sustainability

Article
Synergizing Wind and Solar Power: An Advanced Control
System for Grid Stability
Chaymae Boubii 1 , Ismail El Kafazi 2 , Rachid Bannari 1 , Brahim El Bhiri 2 , Badre Bossoufi 3, * , Hossam Kotb 4 ,
Kareem M. AboRas 4 , Ahmed Emara 5,6, * and Badr Nasiri 7

1 Engineering Sciences Laboratory, ENSA, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra 14000, Morocco;
rachid.bannari@uit.ac.ma (R.B.)
2 Laboratory SMARTILAB, Moroccan School Engineering Sciences, EMSI, Rabat 10150, Morocco;
elkafazi.ism@gmail.com (I.E.K.)
3 LIMAS Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mahraz, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University,
Fez 30000, Morocco
4 Department of Electrical Power and Machines, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University,
Alexandria 21544, Egypt
5 Electrical Engineering Department, University of Business and Technology, Ar Rawdah, Jeddah 23435,
Saudi Arabia
6 Engineering Mathematics and Physics Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University,
Alexandria 21544, Egypt
7 Laboratory of Optic of Information Processing, Mechanic, Energetic and Electronic, Faculty of Science,
University Moulay Ismail, Meknes 50050, Morocco; b.nasiri@uhp.ac.ma
* Correspondence: badre.bossoufi@usmba.ac.ma (B.B.); a.emara@ubt.edu.sa (A.E.)

Abstract: In response to the escalating global energy crisis, the motivation for this research has been
derived from the need for sustainable and efficient energy solutions. A gap in existing renewable en-
ergy systems, particularly in terms of stability and efficiency under variable environmental conditions,
has been recognized, leading to the introduction of a novel hybrid system that combines photovoltaic
(PV) and wind energy. The innovation of this study lies in the methodological approach that has been
adopted, integrating dynamic modeling with a sophisticated control mechanism. This mechanism, a
blend of model predictive control (MPC) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), has been specifically
Citation: Boubii, C.; Kafazi, I.E.;
designed to address the fluctuations inherent in PV and wind power sources. The methodology
Bannari, R.; El Bhiri, B.; Bossoufi, B.;
involves a detailed stability analysis using Lyapunov’s theorem, a critical step distinguishing this
Kotb, H.; AboRas, K.M.; Emara, A.;
system from conventional renewable energy solutions. The integration of MPC and PSO, pivotal
Nasiri, B. Synergizing Wind and Solar
in enhancing the system’s adaptability and optimizing the maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
Power: An Advanced Control System
for Grid Stability. Sustainability 2024,
process, improves control efficiency across key components like the doubly fed induction generator
16, 815. https://doi.org/10.3390/ (DFIG), rectifier-sourced converter (RSC), and grid-side converter (GSC). Through rigorous MATLAB
su16020815 simulations, the system’s robust response to changing solar irradiance and wind velocities has been
demonstrated. The key findings confirm the system’s ability to maintain stable power generation,
Academic Editor: Jifeng Song
underscoring its practicality and efficiency in renewable energy integration. Not only has this study
Received: 16 November 2023 filled a crucial gap in renewable energy control systems, but it has also set a precedent for future
Revised: 10 January 2024 research in sustainable energy technologies.
Accepted: 14 January 2024
Published: 17 January 2024 Keywords: PV; DFIG; MPC; PSO; Lyapunov

Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.

1. Introduction
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article The relentless growth of the global population and continuous industrial advance-
distributed under the terms and ments have led to a steep increase in energy demand, emphasizing the essential role of
conditions of the Creative Commons energy in our modern lives [1–3]. This burgeoning demand, paired with diminishing fossil
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// fuel reserves and escalating environmental concerns, has hastened the transition towards
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ cleaner and more sustainable energy sources such as solar, hydro, and wind energy [4].
4.0/). Among these, solar and wind energies stand out in the renewable energy sector, with

Sustainability 2024, 16, 815. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020815 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 2 of 44

photovoltaic (PV) systems and wind power systems, particularly wind farms, experienc-
ing significant global growth [5,6]. PV systems have revolutionized the conversion of
solar energy into electricity, with substantial advancements and cost reductions in solar
modules [5,7,8]. Similarly, wind energy, particularly through innovations in wind farms
using Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIGs), is shaping the future of energy due to its
efficiency, adaptability, and cost-effectiveness [6,9]. However, the inherent variability and
unpredictability of both solar and wind energy sources pose significant challenges to system
stability and efficiency. To optimize these renewable energy sources’ efficiency, accurate
modeling and effective control mechanisms are indispensable. In PV systems, maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) is crucial for maximizing electricity extraction under various
environmental conditions [10–13]. In wind power systems, effectively managing power
on both the generator and grid sides is critical, with power converters enabling DFIGs to
operate at variable speeds [14–16]. Addressing these challenges, our study introduces a
novel hybrid system that synergistically integrates photovoltaic and wind energy systems.
Our approach leverages model predictive control (MPC) enhanced by particle swarm
optimization (PSO) to efficiently manage the complex dynamics of this integrated system.
Unlike traditional methods, MPC’s ability to predict system behavior and adapt control
actions is coupled with PSO for optimizing the cost function of the controller, ensuring
enhanced performance and stability [17–21]. This hybrid system promises improved energy
harvesting from both solar and wind sources while addressing their variability challenges.
The paper is structured to detail the hybrid energy system’s components and operations,
with Section 2 introducing the PSO-enhanced MPC strategy. Subsequent sections include a
comprehensive overview of the PV system and control methodology (Section 2), an evalua-
tion of a grid-tied wind system under varying conditions (Section 3), an in-depth look at the
DFIG wind system and PSO control technique (Section 4), and simulation methodology and
results (Section 5). The final section (Section 6) synthesizes our key findings and discusses
potential future research directions.
Key Contributions:
1. Development of an innovative hybrid solar and wind energy system, distinct in its
use of MPC combined with PSO. This approach is novel in its ability to address the
unpredictable nature of renewable energy sources, a gap in existing methodologies.
2. Application of Lyapunov’s theorem for rigorous stability analysis, providing a math-
ematical validation of our system’s stability, a feature often overlooked in similar
hybrid systems.
3. Comprehensive MATLAB simulations demonstrate the system’s resilience and adapt-
ability to changing environmental conditions, confirming its practicality and efficiency
in renewable energy integration.

2. Configuration of Hybrid System

This study unveils a hybrid solar PV/wind system, an elegantly integrated framework
that marries the advantages of solar and wind energy to facilitate consistent and efficient
power production. The solar facet is composed of photovoltaic panels that efficiently con-
vert sunlight into electrical power. A boost converter then optimizes this power, enhancing
the voltage from the solar array, as detailed in reference [22]. The subsequent DC output is
converted to AC through a precise DC–AC inverter, maintaining a power factor of one. This
AC is then conditioned through a transformer to meet grid voltage standards, as outlined
in reference [23].
Parallel to this, the wind component is built around a doubly fed induction generator
(DFIG), a system favored for its efficiency and versatility in harnessing wind energy, as cited
in reference [24]. The DFIG integrates a pair of back-to-back converters—the rotor-side
converter (RSC) and the grid-side converter (GSC)—which are pivotal in achieving optimal
energy conversion and facilitating grid integration. The GSC is particularly crucial for
maintaining a stable DC-link voltage and for its ability to supply reactive power to the grid,
therefore improving the system’s overall power factor.
 Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 47

Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 optimal energy conversion and facilitating grid integration. The GSC is particularly 3cru- of 44
cial for maintaining a stable DC-link voltage and for its ability to supply reactive power
to the grid, therefore improving the system’s overall power factor.
AsAsdepicted
depictedininFigure
Figure1,1,each
each element
element ofof the
the system
system plays
plays an
an integral
integralrole:
role:the
thesolar
solar
array employs MPPT technology to maximize power output under variable
array employs MPPT technology to maximize power output under variable solar conditions, solar condi-
tions,the
while while the DFIG-based
DFIG-based wind subsystem
wind subsystem is adept atisadapting
adept attoadapting
changingtowind
changing wind
speeds. The
speeds. The RSC is tasked with maximizing energy extraction, and the GSC is
RSC is tasked with maximizing energy extraction, and the GSC is responsible for ensuring responsible
for ensuring
smooth smooth gridand
grid integration integration
voltageand voltageThis
stability. stability. This cohesive
cohesive strategy strategy
not onlynot only
bolsters
bolsters efficiency but also secures a reliable and uniform power supply, making
efficiency but also secures a reliable and uniform power supply, making it suitable for it suita-
ble for applications.
diverse diverse applications.

Figure1.1.Diagram
Figure Diagramofofaahybrid
hybridPV/wind
PV/wind energy
energy system
systemintegrated
integratedwith
withthe
thegrid.
grid.

Thesubsequent
The subsequentsections
sectionswill
will delve
delve into
into the
the modeling,
modeling, operational
operationalperformance,
performance,and
and
controlstrategies
control strategiesofofthis
this hybrid
hybrid system.
system. TheThe intricate
intricate cooperation
cooperation between
between thethe
PVPV mod-
modules,
ules,generator,
wind wind generator,
power power converters,
converters, andrespective
and their their respective
controlcontrol methodologies
methodologies un-
underpins
derpins this pioneering energy solution, marking an important step toward sustainable
this pioneering energy solution, marking an important step toward sustainable and reliable
and reliable
power power generation.
generation.

3.3.Description
Descriptionof ofPhotovoltaic
PhotovoltaicSystemSystem Configuration
Configuration
Thisstudy
This studyexplores
exploresaamultifaceted
multifaceted photovoltaic
photovoltaic (PV)
(PV) system
system intricately
intricatelydesigned
designedtoto
harness solar energy effectively. The system initiates the energy conversion processprocess
harness solar energy effectively. The system initiates the energy conversion through
PVthrough
panels,PV panels,
which whichsunlight
capture capture sunlight
and convertand convert it into electrical
it into electrical power. power.
These These
panels
panels
play play a role,
a pivotal pivotal role, are
as they as they are the primary
the primary interfaceinterface
with the with the renewable
renewable energyenergy
source.
source. Following
Following the initialthe initial conversion,
conversion, the electrical
the electrical output,output,
primarilyprimarily
in DC in DC undergoes
form, form, un-
dergoes
voltage voltage regulation
regulation via a boost via converter.
a boost converter. This critical
This critical component
component elevates
elevates the volt-to
the voltage
anage to an optimal
optimal level, ensuring
level, ensuring that the that
powerthedelivery
power delivery is both efficient
is both efficient and consistent
and consistent with the
with the
system system requirements.
requirements. A crucial transition
A crucial transition from DC to from
ACDC to AC
power power is managed
is managed by a DC–ACby
a DC–AC
inverter. Thisinverter.
stage is This
vital stage is vital forsolar
for integrating integrating solar
energy into energy power
standard into standard
grids orpower
for use
ingrids or for use inapplications.
AC-dependent AC-dependent Theapplications. The inverter engineered
inverter is meticulously is meticulously engineered
to maintain to
a unity
power factor, signifying efficient and reliable conversion without unnecessary power loss.
An additional aspect of the system is the employment of a transformer. This device adapts
the output voltage from the inverter, aligning it with the requirements of the power grid or
the end-use application. This step is essential for the safe and effective distribution of the
generated power. At the core of the system’s efficiency is the array of control techniques
 maintain a unity power factor, signifying efficient and reliable conversion without unnec-
essary power loss. An additional aspect of the system is the employment of a transformer.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 This device adapts the output voltage from the inverter, aligning it with the requirements 4 of 44
of the power grid or the end-use application. This step is essential for the safe and effective
distribution of the generated power. At the core of the system’s efficiency is the array of
control techniques
employed. employed.
These techniques areThese techniques
designed are designed
to maximize to maximize
power extraction, retain power extrac-
an optimal
tion, retain an optimal power factor, and modulate the system’s response
power factor, and modulate the system’s response to changing operational conditions. to changing op-
erational conditions. Of particular importance is maximum power
Of particular importance is maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technology, which point tracking (MPPT)
technology, adjusts
dynamically which dynamically
the operation adjusts
of the the
PV operation
modules to ofensure
the PVmaximum
modules to ensure
power maxi-
output
mum varying
under power output under varying
environmental environmental
conditions, conditions,
including changes including
in sunlight and changes in sun-
temperature.
lightcomprehensive
This and temperature. PVThis comprehensive
system not only focusesPV system
on thenot only focuses
conversion andon the conversion
enhancement of
and enhancement of solar energy but also places significant emphasis
solar energy but also places significant emphasis on the control and regulation aspects. on the control and
regulation
Each aspects.
component, Each
from component,
the solar panelsfrom the boost
to the solar panels to the
converter andboost converterinverter,
the DC–AC and the
isDC–AC
analyzedinverter, is analyzed
for optimal for optimal
performance, performance,
ensuring ensuring
the system the at
operates system
peak operates
efficiencyat
peak efficiency
regardless regardless
of external of external
factors factors
[22,23]. The [22,23]. The configuration’s
configuration’s detailed designdetailed design
and strategic
and strategic
component component
integration integration
highlight highlight the
the meticulous meticulous
approach toward approach
optimizing towardsolaroptimiz-
energy
ing solar energy
conversion, conversion,
marking a significantmarking
stride ainsignificant
renewablestride
energyintechnology
renewableand energy technology
its application.
Figure
and its2application.
displays theFigure
comprehensive
2 displayssetup of the photovoltaic
the comprehensive setupsystem.
of the photovoltaic system.

