness power development in 88-94, 88/94/
in agility and coordination 148-149 rehabilitation of 334-339, 334/336/ 337?—339?
bioenergetics of 103 stretching 60, 60/
biomechanics of 100-102 shuffle step drill 221
described 8 shuffle transition drill 265, 265/
drills 105-118, 109/-112/ 114/-115/ 117f (See also side raise 135
specific sports) single-hoop agility drill 219, 219/
foundation for 103-105,117 single-joint training 10, 120-122, 121/122/
neuromuscular system in 102 single-leg bound 93,93/
role in sports 99-100 single-leg hop drill 225
testing 127 single-leg hop test 341
sit-ups 130-131,130/131/
R sled pulling 176—178, 178?
races, as drills 109-110, 109/— 110/ See also sprinting slow-twitch muscle fibers 11, 84, 169-170, 170?
rate of force development (RFD) 64-65 snatch 70, 70/
reaction time soccer
in agility and coordination 148, 157 drills 253-256,256/
vs. reactive ability 65 injury prevention in 314
in speed periodization 278 movement skills in 163
reactive ability, vs. reaction time 65 periodized training 314-317, 315/
reactive-ballistic efforts 76-77 training considerations 252-253,314-315
 Index 359

softball, movement skills in 162-163 inflexibility 54—55

specific adaptations to imposed demands (SAID) 12, 86 mobility and 25-26
specific endurance phase 277-278 testing 26-42, 28f-A\fi
specificity principle stair sprints 176—178, 178?
described 11,12 standing jumps 90, 90/ 92, 92/
in endurance 202 start and sprint drill 183
in postrehabilitation training 330, 330/ starting strength 86,23 7-239
in strength training 67-68 static balance 145
speed static strength 85
defined 167 static stretching 52
described 7 step off, split, and react drill 260
in distance running 231-232 step-ups 124
drills 181-185, 181/-185/ stick sprint 184
football specific 237-240 sticking region, defined 79
form training 179-181, 179/-181/ 191 stop-and-starts
genetic factors affecting 169-172 biomechanics of 101-102
improving 168-169 drills 105, 108-109, 109/ 113
periodization of 277-278 stop training 105, 107-108, 111, 111/ 118
in power development 83-84, 86-87 stork stand drill 126
specific 86,278 straight-leg raise, active 36-37, 36/-37/
testing 172-175,315 strength
training programs 174-190, 175t-178t, 179/485/ described 6-7
188f-190r testing 173,316
speed endurance strength endurance 75?, 76, 85, 253
in acceleration 169,171 strength training. See also postrehabilitation training
drills 254-256,256/ for agility 154
football-specific 237-238 balance in 74
in power training 86 exercise categories in 68
testing 172 flexibility in 8,71
training programs 185-186,191 free-weight movements in 67
speed-power sports movement mechanics in 64—66, 64/ 66/
tapering in 272-273,272/ Olympic-style weighdifting 69-71, 69/-71/
volume and intensity in 272/ 278-280, 279/-280/ periodization of 274—276,275/
speed strength. See also power in power development 85, 97
in power development 86 powerlifting 71-74, 72/-73/
in strength training 751, 76-80 quickness and 103-105
sports medicine, baseline determination in 6 recommendations for 81-82
sport-specific training. See also specific sports repetition maximum 332-333, 333/
movement skills in 160-165 safety guidelines for 69
postrehabiliation 332-333, 333/ specificity in 67-68
tailoring 215-217 in speed-improvement programs 174—175,175?—176?
testing 46, 315-316,315/ sport-specific
spring training, baseball 287, 2871 basketball 291-293, 2931
sprint-assisted training 186-189,191 football 302?
sprinting. See also acceleration; speed hockey 311
form 179-181, 179/-181/ 191 tennis 32It
mechanics of 172 training principles in 12-13
as tests 43, 45 training methods 74—80, 75?
as training 87, 97, 100, 117 variables in 80-81
sprint loading 176-178, 178?, 191 stress, in training 199-202, 201/
Sprint Master 188, 189? stretching. See flexibility (physical)
squat jumps stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) 65, 76-77, 152
for power development 89-90, 89fi-90f stride
as test 316 hockey drill 251
wave 90/ phases of 179-181,179/-181/
squats stride length 169,172-173
and dead lift 71-74, 72/-73/ stride rate 168
mobility in 25fi-26fi submaximal efforts
as mobility test 28-29, 28f-29f accelerative 77-80
as strengthening exercise 122 repeated 76
SSC 65, 76-77, 152 suicide shuttle drill 223
stability. See also core stability superman exercise 132,132/
described 24—25, 119 support phase, of running 180, 180/
360 Index

