System Analysis and Design -

Overview
What is System development?
Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as planning, analysis,
design, deployment, and maintenance.

Here, we will primarily focus on −

Systems analysis
Systems design
Systems Analysis

• It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and decomposition
of a system into its components.
• System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts to identify its
objectives.
• It is a problem-solving technique that improves the system and ensures that all the components
of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose.
• Analysis specifies what the system should do.
 Systems Design

• It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by defining its
components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before planning, you need to
understand the old system thoroughly and determine how computers can best be used in order to
operate efficiently.
• System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system.
• System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −
• Systems
• Processes
• Technology
What is a System?

• The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized relationship
between any set of components to achieve some common cause or objective.
• A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan
to achieve a specific goal.”
Constraints of a System

• A system must have three basic constraints −

• A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to achieve a predefined
objective.
• Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system components.
• The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems.

• For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system, human
resources information system.
Properties of a System
A system has the following properties −
Organization
Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that
helps to achieve predetermined objectives.
Interaction
It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other.
For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with production department and
payroll with personnel department.
Interdependence
Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another.
For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together
according to a specified plan.
The output of one subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input.
Integration
Integration is concerned with how a system components are
connected. It means that the parts of the system work together within
the system even if each part performs a unique function.
Central Objective
The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is
not uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to
achieve another.
The users must know the main objective of a computer application
early in the analysis for a successful design and conversion.
Elements of a system
1- Outputs and Inputs
 The main aim of a system is to produce an output which
is useful for its user.
 Inputs are the information that enters the system for
processing.
 Output is the outcome of processing.

2- Processor(s)
 The processor is the element of a system that involves
the actual transformation of input into output.
 It is the operational component of a system. Processors
may modify the input either totally or partially, depending
on the output specification.
 As the output specifications change, so does the
processing. In some cases, input is also modified to
enable the processor for handling the transformation.
3- Control
 The control element guides the system.
 It is the decision–making subsystem that
controls the pattern of activities governing
input, processing, and output.
 The behavior of a computer System is
controlled by the Operating System and
software. In order to keep system in balance,
what and how much input is needed is
determined by Output Specifications.

4- Feedback
 Feedback provides the control in a dynamic
system.
 Positive feedback is routine in nature that
encourages the performance of the system.
 Negative feedback
5- Environment
 The environment is the “supersystem” within which an
organization operates.
 It is the source of external elements that strike on the
system.
 It determines how a system must function. For
example, vendors and competitors of organization’s
environment, may provide constraints that affect the
actual performance of the business.

6- Boundaries and Interface

 A system should be defined by its boundaries.
Boundaries are the limits that identify its components,
processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with
another system.
 Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere
of influence and control.
 The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is
crucial in determining the nature of its interface with
other systems for successful design.
Types of systems
The systems can be divided into the following types −
1- Physical or Abstract Systems
 Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.
 Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and chairs are the physical
parts of computer center which are static. A programmed computer is a dynamic system in which
programs, data, and applications can change according to the user's needs.
 Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas, representation or model
of a real system.

2- Open or Closed Systems

 An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the
outside of the system. For example, an information system which must adapt to the changing
environmental conditions.
 A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from environmental influences. A
completely closed system is rare in reality.
3- Adaptive and Non Adaptive System
 Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve their performance
and to survive. For example, human beings, animals.
 Non-Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment. For example,
machines.

4- Permanent or Temporary System

 Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies.
 Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are demolished. For
6- Natural and Manufactured System
 Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system, seasonal system.
 Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams, trains.

7- Deterministic or Probabilistic System

 Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between system components
is known with certainty. For example, two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen makes
water.
 Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not known. For example, Weather
forecasting, mail delivery.

8- Social, Human-Machine, Machine System

 Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies.
 In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to perform a particular task. For
example, Computer programming.
 Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are performed by the machine.
For example, an autonomous robot.
9- Man–Made Information Systems
 It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for a
particular organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).
 This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and
application for producing information according to the need of an organization.

 Man-made information systems are divided into three types −

1. Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in
the form of memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of
management.
2. Informal Information System − This is employee-based system which
solves the day to day work related problems.
3. Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the
computer for managing business applications. For example, automatic
library system, railway reservation system, banking system, etc.
Systems Models
1- Schematic Models
 A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their linkages.
 Different arrows are used to show information flow, material flow, and information feedback.