Figure2.2.Diagram
Figure DiagramofofaaPV
PVenergy
energysystem
systemintegrated
integratedwith
withthe
thegrid.
grid.

3.1.
3.1.Photocell
PhotocellPanel
Panel
Typically,
Typically,thetheconceptual
conceptualmodelmodelofofaaphotovoltaic
photovoltaic(PV) (PV)system
systemisisrepresented
representedthroughthrough
an
anidealized
idealizedcircuit
circuitdiagram,
diagram,often
oftenillustrated
illustratedbybyaaPNPN
PNPNor orShockley
Shockleydiode,
diode,as asshown
showninin
Figure
Figure3.3.This
Thismodel
modelencompasses
encompassesseveralseveralkey
keycomponents:
components:aacurrent
currentsource
sourcethat thatreflects
reflects
the
the generation of current induced by sunlight and temperature variations, a diode in
generation of current induced by sunlight and temperature variations, a diode in re-
re-
verse
verse bias illustrating the P-N junction’s characteristic impedance, and intrinsic seriesand
bias illustrating the P-N junction’s characteristic impedance, and intrinsic series and
parallel
parallelresistances
resistancesthatthataccount
account forfor
energy dissipation
energy dissipation within thethe
within system
system[25]. TheThe
[25]. electrical
electri-
behavior of a PV
cal behavior of amodule is effectively
PV module modeled
is effectively to mirror
modeled the impact
to mirror of varying
the impact meteorologi-
of varying mete-
cal factors such as ambient temperature and solar irradiance [26]. By
orological factors such as ambient temperature and solar irradiance [26]. By employingemploying Kirchhoff’s
law of currents,
Kirchhoff’s lawone can derive
of currents, onethecan
mathematical expressions that
derive the mathematical accurately
expressions characterize
that accurately
the current–voltage (I–V) relationship under different operational conditions
characterize the current–voltage (I–V) relationship under different operational conditions [27,28].
The photovoltaic cell’s functionality is encapsulated in a simplified single-diode model,
[27,28].
as illustrated in Figure 3 [29]. Central to this model is the photogenerated current, which
is contingent upon both solar irradiance and ambient temperature variations. A diode
characterizes the inherent non-linearity of the P-N junction, while resistances in series and
parallel capture the cell’s resistive loss characteristics. The ensuing equations succinctly rep-
resent the photovoltaic cell’s electrical output, showcasing its sensitivity to the surrounding
environmental conditions [30–32].
The output current I, as delineated in these equations, is a composite function that
includes the photogenerated current I ph , and considers the influences of series resistance
Rs , the number of cells in series Ns , and the ideality factor A, alongside the thermal voltage
Vt .

V + Rs · I (V + R s · I )
    
I pv = Np · I ph − Irs · exp −1 − (1)
A·Vt · Ns Rsh
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 5 of 44

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Here, I ph is formulated by adding the temperature coefficient k i to the nominal 5short-
of 47

circuit current Iscn , then adjusting for the actual temperature T and irradiance G.

Figure 3. Basic
Figure 3. Basic equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit diagram
diagram of
of aa single-diode
single-diode photovoltaic
photovoltaic module.
module.
Temperature profoundly affects the saturation current Irs , altering it based on the cubic
The photovoltaic
temperature ratio and an cell’s functionality
exponential factorisinfluenced
encapsulated in semiconductor’s
by the a simplified single-diode
bandgap
model, as illustrated in Figure 3 [29]. Central to
energy Eg . The cell’s thermal voltage Vt derives from a fundamentalthis model is the photogenerated current,
equation incorporating
which
the is contingent
Boltzmann constant upon both solar T,
k, temperature irradiance and ambient
and the electron chargetemperature
q. Furthermore,variations.
the shunt A
diode characterizes the inherent non-linearity of the P-N junction, while
current Ish is determined by the photovoltaic voltage and the series resistance Rs , divided resistances in se-
riesthe
by and parallel
shunt captureRthe. cell’s resistive loss characteristics. The ensuing equations suc-
resistance sh
cinctly represent
The significance the photovoltaic
of each parameter cell’s electrical output, showcasing its sensitivity to the
is as follows:
surrounding environmental conditions [30–32].
• I pv : The current output from the PV generator.
The output current 𝐼 , as delineated in these equations, is a composite function that
• Irs : The temperature-dependent saturation current of the diode.
•includes the photogenerated
I ph : The current induced currentby photon 𝐼 ,absorption.
and considers the influences of series resistance
𝑅 , the number of cells in series 𝑁 , and the ideality factor 𝐴, alongside the thermal volt-
• Ish : The current flowing through the shunt resistance.
age 𝑉 .
• Iscn : The benchmark short-circuit current at standard test conditions.
• k i : The current’s response coefficient to temperature 𝑉 + 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐼 variations. (𝑉 + 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐼)
𝐼 = 𝑁 ⋅ 𝐼 − 𝐼 ⋅ (𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 1) − (1)
• k: The Boltzmann constant. 𝐴⋅𝑉 ⋅𝑁 𝑅
• q: The charge of an electron.
Here, 𝐼 is formulated by adding the temperature coefficient 𝑘 to the nominal
• A: The quality factor of the diode, also known as the ideality factor.
•short-circuit 𝐼 , then adjusting for the actual temperature 𝑇 and irradiance 𝐺.
current voltage.
Vt : The thermal
• Np and Ns : The number of affects
Temperature profoundly modules theconnected
saturation in current 𝐼 , altering
parallel and it basedinon
cells connected the
series,
cubicrespectively.
temperature ratio and an exponential factor influenced by the semiconductor’s
•bandgap energy
Irs0 : The 𝐸 saturation
rated . The cell’scurrent
thermal at voltage
a reference𝑉 derives from a fundamental equation
temperature.
•incorporating the Boltzmann constant 𝑘, temperature
Eg : The bandgap energy of the semiconductor material used. 𝑇, and the electron charge 𝑞. Fur-
•thermore, the shunt current 𝐼
Rs and Rsh : The inherent series and shunt resistances within thevoltage
is determined by the photovoltaic and the series
PV module.
resistance 𝑅 , divided by the shunt resistance 𝑅 .
The characteristics and specifications of the photovoltaic system are delineated in
The significance of each parameter is as follows:
Table 1. Illustrated in Figure 4 are the current–voltage (I–V) and power–voltage (P–V)
•
curves 𝐼 of: The current output
the photovoltaic from
array, the PV
which weregenerator.
determined through simulation under various
• 𝐼 : The
conditions oftemperature-dependent
solar irradiance. saturation current of the diode.
• 𝐼 : The current induced by photon absorption.
•
Table 𝐼1. :Attributes
The currentand flowing
performance metrics
through theofshunt
the photovoltaic
resistance.module.
• 𝐼 : The benchmark short-circuit current at standard test conditions.
Attribute Details
• 𝑘 : The current’s response coefficient to temperature variations.
• 𝑘: TheStrings of series
Boltzmann modules
constant. 10
Number of parallel strings 40
• 𝑞: The charge of an electron.
Model of Solar Module 1Soltech 1STH-215P
• 𝐴: The quality factor
Peak power of the diode, also known as the ideality213.5
capacity factor.
• 𝑉 : The Voltage
thermalatvoltage.
peak power 29
• 𝑁 andCurrent 𝑁 : Theat number
peak power of modules connected in parallel and 7.35cells connected in se-
Maximum circuit current
ries, respectively. 7.84
• Voltage when open-circuited
𝐼 : The rated saturation current at a reference temperature. 36.3
• 𝐸 : The bandgap energy of the semiconductor material used.
• 𝑅 and 𝑅 : The inherent series and shunt resistances within the PV module.
 Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 47

The characteristics and specifications of the photovoltaic system are delineated in Ta-
ble 1. Illustrated in Figure 4 are the current–voltage (I–V) and power–voltage (P–V) curves
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 6 of 44
of the photovoltaic array, which were determined through simulation under various con-
ditions of solar irradiance.

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure4.4.Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic cellcell
performance: (a) current–voltage
performance: and (b) power–voltage
(a) current–voltage relationships
and (b) power–voltage relationships
across different solar irradiance levels.
across different solar irradiance levels.
Table 1. Attributes and performance metrics of the photovoltaic module.
3.2. MPPT
In the study Attribute
detailed herein, a DC–DC conversionDetails mechanism is utilized for maxi-
mum power pointseries
Strings of modules
tracking (MPPT). Owing to the relatively 10 low voltage output of the
photovoltaic (PV) system, which requires amplification for40
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Number of parallel strings
effective conversion to AC via
7 of 47
Model of Solar Module 1Soltech 1STH-215P
a DC–AC inverter, the chosen converter design elevates the PV array’s voltage to a more
Peak power capacity 213.5
suitable level. This conversion process is characterized by minimal ripple current at the
Voltage at peak power 29
PV interface, ensuring a smoother operation [33]. The integration of the DC–DC boost
PV interface,Current
ensuringat peak power operation [33]. The integration
a smoother 7.35 of the DC–DC boost
converterMaximum
with
converter with
the PV assembly
the PV circuit current
assembly
is illustrated in Figure 5. The
7.84modulation
is illustrated in Figure 5. The modulation
of the duty cycle
of the duty cycle
withinthis
within this system
Voltage
system is is
when governedby byan an
open-circuited
governed MPPT
MPPT controller
controller thatthat operates
36.3 on the
operates onprinciples
the principles
of of the
MPC algorithm.
the MPC algorithm.
3.2. MPPT
In the study detailed herein, a DC–DC conversion mechanism is utilized for maxi-
mum power point tracking (MPPT). Owing to the relatively low voltage output of the
photovoltaic (PV) system, which requires amplification for effective conversion to AC via
a DC–AC inverter, the chosen converter design elevates the PV array’s voltage to a more
suitable level. This conversion process is characterized by minimal ripple current at the

Figure
Figure5. 5.
Photovoltaic panel
Photovoltaic coupled
panel with with
coupled a boost converter
a boost configuration.
converter configuration.

The boost converter’s primary role within the photovoltaic system is to escalate the
output voltage from the solar panels, which in turn has a proportional impact on the
power yield. Illustrated in Figure 6 is the schematic of the boost converter, which is com-
posed of key components such as an inductor, diode, switch (transistor), and capacitor.
By applying the principles of Kirchhoff’s circuit laws, the operational dynamics of the
converter can be captured through a set of equations [33]:
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 7 of 44
Figure 5. Photovoltaic panel coupled with a boost converter configuration.

Theboost
The boostconverter’s
converter’s primary
primary role
role within
within the
the photovoltaic
photovoltaic system
system is
is to
toescalate
escalatethe
the
outputvoltage
output voltagefrom
fromthethe solar
solar panels,
panels, which
which in turn
in turn has ahas a proportional
proportional impactimpact on the
on the power
powerIllustrated
yield. yield. Illustrated
in Figurein6Figure 6 is the schematic
is the schematic of the
of the boost boost converter,
converter, which iswhich is com-
composed of
posed
key of key components
components such as an such as andiode,
inductor, inductor,
switchdiode, switch and
(transistor), (transistor),
capacitor.and
By capacitor.
applying
By principles
the applying the principles circuit
of Kirchhoff’s of Kirchhoff’s
laws, thecircuit laws, dynamics
operational the operational dynamicscan
of the converter of the
be
converterthrough
captured can be captured through a[33]:
a set of equations set of equations [33]:

Figure6.6.Boost
Figure Boostconverter
converterconfiguration.
configuration.

Although
Although the switch
switch isisengaged
engaged(S(S = 1),
= 1), thethe
raterate of change
of change in voltage
in voltage acrossacross the
the capac-
capacitor is described
itor is described byequation:
by the the equation:

dVC𝑑𝑉 VC𝑉(t(𝑡)
)
C2 𝐶 2𝑑𝑡= = −− 2 𝑅 (2)
(2)
dt R
Conversely, when the switch is disengaged (S = 0), the change is given by:
Conversely, when the switch is disengaged (S = 0), the change is given by:
𝑑𝑉 𝑉 (𝑡)
𝐶C
dV = 𝐼 (𝑡) − V (t) (3)
2𝑑𝑡
= I pv (t) − 2 𝑅
C
C2 (3)
dt R
The duty cycle (D) of the converter is then defined as:
The duty cycle (D) of the converter is then defined as:

Vpv (k)
D = 1− (4)
VC2 (k)

Hence, the voltage across the capacitor can be calculated using the relation:

1
VC2 (k) = ·Vpv (k) (5)
1−D
where
• VPV : Voltage generated by the photovoltaic system;
• IPV : Current produced by the photovoltaic system;
• VC2 : Voltage across the capacitance in the boost converter, representing the output
voltage target for the boost converter;
• C2 : Capacitance within the boost converter circuit.
In examining the electrical properties of the DC—DC boost converter, Table 2 succinctly
outlines the critical parameters.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 8 of 44

Table 2. DC–DC boost converter parameters.