systemic effect, in ffee-weight movements 67 mistakes in 25-26, 206-208

principles of 12-13, 199-203, 201/ 203/
T sport-specific 215-217 (See also specific sports)
training to train phase 85
tag drills 112,158
transition phase 273-274, 324
tapering 272
trapezius, strengthening 131,131/
technology, sports
treadmills
developments in 5
testing with 208-212,212/
testing and 48
Tellez, Tom 179 training with 189
tempo runs 230 triangle drill 259, 259/
triceps, strengthening 125, 129, 129/
tendinitis, recovery time 343
tendons, tensile strength of 50, 51/ tri-cycle periodization 269, 270/ 27\t
10-meter start test 315 triple periodization 269, 270/ 27It
tennis trunk
drills 257-261, 258/-259/ 261/ hip separation drills 243-244, 244f
movement sldllsin 161-162 strengthening 123, 123/ 128-136, 129/^135/
needs analysis for 330/ testing 38-41, 38/41/
periodized training 318-3 21,318?, 319/3 2 0/ 3 211 tuck jump drill 88,88/
postrehabilitation program 337t-338t 20-meter fly test 315
training considerations 257 two-on-two hockey drill 248-249, 249/
tennis ball drills, for quickness 113, 117, 117/
tensile strengths, of muscle and tendons 50, 51/ u
tertiary exercises, in strength training 68 UBE 332,332/
testing Ultra Speed Pacer 188
acceleration and speed 172-175 unloading 272, 272/273/
aerobic capacity 208-210, 210/ upper-body ergometer (UBE) 332,332/
baseline
areas assessed in 20-21 V
defining intent of 19-20
VDOT values 233r-236r
functional movement 23-42, 28/41/
vertical jump test 43-44, 341
functional performance 43-46, 44/
volleyball
identifying compensations with 22
drills 264-266, 265f-266f
injuries and 22
movement skills in 164
need for 6
periodized training 322-325, 323r, 325r
performance pyramid in 22-23, 23f 46-47, 47/
training considerations 262-264
sport-specific 46, 315-316, 315/
volume, in periodization 272/273/ 278-280, 279/-280/
timing of 22
VO,max. See aerobic capacity
using data from 21-22, 46-47
endurance 210-212,212/
rehabilitation
w
lower-body 339-340, 340/ 341r walking hockey stride drill 251
upper-body 336 wall slide drill 183
Thera-bands, for shoulder rehabilitation 336/ warm-up, in movement preparation 151
thighs weight training. See strength training
power development in 88-95,88/95/ wood chop drill 136
stretching 57-58, 57/58/ Woods, Tiger 17
three-cone movement drill 220, 220/ work capacity training 85
threshold training, for distance running 229-230, 232/ work-to-rest intervals, postrehabilitation 331
throwing test 43-45, 44/ wrestling, movement skills in 165
tibialis anterior, stretching 56, 56/
timing drills, tennis 257-260, 259/ Y
tip-in drill 250-251 yielding strength 85
total conditioning 5
towing 187-188 z
track, movement skills in 165. See also distance running;
z-ball 21 drill 116
sprinting
zigzag cutting drill 111, 111/
training. See also postrehabiliation training
zigzag drill 266,266/
functional vs. traditional vii-viii
history of 3-5
About the Editor

Bill Foran is in his thirteenth year as the strength

and conditioning coach for the Miami Heat. Prior
to his work with the Heat, he was the head strength
and conditioning coach for the University of Miami
and Washington State University. He has a master’s
degree in exercise physiology from Michigan State
University and is a certified strength and condition¬
ing specialist (CSCS). Foran resides in Pembroke
Pines, Florida.