2- Flow System Models

 A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and information that hold the
system together.
 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to abstract a real-world
system in model form.
3- Static System Models
 They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–quantity.
 The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity-time relationship.
4- Dynamic System Models
 Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates the type of
organization or application that analysts deal with.
 It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system. It consists of −
• O Inputs that enter the system
• o The processor through which transformation takes place
• o The program(s) required for processing
• o The output(s) that result from processing.
Categories of
Information

• There are three

categories of
information related to
managerial levels and
the decision managers
make.
Strategic information
• This information is required by topmost management for long range planning policies for next
few years. For example, trends in revenues, financial investment, and human resources, and
population growth.
• This type of information is achieved with the aid of Decision Support System (DSS).
Managerial information
 This type of Information is required by middle management for short and intermediate range
planning which is in terms of months. For example, sales analysis, cash flow projection, and
annual financial statements.
 It is achieved with the aid of Management Information Systems (MIS).
Operational information
 This type of information is required by low management for daily and short-term planning to
enforce day-to-day operational activities. For example, keeping employee attendance records,
overdue purchase orders, and current stocks available.
 It is achieved with the aid of Data Processing Systems (DPS).
Methodologies and Models
in SDLC
 Methodologies and Models
• Methodologies
• Comprehensive guidelines to follow for completing every
SDLC activity
• Collection of models, tools, and techniques
• Models
• Representation of an important aspect of real world, but not
same as real thing
• Abstraction used to separate out aspect
• Diagrams and charts
• Project planning and budgeting aids

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Some Models Used in System Development

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Flowchart

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Entity Relationship Diagram

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Dataflow diagram elements

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 1.External entities are represented by squares as the source or
destination of data.
2.Processes are represented by rectangles with rounded corners.
3.Data Flows are referred to by arrows to denote the physical or
electronic flow of data.
4.Data Stores are physical or electronic-like XML files denoted by
open-ended rectangles.

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Dataflow diagram

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Structure Chart
• It represents hierarchical structure of modules.
• It breaks down the entire system into lowest functional
modules, describe functions and sub-functions of each
module of a system to a greater detail.
• Structure Chart partitions the system into black boxes
(functionality of the system is known to the users but inner
details are unknown).
• Modules at top level called modules at low level.
Components are read from top to bottom and left to right

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Structure Chart symbols
• Module
It represents the process or task of the system. It is of three
types.
• Control Module
A control module branches to more than one sub
module.
• Sub Module
Sub Module is a module which is the part (Child) of
another module.
• Library Module
Library Module are reusable and invokable from any
module.

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 • Conditional Call
It represents that control module can select any of
the sub-module based on some condition.

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 • Loop (Repetitive call of module)
It represents the repetitive execution of module by
the sub module.
A curved arrow represents loop in the module.
• All the sub modules cover by the loop repeat
execution of module.

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 • Data Flow
It represents the flow of data between the modules.
It is represented by directed arrow with empty circle
at the end.

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 • Control Flow
It represents the flow of control between the
modules. It is represented by directed arrow
with filled circle at the end.

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 • Physical Storage
It is that where all the information are to be
stored.

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Structure Chart Example

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Use case diagram
• A use case is a list of actions or event steps, typically defining
the interactions between a role (known in the Unified
Modeling Language as an actor) and a system, to achieve a
goal.
• The actor can be a human, an external system, or time.
• The Use Case Diagram is a UML Diagram where each use-case
specifies the behavior expected from software from the
perspective of end-user and relation as well as provides brief
overview for different components concerning interaction
between use-case, actors and systems

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UCD elements
• UCDs have only 4 major elements:
• The actors that the system you are describing interacts
with,
• The system itself,
• The use cases, or services, that the system knows how to
perform,
• Lines that represent relationships between these
elements.

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Use case diagram (example)

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Class Diagram
• Class diagram is basically a graphical representation of the
static view of the system and represents different aspects of
the application.
• A collection of class diagrams represent the whole system.
• The name of the class diagram should be meaningful to describe
the aspect of the system.

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The standard class diagram is composed of
three sections:
Upper section: Contains the name of the class. This section is
always required, whether you are talking about the classifier
or an object.
Middle section: Contains the attributes of the class.
Bottom section: Includes class operations (methods).