Attribute Details
Inductance 0.002
Capacitance 0.00025

3.3. MPPT MPC

The analytical exploration of the BOOST converter has yielded a set of equations that
delineate the relationship between certain inputs and their corresponding outputs. This
relationship is encapsulated in the equation below [33]:

dVpv (t)
i pv (t) = C1 · + i L (t) (6)
dt
Applying Euler’s method for the discretization of derivatives present in Equations (2),
(3), and (6), they can be approximated by the finite difference formula [34]:

dx (t) X ( k + 1) − X ( k )
= (7)
dt TS

where
• X: represents the parameter subject to discretization.
• TS : denotes the sampling period.
• k: signifies the discrete time steps.
The actual current expression is contingent on the switch state (ON or OFF), leading
to the derivation of the following equations:
When the switch is ON (S = 1):

dVpv (t)
i L (t) = i pv (t) − C1 · (8)
dt
And when the switch is OFF (S = 0):

dVC2 (t) VC2 (t)

i L (t) = C2 · + (9)
dt R
During the OFF state of the switch:
 
TS T
VC2 (k + 1) = · I pv (k) + VC2 (k)· 1 − S (10)
C2 C2 · R
  
T T
Vpv (k + 1) = (1 − D )· S · I pv (k) + VC2 (k )· 1 − S (11)
C2 C2 · R
Conversely, during the ON state of the switch:
 
T
VC2 (k + 1) = VC2 (k)· 1 − S (12)
C2 · R
  
T
Vpv (k + 1) = (1 − D ) VC2 (k ) 1 − S (13)
C2 · R
Upon establishing these equations, it is possible to configure the model predictive
control (MPC) algorithm for maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The intricacies of the
MPC algorithm are detailed in Figure 7. Furthermore, the optimization within the MPC
 𝐶 ⋅𝑅

𝑇
𝑉 (𝑘 + 1) = (1 − 𝐷) 𝑉 (𝑘) 1 − (13)
𝐶 ⋅𝑅
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 Upon establishing these equations, it is possible to configure the model predictive 9 of 44
control (MPC) algorithm for maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The intricacies of
the MPC algorithm are detailed in Figure 7. Furthermore, the optimization within the
MPC framework
framework is guided
is guided by function,
by a cost a cost function, as in
as shown shown in Equation
Equation (14),aims
(14), which which aims to
to minimize
minimize
the discrepancy between the projected voltage and a predefined reference voltage: volt-
the discrepancy between the projected voltage and a predefined reference
age:
∼
gS𝑔∈{∈{ = V𝑉pv ((𝑘
0,1,} }= k++ 11)
)S∈{
∈{ 0,1 −𝑉Vre f(𝑘)
, }}− (k) (14)
(14)

Figure
Figure7.7.Design
Designofofthe
theMPPT
MPPTcontroller
controlleralgorithm
algorithmutilizing
utilizingthe
theMPC
MPCapproach.
approach.

3.4. Stability of MPPT MPC “Lyapunov”

3.4.1. Selection of the Lyapunov Function
Lyapunov’s direct approach is applied to secure the stability of the boost converter
system. A Lyapunov function, denoted as V(k), is conceived to reflect the system’s energy
status at the k-th interval, predominantly predicated on the capacitive energy. The func-
tion is expressed as V(k) = 21 C2 VC22 (k), which capitalizes on the intrinsic energy storage
characteristic of capacitor C2 .
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 10 of 44

3.4.2. Affirmation of Lyapunov Function’s Positivity

Inherently, due to its quadratic formulation in terms of capacitor voltage, the Lyapunov
function maintains a positive value V(k ) > 0 across all k except when VC2 (k) = 0, signifying
the system’s state of balance.

3.4.3. Determination of the Lyapunov Function’s Discrete Differential

The discrete variation of the Lyapunov function denoted as ∆V (k), is evaluated under
the converter’s ON and OFF states. In the ON state, this differential is ascertained from
the system dynamics as outlined in Equation (15). During the OFF state, the system’s
dynamics per Equation (13) are incorporated, recognizing the photovoltaic current I pv (k)
as a contributing factor.

3.4.4. Criterion for the Non-Positive Differential

To meet stability criteria, it is imperative that ∆V (k ) does not exceed zero for any k.
The analysis involves simplifying and inspecting both ∆VON (k) and ∆VOFF (k), affirming
their non-positivity, which guarantees the system’s trajectory will not result in an increased
V(k ), therefore upholding stability under both operational states.

3.4.5. Global Stability Overview

Upon ensuring stability within each discrete mode, a comprehensive assessment
of the system’s global stability is conducted. This assessment takes into account the
interplay between modal transitions, which is dictated by the control methodology and the
modulation of the duty cycle D. The cost function, gS∈{0,1} , is instrumental in steering the
system towards decisions that favor stability.

3.4.6. Cost Function’s Role in Promoting Stability

Lastly, the focus shifts to the optimization of the cost function, which is instrumental
in aligning the system operations with the pre-set reference voltage Vre f . The minimization
of this cost function is pivotal, as it aids in the global stabilization of the system by ensuring
that the operational point converges towards the targeted reference, solidifying the system’s
overall stability.

3.5. DC/AC Inverter Control Strategy

This research integrates the photovoltaic assembly with the public power network
through a tri-phase DC–AC voltage source inverter (VSI). The chosen VSI for exploration,
a bi-level, tri-phase model, is depicted in the provided diagram (refer to Figure 8). The
conversion of energy from DC to AC is accomplished through gate signals labeled a, a’,
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 47
b, b’, c, and c’, which correspond to the actuation of six power semiconductor switches
(S1–S6) within the VSI configuration.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. DC–AC
DC–AC inverter.
inverter.

The DC–AC
The DC–AC voltage
voltage source
source inverter
inverter is
is crucial
crucial in
in the
the infrastructure
infrastructure ofof grid-tied
grid-tied PV
PV
systems, overseeing
systems, overseeing the
the transformation
transformation and
and dispatch
dispatch ofof energy
energy into
into the
the utility
utility grid.
grid. The
The
essence of this research lies in the VSI’s control strategy, aiming to fulfill several targets:
enhancing the power factor to approximate unity, managing the flow of active power into
the grid efficiently, and maintaining the DC-bus voltage within the desired range. A so-
phisticated control mechanism, as shown in Figure 9, has been engineered to meet these
control endpoints.
 Figure 8. DC–AC inverter.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 11 of 44
The DC–AC voltage source inverter is crucial in the infrastructure of grid-tied PV
systems, overseeing the transformation and dispatch of energy into the utility grid. The
essence of this research lies in the VSI’s control strategy, aiming to fulfill several targets:
essence of this research lies in the VSI’s control strategy, aiming to fulfill several targets:
enhancing the power factor to approximate unity, managing the flow of active power into
enhancing the power factor to approximate unity, managing the flow of active power
the
intogrid efficiently,
the grid and and
efficiently, maintaining the DC-bus
maintaining voltage
the DC-bus within
voltage the the
within desired range.
desired A so-
range. A
phisticated
sophisticated control mechanism, as shown in Figure 9, has been engineered to meet these
control mechanism, as shown in Figure 9, has been engineered to meet these
control endpoints.
control endpoints.

Figure 9. MPC+PSO-controlled
Figure 9. MPC+PSO-controlled DC–AC
DC–AC inverter
inverter system
system configuration.
configuration.

Within this
thiscontroller
controllerarchitecture
architecturelies
lies
anan outer
outer looploop focused
focused on voltage
on voltage regulation
regulation and
and an inner
an inner loop dedicated
loop dedicated to current
to current modulation.
modulation. This dual-loop
This dual-loop control framework
control framework ensures
ensures
that the that the photovoltaic
photovoltaic system performs
system performs at its
at its peak peak efficacy
efficacy and stability
and stability when in-
when interfaced
terfaced
with the with the grid infrastructure.
grid infrastructure.
As illustrated in Figure 9, the schematic outlines the proposed control methodology
for the
the inverter.
inverter. Its
Itschief
chiefaims
aimsare thethe
are stabilization
stabilizationof DC-link
of DC-link voltage, the the
voltage, meticulous ad-
meticulous
ministration
administration of real
of realpower
power delivery, andand
delivery, thethe
establishment
establishment of aofunity power
a unity factor
power at the
factor at
the Point
Point of Common
of Common Coupling
Coupling (PCC).
(PCC). Noteworthyisisthis
Noteworthy thismethod’s
method’sprovision
provision forfor isolated
control and its swift response to dynamic changes, changes, asas highlighted
highlighted inin the
the literature
literature [35].
[35].

3.6. MPC
3.6. MPC Controller
Controller for
for DC–AC
DC–AC Inverter
Inverter
3.6.1. Model Predictive Control Implementation
3.6.1. Model Predictive Control Implementation
In this work, we unveil a model predictive control (MPC) strategy tailored for the DC–
In this work, we unveil a model predictive control (MPC) strategy tailored for the
AC inverter module. The framework of the MPC is articulated through the mathematical
DC–AC inverter module. The framework of the MPC is articulated through the mathe-
models delineated in Equations (15) and (16):
matical models delineated in Equations (15) and (16):
did𝑑𝑖
v𝑣dinv ==v𝑣 ·id⋅ +
d ++RR 𝑖 L L − ωLi
+ dt − ωL𝑖
q (15)
(15)
𝑑𝑡
diq
vqinv = vq + R·iq + L + ωLid (16)
dt
These foundational equations evolve into:

did 1
R
= v − vd − id + ωiq (17)
dt L dinv L
diq 1
R
= vqinv − vq − iq − ωid (18)
dt L L
Applying the MPC method transforms these equations as follows:

Ts
RTs
Id (k + 1) = Id (k) + Vdinv (k ) − Vd (k) − I (k) + ωTs Iq (k) (19)
L L d
Ts
RTs
Iq (k + 1) = Iq (k) + Vqinv (k ) − Vq (k) − Iq (k) − ωTs Id (k ) (20)
L L
 Applying the MPC method transforms these equations as follows:
𝑇 𝑅𝑇
𝐼 (𝑘 + 1) = 𝐼 (𝑘) + 𝑉 (𝑘) − 𝑉 (𝑘) − 𝐼 (𝑘) + ω𝑇 𝐼 (𝑘) (19)
𝐿 𝐿
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 𝑇 𝑅𝑇 12 of 44
𝐼 (𝑘 + 1) = 𝐼 (𝑘) + 𝑉 (𝑘) − 𝑉 (𝑘) − 𝐼 (𝑘) − ω𝑇 𝐼 (𝑘) (20)
𝐿 𝐿
The cost function proposed to steer the optimization is expressed as:
The cost function proposed to steer the optimization is expressed as:
J = 𝐼 (𝑘) − 𝐼 (𝑘 + 1)2 +
 𝐼 (𝑘) − 𝐼 (𝑘 + 1)2 (21)
J = Idre f (k) − Id (k + 1) + Iqre f (k) − Iq (k + 1) (21)

3.6.2. MPC
3.6.2. MPC Optimization
Optimization with withPSO PSO
Theparticle
The particleswarm
swarm optimization
optimization (PSO) (PSO) algorithm,
algorithm, introduced
introduced by by Kennedy
Kennedy andand Eber-
Eber-
hart,isisbased
hart, basedon onthetheprinciples
principles of of swarm
swarm intelligence
intelligence [36].
[36]. It has
It has demonstrated
demonstrated effective-
effectiveness
ness
in in rapidly
rapidly pinpointing
pinpointing extremeextreme
valuesvalues and global
and global minima minima
within within
a searcha space,
searcheven
space, even
with a
with a limited number of iterations. PSO’s robustness to initial conditions
limited number of iterations. PSO’s robustness to initial conditions and its ability to discern and its ability
to discern
both local andboth localoptima
global and globalmakes optima makes itvaluable
it particularly particularly valuableoptimization
for complex for complextasks,
opti-
mization tasks,
including including
those within thethose
realmwithin
of MPC. the realm of MPC.
MPC’s primary
MPC’s primary aim aim is
is to
to minimize
minimize aa predefined
predefined objective
objective function
function across a set hori-
hori-
zon, considering
zon, considering both boththethesystem’s
system’sdynamics
dynamicsand andconstraints.
constraints. The Theobjective
objective function
function can
can
encapsulatevarious
encapsulate various control
control aspirations,
aspirations, suchsuch asas error
error minimization,
minimization, energy
energy conservation,
conservation,
orcost
or costefficiency.
efficiency.
In
Inthe
thecontext
contextof ofMPC,
MPC,PSO PSOoperates
operatesby byemulating
emulatingaagroup groupof ofparticles.
particles.Each
Eachparticle
particle
in
in this
this group
groupsignifies
signifiesaapotential
potentialsolution
solutionfor forvoltage
voltagereferences.
references. TheTheparticles
particlesadvance
advance
towards
towards the the most
most optimal
optimal solution
solution by byconsidering
considering both boththeir
theirpersonal
personalbest
bestperformance
performance
(local
(localbest)
best)and
andthe
thebest
bestfound
foundby bythetheentire
entiregroup
group(global
(globalbest).
best). The
The process
processofof adjustment
adjustment
and
and movement for each particle is governed by a fitness function, influencing both
movement for each particle is governed by a fitness function, influencing both their
their
velocity and position within the solution space with each iteration
velocity and position within the solution space with each iteration of Figure 10. of Figure 10.