361
About riie Contributors
Nikos Apostolopoulos is the founder of Stretch Therapy® and
micro-Stretching®. He is the director of the Serapis Stretch
Therapy Clinic in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, the only
clinic in the world pioneering the development of therapeutic
stretching. The clinic uses Stretch Therapy and micro-Stretching—
recovery regeneration techniques based on functional clinical
anatomy—to treat many professional, elite, and amateur athletes
and individuals suffering from various musculoskeletal disorders.
Nikos graduated from the Faculty of Physical and Health Educa¬
tion at the University of Toronto with an emphasis in Sports Medi¬
cine. He has over 20 years experience in gross and functional
anatomy and is a member of the American Association of Anato¬
mists (AAA), American Association of Clinical Anatomists (AACA),
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and the International Association for the
Study of Pain (IASP).

A professor emeritus at York University in Toronto, Tudor O. Bompa,

PhD, has authored numerous articles on physical conditioning as
well as eleven important books on the subject including four for
Human Kinetics; Serious Strength Training; Periodization: Theory and
Methodology of Training, Periodization Training for Sports-, and Total Train¬
ing for Young Champions. His work has been translated into 15 lan¬
guages, and he has made presentations on training theories, plan¬
ning, and periodization in more than 30 countries. Visit his website
at www.tudorbompa.com. Bompa lives in Sharon, Ontario.

As the strength and conditioning coach for the USA Tennis Player
Development Program, Barrett Bugg’s primary responsibility is
the exercise testing, training, and tracking of the USA Tennis tour¬
ing pro teams who are on the WTA and ATP tours. He also imple¬
ments tennis-specific strength and conditioning programs for elite
junior American tennis players. A certified strength and condition¬
ing specialist (CSCS), Bugg earned a bachelor of science degree at
Arizona State University in exercise science. Bugg has been with
the USTA since September 1996 and frequendy contributes strength
and conditioning related articles for a variety of publications.

362
 About the Contributors 363

Courtney Carter is the first full-time female strength and

conditioning coach ever at the University of Nebraska. Over
the course of her career she has worked with 15 national
championship/conference championship teams, covering
five different sports. Carter has a masters in physical edu¬
cation and is a certified strength and conditioning coach
(CSCS). A member of the NSCA, she lives in Lincoln,
Nebraska.

Donald Chu is a licensed physical therapist, a certified ath¬

letic trainer through the National Athletic Trainers’ Asso¬
ciation (NATA), and a CSCS through the NSCA. Dr. Chu,
who earned a PhD in physical therapy and kinesiology from
Stanford University, is the program director for the physi¬
cal therapist assistant program at Ohlone College in Fre¬
mont, California. Fie is also a professor emeritus of kinesi¬
ology and physical education at California State University,
Flayward. Chu, a former president of the NSCA, lives in
Alameda, California.

Gray Cook is the director of orthopedic and sports physical

therapy at Dunn, Cook and Associates. He is Reebok’s first
master coach, a position developed from his approach to con¬
ditioning based on motor learning. Cook has authored many
book chapters on functional testing and exercise from a con¬
ditioning perspective. He received his master’s in physical
therapy (MSPT) from the University of Miami School of
Medicine and holds a board cerfication as a specialist in or¬
thopedic physical therapy (OCS). He is part of the faculty
for the North American Sports Medicine Institute, where he
co-teaches a course on Functional Exercise Training. Cook
is also a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist
(CSCS) who has published and presented nationally on the
subjects of rehabilitation and high-level strength and conditioning practices and programs.
He consults internationally with university research and athletic programs as well as profes¬
sional sports organizations and elite individual athletes. Cook resides in Danville, Virginia.
364 About the Contributors

A running coach since the early 1960s, Jack Daniels, PhD,

is currently a professor of physical education and is a dis¬
tance running coach at State University of New York at
Cortland. He received his doctoral degree in exercise physi¬
ology at the University of Wisconsin. Named “The World’s
Best Coach” by Runner's World magazine, he has led Cortland
runners to seven NCAA Division III National Champion¬
ships, 24 individual national titles, and more than 110
All-America awards. Daniels resides in Cordand, New York.

