Schools Going Solar

Fun educational activities to teach

solar energy basics in the classroom

Grade Level Subject Areas

5–12 Science
Intermediate Social Studies
Secondary Math
Language Arts
and Technology

NEED Project | PO Box 10101 | Manassas, VA 20108 | 1.800.875.5029 | www.NEED.org

 NEED Mission Statement
The mission of The NEED Project is to promote an energy
conscious and educated society by creating effective
networks of students, educators, business, government and
community leaders to design and deliver objective, multi-
sided energy education programs.
Teacher Advisory Board
Teacher Advisory Board Statement
Shelly Baumann Linda Hutton In support of NEED, the national Teacher Advisory Board
Rockford, MI Kitty Hawk, NC (TAB) is dedicated to developing and promoting standards-
based energy curriculum and training.
Constance Beatty Michelle Lamb
Kankakee, IL Buffalo Grove, IL
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NEED materials may be reproduced for non-commercial
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educational purposes.
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Merced, CA Albuquerque, NM Energy Data Used in NEED Materials
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Raleigh, NC Reader, WV energy data available to our teachers and students.
Most statistics and data are derived from the U.S. Energy
Joanne Coons Mollie Mukhamedov Information Administration’s Annual Energy Review that is
Clifton Park, NY Port St. Lucie, FL published in June of each year. Working in partnership with
EIA, NEED includes easy to understand data in our curriculum
Nina Corley Don Pruett
materials. To do further research, visit the EIA web site at
Galveston, TX Sumner, WA
www.eia.gov. EIA’s Energy Kids site has great lessons and
Regina Donour Josh Rubin activities for students at www.eia.gov/kids.
Whitesburg, KY Palo Alto, CA

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New Martinsville, WV Cranston, RI

Samantha Forbes Gina Spencer

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Thaxton, VA West Chester, PA

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2 Schools Going Solar

 Schools Going Solar

Table of Contents
ƒƒCorrelations to National Science Education Standards 4
ƒƒSolar Schools 6
These suggested activities are for
ƒƒSolar Energy 7
solar schools to use to incorporate
the solar arrays into their solar/ ƒƒPhotovoltaic Technology 10
energy curriculum, in conjunction
ƒƒMeasuring Electricity 17
with the NEED solar curriculum and
kits. ƒƒPV System Performance 19
ƒƒSolar Schools Web Sites 21
ƒƒData Analysis 1 22
ƒƒData Analysis 2 23
ƒƒData Analysis 3 24
ƒƒVariables Affecting Photovoltaic System Performance 25
ƒƒPV Systems and Schools 27
ƒƒElectric Nameplates Investigation 29
ƒƒCost of Using Machines Investigation 30
ƒƒPhotovoltaic Systems and School Electricity Use 31
ƒƒPV Systems and the Environment 33
ƒƒAdditional Resources 36
ƒƒCalculation of Power 37
ƒƒSeries Circuit 37
ƒƒParallel Circuits 37
ƒƒBasic Measurement Values in Electronics 38
ƒƒDigital Multimeter 39
ƒƒCan Solar Energy Meet Your Electricity Demands? 40
ƒƒU.S. Solar Resource Map 41
ƒƒYour Solar-Powered Cabin 42
ƒƒSample SolarCity Graphs 43
ƒƒPV Glossary 45
ƒƒEvaluation Form 47

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 3
 Correlations to National Science Education Standards: Grades 5-8
This book has been correlated to National Science Education Content Standards.
For correlations to individual state standards, visit www.NEED.org.

Content Standard A | Science as Inquiry

ƒƒ Abilities Necessary to do Scientific Inquiry
• Identify questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations.
• Design and conduct scientific investigations.
• Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.
• Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence.
• Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.
• Communicate and defend a scientific argument.

ƒƒ Understandings about Scientific Inquiry

• Scientists usually inquire about how physical, living, or designed systems function.
• Scientists conduct investigations for a wide variety of reasons.
• Scientists rely on technology to enhance the gathering and manipulation of data.
• Mathematics is essential in scientific inquiry.
• Scientific explanations must adhere to criteria such as: a proposed explanation must be logically consistent; it must abide by the rules of evidence;
it must be open to questions and possible modificaion; and it must be based on historical and current scientific knowledge.

Content Standard B | Physical Science

ƒƒ Motions and Forces
• Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force. Moving electric charges produce magnetic forces, and moving
magnets produce electric forces. These effects help students to understand electric motors and generators.

ƒƒ Conservation of Energy and the Increase in Disorder

• The total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred in many ways, however, it can never be destroyed.
• All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or
energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.

Content Standard D | Earth and Space Science

ƒƒ Energy in the Earth System
• Heating of the earth’s surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans, producing winds and ocean
currents.

Content Standard E | Science and Technology

ƒƒ Abilities of Technological Design
• Identify a problem or design an opportunity.
• Propose designs and choose between alternative solutions.
• Implement a proposed solution.
• Evaluate the solution and its consequences.
• Communicate the problem, process, and solution.

ƒƒ Understandings About Science and Technology

• Creativity, imagination, and a good knowledge base are all required in the work of science and engineering.
• Science and technology are pursued for different purposes. Scientific inquiry is driven by the desire to understand the natural world, and
technological design is driven by the need to meet human needs and solve human problems. Technology, by its nature, has a more direct effect on
society than science because its purpose is to solve human problems, help humans adapt, and fulfill human aspirations. Technological solutions
may create new problems.

4 Schools Going Solar

 Correlations to National Science Education Standards: Grades 9-12
This book has been correlated to National Science Education Content Standards.
For correlations to individual state standards, visit www.NEED.org.

Content Standard A | Science as Inquiry

ƒƒ Abilities Necessary to do Scientific Inquiry
• Identify questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations.
• Design and conduct scientific investigations.
• Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.
• Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence.
• Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.
• Communicate and defend a scientific argument.

ƒƒ Understandings about Scientific Inquiry

• Scientists usually inquire about how physical, living, or designed systems function.
• Scientists conduct investigations for a wide variety of reasons.
• Scientists rely on technology to enhance the gathering and manipulation of data.
• Mathematics is essential in scientific inquiry.
• Scientific explanations must adhere to criteria such as: a proposed explanation must be logically consistent; it must abide by the rules of evidence;
it must be open to questions and possible modificaion; and it must be based on historical and current scientific knowledge.

Content Standard B | Physical Science

ƒƒ Motions and Forces
• Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force. Moving electric charges produce magnetic forces, and moving
magnets produce electric forces. These effects help students to understand electric motors and generators.

ƒƒ Conservation of Energy and the Increase in Disorder

• The total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred in many ways, however, it can never be destroyed.
• All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or
energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.

Content Standard D | Earth and Space Science

ƒƒ Energy in the Earth System
• Heating of the earth’s surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans, producing winds and ocean
currents.

Content Standard E | Science and Technology

ƒƒ Abilities of Technological Design
• Identify a problem or design an opportunity.
• Propose designs and choose between alternative solutions.
• Implement a proposed solution.
• Evaluate the solution and its consequences.
• Communicate the problem, process, and solution.

ƒƒ Understandings About Science and Technology

• Creativity, imagination, and a good knowledge base are all required in the work of science and engineering.
• Science and technology are pursued for different purposes. Scientific inquiry is driven by the desire to understand the natural world, and
technological design is driven by the need to meet human needs and solve human problems. Technology, by its nature, has a more direct effect on
society than science because its purpose is to solve human problems, help humans adapt, and fulfill human aspirations. Technological solutions
may create new problems.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 5
 Solar Schools

Why Introduce PV Projects In Schools? How Do Schools Benefit?

Schools around the country are being offered opportunities to Solar PV systems can be customized and sized to meet specific
partner with government agencies, community foundations, energy and facility needs of each school. Systems can vary in size
utilities, businesses, and corporations to install PV systems. The Solar and also be built on roods, ground mounted or even installed on
Electric Power Association states that, “…bringing solar to schools is carports.
an important first step to increasing the use of solar energy in the In order for students to be able to explore the PV system’s effects
community at large. Schools make an excellent showcase for the on electricity use, many schools incorporate informational kiosks
benefits of solar photovoltaic electricity, solar thermal energy, and and interactive educational monitoring software designed to
passive solar. Changes and improvements at schools are highly communicate the solar generation and environmental benefits.
visible and closely followed. As has been the case with recycling The goal of the monitoring software is to provide interaction with
programs, which were introduced to many communities by school students and teachers, while also logging PV system data to a
children educating their parents, students can carry good ideas database for simple integration into class curricula.
from the classroom into the mainstream.”
The data acquisition systems allow schools to monitor the daily and
The PV system installed at your school can provide significant cumulative production of electricity from the local atmospheric
energy savings. Depending on geographical location, a 2kW PV conditions (i.e. wind speed, temperature, solar radiations, etc.) and
system produces an average of 7kW of electricity per day (enough compare this data to the electrical production of the system.
electricity to power 10 computers) and an average annual output
of 3000 kW. The environmental benefits include offsetting carbon In order to make full use of your PV system as a real-world teaching
dioxide (CO2) produced by traditional power plants and vehicles. tool, teachers must find ways to integrate its use throughout the
school’s curricula. This booklet has been designed to provide
In addition to cost savings, solar PV systems can also contribute to teachers with ideas for integrating the system into your science,
education and inspiration for students. The students get a first-hand math, language arts, and social studies class curricula. The ideas in
view of energy technologies. Integrating the data supplied by the PV this booklet will help your students master the concepts they need
systems into the school curriculum helps students learn about how to know about solar energy and PV systems.
solar electricity works and involves them in the study of the benefits
of renewable energy and energy efficiency. The PV system also
provides students with an opportunity to learn about employment
opportunities in emerging renewable energy technology fields.