Figure10.
Figure 10. Process
Processdiagram
diagramof
ofPSO.
PSO.

3.6.3. Stability Analysis of DC–AC Inverter Control System

To ascertain the stability of the DC–AC inverter control system that employs a model
predictive control (MPC) approach, we undertake a methodical procedure underpinned
by Lyapunov’s theorem. The theorem’s applicability hinges on identifying an appropriate
Lyapunov function which must be inherently positive and whose derivative along the
system’s trajectories is non-positive.
The system under consideration is defined by discretized Equations (19) and (20) for
the direct and quadrature currents Id and Iq , respectively. We also have a cost function
J articulated in Equation (21), which is instrumental in generating a control action that
minimizes the cost.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 13 of 44

A. Proposition of a Lyapunov Function: For the given system, we propose a Lyapunov

function rooted in the stored energy within the inductances, corresponding to the
sum of the squares of the currents Id and Iq :
 
1  2 
V (k) = L Id (k) + Iq2 (k) (22)
2

B. Affirmation of Function Positivity: It is evident that V(k) is positive across all Id (k)
and Iq (k) values, as it constitutes a sum of squares of these current components.
C. Calculation of the Lyapunov Function Difference: The change in the Lyapunov
function, ∆V (k), is expressed as:

[∆V (k) = V (k + 1) − V (k)] (23)

 
1 h   i
∆V (k) = L Id (k + 1)2 − Id (k)2 + Iq (k + 1)2 − Iq (k)2 (24)
2
Implementing Equations (19) and (20), we articulate Id (k + 1) and Iq (k + 1) within the
difference expression to derive ∆V (k ).
D. Verification of Non-Positive Difference: The subsequent step involves demonstrating
that ∆V (k) remains non-positive for all k.
A negative ∆V (k) suggests that the Lyapunov function V(k) is diminishing over time,
signaling the system’s stability.
E. Correlation of Cost Function to Stability: The cost function J aims to minimize the
discrepancy between
 the
 predicted
 currents
 Id (k + 1) and Iq (k + 1) and their reference
counterparts Idre f (k) and Iqre f (k) . Theoretically, perfect minimization at each
step should steer the system towards the reference values, suggesting stability in
terms of error convergence towards zero.
Precision in this analysis mandates an explicit computation of ∆V (k) using the pro-
vided equations, followed by a mathematical verification that this quantity is consistently
non-positive, irrespective of the control action rendered by the MPC methodology. Sat-
isfying this condition through rigorous validation establishes Lyapunov stability for the
system.

4. Description of Wind System Configuration

The doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) system anchors the architecture of modern
wind turbines and is heralded for its advanced design that effectively captures wind
energy for electrical conversion. Its market prominence is attributed to the system’s ability
to allow variable speed operation and its efficient energy modulation, facilitated by a
dual-winding rotor design within the induction generator. One winding connects directly
to the grid, promoting an uninterrupted flow of electricity, while the other interfaces
through a sophisticated set of power electronics converters, namely the rotor-side converter
(RSC) and the grid-side converter (GSC), as elaborated in reference [24]. The GSC is
particularly critical in the DFIG configuration. It meticulously manages the direct current
(DC) voltage across the DC link, a vital aspect that ensures the RSC is supplied with a
stable voltage. This regulation is essential for harmonizing the power exported to the grid
by the generator. Additionally, the GSC’s control mechanism is adept at enhancing grid
stability by providing necessary reactive power compensation, therefore enriching the
power quality and improving the system’s power factor. The DFIG’s innovative capacity
lies in its variable speed operation enabled by the RSC, which adeptly modulates the
rotor’s extracted power. This modulation is responsive to the fluctuating nature of wind
speeds, optimizing the generator’s output for a range of wind conditions. A transformer is
judiciously incorporated within the system to align the generated power’s voltage with
that of the Point of Common Coupling (PCC), thus ensuring a seamless integration of
 the power quality and improving the system’s power factor. The DFIG’s innovative ca-
pacity lies in its variable speed operation enabled by the RSC, which adeptly modulates
the rotor’s extracted power. This modulation is responsive to the fluctuating nature of
wind speeds, optimizing the generator’s output for a range of wind conditions. A trans-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 14 of 44
former is judiciously incorporated within the system to align the generated power’s volt-
age with that of the Point of Common Coupling (PCC), thus ensuring a seamless integra-
tion of wind-generated electricity into the grid’s existing infrastructure. The integration of
wind-generated
this wind systemelectricity into the grid’s
with a photovoltaic (PV)existing
setup andinfrastructure.
the grid posesThe integration ofchal-
a sophisticated this
wind system with a photovoltaic (PV) setup and the grid poses a sophisticated
lenge due to the intermittent nature of both wind and solar resources. The study, shown challenge
due to the intermittent nature of both wind and solar resources. The study, shown in
in Figure 11, presents a system that is robust and adaptable enough to accommodate the
Figure 11, presents a system that is robust and adaptable enough to accommodate the
variability of wind speeds while ensuring smooth grid integration. Advanced control
variability of wind speeds while ensuring smooth grid integration. Advanced control
strategies like the model predictive control (MPC) and particle swarm optimization (PSO)
strategies like the model predictive control (MPC) and particle swarm optimization (PSO)
algorithms are employed to finely tune the performance of both the DFIG and the PV
algorithms are employed to finely tune the performance of both the DFIG and the PV
systems. MPC utilizes a predictive model of the system’s behavior to optimize the control
systems. MPC utilizes a predictive model of the system’s behavior to optimize the control
inputs proactively, while PSO optimizes the system’s operational parameters by simulat-
inputs proactively, while PSO optimizes the system’s operational parameters by simulating
ing the social dynamics observed in natural swarms. The interaction between the wind
the social dynamics observed in natural swarms. The interaction between the wind and
and PV systems, particularly when coupled with the grid, necessitates a delicate balance.
PV systems, particularly when coupled with the grid, necessitates a delicate balance. The
The integrated system must address the variability of the energy sources and the demand
integrated system must address the variability of the energy sources and the demand
response of the grid. Solutions include deploying energy storage to mitigate intermittence
response of the grid. Solutions include deploying energy storage to mitigate intermittence
and employing smart
and employing smart grid
gridtechnologies
technologiestotoensure
ensurethat the
that power
the power output
outputis consistent,
is consistent, re-
liable, and meets consumption demands. Thus, the study portrays a wind
reliable, and meets consumption demands. Thus, the study portrays a wind power system power system
that is
that is not
not only
only robust
robust and
and capable
capable of
of adjusting
adjusting to
to wind
wind variability
variability but
but also
also harmoniously
harmoniously
integrated with the grid and complementary PV systems. The
integrated with the grid and complementary PV systems. The DFIG, with its DFIG, with its advanced
advanced
converters and control strategies epitomized by the MPC and PSO algorithms,
converters and control strategies epitomized by the MPC and PSO algorithms, stands stands asasa
a testament to efficiency in wind energy generation, pointing to a sustainable
testament to efficiency in wind energy generation, pointing to a sustainable trajectory for trajectory
for renewable
renewable power
power technologies.
technologies.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Diagram
Diagram of
of aa wind
wind energy
energy system
system integrated
integratedwith
withthe
thegrid.
grid.

4.1. Overview
4.1. Overview of
of Wind
Wind Power
Power
4.1.1. Wind Energy Model
4.1.1. Wind Energy Model
The
The formula
formula presented
presented next
next defines
defines the
the power
power available
available from
from wind
wind under
under ideal
ideal flow
flow
conditions as found in the literature [37]:
conditions as found in the literature [37]:
11
P𝑃 = ·ρ
w = ⋅ρ 𝑆 w3⋅ 𝑉
·S⋅·V (25)
22
Wind power is intrinsically connected to the aerodynamic torque that acts upon the
turbine blades.
1
Paero = C p (λ, β)· ·ρ·S·Vw3 (26)
2
The power coefficient, C p , reflects the interplay between the turbine’s aerodynamic
design and its operational conditions. Holding the pitch angle β steady, the C p value is a
function of the tip speed ratio λ. When the pitch angle is adjustable, C p becomes a function
of both λ and β as discussed in [38]:

Ω· R
λ= (27)
Vw
 1
𝑃 = 𝐶 (λ, β) ⋅ ⋅ ρ ⋅ 𝑆 ⋅ 𝑉 (26)
2
The power coefficient, 𝐶 , reflects the interplay between the turbine’s aerodynamic
design and its operational conditions. Holding the pitch angle β steady, the 𝐶 value is
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 a function of the tip speed ratio λ. When the pitch angle is adjustable, 𝐶 becomes a15func-
of 44
tion of both λ and β as discussed in [38]:
Ω⋅𝑅
Within these expressions, Pw is the windλ = turbine’s harvested power, ρ stands for(27) air
𝑉
density, Vw is the wind velocity, Ω signifies the rotor’s angular velocity, and R is the blade
Within these expressions, 𝑃 is the wind turbine’s harvested power, ρ stands for air
length.
density, 𝑉 Betz
Albert is the wind velocity,
provided Ω signifies
a theoretical limit forthe
C p , rotor’s angular
which is cited asvelocity,
[34]: and R is the
blade length.
Albert Betz provided a theoretical max =for
C plimit 𝐶 , which is cited as [34]:
0.5926 (28)

𝐶
The formulation for aerodynamic torque=is0.5926
given by: (28)
The formulation for aerodynamic torquePaero is given by:
Ct = (29)
𝑃
Ω
𝐶 = (29)
The gearbox is essential in matching the turbine’sΩ rotational speed to the generator’s
The gearbox
requirements. is essential
Assuming therein
is matching the turbine’s
minimal energy rotational
dissipation, speed
rigidity, andto the generator’s
resistance within
requirements.
the gearbox, it isAssuming
representedthere is minimal
as follows [39]: energy dissipation, rigidity, and resistance
within the gearbox, it is represented as follows [39]:
Ωmec = Ω· G (30)
Ω =Ω⋅𝐺 (30)
Ct = Cg · G (31)
𝐶 =𝐶 ⋅𝐺 (31)
The core dynamical equation is as stated [40]:
The core dynamical equation is as stated [40]:
dΩmec
Tem = J· 𝑑Ω (32)
𝑇 = J ⋅ dt (32)
𝑑𝑡
An
An illustration
illustrationofof the
the wind
wind turbine’s
turbine’s aerodynamic
aerodynamic andand mechanical
mechanical design
design is
is provided
provided
in the block diagram shown in Figure
in the block diagram shown in Figure 12. 12.

Figure12.
Figure 12. Schematic
Schematic of
of the
the wind
wind turbine
turbinemodel.
model.

Our investigation
Our investigation into
into enhancing
enhancing energy
energy capture
captureefficiency
efficiencyhas hasled
ledus
us to
to examine
examine the
the
variable speed
variable speed control
controlwithin
within wind
wind turbines.
turbines. We
We introduce
introduce aa control
control mechanism
mechanism designed
designed
to optimize rotational velocity via the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique.
The primary aim is to achieve the most favorable wind power to capture power ratio by fine-
tuning the power coefficient (C p ). Utilizing a cruise control algorithm [41,42], the system
calculates the optimal rotational speed at peak torque C pmax by formulating a reference
electromagnetic torque through a proportional-integral (PI) controller. This strategy enables
us to accurately identify the best operational points for speed λopt and power coefficient
C pmax , thus setting the turbine’s reference rotational speed (Ω).
Figure 13 exhibits the MPPT control system block diagram incorporating mechanical
rotational speed regulation.
 to optimize rotational velocity via the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique.
The primary aim is to achieve the most favorable wind power to capture power ratio by
fine-tuning the power coefficient (𝐶 ). Utilizing a cruise control algorithm [41,42], the sys-
tem calculates the optimal rotational speed at peak torque 𝐶 by formulating a refer-
ence electromagnetic torque through a proportional-integral (PI) controller. This strategy
enables us to accurately identify the best operational points for speed λ and power
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 16 of 44
coefficient 𝐶 , thus setting the turbine’s reference rotational speed (Ω).
Figure 13 exhibits the MPPT control system block diagram incorporating mechanical
rotational speed regulation.

Figure 13. Schematic of the wind turbine model with MPPT.