George Blough Dintiman, PhD, has more than 30 years

of experience working on speed improvement with athletes
at all levels—from beginners to the pros. The author of 30
books and three videos on speed improvement and health
and wellness topics, Dintiman also is an NFL speed con¬
sultant and an internationally recognized authority on speed
improvement for team sports. He is a board member of the
International Sports Science Association and is president of
the National Association of Speed and Explosion. Dintiman
resides in Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina.

Pete Draovitch has been the personal physical therapist for

PGA Tour star Greg Norman since 1993. He also serves as physi¬
cal therapist and wellness consultant for Martin Memorial Medi¬
cal Center; as president and CEO of The Bodyguards, Inc.; and
as spring training physical therapy consultant for the St. Louis
Cardinals baseball organization. Draovitch holds a master’s de¬
gree in physical therapy and sports medicine/physical educa¬
tion. He is a member of the American Physical Therapy Asso¬
ciation, the National Athletic Trainers’ Association, and the
NSCA.
 About the Contributors 365

Todd Ellenbecker is a physical therapist and clinic director

of Physiotherapy Associates Scottsdale Sports Clinic in Ari¬
zona. He is a certified sports clinical specialist, an orthopaedic
clinical specialist, and a certified strength and conditioning
specialist. Ellenbecker is also the manuscript reviewer for the
Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy and a mem¬
ber of the editorial board of the. Journal of Strength and Condi¬
tioning Research. He has published many books with Human
Kinetics, including Complete Conditioning for Tennis (1998).
Ellenbecker resides in Scottsdale, Arizona.

Vem Gambetta is the president of Gambetta Sports Training

Systems. He served as the speed and conditioning coach for the
Tampa Bay Mutiny major league soccer team (1996, 1997, and
1999) and the conditioning consultant to the U.S. men’s World
Cup soccer team (1998). Gambetta has been a conditioning con¬
sultant to the New England Revolution, The Chicago Fire, and
University of North Carolina Women’s Soccer. He was the di¬
rector of conditioning for the Chicago White Sox from 1987 to
1996. Recognized internationally as an expert in training and
conditioning for sport, he has lectured and conducted clinics in
Canada, Japan, Australia, and Europe. Gambetta obtained his
MA in education with an emphasis in physical education from
Stanford University. He resides in Sarasota, Florida.

Ana Gomez, MS, is a doctoral fellow in the Department of Kinesiology in the Human
Performance Lab of the University of Connecticut.

Kent Johnston is the strength and conditioning coach for

the Seattle Seahawks. Johnston served under head Green Bay
Packers coach Mike Holmgren as the strength and condi¬
tioning coach from 1992 through 1998. In 1997, Johnston
was honored as Strength and Conditioning Coach of the Year
by the Professional Football Strength and Conditioning
Coaches’ Society. Before joining the Packers, Johnston spent
five years (1987-1991) in the weight room of the Tampa Bay
Buccaneers and was a staff member at University of Alabama
(1983-1986), where he helped develop NFL linebackers
Cornelius Bennett and Derrick Thomas. Johnston earned
his master’s degree in physical education from the Univer¬
sity of Alabama in 1984.
366 About the Contributors

William Kraemer, PhD, is a professor and the director of

research for the Neag School of Education and is the head
of the Sports Medicine Research Division in the Human Per¬
formance Laboratory at the University of Connecticut. Dr.
Kraemer is a former president and vice president of the NSCA;
this association honored him with the Sport Scientist of the
Year in 1992 and the Lifetime Achievement Award in 1994.
He is also a fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine.

As the strength and conditioning director for the United States

Olympic Committee, Eric Lawson oversees programs for resi¬
dent athletes at the Colorado Springs, Lake Placid, and Chula
Vista training facilities. Lawson is a member of the NSCA and
has been published in Skating Magazine, Olympic Coach, Condi¬
tioning Press, and USA Volleyball Magazine. He is also slated to
be the strength and conditioning physiologist at the 2000 Olym¬
pic Games in Sydney, Australia. Lawson resides in Monument,
Colorado.

Brandon Marcello holds a masters degree in exercise physiol¬

ogy from Marshall University, where he taught anatomy and
physiology and developed and implemented strength and con¬
ditioning programs for the varsity sports teams. Marcello’s
knowledge and training in the area of female athletic performance
has been in constant demand by key college and professional ath¬
letes. He is also a recognized author whose work appears in a
governing publication for the United States Olympic Commit¬
tee and numerous periodicals. Marcello is certified by the National
Strength and Conditioning Association and U.S. Weightlifting
and is a coach at Athlete’s Performance in Tempe, Arizona.

