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Tunnel Effect (Quantum Mechanical Tunneling)

Tunneling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon when a particle is able to


penetrate through a potential energy barrier that is higher in energy than the
particle’s kinetic energy.

Ø The phenomenon of tunneling, which has no


counterpart in classical physics, is an important
consequence of quantum mechanics.

Ø We consider a particle with energy E and the height of


the potential barrier is U(x).

Ø In classical mechanics, if E > U, the particle overcome


the height of the barrier and is present in the other side
of the barrier.

Ø If E < U, the barrier will prevent this particle from


escaping due to the insufficiency in kinetic energy of the
particles to get over the barrier.

Ø The reason is that the particle like nature is more


dominant than the wave like nature
Tunnel Effect (Quantum Mechanical Tunneling)
Figure (below left) shows a potential barrier. In Newtonian physics, a particle
whose energy E is less than the barrier height U0 cannot pass from the left-hand
side of the barrier to the right-hand side.

Figure (below right) shows the wave function y(x) for such a particle. The wave
function is nonzero to the right of the barrier, so it is possible for the particle to
“tunnel” from the left-hand side to the right-hand side.

The tunneling probability T is given (in the limit of small T) as:


E æ E ö 2m(U 0 - E )
T = Ge-2k L where G = 16 ç 1 - ÷ and k =
U0 è U0 ø !2
As U0 or L decreases, the probability of tunneling goes up.
Tunnel Effect (Numerical)
Example: A 2.0-eV electron encounters a barrier 5.0 eV high. What is the
probability that it will tunnel through the barrier if the barrier width is (a) 1.00
nm and (b) 0.50 nm?
E æ E ö 2m(U 0 - E )
T = Ge-2k L where G = 16 ç 1 - ÷ and k =
U0 è U0 ø !2
• E/U0 = 2/5, so G = 16(2/5)(3/5) = 3.8. Also

2(9 ´10-31 m)(4.8 ´10-19 J)


k= -34
= 8.9 ´109 m-1
(1.055 ´10 Js) 2

• When L = 1.00 nm, T = Ge-2kL = 3.8e-17.8, = 7.1´10-8.


• When L = 0.50 nm, T = Ge-2kL = 3.8e-8.9, = 5.2´10-4.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

Applications of
Quantum
tunneling

Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer


Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, or STM, is an imaging technique used to obtain ultra-high
resolution images at the atomic scale, without using light or electron beams.

Scanning tunneling microscopy was developed in 1982 by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer,
and the two shared the 1986 Nobel prize for their innovation in Physics.
Scanning Tunneling microscope

STM is a remarkable and rare example of harnessing a quantum mechanical process


(electron tunneling) in a real-world practical application.

• The human hand cannot precisely manipulate at the nanoscale level


• Therefore, specialized materials are used to control the movement of the tip
• Tip and sample must be electrically conductive (metals)
Opera2ng modes of STM
The STM operates in two distinct modes: constant current mode and constant height mode

The popular mode is known as the constant current mode. In this mode, the tunneling current is
held constant by the use of a feedback loop system that adjusts the distance between the tip and the
surface. That is to say, if the tunneling current exceeds the target value, the feedback control system will
increase the distance between the tip and the sample;
if the tunneling current is less than the target current value, the feedback control system will bring the tip
closer to the surface of the sample. The resulting three-dimensional distance profile as a function of (x,y)
position can help researchers measure a wide array of characteristics, including surface roughness, defects,
and the size and conformation of molecules on the surface.

Constant height mode is generally used when the sample surface is very smooth. In this mode, the probe
tip stays at a set height while it quickly raster scans across the sample. By measuring changes in the
intensity of the tunneling current as a function of (x,y) position and bias voltage, researchers can construct
an image of the electronic density of states of the sample surface, defects, frontier molecular orbitals, and
more.
Applications of STM
Ø Surface Structure: Compare to bulk structure
Ø Semiconductor surface structure, Nanotechnology,
Superconductors, etc.
Ø Metal-catalyzed reactions
Ø Spectroscopy of single atom
Ø 3D images of the surface
Ø Locate the defect on the surface of crystal
Ø Understand electric structure of materials
Ø Manipulation of atoms

Over the years, STM began to be employed for a variety of applications outside of atomic-scale
imaging. It has been used to assemble and manipulate individual atoms on a surface. This
opened up new vistas for nanotechnology, including the generation of nanostructures such as
quantum corrals and molecular switches. Contacts on nanodevices can also be constructed
with STM by depositing metals (such as gold, silver, or tungsten) in a specified pattern.
Researchers have also used STM to induce chemical reactions and study the subsequent
reaction mechanisms at the molecular level.
silicon surface atoms enlarged 20 million times, color-enhanced by computer.

The world's first images of individual surface atoms and the bonds that hold them in place
were produced by a research technique developed by IBM -- scanning tunneling microscopy.

3-D View : Graphite

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