Figure 13. Schematic of the wind turbine model with MPPT.
4.1.2. Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) Modeling
4.1.2. Doubly Fed Induction Generator
The DFIG (DFIG)
is conceptually akin Modeling
to an induction generator, with its modeling parallel-
ing the latter’s principles. The dynamic behavior of the DFIG in a three-phase system is
The DFIG is conceptually akin to an induction generator, with its modeling paralleling
captured using a rotating direct-quadrature (d-q) reference frame, which can be mathemat-
the latter’s principles.ically
Thedescribed
dynamic by thebehavior
following setof the DFIG
of equations, in a three-phase
as referenced in the literaturesystem
[43–45]: is cap-
tured using a rotating direct-quadrature (d-q) reference 𝑑ϕ frame, which can be mathematically
𝑉 =𝑅 𝐼 + −ω ϕ
described by the following set of equations, as referenced 𝑑𝑡 in the literature [43–45]:
𝑑ϕ
𝑉 =𝑅 𝐼 + +ω ϕ
dϕsd 𝑑𝑡
Vsd = Rs Isd + −𝑑ϕωs ϕsq
𝑉 = 𝑅dt𝐼 + −ω ϕ
𝑑𝑡
dϕsq 𝐼 + 𝑑ϕ + ω ϕ
Vsq = Rs Isq + 𝑉 = 𝑅 + ωs𝑑𝑡 ϕsd
dt
These equations align with the magnetic flux linkages for both the stator and rotor
circuits: dϕrd
Vrd = Rr Ird + − ωr ϕ
ϕ dt= L . I + Mrq I

dϕrq
Vrq = Rr Irq + + ωr ϕrd
dt
These equations align with the magnetic flux linkages for both the stator and rotor
circuits:
ϕsd = Ls ·Isd + MIrd
ϕsq = Ls ·Isq + MIrq
ϕrd = Lr ·Ird + MIsd
ϕrq = Lr ·Irq + MIsq
The approach involves synchronizing the stator flux with the d-axis of the rotating
frame, as per the following relations [46]:

ϕsd = ϕs = Ls · Isd + MIrd

ϕsq = 0 = Ls · Isq + MIrq

Subsequently, the current equations can be simplified as:

ϕs − MIrd
Isd =
Ls
M
Isq = − Irq
Ls
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 17 of 44

Considering ideal conditions where the stator resistance and stator voltage along the
d-axis are negligible, we have:
Vsd = 0, Rs = 0
Vsq = wϕs ,
The equations governing the rotor’s magnetic flux linkages, considering the influence
of the stator, are:
M2
 
MVs
ϕrd = Lr − Ird +
Ls Ls ws
M2
 
ϕrq = Lr − Irq
Ls
By integrating these flux equations into the original set, we derive the comprehensive
equations for the rotor voltages:
  2
  
dIrd M2
 Vrd = Rr · Ird + Lr − M · − ω r · L r − · Irq
  Ls dt   Ls
Vrq = Rr · Irq + Lr − M 2 dIrq M 2 M · ωr
Ls · dt − ωr · Lr − Ls · Ird + ϕs · Ls

Equations (22) through (29) encapsulate the dynamic characteristics of the DFIG,
illustrating the complex interactions between the stator and rotor circuits mediated by the
mutual inductance. They form the basis for the simulation and control of the DFIG in
various applications, particularly in wind power generation systems.

4.1.3. Rotor-Side Converter (RSC) Control in DFIG System

The rotor-side converter (RSC) plays a pivotal role in wind turbine systems employing
Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIGs). The primary objective of the RSC is to optimize
power output by adjusting the rotor’s speed so that it remains aligned with a predefined
reference value. This adjustment is essential to cope with the fluctuating nature of wind
speeds. The mathematical representation that governs the behavior of the RSC is provided
by the following equations [47]:
Vsd = −ωϕs
Vsq = 0


In these equations, (Vsd ) and Vsq are the d-axis and q-axis components of the stator
voltage in the rotating reference frame, and (ω) is the angular frequency of the rotor.
 
dIrd M
Vrd = Rr Ird + ALr − Aωr Irq Lr + ωr ϕqs
dt Ls

dIrq
Vrq = Rr Irq + ALr + Aωr Ird Lr
dt


Here, (Vrd ) and Vrq refer to the d-axis and q-axis components of the rotor voltage.
( Rr ) is the rotor resistance, ( Lr ) the rotor inductance, ( A) is a scalar representing the
level of magneticcoupling,
 (ωr ) is the rotor’s electrical angular velocity, ( M) the mutual
inductance, and ϕqs the q-axis stator flux linkage.
By manipulating these dynamic equations, the RSC can effectively control the power
flow between the stator and the grid, ensuring efficient operation of the wind turbine across
various operating conditions.

4.1.4. Modeling of the Grid-Side Converter (GSC)

The grid-side converter (GSC) is a crucial component of a wind turbine system, respon-
sible primarily for transferring active power into the electrical grid and maintaining the
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 18 of 44

DC-link voltage at its designated setpoint. The GSC is governed by the following equations,
which form the foundation of its mathematical model [47]:

dIdg
Vrg = − R g Idg − L g + ωg L g Iqg + Vrd
dt
dIqg
Vrg = − R g Idg − L g
− ωg L g Idg + Vrq
dt
In these expressions, Vrg denotes the grid-side voltage, R g is the resistance associated
with the grid-side converter, L g its inductance, and ωg the angular frequency of the grid
voltage. The variables Idg and Iqg represent the d-axis and q-axis components of the grid-
side current, respectively, and Vrd and Vrq correspond to the d-axis and q-axis rotor voltage
components.
This model encapsulates the GSC’s functionality, highlighting its role in stabilizing
the voltage within the wind turbine’s power circuit and ensuring the effective delivery of
power to the grid.

4.2. MPC Controller Optimizing by PSO

The particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is an evolutionary computation
technique that draws inspiration from swarm intelligence. Devised by Kennedy and Eber-
hart, the algorithm demonstrates remarkable efficiency in seeking out the global minimum
within a problem space, even with a limited number of iterations [38]. It showcases robust
performance in identifying both local and global optimal solutions and exhibits resilience
to the initial positions of the particles within the search space. Its versatility allows it to
tackle various optimization challenges, one of which includes model predictive control
(MPC).
MPC is an advanced method that anticipates system behavior and enforces constraints
while minimizing a predefined objective function across a projected time horizon. This
objective function could represent different control targets, such as minimizing tracking
errors, reducing energy consumption, or lowering operational costs. Within the context of
MPC, the PSO algorithm simulates a swarm of particles that search for the optimal control
inputs over the prediction horizon [39]. These particles navigate towards the best solution
found by the collective (global best), as well as their personal experience (local best), based
on the fitness function’s evaluation. Their velocity and position are continuously updated
to guide their exploration of the search space. Figure 10 depicts a flowchart illustrating the
PSO process.
In the context of MPC-PSO control strategies, the objective function incorporates
components related to the currents Id and Iq , and is computed over a specified period,
integrating the predictive results of the DC–AC currents. The optimization of this objective
function is where the PSO algorithm is applied.
The movement of each particle is influenced by its own best-known position and that
of the best-known position in the swarm, according to the following equations [39]:

Vdinv ( j + 1) = Vi ( j) + Vdinv ( j)
i i
   b 
Vdinv ( j + 1) = mi ·Vi ( j) + c1 ·r1 · Vdbinv ( j) − Vdinv ( j) + c2 ·r2 · VdGinv ( j) − Vdinv ( j)
i i i i i

Vqinv ( j + 1) = Vi ( j + 1) + Vqinv ( j)
i i
   b 
Vqinv ( j + 1) = mi ·Vi ( j) + c1 ·r1 · Vqbinv ( j) − Vqinv ( j) + c2 ·r2 · VqGinv ( j) − Vqinv ( j)
i i i i i

Here, Vi ( j + 1) represents the directional movement of voltage at iteration j + 1, mi

is the inertia weight, c1 and c2 are the cognitive and social acceleration coefficients, and
r1 and r2 are random numbers between 0 and 1. The terms Vdb ( j) and Vqbinv ( j) denote
invi i
the best personal voltage values for the (dinv ) and (qinv ) components for particle i, while
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 19 of 44

 
G b refers to the best global voltage values found by the swarm for both components.
Vi ( j) indicates the voltage value for each particle i at iteration j for both (dinv ) and (qinv )
components.

RSC Controller
In this investigation, the robustness of a rotor-side converter (RSC) controlled via a
model predictive control (MPC) mechanism augmented by particle swarm optimization
(PSO) is rigorously scrutinized. A structured approach unfolds as follows, entailing a
combination of theoretical exposition and empirical verification.
A. Defining Control Aspirations and Modeling: At the heart of RSC functionality
within wind

turbine applications lies the imperative to modulate rotor currents, ( Ird )
and Irq , to oversee the electromagnetic torque and manage reactive power. Such
regulation is vital to synchronize rotor velocity with a pre-set reference, compensating
for wind speed fluctuations.
B. Strategizing MPC Coupled with PSO: The MPC establishes an optimization challenge
with the goal of curtailing a cost metric emblematic of the control goals within a
forecast horizon constrained by the dynamics inherent to the RSC. Concurrently,
PSO is woven into the MPC structure, tasked with the identification of prime control
stratagems, an endeavor facilitated by its heuristic nature to canvass the extensive
parameter space.
C. Lyapunov Function Proposition: Asserting stability involves positing a Lyapunov
function, (V ), indicative of the system’s energy reserves. For RSC systems, (V ) might
encapsulate the electrical energy within the rotor’s inductive components and the
rotor’s kinetic vigor:  
1  2 2
 1
V = Lr Ird + Irq + Jω2r
2 2
Here, Lr represents the rotor’s inductance, and J stands for the rotor’s moment of
inertia.
D. Lyapunov Function Derivative Derivation: The crux of stability validation necessitates
.
the derivative of (V ), V , to be non-positive along system trajectories. The exercise
entails computing the temporal rate of change in (V ) and integrating the RSC’s
dynamical behavior:

dIrq
   
. dI dωr
V = Lr Ird rd + Irq + Jωr
dt dt dt

E. Implementation of MPC+PSO for Lyapunov Derivative Minimization:

The combined might of MPC and PSO  coalesces to engineer control voltages, (Vrd )

. 
and Vrq , that pursue the minimization of V , therefore guaranteeing the attenuation of
any deviations in rotor currents or velocity.
F. Simulation for Empirical Corroboration:
The practical facet of this theoretical construct is tested through simulation. The
applied MPC+PSO schema, when superimposed onto a simulated RSC model and subjected
to disturbances like variable wind velocities, is expected to reaffirm the return of rotor
speeds and currents to their designated benchmarks, signifying system stability.
In essence, the proposed framework offers a hypothetical blueprint for affirming RSC
stability when controlled by an MPC+PSO amalgamation, with empirical substantiation
through simulations acting as a critical component of the overall validation process.
G. Enhanced Stability Assurance of Grid-Side Converters via an Integrated MPC-PSO
Control Paradigm
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 20 of 44

The operational stability of Grid-Side Converters (GSCs), critical components in the

electrical power conversion landscape, has been advanced through the innovative incorpo-
ration of a model predictive control (MPC) and particle swarm optimization (PSO) hybrid
algorithm. This methodology has undergone rigorous validation based on the principles
of Lyapunov’s second method, where the amalgamation of PSO with MPC significantly
elevates the optimization process. This hybridized control strategy is designed to meticu-
lously refine GSC control actions by meticulously navigating through a multi-dimensional
search space to identify the most optimal control solutions.
Analytical modeling of GSC behavior is framed within the context
  of state-space for-
mulations, encapsulating the essential dynamics of both the direct Idg and quadrature
Iqg components of grid current. These electrical currents, which are crucial to the efficacy
of power conversion processes, are modulated by specific control voltage vectors Vrd , Vrq .
The targeted optimization process leverages these vectors to achieve a finely tuned control
mechanism.
At the core of the stability argument lies the proposition of a Lyapunov candidate
function (V), formulated to represent the inductor-stored electromagnetic energy within
the GSC system: 
1  2 
2
V = L g Idg + Iqg
2
This selection inherently fulfills the requisite condition of positivity, as prescribed by
Lyapunov’s criteria. Crucially, the stability confirmation is dependent on demonstrating
.
 
the derivative of this function, V , maintains a non-positive trajectory in the system’s
operational pathway:
dIdg dIqg
  
.
V = L g Idg + Iqg
dt dt
Through the strategic implementation of the MPC-PSO framework, the optimization
of the control law is fine-tuned to ensure the minimization of the Lyapunov function’s
derivative. PSO embarks on an exhaustive control
 input space exploration, pinpointing pa-
.
rameters that guarantee a consistent decline in V , thus facilitating a dynamic adaptation
that upholds system stability.
The intrinsic heuristic quality of PSO, when seamlessly integrated with the predictive
nature of MPC, enables a robust global search mechanism. This search avoids potential
local minima that could threaten system stability and ensures an adjustment in control
voltage vectors that perpetuates the non-positive gradient of the Lyapunov function.
In conclusion, the fusion of MPC and PSO culminates in a sophisticated control schema
that adeptly manages the intrinsic complexities and uncertainties present in GSC operations,
securing their stable performance. The PSO component, especially, excels in traversing
the intricate optimization topography and, in synergy with MPC’s forecasting precision,
adheres to the strict stability guidelines as mandated by Lyapunov’s theorem. This presents
a methodologically sound and reliable framework for ensuring the stability of GSCs.