Eemando Montes is the long-time strength and conditioning

coach for the Cleveland Indians, who were named Organization
of the Year in 1992, his first year with the club. He previously
served as strength and conditioning coach for the Stanford Uni¬
versity department of athletics and was named head athletics trainer
for the USA field hockey teams at the 1984 Olympic Games in
Los Angeles. Montes is the founder and president of the Profes¬
sional Baseball S&C Coach Society. He currently resides in North
Ridgeville, Ohio.
 About the Contributors 367

Steven Scott Plisk has been the director of sports conditioning

at Yale University since 1997. He is a certified strength and condi¬
tioning specialist through the National Strength & Conditioning
Association (NSCA) and a Level I Coach through USA
Weightlifting. His current professional positions include member
at large of the NSCA Board of Directors, associate editor of the
Strength & Conditioning Journal Editorial Board, faculty mem¬
ber at the NSCA Coaches College, and chapter author and sym¬
posium presenter at the NSCA Certification Commission.

E. Paul Roetert is the former administrator of sport science for

the United States Tennis Association (USTA) and is currently the
executive director of the American Sport Education Program
(ASEP) for Human Kinetics. Roetert received his PhD in biome¬
chanics from the University of Connecticut and is a fellow in the
American College of Sports Medicine. An accomplished writer,
Roetert has coauthored Complete Conditioning for Tennis (Human
Kinetics, 1998) and published articles in numerous scientific pub¬
lications. Roetert lives in Miami, Florida.

Peter Twist has coached more than 500 professional athletes in¬
cluding Mark Messier, Pavel Bure, and Hakeem Olajuwan. He
has authored dozens of articles and two books on the subjects of
conditioning and quickness, including Complete Conditioning for
Ice Hockey (1997 Human Kinetics). Having coached in the NHL
for seven years, Twist is currently the president of the Hockey
Conditioning Coaches Association and coeditor of the Journal of
Hockey Conditioning & Player Development. Twist resides in North
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

A leader in the field of performance training, Mark Verstegen has

coached at Washington State University and served as Assistant Di¬
rector of Player Development at Georgia Tech, where he implemented
the most innovative and effective performance program in the school’s
history. Verstegen created, the International Performance Institute
in Bradenton, Florida. He now directs Athletes’ Performance, in
Tempe, Arizona and is frequently a keynote speaker at international
symposia, motivational seminars and coaching clinics. The effective¬
ness of Verstegen’s work is best measured by his athletes’ success: he
has trained numerous first-round NFL draft picks, WTA Grand Slam
Champions, top PGA/LPGA players, AL and NL Major League
Rookies of the Year, MLB Batting Champions, NBA All-Stars,
and other world-class athletes.
 'itt-ilc-

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 SPORTS
CONDITIONING
“High-Performance Sports Conditioning was written with athletes in
mind. The information is presented with the goal of helping athletes
improve the specific performance factors they'll need in competition.
It is functional training with a purpose, and it will get you results.”
Alonzo Mourning
Miami Heat

Today’s athletes are breaking records that many thought were untouchable-in large part due
to the major advances in training. High-Performance Sports Conditioning combines clear
explanation of these modern methods with sample training programs, workouts, and drills for
successful application and superior results.
This landmark book brings together the finest panel of 21 experts ever assembled to present
the principles and practices of this new era of athletic training. The strength and conditioning
coaches for the Cleveland Indians, Vancouver Canucks, Miami Heat, Seattle Seahawks, and
other top sports organizations share their best drills and workouts for developing full athletic
potential in nine sports. Internationally acclaimed experts such as Don Chu on power, Mark
Verstegen on coordination and agility, and Tudor Bompa on periodization provide the very best
information and insights in their respective areas of training.
The state-of-the-art training prescriptions presented in High-Performance Sports Conditioning
lead the way to the future of athletic strength and conditioning. It will be the training bible for
coaches and athletes for many seasons to come.

ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-0163-2
ISBN-10: 0-7360-0163-8
5 2 3 9 5
111 urn

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