6 Schools Going Solar

 the sun

Solar Energy
What is Solar Energy?
Solar energy is radiant energy from the sun. It is vital to us because
it provides the world—directly or indirectly—with almost all of its
energy. In addition to providing the energy that sustains the world,
solar energy is stored in fossil fuels and biomass, and is responsible
for powering the water cycle and producing wind.
Every day the sun radiates, or sends out, an enormous amount of
energy. The sun radiates more energy in one second than people Image courtesy of NASA
This image of our sun was captured by NASA’s Solar Dynamics
have used since the beginning of time! Solar energy comes from Observatory—a space telescope designed to study the sun.
within the sun itself. Like other stars, the sun is a big ball of gases
—mostly hydrogen and helium. The hydrogen atoms in the sun’s Fusion
core combine to form helium and radiant energy in a process called Fusion
During a process called fusion, four hydrogen atoms combine to
nuclear fusion. form one
During helium
a process atom,
called with
fusion, a transformation
four of matter.
hydrogen atoms combine to formThis
onematter
helium is
emitted as aradiant
atom, with energy.
transformation of matter. This matter is emitted as radiant energy.
During nuclear fusion, the sun’s extremely high pressure and
temperature cause hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei
(the central cores of the atoms) to fuse or combine. Four hydrogen
nuclei fuse to become one helium atom; but the helium atom
contains less mass than the four hydrogen atoms that fused. Some
matter is converted to energy during nuclear fusion. The converted
matter is emitted into space in the form of radiant energy.
Scientists theorize that the time for the energy in the sun’s core
to make its way to the solar surface varies from 10,000 years to
170,000 years. The nuclear fusion process in the sun’s core produces,
among other things, gamma rays. These gamma rays are constantly
absorbed and re-emitted as they move through the sun, essentially
bouncing in random directions. By the time this “random walk” takes
them to the sun’s surface they have been transformed into visible
light. This light escapes from the photosphere, the visible surface
of the sun, and arrives at Earth about eight minutes later. The solar
energy travels to the Earth at a speed of 186,000 miles per second Albedo
Albedo
(3.0 x 108 meters per second), the speed of light. Heat energy is not
transmitted from the sun because space between the sun and Earth
Thin clouds
is mostly a vacuum. Rather, radiant energy transforms into thermal 25% to 30%
(heat) energy when it strikes the molecules in the atmosphere or on
the surface of the Earth.
Only a small portion of the energy radiated by the sun into space Thick clouds
strikes the Earth—one part in two billion. Yet, this amount of energy 70% to 80%
is enormous. Every day enough energy strikes the United States to
supply the nation’s energy needs for one and a half years! Snow
Forest 50% to 90%
5% to 10%
Where does all this energy go? About 15 percent of the sun’s energy Asphalt
that hits the Earth is reflected back into space. Another 30 percent 5% to 10%
powers the water cycle; it evaporates water that is then drawn into Dark roof
the atmosphere, turns into clouds, condenses, and falls back to 10% to 15%
Earth as precipitation. Plants, the land, and the oceans also absorb
a portion of solar energy. The rest is reflected and could be used to
supply our energy needs.
Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source. Renewable Light roof Water
sources of energy are resources that are continually renewed by 35% to 50% 5% to 80%
nature, and hence will never run out. Solar power is considered (varies with sun angle)
renewable because the nuclear (fusion) reactions that power the sun
are expected to keep generating sunlight for many billions of years. The amount of light reflect by various surfaces.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 7
 History of Solar Energy John Ericsson’s solar engine

People have harnessed solar energy for centuries. As early as the 7th
century B.C., people used simple magnifying glasses to concentrate
the light of the sun into beams so hot they could cause wood to
catch fire.
In the 1860s in France, a scientist named Auguste Mouchout used
heat from a solar collector to make steam to drive a steam engine.
Around the same time in the United States, John Ericsson developed
the first realistic application of solar energy using a solar reflector to
drive an engine in a steam boiler. With coal becoming widely used,
neither of these inventions became part of the mainstream.
Early in the 1900s, scientists and engineers began seriously
researching ways to use solar energy. The solar water heater gained
popularity during this time in Florida, California, and the Southwest.
The industry was in full swing just before World War II. This growth
lasted until the mid-1950s, when low-cost, natural gas became the
primary fuel for heating homes and water, and solar heating lost
popularity.
The public and world governments remained largely indifferent to
the possibilities of solar energy until the energy crises of the 1970s.
Research efforts in the U.S. and around the world since that time
have resulted in tremendous improvements in solar technologies for
heating water and buildings and making electricity.

Solar Collectors Image courtesy of www.stirlingengines.org

John Ericsson’s Sun Motor. Built in New York in 1872. Ericsson had
Heating with solar energy is relatively easy—just look at a car parked intended Californian agriculturists to take up his sun-motor for irrigation
in the sun with its windows closed. Getting the right amount of heat purposes, but in the end nothing came of the project.
in a desired location, however, requires more thought and careful
design. Capturing sunlight and putting it to work effectively is Solar
SolarCollector
Collector
difficult because the solar energy that reaches the Earth is spread On
out over a large area. The sun does not deliver that much energy to Ona asunny
sunnyday,
day,aaclosed
closedcar
carbecomes
becomesaa solar
solar collector.
collector. Light
Light energy
passes through the window gloass, is absorbed by the car’s interior,
energy passes through the window glass, is absorbed
and converted into heat energy. The heat energy becomes by thetrapped
any one place at any one time. car’s interior, and converted into heat energy. The heat energy
inside.
How much solar energy a place receives depends on several becomes trapped inside.
conditions. These include the time of day, the season of the year, the SOLAR ENERGY
latitude of the area, the topography, and the clearness or cloudiness
TRAPPED HEAT
of the sky.
A solar collector is one way to collect heat from the sun. A closed car
on a sunny day is like a solar collector. As the sunlight passes through
the car’s glass windows, it is absorbed by the seat covers, walls, and
floor of the car. The light that is absorbed changes into heat. The
car’s glass windows let light in, but do not let all the heat out. This
is also how greenhouses are designed to stay warm year-round. A
greenhouse or solar collector:
• allows sunlight in through the glass;
• absorbs the sunlight and changes it into heat; and
• traps most of the heat inside.

8 Schools Going Solar

 Solar School
Photovoltaic Systems
Photovoltaic (or PV) systems convert light directly into electricity.
The term photo comes from the Greek phos, which means “light.” The
term volt is a measure of electricity named for Alessandro Volta (1745-
1827), a pioneer in the development of electricity. Photovoltaics
literally means light–electricity.
Commonly known as solar cells, PV cells are already an important
part of our lives. The simplest PV systems power many of the small
calculators and wrist watches we use every day. Larger PV systems
provide electricity for all kinds of activities including manufacturing,
pumping water, powering communications equipment, and even
lighting homes and running appliances.
Solar system can be installed on roof-tops and other structures or on
the ground in an open field. Some utility companies are also building
large solar farms to add power to the electric grid.
Solar systems can vary in size and in some cases can provide significant
portion of a building or school’s energy needs.
History of Photovoltaics
Alessandro Volta Edmond Becquerel
French physicist Edmond Becquerel first described the photovoltaic
effect in 1839, but it remained a curiosity of science for the next half
century. At the age of 19, Becquerel found that certain materials
would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed
to light. The effect was first studied in solids, such as selenium, by
Heinrich Hertz in the 1870s. Soon selenium PV cells were converting
light to electricity at one to two percent efficiency.
The conversion efficiency of a PV cell is the proportion of radiant
energy the cell converts into electrical energy relative to the amount
of radiant energy that is available and striking the PV cell. This is
very important when discussing PV devices, because improving
this efficiency is vital to making PV energy competitive with more
traditional sources of energy, such as fossil fuels.
During the second half of the 20th century, PV science was
refined and the process more fully developed. Major steps toward
commercializing photovoltaics were taken in the 1940s and 1950s,
Solar panels on the International space station
when the Czochralski process was developed for producing highly
pure crystalline silicon.
In 1954, scientists at Bell Laboratories depended on the Czochralski
process to develop the first crystalline silicon photovoltaic cell, which
had a conversion efficiency of four percent.
As a result of technological advances, the cost of PV cells has
decreased significantly over the past 25 years, as the efficiency has
increased. Today’s commercially available PV devices convert 11-20
percent of the radiant energy that strikes them into electricity.
In the laboratory, combining exotic materials with specialized cell
designs has produced PV cells with conversion efficiencies as high
as 43 percent. The current expense of these technologies typically
restricts their use to aerospace and industrial applications, where
the unit cost of a solar array that powers, for example, a satellite is a
minor concern. Image courtesy of NASA
High efficiency photovoltaic cells power the International Space Station.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 9
 Photovoltaic Technology
Photovoltaic Effect
The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which
Silicon
SiliconAtom
Atom
a PV cell converts sunlight directly into electricity. PV technology
works any time the sun is shining, but more electricity is produced
when the light is more intense and when it is striking the PV modules
directly—when the rays of sunlight are perpendicular to the PV
modules.
Unlike solar systems for heating water, PV technology does not
produce heat to make electricity. Instead, PV cells generate electricity
directly from the electrons freed by the interaction of radiant energy
with the semiconductor materials in the PV cells.
Sunlight is composed of photons, or bundles of radiant energy.
When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected, absorbed, or
transmitted through the cell.
Only the absorbed photons generate electricity. When the photons
are absorbed, the energy of the photons is transferred to electrons in
the atoms of the solar cell, which is actually a semiconductor. Silicon is used as a semiconductor because it has four valence
Silicon is used
electrons andasdoes
a semiconductor
not wantbecause
to loseit has four valence
or gain electrons
electrons. and does notthe
Therefore,
With their new-found energy, the electrons are able to escape from electrons flow
want to lose across
or gain it from
electrons. the boron
Therefore, side toflow
the electrons theacross
to the phosphorous
it from the boron
side
sidewithoutthe silicon
to the phosphorus sideinterfering withinterfering
without the silicon the movement.
with the movement.
their normal positions associated with their atoms to become part
of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving their positions, the
electrons cause holes to form in the atomic structure of the cell into
which other electrons can move. Sunlight
SunlighttotoElectricity
Electricity
Special electrical properties of the PV cell—a built-in electric field—
provide the voltage needed to drive the current through a circuit and Sun
power an external load, such as a light bulb. Electric Load Photovoltaic cell
(-)
Photovoltaic Cells
The basic building block of PV technology is the photovoltaic cell.
DC current Phosphorous-doped (n-type) silicon layer
Different materials are used to produce PV cells, but silicon—the flow
main ingredient in sand—is the most common basic material. Silicon,
(+) Boron-doped (p-type) silicon layer
a common semiconductor material, is relatively cheap because it is
widely available and used in other things, such as televisions, radios,
and computers. PV cells, however, require very pure silicon, which
can be expensive to produce. PV Panels

The amount of electricity a PV cell produces depends on its size, its

conversion efficiency, and the intensity of the light source. Efficiency
is a measure of the amount of electricity produced from the sunlight
a cell receives. A typical PV cell produces 0.5 volts of electricity. It
takes just a few PV cells to produce enough electricity to power a
small watch or solar calculator.
The most important parts of a PV cell are the semiconductor layers,
where the electric current is created. There are a number of different
materials suitable for making these semi-conducting layers, and
each has benefits and drawbacks.