5. Simulation and Results

5.1. For PV System
In this section, the operational efficiency of the system was assessed under different
solar irradiance conditions, while the temperature of the photovoltaic array was maintained
at a steady 25 ◦ C. The output of the solar panels was gauged using standard test conditions
(STC), which assume a baseline temperature of 25 ◦ C. Figure 14 illustrates the fluctuating
solar irradiance and its daily variation pattern.
 5. Simulation and Results
5.1. For PV System
In this section, the operational efficiency of the system was assessed under different
solar irradiance conditions, while the temperature of the photovoltaic array was main-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 tained at a steady 25 °C. The output of the solar panels was gauged using standard test
21 of 44
conditions (STC), which assume a baseline temperature of 25 °C. Figure 14 illustrates the
fluctuating solar irradiance and its daily variation pattern.

Figure
Figure14.
14.Irradiance fluctuations
Irradiance at a at
fluctuations constant temperature
a constant of 25 °C.
temperature of 25 ◦ C.

5.2.Simulation
5.2. Simulation
The
TheSimulink
Simulink representation
representation of theofphotovoltaic
the photovoltaic (PV) system, detailingdetailing
(PV) system, the intercon-
the intercon-
nected components and their functionality, is captured in Figure
nected components and their functionality, is captured in Figure 15. This model 15. This model is com-
is composed
posed of distinct
of distinct blocks blocks that simulate
that simulate the the
keykey elements
elements of of
thethe system,including
system, including the the PV
PV module,
module, boost converter,
boost converter, MPPT algorithm,
MPPT algorithm, and the and the DC–AC
DC–AC inverter,
inverter, among among others.
others. TheThe PV module
PV module block not only symbolizes the solar panel but also integrates the equations
block not only symbolizes the solar panel but also integrates the equations that define
that define its electrical behavior, producing the respective current–voltage (I–V) and
its electrical behavior, producing the respective current–voltage (I–V) and power–voltage
power–voltage (P–V) characteristics based on solar irradiance and temperature inputs.
(P–V) characteristics based on solar irradiance and temperature inputs. The boost converter
The boost converter block is tasked with stepping down the voltage output from the PV
blockand
array is tasked
includeswith
thestepping down
control logic thedictates
that voltage theoutput fromofthe
operation thePV array and
converter via includes
the the
controlstrategy.
MPPT logic that
Thisdictates
MPPT the operation
algorithm of the
actively converter
tracks via the
and adjusts theMPPT strategy.
operating point This
of MPPT
algorithm
the PV system actively tracks
to optimize andextraction.
power adjusts the Theoperating pointblock’s
DC–AC inverter of the role
PV issystem
to convertto optimize
power
the extraction.
DC output of theThe
PV DC–AC
array intoinverter
AC power block’s role
that is is to convert
suitable the DC
for the grid, output
ensuring theof the PV
quality andAC
array into gridpower
compatibility of the ACfor
that is suitable output with ensuring
the grid, a target power factor of
the quality andunity.
gridOther
compatibility
elements
of the AC in output
the model,
with such as transformers
a target power factor and grid interfacing
of unity. Othercomponents,
elements in arethe
instru-
model, such
mental in depicting the full scope of the PV system and its integration
as transformers and grid interfacing components, are instrumental in depicting the full with the electrical
grid
scopeinfrastructure.
of the PV systemFigureand11 illustrates the proposed
its integration with the photovoltaic (PV) system,
electrical grid which isFigure 11
infrastructure.
segmented into three primary sections labeled A, B, and C. Each of these sections plays a
illustrates the proposed photovoltaic (PV) system, which is segmented into three primary
distinct role in ensuring the efficient production, transformation, and integration of solar
sections labeled A, B, and C. Each of these sections plays a distinct role in ensuring the
energy into the power grid. They correspond to different components or phases of the
efficient
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW production, transformation, and integration of solar energy into the22
system.
power
of 47 grid.
They correspond to different components or phases of the system.

Figure 15. Comprehensive schematic of the proposed photovoltaic system.

Figure 15. Comprehensive schematic of the proposed photovoltaic system.

5.3.5.3. Results
Results
5.3.1.
5.3.1. PartPart
AA
In In
thethe firstsection,
first section,identified
identified as
asPart
PartA,A,wewe
explore thethe
explore corecore
components of theof
components pho-
the pho-
tovoltaic (PV) system. It begins with the PV panels, tasked with the critical function of
tovoltaic (PV) system. It begins with the PV panels, tasked with the critical function of
transforming sunlight into electric power. The system integrates a boost converter, work-
ing in unison with an MPPT controller guided by an MPC algorithm. The boost con-
verter’s primary objective is to elevate the voltage output from the PV array, therefore
enhancing the overall efficacy of the energy conversion process. The MPPT controller’s
role is pivotal, as it relentlessly pursues the maximum power point of the PV system, dy-
namically adjusting the operational variables of the boost converter to capitalize on the
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 22 of 44

transforming sunlight into electric power. The system integrates a boost converter, working
in unison with an MPPT controller guided by an MPC algorithm. The boost converter’s
primary objective is to elevate the voltage output from the PV array, therefore enhancing the
overall efficacy of the energy conversion process. The MPPT controller’s role is pivotal, as
it relentlessly pursues the maximum power point of the PV system, dynamically adjusting
the operational variables of the boost converter to capitalize on the maximum available
power amid fluctuating environmental conditions. Furthermore, the setup encompasses
a DC–AC inverter, responsible for transmuting the DC electricity produced by the PV
array into AC power compatible with grid distribution. This inverter is also calibrated to
maintain a unity power factor, ensuring efficient power delivery and compliance with grid
interconnection standards, thus facilitating a seamless merger of sustainable energy into
the conventional power grid.
Continuing to Figure 16, the sinusoidal current waveforms for the three-phase injection
into the grid are depicted. These waveforms are critical for verifying23that
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 47
the injected
currents are in harmony with grid requirements.

(a)

(b)
Figure 16. (a) Current Output from Section A of the system, (b): Zoomed-In Current Oscillation
16. (a)
Figurefrom Current
Selected Output
Interval from
in Section A. Section A of the system, (b): Zoomed-In Current Oscillation from
Selected Interval in Section A.
Figure 17 details the actual power output produced by Component A of the system,
offering a quantitative look at the energy generation efficiency.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 23 of 44

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 47

Figure 17 details the actual power output produced by Component A of the system,
offering a quantitative look at the energy generation efficiency.
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 47

Figure 17. Active and reactive powers produced by Part A.

Figure 17. Active and reactive powers produced by Part A.
Figure 17. Active and reactive powers produced by Part A.
Lastly, Figure
Lastly, Figure 1818portrays
portraysthe
theelectrical
electricalcharacteristics
characteristics of the voltage
of the and and
voltage current pro-
current
Lastly, Figure 18 a
portrays the electrical characteristics of the voltage and current pro-
produced, encapsulating a comprehensive overview of the operational dynamics andsys-
duced, encapsulating comprehensive overview of the operational dynamics and the the
duced,
tem’s encapsulating
electrical a comprehensive overview of the operational dynamics and the sys-
performance.
system’s electrical performance.
tem’s electrical performance.

(a)
(a)
Figure 18. Cont.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 24
47 of 44

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 47

(b)
(b) produced by Part A, (b): Detailed Oscillation Analysis of Cur-
Figure 18. (a): Current and voltage
Figure 18. (a): Current and voltage produced by Part A, (b): Detailed Oscillation Analysis of Current
rent and Voltage from Part A.
Figure
and 18. (a):
Voltage fromCurrent and voltage produced by Part A, (b): Detailed Oscillation Analysis of Cur-
Part A.
rent and Voltage from Part A.
5.3.2.
5.3.2. Part
Part BB
5.3.2. Within
Part Component B of the PV system, the transformer plays a crucial role by step-
BComponent
Within B of the PV system, the transformer plays a crucial role by step-
pingWithin
up theComponent
voltage to meet
B ofthe
the specifications of transformer
the power grid, therefore facilitating effi-
ping up the voltage to meet thePV system, the
specifications of the power plays a crucial
grid, role byfacilitating
therefore step-
cient power
ping uppower transfer.
the voltage Elevating
to meet the voltage
the specifications level
of thereduces
power the current, which
grid, therefore in turn
facilitating mini-
effi-
efficient
mizes power
transfer. Elevating
losses incurred during
the voltage
transmission.
level reduces
Furthermore,
the current,
a higher voltage
which in turn
enables
cient
minimizespower transfer.
power Elevating
losses the
incurred voltage
during level reduces
transmission. the current, which
Furthermore, in
a turn mini-
higher voltage
electricity
mizes powerto losses
be conveyed over longer distances with reduced energy dissipation. The per-
enables electricity
formance outcomestoincurred
be
of
during
conveyed
incorporating
transmission.
overa transformer
Furthermore,
longer distances
rated with
at
a higher
reduced
0.26/25 kV
voltage enables
intoenergy
the PV dissipation.
system
electricity to be conveyed over longer distances with reduced energy dissipation. The per-
Theare
performance
documented outcomes
in Figures of incorporating
19–21, demonstrating a transformer
its impact on rated
the at 0.26/25
system’s kV
efficiency. into the
formance outcomes of incorporating a transformer rated at 0.26/25 kV into the PV system
PV system are documented in Figures 19–21, demonstrating its impact on the system’s
are documented in Figures 19–21, demonstrating its impact on the system’s efficiency.
efficiency.

(a)
(a)

Figure 19. Cont.

Sustainability
Sustainability 16, 815
2024, 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 25
47 of 44

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 47

(b)

Figure
Figure 19.19.
(a):(a): Voltage
Voltage producedafter
produced afterthe
thetransformer
transformer0.26/25
0.26/25 kV,
kV, (b):
(b):Close-Up
Close-Upon
onVoltage
VoltageOscilla-
Oscillation
tion
after theafter the 0.26/25
0.26/25 kV Transformer.
kV Transformer.

5.3.3. Part C
Part C of the PV system is composed of two primary elements. The initial component
entails a transmission line stretching 25 km, serving as the conduit to connect the system’s
generated electrical power to the broader grid. The second element is a step-up transformer
tasked with boosting the voltage before the power is introduced into the grid. The trans-
mission line is pivotal for bridging the considerable distance to the grid, minimizing losses
and voltage drops to preserve the integrity and efficiency of the power being transmitted.
(b)
Concurrently, the transformer’s role is to elevate the voltage to the required standards for
grid compatibility,
Figure a critical
19. (a): Voltage step
produced forthe
after ensuring the0.26/25
transformer efficient
kV, distribution and
(b): Close-Up on transmission
Voltage Oscilla- of
tion afterwithin
electricity the 0.26/25
thekV Transformer.
system.

(a)

(a)

Figure 20. Cont.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 47
Sustainability
Sustainability 16, 815
2024,2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 44
27 of 47

(b)
(b)
Figure 20. (a): Current produced after the transformer 0.26/25 kV, (b): Close-Up on Current Oscil-
Figure 20. (a): Current produced after the transformer 0.26/25 kV, (b): Close-Up on Current Oscilla-
lation20.
Figure after
(a):the 0.26/25produced
Current kV Transformer.
after the transformer 0.26/25 kV, (b): Close-Up on Current Oscil-
tion after the 0.26/25 kV Transformer.
lation after the 0.26/25 kV Transformer.

Figure 21. Active and reactive powers produced after the transformer 0.26/25 kV.

5.3.3. Part C
Figure 21. Active andPVreactive
systempowers produced after the transformer
elements.0.26/25 kV. component
Figure Part C of the
21. Active and reactive is composed
powers of two
produced primary
after the transformer The initial
0.26/25 kV.
entails a transmission line stretching 25 km, serving as the conduit to connect the system’s
5.3.3. Partintegration
generated
The C electrical power to km
of the 25 the transmission
broader grid. Theline second
and theelement
step-upistransformer
a step-up trans-
into Part
former
C is Part tasked
quantitativelywith boosting
C of the PVdepicted the voltage
system isincomposed before
Figures 22–24, the power
of twoshowcasing is introduced into
the enhancements
primary elements. the grid.
The initial inThe
system
component
transmission
performance
entails line is pivotal
subsequent
a transmission linetofor bridging
their 25 the
km,considerable
implementation.
stretching serving as thedistance to the
conduit to grid, minimizing
connect the system’s
generated electrical power to the broader grid. The second element is a step-up trans-
former tasked with boosting the voltage before the power is introduced into the grid. The
transmission line is pivotal for bridging the considerable distance to the grid, minimizing
 mitted. Concurrently, the transformer’s role is to elevate the voltage to the required stand-
ards for grid compatibility, a critical step for ensuring the efficient distribution and trans-
mission of electricity within the system.
The integration of the 25 km transmission line and the step-up transformer into Part
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 C is quantitatively depicted in Figures 22–24, showcasing the enhancements in system 27 of 44
performance subsequent to their implementation.

(a)

(b)

Figure 22. (a): Voltage produced after the transformer 25/120 kV, (b): Close-Up on Voltage Oscillation
after the 25/120 kV Transformer.
 Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 47

Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 28 of 44

Figure 22. (a): Voltage produced after the transformer 25/120 kV, (b): Close-Up on Voltage Oscilla-
tion after the 25/120 kV Transformer.

(a)

(b)

Figure 23.
Figure 23. (a):
(a): Current
Current produced
producedafter
afterthe
thetransformer
transformer25/120
25/120 kV,
kV,(b):
(b):Close-Up
Close-Upon
onCurrent
CurrentOscillation
Oscilla-
tion after the 25/120 kV Transformer
after the 25/120 kV Transformer. .
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 29 of 44
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 47

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 47

Figure 24. Active and reactive powers produced after the transformer 25/120 kV.
Figure 24. Active and reactive powers produced after the transformer 25/120 kV.
Figure 24. Active and reactive powers produced after the transformer 25/120 kV.
5.4. Simulation
5.4. Simulation
The energy generation and subsequent financial viability of a wind turbine system
5.4.The energy generation and subsequent financial viability of a wind turbine system
Simulation
are critically dependent on the wind as its primary energy source. Grasping the dynamic
arebehavior
critically ofdependent
The energythe wind ison
generation vitalthe
andwind
for as its primary
subsequent financial
a comprehensive energy
viability
appreciation source.
of
ofathe Grasping
wind turbine
entire the dynamic
system
energy con-
behavior
are of the
critically wind
dependent is vital
on for
the a comprehensive
wind as its primary appreciation
energy source. of the entire
Grasping
version process, given that the power potential of wind is theoretically proportional to the energy
the dynamic conver-
sion process,
behavior of given
the windthatis the
vital power
for a potential
comprehensive of wind is theoretically
appreciation of the
cube of the wind speed. This cubic relationship, as highlighted in the associated research, proportional
entire energy con-to the
version
cube of theprocess,
wind given
speed. that
This the power
cubic potential
relationship, of wind
as is theoretically
highlighted
underscores the exponential impact of wind velocity on the turbine’s power output. in proportional
the associated to the
research,
cube of the the
underscores wind speed. Thisimpact
exponential cubic relationship, as highlighted
of wind velocity in the associated
on the turbine’s power research,
output.
V(t) = 2.8 + 2sin(𝑤. 𝑡) − 1.75sin(3.
underscores 𝑤. 𝑡) +impact
the exponential 1.5sin(5.
of𝑤. 𝑡) −velocity
wind 1.25sin(10.
on the𝑤. 𝑡) + sin(30.
turbine’s 𝑤. 𝑡) output.
power
V(t) = 2.8 + 2sin(w+·t0.5sin(50.
) − 1.75sin 𝑤.(𝑡) + ·0.25
3· w t) +sin(100.
1.5sin(5𝑤.
·w𝑡)·t) − 1.25sin(10·w·t) + sin(30·w·t)
V(t) = 2.8 + 2sin(𝑤. 𝑡) − 1.75sin(3. 𝑤. 𝑡) + 1.5sin(5. 𝑤. 𝑡) − 1.25sin(10. 𝑤. 𝑡) + sin(30. 𝑤. 𝑡)
where w = . 𝑤. 𝑡) + 0.25 sin(100. 𝑤. (𝑡)100·w·t)
+
+ 0.5sin(50.
0.5sin ( 50 · w · t ) + 0.25sin

where Figure
w = =2π 25 presents the wind speed variability over a five-second interval, as recorded
where w 10 . .
byFigure
the system.
Figure2525presents
presentsthe the wind speedvariability
wind speed variabilityover
over a five-second
a five-second interval,
interval, as recorded
as recorded
bybythethe
system.
system.

Figure 25. Wind speed profile (m/s).

Figure 25. Wind speed profile (m/s).

Figure 25. Wind speed profile (m/s).

The model is meticulously constructed with separate blocks representing critical

elements like the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), the rotor-side converter (RSC),
the grid-side converter (GSC), and their associated control strategies.
 Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 31 of 47

Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 The model is meticulously constructed with separate blocks representing critical ele-
30 of 44
ments like the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), the rotor-side converter (RSC), the
grid-side converter (GSC), and their associated control strategies.
TheDFIG
The DFIGblock
blockmodels
modelsthethegenerator’s
generator’s electrical
electrical characteristics
characteristics using
using sophisticated
sophisticated
mathematical representations, delivering insights into its performance across
mathematical representations, delivering insights into its performance acrossaaspectrum
spectrum
ofofwind
windconditions.
conditions.This
This encompasses
encompasses the the simulation
simulation of of current
current and
and voltage
voltage outputs
outputsthat
that
adapttotothe
adapt thechanging
changingwind
winddynamics.
dynamics.
TheRSC
The RSCand
andGSC
GSCblocks
blocksare
areintegral
integraltotothe
thesystem,
system,orchestrating
orchestratingthe
the two-way
two-way flow
flow of
of energy between the DFIG and the electrical grid. The model encapsulates
energy between the DFIG and the electrical grid. The model encapsulates the advanced con- the advanced
control
trol techniques
techniques that regulate
that regulate thesethese converters,
converters, optimizing
optimizing power power conversion
conversion and en-
and ensuring
suring compliance
compliance with
with grid grid connection
connection standards. standards.
Additional components, such as transformers and
Additional components, such as transformers and grid
grid interfacing
interfacing equipment,
equipment,are are
also incorporated into the model, completing the picture of
also incorporated into the model, completing the picture of the wind energythe wind energy system’s in-
system’s
frastructure. The
infrastructure. Simulink
The Simulinkmodel,
model, as illustrated, thus thus
as illustrated, servesserves
as a valuable tool fortool
as a valuable simu-for
lating and analyzing the system’s behavior under a variety of operating
simulating and analyzing the system’s behavior under a variety of operating conditions conditions and
for for
and evaluating different
evaluating control
different approaches.
control approaches.
5.5.Results
5.5. Results
Figure2626illustrates
Figure illustratesthethe segmented
segmented design
design of proposed
of the the proposed
windwind
energyenergy system,
system, which
which is divided into three primary sections labeled A, B, and C. Each segment
is divided into three primary sections labeled A, B, and C. Each segment performs distinct performs
distinct functions
functions vital to thevital to the
overall overall
process process of generating,
of generating, converting, converting,
and deliveringandwind
delivering
energy
towind energygrid.
the power to theThese
power grid. These
segments segments
encompass encompass
the the various
various stages stages and of
and components com-
the
ponentsensuring
system, of the system, ensuringoperation
a streamlined a streamlined
from operation fromtowind
wind capture capture
electricity to electricity
distribution.
distribution.

Figure26.
Figure 26.Comprehensive
Comprehensiveschematic
schematic of
of the
the proposed
proposed wind
wind system.
system.

5.5.1.
5.5.1.Part
PartAA
Figure
Figure27 27presents
presents thethe wind
wind turbine
turbine system, which which is
is composed
composedof ofseveral
severalkey keycom-
com-
ponents.
ponents. Central
Central to to the
the control
control mechanism
mechanism of the turbine is the maximum maximum power power point
point
tracking
tracking(MPPT)
(MPPT) system,
system, depicted
depicted as the
the “Turbine + MPPT” block
+ MPPT” block in
in the
the diagram.
diagram.Con- Con-
currently,
currently,thethesystem
systemimplements
implements vector
vector control
control for the doubly fed fed induction
induction generator
generator
(DFIG),
(DFIG),aamethod
methodthat that involves
involves aa regulator
regulator ensuring the decoupling
decoupling of of rotor
rotor current
currenttoto
enable precise adjustments in power
enable precise adjustments in power output. output. The control architecture utilizes a
control architecture utilizes a cascadecascade
control
controlstrategy
strategythat
thatadeptly
adeptlymanages
manages power
power and rotor current along along each
eachaxis,
axis,facilitating
facilitating
the
theregulation
regulationof ofindividual
individual currents (𝐼rd , I𝐼rq ))and
currents (I and power
power outputs (𝑄 (Qs,, 𝑃
Ps)) in
in aaclosed-loop
closed-loop
system.
system.Before
Before this process,
process, the currents 𝐼Ird and I𝐼rq from
thecurrents fromthe
therotor’s and qqaxes
rotor’s d and axesare
arecon-
con-
𝐼 and
vertedtotoIra
verted andIrb𝐼 in the
in the α and
α and β axes.
β axes. ThisThisconversion is accomplished
conversion is accomplished by bythethe
“d/q to
“d/q
α/β” block, contributing to the generation of outputs with minimal ripple and enhanced
smoothness. The “MPC-PSO” block integrates the model predictive control-particle swarm
optimization algorithm for control purposes. Lastly, the “DFIG + inverter” block represents
the end-point of the system, which is responsible for the final conversion of the generated
electrical power, ensuring it is ready for integration into the grid.
 to α /β ” block, contributing to the generation of outputs with minimal ripple and en-
hanced smoothness. The “MPC-PSO” block integrates the model predictive control-parti-
cle swarm optimization algorithm for control purposes. Lastly, the “DFIG + inverter”
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 31 of 44
block represents the end-point of the system, which is responsible for the final conversion
of the generated electrical power, ensuring it is ready for integration into the grid.

Figure
Figure 27.27. Model
Model ofof DFIGininMATLAB/Simulink.
DFIG MATLAB/Simulink.

Table
Table 3 presentsananorganized
3 presents organizedsummary
summary of
of the parameters
parametersassociated
associatedwithwiththe doubly
the doubly
fedfed induction
induction generator
generator (DFIG)
(DFIG) being
being analyzed.
analyzed. Table
Table 4 also
4 also presents
presents thethe variables
variables rele-
relevant
vant to the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. And Table 5 presents
to the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. And Table 5 presents the parameters the param-
of eters of thecontroller.
the DFIG DFIG controller.

Table
Table 3. DFIG
3. DFIG and
and PSO
PSO configurationspecifications.
configuration specifications.

Parameters
Parameters Value
Value
Stator resistance 𝑅 0.0137 Ω
Stator resistance Rs 0.0137 Ω
Rotor
Rotor resistance Rr 𝑅
resistance 0.021ΩΩ
0.021
Stator inductance Ls 𝐿
Stator inductance 0.0137 ΩΩ
0.0137
Rotor
Rotor Lr 𝐿
inductance
inductance 0.0136ΩΩ
0.0136
Mutual
Mutualinductance Lm 𝐿
inductance 0.0135ΩΩ
0.0135
Inertia J
Inertia 𝐽 0.0017
0.0017
Pole pair p 3
Pole pair 𝑝 3
Sampling time Ts 106
Sampling time Ts 10
The depicted graph, as referenced in Figure 28, provides insights into the voltage
trends over time, illustrating the efficacy of the boost converter in modulating and op-
timizing the voltage of the wind system. The data captured on the voltage behavior is
instrumental in assessing the converter’s performance, its consistency, and its responsive-
ness to variations in environmental factors. Moving to Figure 29, the sinusoidal patterns of
the three-phase current injection are presented. Then, Figure 30 quantifies the actual power
output generated by Part A of the system. Finally, Figure 31 displays the profiles of the
produced voltage and current. Together, these visuals offer a comprehensive view of the
wind system’s electrical dynamics and operational capabilities.
 Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of 47

Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 Table 4. PSO parameters. 32 of 44

Parameters Value
𝑐 = 𝑐 2
𝑤 0.8
Table 4. PSO parameters.
d 0.99
bird_step 20
Parameters Value
c1Table
= c25. Parameters of DFIG controller. 2
w Parameters 0.8 Value
d 𝐾 0.99 5
bird_step 𝐾 20 250
Varmin −600
Varmax 600
Table 5. Parameters of DFIG controller.
The depicted graph, as referenced in Figure 28, provides insights into the voltage
trends over time, illustrating the efficacy of the boost converter in modulating and opti-
Parameters Value
mizing the voltage of the wind system. The data captured on the voltage behavior is in-
strumental
Ki in assessing the converter’s performance, its consistency,
5 and its responsive-
ness
K p to variations in environmental factors. Moving to Figure
25029, the sinusoidal patterns
of the three-phase current injection are presented. Then, Figure 30 quantifies the actual
Varmin −600
power output generated by Part A of the system. Finally, Figure 31 displays the profiles
Varmax 600
of the produced voltage and current. Together, these visuals offer a comprehensive view
of the wind system’s electrical dynamics and operational capabilities.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 34 of 47

(a)

(b)
Figure 28. (a): Voltage output from Section A of the system, (b): Zoomed-In Voltage Oscillation
Figure 28. (a): Voltage output from Section A of the system, (b): Zoomed-In Voltage Oscillation from
from Selected Interval in Section A.
Selected Interval in Section A.
 (b)
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 33 of 44
Figure 28. (a): Voltage output from Section A of the system, (b): Zoomed-In Voltage Oscillation
from Selected Interval in Section A.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 35 of 47

(a)

(b)
Figure 29. (a): Current output from Section A of the system, (b): Zoomed-In Current Oscillation
Figure 29. (a): Current output from Section A of the system, (b): Zoomed-In Current Oscillation from
from Selected Interval in Section A.
Selected Interval in Section A.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 (b) 34 of 44
Figure 29. (a): Current output from Section A of the system, (b): Zoomed-In Current Oscillation
from Selected Interval in Section A.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 36 of 47

Figure 30. Active and reactive power from Section A of the system.
Figure 30. Active and reactive power from Section A of the system.