10 Schools Going Solar

How a Traditional PV Cell is Made
Let’s look more closely at how a PV cell is made and how it produces
Photovoltaic Cell
electricity.

Step 1
A slab (or wafer) of pure silicon is used to make a PV cell. The top of the
slab is very thinly diffused with an “n” dopant, such as phosphorous.
On the base of the slab, a small amount of a “p” dopant, typically
boron, is diffused. The boron side of the slab is 1,000 times thicker
than the phosphorous side. Dopants are similar in atomic structure
to the primary material. The phosphorous has one more electron in
its outer shell than silicon, and the boron has one less. These dopants
help create the electric field that motivates the energetic electrons
out of the cell created when light strikes the PV cell.
The phosphorous gives the wafer of silicon an excess of free
electrons; it has a negative character. This is called the n-type silicon
(n = negative). The n-type silicon is not charged—it has an equal
number of protons and electrons—but some of the electrons are not
held tightly to the atoms. They are free to move to different locations
within the layer.
The boron gives the base of the silicon wafer a positive character,
which will cause electrons to flow toward it. The base of the silicon is
called p-type silicon (p = positive). The p-type silicon has an equal
number of protons and electrons; it has a positive character, but not
a positive charge.

Step 2
Where the n-type silicon and p-type silicon meet, free electrons from
the n-layer flow into the p-layer for a split second, then form a barrier
to prevent more electrons from moving between the two sides. This
point of contact and barrier is called the p-n junction.
When both sides of the silicon slab are doped, there is a negative
charge in the p-type section of the junction and a positive charge Step 4
in the n-type section of the junction due to movement of the A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon to an external load
electrons and “holes” at the junction of the two types of materials. such as a light or battery, and then back to the n-type silicon, forming
This imbalance in electrical charge at the p-n junction produces an a complete circuit. As the free electrons are pushed into the n-type
electric field between the p-type and n-type. silicon, they repel each other because they are of like charge. The
wire provides a path for the electrons to move away from each other.
Step 3 This flow of electrons is an electric current that can power a load,
If the PV cell is placed in the sun, photons of light strike the electrons such as a calculator or other device, as it travels through the circuit
in the p-n junction and energize them, knocking them free of their from the n-type to the p-type.
atoms. These electrons are attracted to the positive charge in the
In addition to the semi-conducting materials, solar cells consist of a
n-type silicon and repelled by the negative charge in the p-type
top metallic grid or other electrical contact to collect electrons from
silicon. Most photon-electron collisions actually occur in the silicon
the semiconductor and transfer them to the external load, and a
base.
back contact layer to complete the electrical circuit.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 11
 PV Modules and Arrays Photovoltaic Arrays Are Made of Individual
For more power, PV cells are connected together to form larger units
called modules. Photovoltaic cells are connected in series and/ Cells
or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents, and power
levels. A PV module is the smallest PV component sold commercially,
and can range in power output from about 10 watts to 300 watts.
PV cell
A typical PV module consists of PV cells sandwiched between a clear
front sheet, usually glass, and a backing sheet, usually glass or a type
of tough plastic. This protects them from breakage and from the
weather. An aluminum frame can be fitted around the PV module
to enable easy affixing to a support structure. Photovoltaic arrays
include two or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
installable unit. A PV array is the complete power-generating unit,
consisting of any number of modules and panels.
module

PV System Components
Although a PV module produces power when exposed to sunlight,
a number of other components are required to properly conduct,
control, convert, distribute, and store the energy produced by the
array. Depending on the type of system, these components may
include:

ƒƒ Power Inverter
PV modules, because of their electrical properties, produce direct
current rather than alternating current. Direct current (DC) is
electric current that flows in a single direction. Many simple devices, array
such as those that run on batteries, use direct current. Alternating
current (AC), in contrast, is electric current that reverses its direction Parts of a Photovoltaic Array
of flow at regular intervals (120 times per second). This is the type of
electricity provided by utilities, and the type required to run most
modern appliances and electronic devices.
In the simplest systems, DC current produced by PV modules is used
directly. In applications where AC current is necessary, an inverter
can be added to the system to convert DC to AC current. ARRAY

ƒƒ Battery System CELL

PV systems cannot store electricity, so batteries are often added. A
PV system with a battery is configured by connecting the PV array
to an inverter. The inverter is connected to a battery bank and to any MODULE
load. During daylight hours, the PV array charges the battery bank.
The battery bank supplies power to the load whenever it is needed.
A device called a charge controller keeps the battery properly
charged and prolongs its life by protecting it from being overcharged
or completely discharged.
PV systems with batteries can be designed to power DC or AC
equipment. Systems operating only DC equipment do not need an inverter’s conversion efficiency. Likewise, when batteries are used
inverter, only a charge controller. to store power, not only is there additional expense to purchase
It is useful to remember that any time conversions are made in a the batteries and associated equipment, but due to the internal
system, there are associated losses. For example, when an inverter resistance of the batteries there is a small loss of power as the charge
is used there is a small loss of power that can be described by the is drawn out of the batteries.

12 Schools Going Solar

 PV Systems Top Solar States (PV Installations), 2011
Two types of PV systems are grid-connected systems and stand-
alone systems. The main difference between these systems is that
one is connected to the utility grid and the other is not.

ƒƒ Grid-Connected Systems
Grid-connected systems are designed to operate in parallel with,
and interconnected with, the national electric utility grid. What
is the grid? It is the network of cables through which electricity is
transported from power stations to homes, schools, and other places.
A grid-connected system is linked to this network of power lines.
The primary component of a grid-connected system is the inverter,
or power conditioning unit (PCU). The inverter converts the DC
power produced by the PV system into AC power, consistent with
the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid. This
means that it can deliver the electricity it produces into the electricity
network and draw it down when needed; therefore, no battery or
other storage is needed.

ƒƒ Stand-Alone Systems
As its name suggests, this type of PV system is a separate electricity Historically, PV systems were used only as stand–alone systems in
supply system. A stand-alone system is designed to operate remote areas where there was no other electricity supply. Today,
independent of the national electric utility grid, and to supply stand-alone systems are used for water pumping, highway lighting,
electricity to a single system. Usually a stand-alone system includes weather stations, remote homes, and other uses away from power
one or more batteries to store the electricity. lines.

Grid-Connected Systems Stand-Alone Systems

Solar Standalone System
Solar Grid-connected System
Energy Source
PV Array

Energy Conversion
Inverter/
Power Conditioning Unit

Energy Inversion Energy

and Conditioning Storage
Distribution Panel

AC Loads Electric Utility Energy Use Energy Distribution Grid

Image courtesy of PG&E Image courtesy of NASA

PG&E’s Vaca-Dixon Solar Station in California is a 2-MW grid- The Mars Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, are powered by stand-
connected system. alone systems because they operate far away from Earth.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 13
 Scale of PV Systems ƒƒ Utility
Utility systems are deployed by energy companies to produce base-
Theresolar power
are three general scales atbenefits
which photovoltaic systems are load or peak-load power for sale to consumers. Large areas of land are
generally installed. They are: typically required for their installation. An example would be a large
benefits PV array that is employed to produce power at peak usage times in
ƒƒ Residential
Solar electric systems offer many advantages the summer months when air conditioning accounts for a large part
A residential system is designed to offset power usage at an individual
y Safe, clean, and quiet to operate; of the electrical usage. The array produces the most power when
residence. While usually not able to provide all power used by the
y Highly reliable; the sun is at its peak. Another example would be a concentrating
homeowners, the system could help to offset the home’s electricity
y Virtually maintenance-free; solar plant that uses parabolic mirrors to focus the sun’s energy on a
usage.
y Cost-effective, as the solar industry has grown the costs high efficiency PV array that produces a large amount of electricity
ƒƒ Commercial
have come down and new financing programs help to contribute to the grid. Systems at this scale can produce enough
A commercial
schoolssystem is designed
start cutting energy to offset power
expenses usage at a business,
and generating electricity to operate hundreds to thousands of homes. The solar
school,savings
airport,from
sports stadium, or other facilities. These systems
day one; insolation values and slope of the site are significant concerns when
are much largeristhan siting such a plant.
y Sunshine free! residential systems that can produce more
power. An example would be a grocery store that contracts with a
company to place a solar array on their flat roof while simultaneously
contracting to buy power from the installer at a fixed rate for many
years. This type of system might produce enough electricity to
how
operate commercial
all or part photovoltaic
of the facility’s energy usage. systems work
1 solar panels 4 Utility meter
Solar panels are made up of photovoltaic (PV) cells The utility meter continually measures your energy
How Commercial Photovoltaic Systems Work
that capture sunlight, or photons, and convert them consumption and solar power generation; when your solar
1. Solar Panels—Solar
into direct currentPanels are made These
(DC) electricity. up of panels
photovoltaic
can (PV) cells that capture
system sunlight,
produces moreor power
photos, andyou
than convert them
need, the into direct
meter
current (DC) electricity. These panels can
be installed on your roof, carport or open space.be installed on your roof, carport, or open space.
literally spins backwards, accumulating credits with the
2. Inverter—The DC power from the solar panels is sent to an inverter, utility
wherecompany that willinto
it is converted offset
ACyour nextor
power, bill.
standard electrical
2 inverter
current used to power your facility.
The DC power from the solar panels is sent to an 5 Utility Grid
3. inverter, where it is converted into AC power, or
Electrical Panel—AC power travels from the inverter to the electrical cabinet, Your business remains
often called connected
a break to the
box. This utilityisgrid
power thentoavailable
supply
standard electrical current used
to service all of your electrical needs. to power your facility. you with electricity when you need more power than your
system has produced, such as at night.
4. 3Utility
electrical panel utility meter continually measures your energy consumption and solar power generation; when your solar
Meter—The
AC power
system producestravels
more from the inverter
power than you to the electrical
need, the meter literally spins backwards, accumulating credits with the utility company
cabinet, often called a
that will offset your next bill. breaker box. This power is then
available to service all of your electrical needs.
5. Utility Grid—Your business remains connected to the utility grid to supply you with electricity when you need more power than
your system has produced, such as at night.

2 4
3

16 Schools Going Solar

14 Schools Going Solar
 Emerging PV Technologies Thin-film technology
Today there are many new PV technologies either on the market, in
the pipeline, or in the research phase. These technologies will have
a direct effect on how much of our energy we derive from solar
power in the future. Look for technologies that will make things less
expensive or serve multiple purposes as they are applied to new
designs.

ƒƒ String / Ribbon Silicon

These use the same materials as typical crystalline silicon. It is
drawn out of molten silicon rather than being sawed from an ingot,
thereby making it less expensive to produce. In some cases, this
manufacturing method can produce PV cells that have a higher
conversion efficiency than that of cast silicon.

ƒƒ Amorphous Silicon / Thin-Film Technologies

This new class of materials allows the production of PV cells that are
smaller and more flexible than the delicate silicon wafer technology
that has dominated PV cell production in the past. These materials
are not crystalline in structure. This type of PV cell can actually be
applied to a variety of materials to make any number of materials
that you might use for another purpose—such as glazing for a
window, or shingles for a roof. Imagine windows that produce
electricity! Materials used for dual purposes (building material and
PV cell) are called Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV).

ƒƒ GaAs: Gallium Arsenide

Used in high-efficiency applications—space craft and concentrating
solar power—it is very expensive.

ƒƒ CdTe: Cadmium Telluride

This thin-film technology has a great deal of potential, however,
there are concerns about the chemicals necessary for its production.

ƒƒ CIS: Copper Indium Diselenide

Provides efficiencies up to 17 percent but manufacturing processes
are material specific.

ƒƒ CIGS: Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide

These materials are generally applied to PV cells to increase the
energy absorption of the cells.
Thin-film materials are much cheaper to produce. They are very
versatile in how they can be applied to many structural materials.
They are also less efficient than current silicon crystal PV cells.
However, what they lack in efficiency may be overcome by their
The Schapfen Mill Tower is a flour mill in Germany. The southern facade is
flexibility of application and low cost. faced with 1,300 CIS solar modules.

ƒƒ Multi-junction Technologies
This category actually combines multiple layers of materials that
are designed to absorb different wavelengths of solar energy—
improving the efficiency of the cell by combining the output of the
various layers. These devices are currently in the research phase, but
the concept has been proved.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 15
 Benefits and Limitations
ƒƒ Benefits SolarCity Website
Solar electric systems offer many advantages:
• they are safe, clean, and quiet to operate;
• they are highly reliable;
• they require virtually no maintenance;
• they are cost-effective in residential and commercial applications;
• they are flexible and can be expanded to meet increasing electrical
needs; and
• the fuel is renewable and free.

ƒƒ Limitations
There are also several practical limitations to PV systems:
• PV systems are not well suited for energy-intensive uses such as
heating.

Image courtesy of SolarCity

Annual PV-Installed Capacity by Market Segment, 2005-2010

Installed Capacity (Megawatts direct current)

1000 878
PV Installation Grew 102% in 2010
800

600
435
400 290
160
200 79 105

0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Total 79 105 160 290 435 878
n Utility 1 0 9 22 70 242
n Non-Residential 51 67 93 190 208 372
n Residential 27 38 58 77 157 264

Source: Greentech Media

16 Schools Going Solar

 Measuring Electricity
Electricity makes our lives easier, but it can seem like a mysterious force.
Measuring electricity is confusing because we cannot see it. We are
Resistance
familiar with terms such as watt, volt, and amp, but we do not have a Resistance (R) is a property that slows the flow of electrons. Using the
clear understanding of these terms. We buy a 60-watt light bulb, a tool water analogy, resistance is anything that slows water flow, such as a
that requires 120 volts, or an appliance that uses 8.8 amps, but we do not smaller pipe or fins on the inside of a pipe.
think about what those units mean. In electrical terms, the resistance of a conducting wire depends on the
Using the flow of water as an analogy can make electricity easier to properties of the metal used to make the wire and the wire’s diameter.
understand. The flow of electrons in a circuit is similar to water flowing Copper, aluminum, and silver—metals used in conducting wires—have
through a hose. If you could look into a hose at a given point, you would different resistance.
see a certain amount of water passing that point each second. The Resistance is measured in units called ohms (Ω). There are devices called
amount of water depends on how much pressure is being applied— resistors, with set resistances, that can be placed in circuits to reduce
how hard the water is being pushed. It also depends on the diameter or control the current flow. Any device placed in a circuit to do work is
of the hose. The harder the pressure and the larger the diameter of the called a load. The light bulb in a flashlight is a load. A television plugged
hose, the more water passes each second. The flow of electrons through into a wall outlet is also a load. Every load has resistance.
a wire depends on the electrical pressure pushing the electrons and on
the cross-sectional area of the wire.

Voltage Voltage
The pressure that pushes electrons in a circuit is called voltage. Using the
water analogy, if a tank of water were suspended one meter above the
ground with a one-centimeter pipe coming out of the bottom, the water Water Tank
pressure would be similar to the force of a shower. If the same water
tank were suspended 10 meters above the ground, the force of the water
would be much greater, possibly enough to hurt you.
Voltage (V) is a measure of the pressure applied to electrons to make
them move. It is a measure of the strength of the current in a circuit and is
measured in volts (V). Just as the 10-meter tank applies greater pressure
than the 1-meter tank, a 10-volt power supply (such as a battery) would
10 m
apply greater pressure than a 1-volt power supply.
AA batteries are 1.5-volt; they apply a small amount of voltage for
lighting small flashlight bulbs. A car usually has a 12-volt battery—it Water Tank
applies more voltage to push current through circuits to operate the
radio or defroster. The standard voltage of wall outlets is 120 volts—a 1m
dangerous voltage. An electric clothes dryer is usually wired at 240
volts—a very dangerous voltage.

Current
The flow of electrons can be compared to the flow of water. The water
current is the number of molecules of water flowing past a fixed point;
electrical current is the number of electrons flowing past a fixed point.
Current
Current
Electrical current (I) is defined as electrons flowing between two points
having a difference in voltage. Current is measured in amperes or amps
(A). One ampere is 6.25 X 1018 electrons per second passing through a
circuit. Water Tank Water Tank
With water, as the diameter of the pipe increases, so does the amount
of water that can flow through it. With electricity, conducting wires take
the place of the pipe. As the cross-sectional area of the wire increases,
1 cm diameter 10 cm diameter
so does the amount of electric current (number of electrons) that can pipe pipe
flow through it.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 17
 Ohm’s Law Resistance
George Ohm, a German physicist, discovered that in many materials,
especially metals, the current that flows through a material is
proportional to the voltage. He found that if he doubled the voltage,
the current also doubled. If he reduced the voltage by half, the current
dropped by half. The resistance of the material remained the same. Water Tank Water Tank
This relationship is called Ohm’s Law and can be described using a
simple formula. If you know any two of the measurements, you can
calculate the third using the following formula:
voltage = current x resistance
V = IxR or V = AxΩ

Electrical Power
Power (P) is a measure of the rate of doing work or the rate at which
energy is converted. Electrical power is the rate at which electricity No
Resistance Resistance
is produced or consumed. Using the water analogy, electric power is
the combination of the water pressure (voltage) and the rate of flow
Electrical
ElectricalPower
Power
(current) that results in the ability to do work.
A large pipe carries more water (current) than a small pipe. Water at a
height of 10 meters has much greater force (voltage) than at a height
of one meter. The power of water flowing through a 1-centimeter Water Tank Water Tank
pipe from a height of one meter is much less than water through a
10-centimeter pipe from 10 meters.
Electrical power is defined as the amount of electric current flowing
due to an applied voltage. It is the amount of electricity required to
start or operate a load for one second. Electrical power is measured in The distance traveled represents the work done by the car. When we
watts (W). The formula is: look at power, we are talking about the rate that electrical energy is
being produced or consumed. Energy is analogous to the distance
power = voltage x current traveled or the work done by the car.
P= VxI or W = VxA
A person would not say he took a 40-mile per hour trip because that
is the rate. The person would say he took a 40-mile trip or a 120-mile
Electrical Energy trip. We would describe the trip in terms of distance traveled, not rate
Electrical energy introduces the concept of time to electrical power. traveled. The distance represents the amount of work done.
In the water analogy, it would be the amount of water falling through The same applies with electrical power. You would not say you used 100
the pipe over a period of time, such as an hour. When we talk about watts of light energy to read your book, because a watt represents the
using power over time, we are talking about using energy. Using our rate you use energy, not the total energy used. The amount of energy
water example, we could look at how much work could be done by used would be calculated by multiplying the rate by the amount of
the water in the time that it takes for the tank to empty. time you read.
The electrical energy that an appliance or device consumes can be If you read for five hours with a 100-W light bulb, for example, you
determined only if you know how long (time) it consumes electrical would use the formula as follows:
power at a specific rate (power). To find the amount of energy
energy = power x time (E = P x t)
consumed, you multiply the rate of energy consumption (measured
energy = 100 W x 5 hour = 500 Wh
in watts) by the amount of time (measured in hours) that it is being
consumed. Electrical energy is measured in watt-hours (Wh). One watt-hour is a very small amount of electrical energy. Usually, we
measure electrical power in larger units called kilowatt-hours (kWh)
energy = power x time
or 1,000 watt-hours (kilo = thousand). A kilowatt-hour is the unit
E=Pxt or E = W x h = Wh
that utilities use when billing most customers. The average cost of a
Another way to think about power and energy is with an analogy to kilowatt-hour of electricity for residential customers is about $0.12.
traveling. If a person travels in a car at a rate of 40 miles per hour (mph),
To calculate the cost of reading with a 100-W light bulb for five hours,
to find the total distance traveled, you would multiply the rate of travel
you would change the watt-hours into kilowatt-hours, then multiply
by the amount of time you traveled at that rate.
the kilowatt-hours used by the cost per kilowatt-hour, as shown below:
If a car travels at 40 miles per hour for 1 hour, it would travel 40 miles.
500 Wh / 1,000 = 0.5 kWh
distance = 40 mph x 1 hour = 40 miles 0.5 kWh x $0.12/kWh = $0.060
If a car travels at 40 miles per hour for 3 hours, it would travel 120 miles. Therefore, it would cost about five and a half cents to read for five hours
distance = 40 mph x 3 hours = 120 miles with a 100-W light bulb.