(a)

(b)
Figure 31. (a): Voltage and current from Section A of the system, (b): Detailed Oscillation Analysis
Figure 31. (a): Voltageofand current
Voltage fromfrom
and Current Section
Part A.A of the system, (b): Detailed Oscillation Analysis of
Voltage and Current from Part A.
5.5.2. Part B
In the wind energy system, the transformer within Component B plays a crucial role
in escalating the voltage to meet the grid’s voltage standards, facilitating efficient power
distribution. Elevating the voltage level concurrently diminishes the current, which in
turn minimizes transmission losses. Moreover, a higher voltage enables the long-distance
transmission of electricity with reduced dissipation of power. The impact of integrating a
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 35 of 44

5.5.2. Part B
In the wind energy system, the transformer within Component B plays a crucial role
in escalating the voltage to meet the grid’s voltage standards, facilitating efficient power
distribution.
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Elevating the voltage level concurrently diminishes the current, 37 ofwhich
47 in
turn minimizes transmission losses. Moreover, a higher voltage enables the long-distance
transmission of electricity with reduced dissipation of power. The impact of integrating a
transformer with
transformer witha a0.575/25 kVspecification
0.575/25 kV specificationonon
thethe system’s
system’s operation
operation is demonstrated
is demonstrated in in
Figures 32–34, revealing the enhanced performance of the wind energy
Figures 32–34, revealing the enhanced performance of the wind energy system. system.

(a)

(b)
Figure 32. (a): Voltage from Section B of the system, (b): Close-Up on Voltage Oscillation after the
Figure 32. B.(a): Voltage from Section B of the system, (b): Close-Up on Voltage Oscillation after the
Section
Section B.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 36 of 44
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 38 of 47

(a)

(b)

Figure 33. (a): CurrentFigure from33.Section

(a): Current from Section B of the system, (b): Close-Up on Current Oscillation after the
B of the system, (b): Close-Up on Current Oscillation after the
Section B.
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 39 of 47
Section B.

Figure 34. Active and reactive power from Section B of the system.
Figure 34. Active and reactive power from Section B of the system.
5.5.3. Part C
Component C of the wind system encompasses two distinct sections. The first is a 25-
kilometer transmission line, which establishes a conduit between the wind energy grid
and the broader electrical network. The second consists of a transformer tasked with volt-
age elevation, ensuring that power enters the grid at the necessary voltage level. This ex-
tensive transmission line is vital to efficiently deliver electricity over substantial distances
to the grid, minimizing energy loss and preventing voltage sag, therefore ensuring con-
sistent and effective power delivery. Concurrently, the transformer’s role in Component
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 37 of 44

5.5.3. Part C
Component C of the wind system encompasses two distinct sections. The first is a
25-km transmission line, which establishes a conduit between the wind energy grid and
the broader electrical network. The second consists of a transformer tasked with voltage
elevation, ensuring that power enters the grid at the necessary voltage level. This extensive
transmission line is vital to efficiently deliver electricity over substantial distances to the
grid, minimizing energy loss and preventing voltage sag, therefore ensuring consistent
and effective power delivery. Concurrently, the transformer’s role in Component C is
to augment the voltage to match grid specifications, a crucial step for maintaining the
integrity of power distribution and transmission within the system. The efficacy of the
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FORwind system, inclusive of the transmission line and the step-up transformer,
PEER REVIEW 40 of 47is illustrated
in Figures 35–37, detailing the operational results post-installation.

(a)

(b)

Figure 35. (a): Voltage from Section C of the system, (b): Close-Up on Voltage Oscillation after the
35. (a):
FigureSection C. Voltage from Section C of the system, (b): Close-Up on Voltage Oscillation after the
Section C.
Sustainability 2024,16,
Sustainability2024, 16,815
x FOR PEER REVIEW 41 of 44
38 of 47

(a)

(b)
Figure36.
Figure 36.(a):
(a): Current
Current from
from Section
Section C
C of
of the
the system,
system, (b):
(b): Close-Up
Close-Up on
on Current
Current Oscillation
Oscillation after
after the
the
Section C.
Section C.
Sustainability 2024, 16,
Sustainability 2024, 16,815
x FOR PEER REVIEW 42
39 of 47
of 44

Figure 37. Active and reactive powers from Section C of the wind system.
Figure 37. Active and reactive powers from Section C of the wind system.

5.6. Hybrid System

5.6.
5.6.1.
5.6.1. Simulation
The
The hybrid
hybrid PV/wind system model depicted in Figure 1 was subjected to simulation
PV/wind system simulation
via
via MATLAB
MATLABto toevaluate
evaluateits
itsoperational
operationalefficacy.
efficacy.The Thesystem
systemunderwent
underwentthorough
thoroughanalysis
analy-
under
sis undervarious
various environmental
environmental conditions,
conditions,including
includingchanges
changesininwind
windvelocity
velocityand
and solar
solar
irradiance.
irradiance. ThisThis investigation
investigation delved
delved into
into the
the intricate
intricate dynamic
dynamic modeling,
modeling, control,
control, and
and
simulation of a hybrid system combining solar PV and DFIG-based wind
simulation of a hybrid system combining solar PV and DFIG-based wind energy, inte- energy, integrated
with
grated thewith
utility
thegrid andgrid
utility responding to fluctuations
and responding in AC load
to fluctuations power
in AC loadand power
power anddistribu-
power
tion to the grid. Three distinct case studies were conducted to assess the system’s
distribution to the grid. Three distinct case studies were conducted to assess the system’s behavior:
examining the solar PV,
behavior: examining thewind,
solarand
PV, integrated
wind, andPV/wind
integratedsystems,
PV/wind respectively. The results
systems, respectively.
from the simulations
The results indicated that
from the simulations the implemented
indicated control strategies
that the implemented control adeptly managed
strategies adeptly
the system’s responses, fulfilling the set performance criteria.
managed the system’s responses, fulfilling the set performance criteria.
5.6.2. Results
5.6.2. Results
The chart showcases (Figure 38) the active and reactive power outputs from a hybrid
The chart showcases (Figure 38) the active and reactive power outputs from a hybrid
energy system, where the active power, depicted in red, exhibits commendable stability,
energy system, where the active power, depicted in red, exhibits commendable stability,
signifying consistent and efficient energy conversion. Meanwhile, the reactive power,
signifying consistent and efficient energy conversion. Meanwhile, the reactive power, il-
illustrated in green, remains low, indicating a well-optimized system, except for a brief
lustrated in green, remains low, indicating a well-optimized system, except for a brief
spike that suggests a transient system event. This stability in active power, coupled with
spike that suggests a transient system event. This stability in active power, coupled with
the brief fluctuation in reactive power, warrants further analysis to ensure the system’s
the brief fluctuation
robustness in reactive
and reliability power,operation.
in long-term warrants further analysis to ensure the system’s
robustness and reliability in long-term operation.
Figure 39 displays the power characteristics of a hybrid energy system post the initial
transformer, where the active power demonstrates a decreasing trend over the observed
five-second span, potentially indicating a reduction in energy production or consumption.
In contrast, the reactive power remains consistently low, suggesting that the transformer
effectively minimizes energy storage within the system, a sign of efficiency. The nearly flat
line for reactive power close to zero implies a capacitive-inductive balance, contributing to
a stable power supply with minimal wasted energy in the form of reactive power.
Sustainability 2024,
2024, 16, 815
x FOR PEER REVIEW 4340of
of 47
44

Figure 38. Active and reactive powers from Section A of the hybrid system.

Figure 39 displays the power characteristics of a hybrid energy system post the initial
transformer, where the active power demonstrates a decreasing trend over the observed
five-second span, potentially indicating a reduction in energy production or consumption.
In contrast, the reactive power remains consistently low, suggesting that the transformer
effectively minimizes energy storage within the system, a sign of efficiency. The nearly
flat line for reactive power close to zero implies a capacitive-inductive balance, contrib-
uting to
Figure 38.aActive
stableand
power supply
reactive withfrom
powers minimal
Sectionwasted
A of theenergy
hybridin the form of reactive power.
system.

Figure 39 displays the power characteristics of a hybrid energy system post the initial
transformer, where the active power demonstrates a decreasing trend over the observed
five-second span, potentially indicating a reduction in energy production or consumption.
In contrast, the reactive power remains consistently low, suggesting that the transformer
effectively minimizes energy storage within the system, a sign of efficiency. The nearly
flat line for reactive power close to zero implies a capacitive-inductive balance, contrib-
uting to a stable power supply with minimal wasted energy in the form of reactive power.

Figure 39.
Figure 39. Active
Active and
and reactive
reactive powers
powers from
from Section
Section BB of
of the
the hybrid
hybridsystem.
system.

In Figure 40, the red line represents the active power (Ps), which remains largely
constant throughout the duration, indicative of a stable and consistent energy output after
the second transformer in the hybrid system. The active power’s steadiness suggests that
the system’s conversion processes and load demands are well-balanced. The green line,
illustrating the reactive power (Qs), maintains a position close to the baseline, signifying an
insignificant level of reactive power post the second transformation stage. The negligible
fluctuation in reactive power implies that the system is effectively managing the phase
Figure 39. Active and reactive powers from Section B of the hybrid system.
alignment between current and voltage, optimizing power factor and thus minimizing
wasted reactive energy. This balance between active and reactive power, especially after the
 the system’s conversion processes and load demands are well-balanced. The green line,
illustrating the reactive power (Qs), maintains a position close to the baseline, signifying
an insignificant level of reactive power post the second transformation stage. The negligi-
ble fluctuation in reactive power implies that the system is effectively managing the phase
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 41 of 44
alignment between current and voltage, optimizing power factor and thus minimizing
wasted reactive energy. This balance between active and reactive power, especially after
the second transformer, suggests a well-designed system capable of maintaining high ef-
second
ficiencytransformer,
and power suggests a well-designed
quality suitable system capable
for grid distribution. of system’s
The maintaining hightoefficiency
ability keep re-
and power quality suitable for grid distribution. The system’s ability
active power minimal points to enhanced operational performance and potential to keep cost
reactive
sav-
power minimal points to
ings in energy transmission.enhanced operational performance and potential cost savings in
energy transmission.

Figure 40. Active and reactive powers from Section C of the hybrid system.
Figure 40. Active and reactive powers from Section C of the hybrid system.

6. Conclusions
In grappling with the urgent global energy demands and the quest for environmental
stewardship, this study represents a significant advancement in renewable energy system
integration. Our work synthesizes solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy technologies
into a cohesive hybrid system, setting a benchmark for sustainable development. Central
to our research was the careful crafting and simulation of the system’s intricate dynamics, dynamics,
underpinned by the stability and efficiency
efficiency secured
secured through
through Lyapunov’s
Lyapunov’s theorem.
theorem. This
principle
principle has
hasproven
provenvital
vitalin in
affirming
affirming the the
dependability of our
dependability ofcontrol mechanisms,
our control equip-
mechanisms,
ping the system with the resilience to withstand fluctuations and maintain
equipping the system with the resilience to withstand fluctuations and maintain steadysteady operation
under diverse
operation underconditions.
diverse conditions.
The architecture
architecture ofof our
ourhybrid
hybridsystem,
system,which
whichintegrates
integrates a PV
a PV array,
array, a doubly
a doubly fedfed
in-
induction generator
duction generator (DFIG),
(DFIG), andand essential
essential power
power electronic
electronic converters,
converters, hashas undergone
undergone ex-
extensive MATLABsimulations.
tensive MATLAB simulations.TheseThesesimulations
simulationshave
haverigorously
rigorously evaluated
evaluated thethe system’s
system’s
adaptability, confirming a reliable and consistent energy provision. The
adaptability, confirming a reliable and consistent energy provision. The crux of our crux of our sys-
sys-
tem’s superior performance is the harmonious amalgamation of model
tem’s superior performance is the harmonious amalgamation of model predictive controlpredictive control
(MPC)
(MPC) with
with particle
particle swarm
swarm optimization
optimization (PSO).
(PSO). This
This fusion
fusion leverages
leverages the
the strengths
strengths ofof both
both
techniques to refine control operations and elevate
techniques to refine control operations and elevate efficiency.efficiency.
Our results validate the system’s proficiency in delivering stable energy output,
adeptly adjusting to variations in solar and wind energy inputs. The combined use of PV
and wind resources not only fulfills current energy requirements but also illustrates the
vast capabilities of sophisticated control systems to cater to emergent energy needs. This
research lays a groundwork that invites further investigation and enhancement of control
strategies, with the goal of achieving more advanced and dependable energy systems.
Looking ahead, we envision a landscape where comparative studies will elucidate the
full capabilities of these innovative control methods, potentially redefining standards for
renewable energy production and integration into the power grid.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 815 42 of 44

To summarize, this investigation enriches the dialogue surrounding renewable energy,

underscoring the critical role of cutting-edge control systems in forging paths to sustainabil-
ity. It stands as a testament to the transformative impact that state-of-the-art approaches
can have on our energy future, propelling us toward an era that promises sustainability,
resilience, and heightened efficiency.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.B.; Methodology, C.B. and H.K.; Software, C.B. and A.E.;
Validation, B.B. and A.E.; Investigation, I.E.K., B.E.B. and K.M.A.; Resources, I.E.K., B.B., B.N. and
K.M.A.; Data curation, K.M.A.; Writing—original draft, C.B.; Visualization, H.K.; Supervision, I.E.K.,
R.B. and B.B.; Project administration, R.B.; Funding acquisition, H.K. and A.E. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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