18 Schools Going Solar Teacher Guide

 PV System Performance
 Goal
To introduce students to variables that affect photovoltaic system performance.

 Introduction
Students investigate the variables affecting power generation using solar energy. Web-based data acquisition systems (DAS) for installed
panels collect downloadable data that allows students to compare and contrast variables for a single installation or to compare various
installations. While every DAS is different, the major focus of each is to bring real time and/or historical data to building users.

 Concepts
The sun produces enormous amounts of energy, some in the form of radiant energy that travels through space to the Earth.
We can use the sun’s energy to produce electricity.
It is difficult to capture the sun’s energy because it is spread out—not concentrated in any one area.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert radiant energy directly into electrical energy.

 Grade Level
Upper elementary to high school.

 Time
Three to four class periods. One to brainstorm and break into groups, one to two to download and explore data, and one to answer additional
questions.

 Materials
• Computers with internet access.
• Copies of the student worksheet.

 Preparation
1. Become familiar with your DAS. Make sure you can easily navigate between pages and that you understand how to download data into a
spreadsheet (most DAS programs download into Excel using comma separated values (CSV) format). Some DAS graph data on the Web.
If this is the case, you can choose to not have your students create their own graphs, but to use the ones provided by the DAS instead.
2. If you are not already familiar with the terms used to describe photovoltaic installations and the variables surrounding power
output, a glossary can be found at the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy website
www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/solar_glossary.html#balance.
3. Ensure that your students are familiar with how solar energy is used to generate electricity.
4. Secure computer lab time, if needed.

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© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 19
CONTINUED FROM THE PREVIOUS PAGE
 Procedure
DAY ONE
1. Ask your students to brainstorm ideas that might impact the energy output of the PV system. Be sure students include time of day, time of
year, weather, geographic location, amount of available solar energy (solar irradiance), and temperature.
2. Have students develop questions they would like answered about solar power generation. Sample questions may include:
• When is the time of day for peak solar electric output?
• Is solar electric output influenced by the ambient temperature?
• Does geographic location impact solar electric output?
• Is there a direct correlation between solar electric output and time of day?
• Does time of year/season impact solar electric output?
3. Group students according to the questions they would like answered. For older students, allow each to answer his/her own question.
However, it may be easier for younger students in the same group to answer the same question. Allow time for students to discuss what
data they need to collect to answer their question and how they plan to organize and analyze the data.
4. Allow students to rephrase or adjust their hypothesis based on group discussions.

DAYS TWO AND THREE

1. Take your students on a “virtual tour” of the DAS website demonstrating how to navigate the site, including how to select particular
schools, time frames (day; week; month; etc.) and how to select output modes (CSV or graph).
2. Review the key types of data collected and critical terms: irradiance, cell temperature, and ambient temperature.
3. Make sure students understand how to select more than one school and how to specify which variables to display.
4. Have students log on to your Data Acquisition System (DAS) website and download PV output data for a specific period of time, such as a
day, week, month or year.
OPTIONAL: Output CSV data and have students use this data to create graphs. Compare student graphs to DAS graph output for same data.
5. If students are looking at data for more than a week, there will be a large number of data points. How the data is handled is dependent
upon the questions the students would like answered. For older students, have each student determine the best way to handle the data.
For younger students, consider helping each group or discussing as a class the best methods of data grouping and analysis. Students can
also determine if they can eliminate data that does not contribute to the exploration, such as when the solar panels are not producing any
power.
6. Have students analyze the data for the time period selected. Make sure students choose appropriate visuals to answer their questions.

DAY FOUR
1. If answering different questions, have students review the analysis of others in their group. Have students ask each other questions about
methodology used and conclusions drawn.
2. Allow student groups time to share their conclusions with the class. Discuss conflicting and complementing conclusions.
3. Ask students to determine additional information they can infer from the data, such as approximately what time the sun set and rose each
day or what weather conditions existed during the time period studied.

 Sample Analyses
On pages 22-24 are sample analyses from a DAS. Your students’ analyses may look very similar or very different based upon your PV output,
weather, time of year, etc.
For sample graphs from SolarCity system, go to pages 43-44.

20 Schools Going Solar Teacher Guide

 Solar Schools Websites
The following websites have data from schools with PV installations.
Bonneville Environmental Foundation - Solar 4R Schools
www.solar4rschools.org
Energy Kids U.S. Energy Information Administration
www.eia.gov/kids
Honey Electric Solar
http://honeyelectricsolar.com/schools_intro.asp
Illinois Solar Schools
www.illinoissolarschools.org
Madison Gas and Electric
www.mge.com/environment/green/solar/schools.htm
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority
www.powernaturally.org/Programs/SchoolPowerNaturally/
NOAA Solar Calculators
www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/gen.html
PG&E–Pacific Gas and Electric
www.need.org/pgesolarschools
Soltrex
www.soltrex.com
TXU Solar Academy
http://txu-solaracademy.need.org
Solar City
www.solarcity.com

Extension Activities
• Invite a solar installer to lead a tour of the PV system for your students. Have students prepare some questions ahead of time about the
system, the work the installer does, and how they got involved in the solar industry.
• Have students predict PV output based on weather forecasts. Use local weather forecasts or the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration’s National Weather Service website at www.weather.gov.
• Have students investigate the impact of more than one variable on PV performance. A lesson plan for comparing solar irradiation,
temperature and power can be downloaded from the Watts on Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/activities.htm.
• Have students calculate the efficiency of the PV system in converting sunlight into electricity. A lesson plan can be found on the Watts on
Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/activities.htm.
• Have students compare the electrical output of the PV system to other forms of energy. Use the interactive calculator on the Watts on
Schools website at www.wattsonschools.com/calculator.htm.
• Have students compare PV systems in different areas of the country, or other countries using the PVWATTS website at http://rredc.nrel.gov/
solar/codes_algs/PVWATTS. Students can change the design aspects of a PV system (or use the preset defaults) and the program calculates
monthly and annual energy production plus monthly savings. Students can also look at the program predictions for their PV system and
compare it to actual data they download from the data acquisitioning system.
• Have students determine the circuit wiring for a PV system. A complete lesson plan with background information can be found on the
Power...Naturally website at www.powernaturally.org/Programs/SchoolPowerNaturally/InTheClassroom. The lesson is found in the Level III
grouping and is called Series or Parallel.
• Have students determine the equivalent behavioral energy savings to one day’s PV production.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 21
 Data Analysis 1
Look at the data below and answer the following questions on a separate piece of paper.
1. Write two sentences about the data in the table/chart and in the graph.
2. How does representing the data in a table/chart differ from a graph? Compare and contrast.
3. Have a discussion about daily PV output. Record your observations about this data.

data table

Graph

22 Schools Going Solar

 Data Analysis 2
In the graphs below students compared PV output for three different schools, each with a 1.1 kilowatt
system. Answer the following questions on a separate piece of paper.
1. Write two sentences about the data in the triple line graph and the bar graph.
2. How does representing the data in the triple line graph differ from a bar graph? Compare and contrast.
3. Have a discussion about the PV output of these three schools. Record your observations of this data.

Line Graph

bar graph

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 23
 Data Analysis 3
In the graphs below students compared PV output for three different schools, each with a 1.1 kilowatt
system. Answer the following questions on a separate piece of paper.
1. Write two sentences about the data in the scatter plot and the double line graph.
2. How does representing the data in a scatter plot differ from a double bar graph? Compare and contrast.
3. Have a discussion about PV Output and Irradiance. Record your observations for this data.

Scatter plot

Line Graph

24 Schools Going Solar

 Name: _________________________________________________________ Date: ___________

Variables Affecting Photovoltaic System Performance

1. What variables can impact PV electricity generation?

2. What would you like to learn more about?

3. What is your hypothesis about your variable and PV system performance?

4. What data do you need to collect to verify your hypothesis? Be specific, such as time frame and number of PV locations.

5. How do you plan to organize and analyze the data? Again, be specific, such as graphs or tables, comparing averages or percentages, etc.

6. Clarify your hypothesis, if needed, based on group discussions and planned data gathering.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 25
 7. Attach your data analysis to this worksheet. What conclusions did you draw from your data? Explain how the data supports or disproves
your hypothesis.

8. Did people in your group draw other conclusions? If so, how do they complement or conflict with your conclusions?

9. Did other groups come to conclusions that support or refute your hypothesis? If so, what data would account for the differences in
conclusions?

10. If you were to complete this study again, what data would you include or leave out and why?

11. What other conclusions can be inferred from the data gathered?

26 Schools Going Solar Teacher Guide

 PV Systems and Schools
 Goal
To introduce students to the electric needs of the school and how having a PV system offsets those needs.

 Introduction
Students learn the electric load of appliances in their school. They compare electric output of the PV system to the load. Students determine
the amount the PV system offsets the school’s electric consumption.

 Concepts
The electrical appliances we use consume a lot of energy.
We use can the sun’s energy to produce electricity.
PV systems offset school electric needs, but do not generate all electricity needed.

 Grade Level
Upper elementary to high school.

 Time
Three to four class periods.

 Materials
Copies of the student worksheets.

 Preparation
1. Obtain a copy of your school electric bill or the total kilowatt-hours used per month, prior to the installation of the PV system. If desired,
obtain a year’s worth of information and incorporate mathematical averaging into the lesson.
2. Either determine the cost per kilowatt-hour for electricity for your school or incorporate into the lesson for students to determine. If
unknown, use $0.10 per kilowatt-hour (the 2009 national average price of electricity for commercial customers).
3. Ensure that your students are familiar with how solar energy is used to generate electricity and how electricity is measured.
4. Obtain, or have the students determine, the measurements of the PV system, including square feet of panels and maximum power output.
5. Obtain permission for students to be in offices, other classrooms, labs, etc.
6. Collect, if desired, sample small appliances on which the students may read electric nameplates.

CONTINUED ON THE NEXT PAGE

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 27
 CONTINUED FROM THE PREVIOUS PAGE

 Procedure
DAY ONE
1. Ask the students to think about how much electricity the school uses each day. Have students predict the electric usage of the school for
a month.
2. Introduce electric nameplates. Hand out the Electric Nameplate worksheet and explain to students how to read electric nameplates and
what information can be learned from them.
3. Divide the students into working groups. If using small appliances for practice nameplate reading, hand them out and have the students
fill in one or two rows of the chart. Check to make sure all groups understand the calculations and have correct information.
4. Send the groups to various rooms in the school where they can collect electric nameplate information. Be sure to include the copy room
and the office, if possible. Assign completing the worksheet for homework, if needed.

DAY TWO
1. Review the data collected from the previous day.
2. Provide the students with copies of the school electric bill or tell them how much electricity the school uses each month.
3. Complete the Cost of Using Appliances worksheet in class.
4. Have students complete the Photovoltaic Systems and School Electricity Use worksheet. Assign for homework if needed.

DAY THREE
1. Discuss with the students their predictions and the school’s actual electric use.
2. Discuss with the students the feasibility of using solar generated electricity for all of the school’s electric load.
3. Discuss with students the advantages and disadvantages to solar generated electricity.
4. Have students write persuasive pieces to the school board with a for or against stance to adding more solar panels to the school’s PV
system.

Optional Activity: Calculating PV Array Efficiency

1. Find the area of the solar array in square meters (m2).
2. Use the DAS website to find the peak output of the system under optimal conditions, or it’s highest historic output in (watts).
3. Calculate peak output per m2, peak output ÷ area = output (watts/m2).
4. Find the irradiance at the time of peak output (watts/m2).
5. Calculate PV array efficiency: output/area ÷ irradiance = efficiency.

Extension Activities
• Have students research how a PV system is designed, manufactured and installed. Have students brainstorm the career opportunities
available through the solar industry. More information about careers can be found on the Bureau of Labor Statistics website at www.bls.gov.
• Have a community solar day where the students lead tours of the PV system. Students could create posters and educational displays with
additional information about solar energy. Students could also prepare and present songs or plays as a part of the event.
• Have students research additional solar technologies. Have them consider if any are viable for use on the school in addition to the PV system.
• Have students determine whether installing a PV system is cost-effective for their needs and whether or not there are any financial incentives
for installing PV systems in their area. A solar power incentive map and other resources can be found at www.findsolar.com.
• Have students participate in a simulation where they determine the feasibility of installing a PV system on the roof of a school
in the community. A complete lesson plan (To Go Solar or Not to Go Solar) and with student worksheets can be found on the
Power Naturally website at www.powernaturally.org/Programs/SchoolPowerNaturally/InTheClassroom under Level II lessons.
• Participate in the next National Renewable Energy Lab sponsored Junior Solar Sprint. For more information visit,
www.nrel.gov/education/jss_hfc.html.

28 Schools Going Solar

 Name: _________________________________________________________ Date: ___________
Electric Nameplates
Electric Nameplates Investigation
Some appliances use more energy than others to accomplish the same task. Appliances
that are very energy efficient are approved by the government’s ENERGY STAR® program
and have the ENERGY STAR® label on them. This means they have met high standards set
Some appliances use more energy
by the than others to
government foraccomplish the same task. Appliances that are very energy efficient are approved by the
energy efficiency.
government’s ENERGY STAR® program and have the ENERGY STAR® label on them. This means they have met high standards set by the
Every machine
government runs on electricity has an electric nameplate on it. The nameplate is usually a silver
that efficiency.
for energy
sticker
Every machine that runs onthe
that looks like picture
electricity hasbelow. The
an electric nameplate
nameplate hasnameplate
on it. The information about
is usually thesticker
a silver amount of electricity
that looks the
like the picture
machine uses. Sometimes, the current is listed. The current is measured in amperes (A).
below. The nameplate has information about the amount of electricity the machine uses. Sometimes, the current is listed. The current is Sometimes, the
voltage
measured the machine
in amperes (A).needs is listed.
Sometimes, the voltageThethe
voltage
machineisneeds
listed in volts
is listed. (V). Sometimes,
The voltage the
is listed in volts (V).wattage
Sometimes,is the
listed. Theis
wattage
wattage
listed. Theiswattage
measured in watts
is measured (W).
in watts If Ifthe
(W). wattageisn’t
the wattage isn’t listed,
listed, then thethen theand
current current
voltage and voltage
are both listed.are both listed.

IfIfthe
the wattage
wattage is not listed,
isn’t you can
listed, youcalculate the wattage
can calculate using
the the following
wattage usingformula:
the following formula, like this:
wattage = current x voltage

W = A x V
wattage = current x voltage
W
W = = 1.0A A x x 5V V
W
W = = 5W1.0A x 5V
W UL are on
Often, the letters = the nameplate.
5W UL stands for
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., which conducts tests on thousands
of machines and appliances. The UL mark means that samples of
the machines and appliances have been tested to make sure they
are safe.
You can find out how much it costs to operate any appliance or
Often,
machine the letters
if you knowUL the are on the
wattage. Let’snameplate.
take a look atUL stands
some of for Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., which conducts
the machines in your school. The nameplate is usually located
tests on thousands of machines and appliances. The UL mark means that samples of the machines and
on the bottom
appliances or back.
have been Seetested
if you can
to find
make the sure
nameplates
they areon the
safe.
computers, printers, monitors, televisions, and other machines in
You
yourcan find out
classroom. Puthow much it costs
the information in the to operate
chart anyfigure
below and appliance or machine if you know the wattage. Take a look
atoutsome of theformachines
the wattage each one. in your school. The nameplate is usually located on the bottom or back. See if you
can find the nameplates on the computers, printers, monitors, televisions, and other machines in your classroom.
Put the information in the chart below and figure out the wattage for each one.
MACHINE OR APPLIANCE CURRENT VOLTAGE WATTAGE UL TESTED

Machine
Copier
Current
11A
Voltage
115V
Wattage
1,265W
ULyestested

Copier 11 A 115 V 1,265 W yes

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 29
 Name: _________________________________________________________ Date: ___________

Cost of Using Machines Investigation

Calculate how much it costs to operate the machines in your classroom that you looked at before. You need to know the wattage, the cost
of electricity, and the number of hours a week each machine is used.
You can estimate the number of hours the machine is used each week, then multiply by 40 to get the yearly use. We are using 40 weeks for
schools, because school buildings aren’t used every week of the year. Using the copier as an example, if it is used for ten hours each week,
we can find the yearly use like this:
Yearly use = 10 hours/week x 40 weeks/year = 400 hours/year

Remember that electricity is measured in kilowatt-hours. You will need to change the watts to kilowatts. One kilowatt is equal to 1,000
watts. To get kilowatts, you must divide the watts by 1,000. Using the copier as an example, divide like this:
kW = W/1000

kW = 1265/1000 = 1.265

The average cost of electricity for schools in the U.S. is about ten cents a kilowatt-hour. You can use this rate or find out the actual rate from
your school’s electric bill. Using the average cost of electricity, we can figure out how much it costs to run the copier for a year by using this
formula:
Yearly cost = Hours used x Kilowatts x Cost of electricity (kWh)

Yearly cost = 400 hours/year x 1.265 kW x $0.10/kWh

Yearly cost = 400 x 1.265 x 0.10 = $50.60

MACHINE OR
WATTS (W) KILOWATTS (kW) HOURS PER WEEK HOURS PER YEAR RATE ($/kWh) ANNUAL COST
APPLIANCE

Copier 1,265 W 1.265 kW 10 400 hours $0.10 $50.60

30 Schools Going Solar

 Name: _________________________________________________________ Date: ___________

Photovoltaic Systems and School Electricity Use

The photovoltaic (PV) system installed on your school provides electricity for the school to operate. But how much of the total school
consumption does it provide?
1. Predict how much of the school electric consumption you think the PV system provides.

I predict the PV system provides ________ percent of the school’s total electric needs.

2. Calculate the amount of electricity needed yearly for the appliances for which you already gathered data. Use the following formula:

Yearly Electric Use = Yearly Use x Kilowatts

Copier Yearly Electric Use = 400 h/yr x 1.265 kW = 506 kWh/yr

MACHINE OR APPLIANCE YEARLY USE KILOWATTS (kW) YEARLY ELECTRICITY USE

Copier 400 hours/yr 1.265 kW 506 kWh/yr

TOTAL:

3. Add together the totals from other groups’ charts to get an estimate of your school’s yearly electric use. Be sure to only include rooms
once.

School’s estimated annual electric consumption = _______________ kilowatt-hours/year

4. Determine how much electricity the PV system provides your school each year. You can gather the yearly production data directly from
your data acquisition system (DAS) or you can add the monthly totals for one year.

PV system’s annual electric production = _______________ kilowatt-hours/year

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 31
 5. Next, determine what percentage was provided by the PV system for the electric needs of the appliances. Use the following formula:

PV System Yearly Production

PV System Percentage = x 100
Total Appliance Yearly Electric Use

kWh/yr x 100
PV System Percentage = = _______________ %
kWh/yr

6. This gives you an estimate of the electric needs of your school and the electric production of your PV system. But are the appliances and
machines you looked at the only thing that uses electricity? List other electricity using devices.

7. Find out how much electricity your school used each year before the PV system was installed. Determine how much the PV system offsets
the total electric needs of your school.

8. How much money is your school saving each year due to the PV system?

9. Bonus: Determine the size of your PV system in square feet. How many more square feet of PV panels would you need to produce half the
electric consumption of your school?

32 Schools Going Solar Teacher Guide

 PV Systems and the Environment
 Goal
To introduce students to the concept that using electricity impacts the environment and to explore how using solar energy can offset carbon
dioxide production.

 Introduction
Students learn that using electricity generated from fossil fuels emits carbon dioxide (CO2) into the air. Students learn that using electricity
generated from solar power can decrease the amount of CO2 emitted. Students determine how much CO2 their PV system prevents from
being emitted.
 Concepts
• Using electricity impacts the environment.
• We can use the sun’s energy to produce electricity.
• Using PV systems to generate electricity for schools decreases the amount of CO2 emitted.

 Grade Level
• Upper elementary to high school.

 Background
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas. Human activities have dramatically increased its concentration in the atmosphere. Since 1800, the
level of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased about 30 percent. Generating electricity accounts for a large portion of CO2 emissions in the
U.S. Some electricity generation, such as hydropower, solar, wind, geothermal and nuclear, does not produce CO2 because no fuel is burned.
About half of the nation’s electricity comes from burning coal. Another 23 percent comes from burning natural gas, petroleum and biomass.
There is a direct correlation between the amount of electricity we use and the amount of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere. The rule of thumb
is that generating a kilowatt-hour of electricity emits 1.6 pounds of CO2 into the atmosphere.

 Time
• Three to four class periods.

 Materials
• Completed copies of the student worksheets from PV Systems and Schools lesson.
• Copies of the student worksheet.

 Preparation
1. The PV Systems and Schools lesson needs to be completed prior to this one. Data collected during that lesson will be used for this activity.
2. Ensure that your students are familiar with how solar energy is used to generate electricity and how electricity is measured.

 Procedure
1. Complete the student worksheet in class.

Extension Activities
• Have students calculate their own carbon footprint and determine ways to offset their contributions to atmospheric pollution. Carbon
footprint calculators can be found on the BP website at www.bp.com under Environment and Society and on the Texas State Conservation
Office website at www.infinitepower.org/calculators.htm.
• Have students determine trade-offs involved with installing PV systems using the interactive calculators on the Texas State Conservation
Office website at www.infinitepower.org/calculators.htm.
• Conduct an energy audit of the school to help lessen the carbon footprint of the school. Use materials and lesson plans from NEED’s Energy
Management curriculum (Primary: Saving Energy at Home and School, Elementary: Building Buddies, Intermediate: Monitoring and Mentoring,
and Secondary: Learning and Conserving).
© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 33
 Name: _________________________________________________________ Date: ___________

Photovoltaic Systems and the Environment

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases hold heat in the atmosphere. They keep our planet warm enough for us to live.
But in the last 200 years, we have been producing more carbon dioxide than ever before.
Research shows that greenhouse gases are trapping more heat in the atmosphere. Scientists believe this is causing the average temperature
of the earth’s atmosphere to rise. They call this global climate change or global warming. Global warming refers to an average increase
in the temperature of the atmosphere, which in turn causes changes in climate. A warmer atmosphere may lead to changes in rainfall
patterns, a rise in sea level, and a wide range of impacts on plants, wildlife and humans. When scientists talk about the issue of climate
change, their concern is about global warming caused by human activities.
When we breathe, we produce carbon dioxide. When we burn fuels, we also produce carbon dioxide. Driving cars and trucks produces
carbon dioxide. Heating homes with natural gas, wood, heating oil or propane produces carbon dioxide, too.
Making electricity can also produce carbon dioxide. Some energy sources, such as hydropower, solar, wind, geothermal and nuclear, do
not produce carbon dioxide because no fuel is burned. However, about half of our electricity comes from burning coal. Another 23 percent
comes from burning natural gas, petroleum and biomass.
The general rule is that generating one kilowatt-hour of electricity produces, on average, 1.6 pounds of carbon dioxide that is emitted into
the atmosphere.
1. You can use this standard to determine how much carbon dioxide is produced by the machines and appliances used in your school. The
figures for the sample copier are:

Yearly CO2 Emissions = yearly electric use x rate of CO2/kWh

Yearly CO2 Emissions = 506 kWh/yr x 1.6 lbs CO2/kWh = 810 lbs CO2

2. Use the figures from earlier worksheets to complete the chart below.

MACHINE OR APPLIANCE YEARLY ELECTRICITY USE YEARLY CO2 EMISSIONS

Copier 506 kWh/yr 810 lbs

34 Schools Going Solar

 3. Gather data from other groups and calculate your school’s carbon dioxide emissions from the machines and appliances used. Be sure to
include a room’s data only once.

School’s estimated CO2 emissions = _______________ lbs/yr

4. Use the school building electric consumption figure from before the PV system was installed to calculate your school’s total carbon dioxide
emissions due to using electricity.

School’s CO2 emissions = _______________ lbs/yr

5. When using an energy source that does not emit carbon dioxide to generate electricity, scientist discuss the amount of carbon dioxide
emissions that were avoided. This means that instead of using a conventional fuel, which produces 1.6 pounds of carbon dioxide for each
kilowatt-hour of electricity, solar energy produces zero pounds of carbon dioxide for each kilowatt-hour of electricity generated on the
system. In one year, how much carbon dioxide emissions are avoided due to your school’s PV system?

6. What other steps can your school take to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emissions?

7. Bonus 1: How many more square feet of PV panels would you need to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions of your school by half?

Bonus 2: The DAS website indicates how many pounds of carbon dioxide production are avoided by use of the PV system. Calculate the
volume of one ton of carbon dioxide in cubic meters. Calculate the volume of one ton of carbon dioxide in cubic feet (The density of CO2
is 1.98 kg/m3, 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds, 1 ton = 2000 pounds or 907.18 kilograms, and 1 foot = 0.3048 meter).

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 35
 Additional Resources
Solar Energy Websites
American Solar Energy Society
www.ases.org

Energy For Educators

www.energyforeducators.org

Energy Information Administration Energy Kids

www.eia.gov/kids

Florida Solar Energy Center

www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/solar_electricity/basics/index.htm

How Stuff Works

www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell.htm

National Energy Education Development Project

www.NEED.org

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

www.nrel.gov/learning/re_solar.html
openpv.nrel.gov/visualization/index.php

Sandia National Laboratories

http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov

SolarCity
www.solarcity.com

Solar Electric Power Association

www.solarelectricpower.org

Solar Energy Industries Association

www.seia.org

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program
www1.eere.energy.gov/solar

Glossaries of Energy Terms

Energy Information Administration Energy Kids
www.eia.doe.gov/kids

Sandia National Laboratories

www.sandia.gov/pv/docs/glossary.htm

U.S. Department of Energy

www.energy.gov/energyglossaries.htm

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

36 Schools Going Solar

 Calculation of Power
Power (P) is a measure of the rate of doing work or the rate at which energy is converted. Electrical power is defined as the amount of electric
current flowing due to an applied voltage. Electrical power is measured in watts (W). The formula is:

power = voltage x current

P= VxI or W = VxA

Series Circuits
+ + +
In series circuits, the current remains constant while Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V
the voltage changes. To calculate total voltage, add 4.5 V
the individual voltages together: Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3

Single PV Module Series - 2 PV Modules Series - 3 PV Modules

- + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - +
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

1.5 V 3.0 V 4.5 V

0.1 A 0.1 A 0.1 A

Parallel Circuits
+ + +
In parallel circuits, the voltage remains constant Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.5 V
while the current changes. To calculate total 1.5 V
current, add the individual currents together: Vtotal = V1 = V2 = V3

Single PV Module Parallel - 2 PV Modules Parallel - 3 PV Modules

- + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - +
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

1.5 V 1.5 V
0.1 A 1.5 V
0.2 A 0.3 A

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 37
 Basic Measurement Values in Electronics
SYMBOL VALUE METER UNIT
E Voltage (the force) Voltmeter Volts (V)
I Current (the flow) Ammeter Amps/Amperes (A)
R Resistance (the anti-flow) Ohmmeter Ohms (Ω)

1 Ampere = 1 coulomb/second

1 Coulomb = 6.24 x 1018 electrons (about a triple axle dump truck full of sand where one grain of sand is one electron)

Prefixes for Units

ƒƒ Smaller
(m)illi x 1/1000 or .001

(µ) micro x 1/1000000 or .000001

(n)ano x1/100000000 or .000000001

(p)ico x 1/1000000000000 l or .000000000001

ƒƒ Bigger
(K)ilo x 1,000

(M)ega x 1,000,000

(G)iga x 1,000,000,000

Formulas for Measuring Electricity

E=IxR The formula pie works for any three
variable equation. Put your finger on
I = E/R E the variable you want to solve for and
the operation you need is revealed.
R = E/I

ƒƒ Series Resistance (Resistance is additive)

RT= R1 + R2 + R3… +Rn

ƒƒ Parallel Resistance (Resistance is reciprocal)

1/RT= 1/R1 + 1/R2+ 1/R3… +1/Rn

Note: ALWAYS convert the values you are working with to the “BASE unit.” For example - don’t plug kilo-ohms (KΩ) into the
equation – convert the value to Ω first.

38 Schools Going Solar

 Digital Multimeter

OFF
V --- 1000 750 V
200 200

20 200µ
2000
m 2000
µ
200 20
m m

2000 200
K m

200K 10
20K hFE
A ---
E
B 2000
E
Ω 200
C B

E
E
NPN PNP
C

CE 10A max
unfused
10ADC
VΩmA
750VAC
! 1000VDC
DIGITAL ! 200m A max

MULTIMETER 500V max

COM

Directions
DC Voltage
1. Connect RED lead to VΩmA socket and BLACK to COM.
2. Set SWITCH to highest setting on DC VOLTAGE scale (1000).
3. Connect leads to the device to be tested using the alligator clips provided.
4. Adjust SWITCH to lower settings until a satisfactory reading is obtained.
5. With the solar modules or array the 20 setting usually provides the best reading.

DC Current
1. Connect RED lead to VΩmA connector and BLACK to COM.
2. Set SWITCH to 10 ADC setting.
3. Connect leads to the device to be tested using the alligator clips provided.
Note: The reading indicates DC AMPS; a reading of 0.25 amps equals 250 ma (milliamps).

YOUR MULTIMETER MIGHT BE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE ONE SHOWN. BEFORE USING THE MULTIMETER READ THE OPERATOR’S
INSTRUCTION MANUAL INCLUDED IN THE BOX FOR SAFETY INFORMATION AND COMPLETE OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 39
 Can Solar Energy Meet Your Electricity
Demands?
Part One: How much energy do you need per day?
1. How much electricity does your family consume each month (in kilowatt hours, kWh)? _____________ kWh
2. What is your daily electricity use in kWh? (Monthly kWh/30 days) _____________ kWh
3. What is your daily electricity use in watt-hours? (Multiply by 1,000) _____________ watt-hours

Part Two: How much energy can a module produce on an average day where YOU live?
1. Peak Sun Hours are the number of hours per day where solar insolation equals 1,000 watts/square meter. Use the Photovoltaic Solar
Resource Map to determine how many peak sun hours your home city receives each day. _____________ peak sun hours
2. How much energy will one 235-watt solar module generate on the average day?
235 watts x _______ peak sun hours = ________watt-hours daily production per module.

Part Three: How big does your system need to be for where you live?
1. How many 235-watt solar modules would you need to produce enough electricity for your home?
Divide daily energy usage (Part One, Step 3) by amount of power provided by one module (Part Two, Step Two).
Answer: _______modules.
2. What would the total system size be based on the number of modules you need?
Multiply the number of modules (Part Three, Step 1) by the module rating in watts (235) divided by 1,000 = system size
Answer: ______________ kW system size
3. If each module costs $800.00 installed, how much would it cost for the number of solar modules you need? Answer: $______________

Part Four: How many years will it take before the system has paid for itself?
1. Calculate your current cost for electricity (Multiply your monthly total kWh use by the rate in your city).
2. A) How much do you pay each month? $___________ B) How much do you pay each year? $_____________
3. The payback period is the time it will take for your system price to be offset by the electrical energy bills that will be avoided. Divide the
total system cost (Part 3, Step 2) by your annual cost for electricity (Part 4, Step 2B).
Answer:_______________ years

Part Five: Reflect

1. What are the different factors that impact payoff period?

2. Under what circumstances is it NOT worth installing a solar

generating system?

3. Think about when you use the most electricity. Do these hours
coincide with peak sun hours? What would you need in order
to use solar energy around the clock?

40 Schools Going Solar

 41
U.S. Solar Resource Map
Annual Average Solar Concentration

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org
Annual Average Solar Concentration (KWh/m2/Day)
HIGH LOW
Note: Alaska and Hawaii not shown to scale More than 6 5 to 6 4 to 5 3 to 4 Less than 3
 Your Solar-Powered Cabin
Your crazy old Uncle Ed has just willed you a cabin that he has on a river near Page, AZ. The only problem is that the
cabin has no electricity. Uncle Ed believes in hard work and he’s specified one condition—if you are to take possession
of this prime parcel, you must plan and install a PV system to support the following four specifications:
• a light for the kitchen (LED, 12 volts at 15 watts);
• a power supply for charging your laptop (12 volts at 90 watts);
• an electric pump for the well (12 volts at 100 watts intermittent); and
• a refrigerator (12 volts at 50 watts intermittent).

Before you can collect your inheritance, the lawyer will need to approve your plan. The lawyer will need to see:
• a description of the PV modules that you will use along with their ratings;
• a schematic diagram of your system design; and
• a spreadsheet detailing your budget and sources for parts.

Have fun!

Extension
When you finish your plan, design a battery system to store the electrical energy generated for use at night or during
storms.

42 Schools Going Solar

 Sample SolarCity Graphs
Santa Cruz High School in Santa Cruz, CA has a 207 kW
PV System installed on its roof tops. Below are sample
graphs of their output from SolarCity.

Daily Total Output

Weekly Total Output

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 43
 Daily Total Output

Weekly Total Output

44 Schools Going Solar

 PV Glossary
For more solar terms, visit www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/solar_glossary.html.

alternating a type of electrical current, the direction of which is reversed at regular intervals or cycles.
current (AC)
ambient the temperature of the surrounding area.
temperature
ampere (amp or a unit of electrical current or rate of flow of electrons.
A)
converter a device that converts direct current (dc) voltage to another dc voltage.
data acquisition a computer program and its related hardware components designed to collect data about a photovoltaic
system (DAS) system.
diffuse insolation sunlight received indirectly as a result of scattering due to clouds, fog, haze, dust or other obstructions
in the atmosphere.
direct current a type of electrical current in which electricity flows in one direction, usually with relatively low voltage and high
current.
direct insolation sunlight falling directly upon a collector.
electric circuit the path followed by electrons from a power source (generator, battery, PV array), through an electrical system,
and returning to the source.
electric current the flow of electrical energy (electricity) in a conductor, measured in amperes.
electricity energy resulting from the flow of charge particles, such as electrons or ions.
electron part of an atom with a negative electrical charge.
energy the capability of doing work.
incident light light that shines onto the face of a solar cell.
input voltage determined by the total power required by both the alternating current loads and the voltage of any
direct current loads.
insolation the solar power density incident on a surface of stated area and orientation, usually expressed as Watts per
(W/m2/h) square meter per hour.
inverter a device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC)
irradiance (kW/ the direct, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation that strikes a surface, usually expressed as kilowatts per square
m2) meter.
kilowatt (kW) a standard unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 watts, or to the energy consumption at a rate of 1,000 joules
per second.
kilowatt-hour a unit of energy equaling 1,000 watts acting over a period of one hour.
(kWh)
load the demand on an energy production system; the energy consumption or requirement of a piece or group of
equipment, usually expressed as amperes or watts.
photon a particle of light that acts as an individual unit of energy.
photovoltaic (PV) direct conversion of light to electricity.
photovoltaic (PV) an interconnected system of PV modules that function as a single electricity-producing unit.
array
photovoltaic (PV) the smallest semiconductor element within a PV module that performs the conversion of light to electricity
cell (also called a solar cell.

© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 45
 photovoltaic the ratio of the electric power produced by a PV device to the power of the sunlight incident on the device.
(PV) conversion
efficiency
photovoltaic (PV) the phenomenon that occurs when photons strike electrons in the atoms of a semiconductor, knocking them
effect loose and causing a flow of electrons in one direction.
photovoltaic (PV) an environmentally protected collection of solar (PV) cells, the interconnections, and other parts (terminals,
module diodes) needed to provide a direct current.
photovoltaic (PV) a connected collection of PV modules.
panel
photovoltaic (PV) a complete set of components for converting sunlight into electricity, including the array and additional system
system components.
semiconductor any material that has a limited capacity for conducting an electric current.
silicon a semi-metallic element with semiconductor properties used to make photovoltaic (PV) devices.
solar energy electromagnetic energy transmitted from the sun (solar radiation).
transformer a device that changes the voltage of alternating current electricity.
volt (V) a unit of electrical force equal to that amount of electromotive force that will cause a steady current of one
ampere to flow through a resistance of one ohm.
voltage the amount of electromotive force that exists between two points, measured in volts (V).
watt (W) the rate of energy transfer equal to one ampere under the electrical pressure of one volt.

46 Schools Going Solar

 Schools Going Solar
Evaluation Form
State: ___________ Grade Level: ___________ Number of Students: __________

1. Did you conduct the entire activity?  Yes  No

2. Were the instructions clear and easy to follow?  Yes  No

3. Did the activity meet your academic objectives?  Yes  No

4. Was the activity age appropriate?  Yes  No

5. Were the allotted times sufficient to conduct the activity?  Yes  No

6. Was the activity easy to use?  Yes  No

7. Was the preparation required acceptable for the activity?  Yes  No

8. Were the students interested and motivated?  Yes  No

9. Was the energy knowledge content age appropriate?  Yes  No

10. Would you teach this activity again?  Yes  No

Please explain any ‘no’ statement below.

How would you rate the activity overall?  excellent  good  fair  poor

How would your students rate the activity overall?  excellent  good  fair  poor

What would make the unit more useful to you?

Other Comments:

Please fax or mail to: The NEED Project

P.O. Box 10101
Manassas, VA 20108
FAX: 1-800-847-1820
© 2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 47
 NEED National Sponsors and Partners
American Association of Blacks in Energy Houston Museum of Natural Science PECO
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American Electric Power Idaho Department of Education PNM
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Central Virginia Community College Council Southern LNG
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ComEd Lenfest Foundation California Berkeley
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TXU Energy
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Desk and Derrick of Roswell, NM Marianas Islands Energy Office
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Division U.S. Department of Energy–Wind for Schools
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Montana Energy Education Council U.S. Department of Energy–Wind Powering
Encana
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Encana Cares Foundation
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Energy Education for Michigan Bureau of Land Management
NASA
Energy Training Solutions U.S. Department of the Interior–Bureau of
National Association of State Energy Officials
Energy Solutions Foundation Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and
National Fuel Enforcement
Entergy
National Grid U.S. Energy Information Administration
Equitable Resources
National Hydropower Association U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
First Roswell Company
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Foundation for Environmental Education
National Renewable Energy Laboratory Virgin Islands Energy Office
FPL
Nebraska Public Power District Virginia Department of Education
The Franklin Institute
New Mexico Oil Corporation Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and
GenOn Energy–California
New Mexico Landman’s Association Energy
Georgia Environmental Facilities Authority
New Orleans Solar Schools Initiative Walmart Foundation
Government of Thailand–Energy Ministry
New York Power Authority Washington and Lee University
Guam Energy Office
NSTAR Western Kentucky Science Alliance
Gulf Power
Offshore Energy Center W. Plack Carr Company
Halliburton Foundation
Offshore Technology Conference Yates Petroleum Corporation
Hawaii Energy
Ohio Energy Project
Gerald Harrington, Geologist
Pacific Gas and Electric Company

©2011 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 20108 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org