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Class diagram

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 2

Approaches to System
Development
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Information System Development Phases

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 2
“Waterfall” Approach to the SDLC

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 2
Modified Waterfall Approach
with Overlapping Phases

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 2
Newer Adaptive Approaches to the SDLC
 Based on spiral model
 Project cycles through development activities over and over
until project is complete
 Prototype created by end of each cycle
 Focuses on mitigating risk (decreasing its chances)

 Iteration – Work activities are repeated

 Each iteration refines previous result

 Approach assumes no one gets it right the first time

 There are a series of mini projects for each iteration

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 2
The Spiral Life Cycle Model (Figure 2-6)

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 2

Iteration of
System
Development
Activities

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 2
Activities of Planning Phase of SDLC
 Define business problem and scope

 Produce detailed project schedule

 Confirm project feasibility

 Economic, organizational, technical, resource, and

schedule

 Staff the project (resource management)

 Launch project  official announcement

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 2
Activities of Analysis Phase of SDLC
 Gather information to learn problem domain

 Define system requirements

 Build prototypes for discovery of requirements

 Prioritize requirements

 Generate and evaluate alternatives

 Review recommendations with management

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 2
Activities of Design Phase of SDLC
 Design and integrate the network

 Design the application architecture

 Design the user interfaces

 Design the system interfaces

 Design and integrate the database

 Prototype for design details

 Design and integrate system controls

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 2
Activities of Implementation Phase of
SDLC
 Construct software components

 Verify and test

 Convert data

 Train users and document the system

 Install the system

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 2
Activities of Support Phase of SDLC
 Maintain system
 Small patches, repairs, and updates
 Enhance system
 Small upgrades or enhancements to expand
system capabilities
 Larger enhancements may require separate
development project
 Support users
 Help desk and/or support team
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Setting Priorities
• Factors that Affect Priority
• Will the proposed system reduce costs? Where? When? How? How
much?
• Will the system increase revenue for the company? Where? When?
How? How much?

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Setting Priorities
• Factors that Affect Priority
• Will the systems project result in more information or produce better
results? How? Are the results measurable?
• Will the system serve customers better?
• Will the system serve the organization better?

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Types of systems for users

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Setting Priorities
• Factors that Affect Priority
• Can the project be implemented in a reasonable time period? How long
will the results last?
• Are the necessary financial, human, and technical resources available?
• Whenever possible, the analyst should evaluate a proposed project
based on tangible costs and benefits that represent actual (or
approximate) dollar values

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Setting Priorities
• Discretionary and Nondiscretionary Projects
• Projects where management has a choice in implementing them are
called discretionary projects
• Projects where no choice exists are called nondiscretionary projects

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Preliminary investigation
• Interaction with Managers and Users
• Let people know about the investigation and explain your role
• Employee attitudes and reactions are important and must be
considered
• Be careful in your use of the word problem
• Question users about additional capability they would like to have

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Planning the Preliminary Investigation
• During a preliminary investigation, a systems analyst typically follows a
series of steps
• The exact procedure depends on the nature of the request, the size of
the project, and the degree of urgency

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 1: Understand the Problem or Opportunity
• A popular technique for investigating causes and effects is called a
fishbone diagram, or Ishikawa diagram

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What is Ishikawa diagram
• What are the 7 categories in a fishbone diagram?
This fishbone diagram variation is most commonly used in
manufacturing and allows you to organize potential causes of a
problem into these categories:
Man, Materials, Machine, Methods, Measurements and
Environment.
In some cases, two additional categories are included:
Management/Money and Maintenance.
Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 2: Define the Project Scope and Constraints
• Project scope
• Project creep
• Scope creep occurs when scope or requirements management doesn't occur.
• Constraint
• The six main project constraints are time, cost, scope, quality, resources, and
risks. Managers must balance these constraints in order to ensure successful
project completion.

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 2: Define the Project Scope and Constraints
• Present versus future
• Internal versus external
• Mandatory versus desirable
• Regardless of the type, all constraints should be identified as early as
possible to avoid future problems and surprises

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 3: Perform Fact-Finding
• Fact-finding involves various techniques
• Depending on what information is needed to investigate the systems
request, fact-finding might consume several hours, days, or weeks
• Analyze Organization Charts
• Obtain organization charts to understand how the department functions and
identify individuals you might want to interview

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Preliminary Investigation Overview
• Step 3: Perform Fact-Finding
• Conduct interviews
• Review documentation
• Observe operations
• Conduct a user survey

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 4: Analyze Project Usability, Cost, Benefit, and Schedule
Data
• Before you can evaluate feasibility, you must analyze this data carefully
• What information must you obtain, and how will you gather and analyze
the information?
• What sources of information will you use, and what difficulties will you
encounter in obtaining information?

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 4: Analyze Project Usability, Cost, Benefit, and Schedule
Data
– Will you conduct interviews? How many people will you interview, and
how much time will you need to meet with the people and summarize
their responses?
– Will you conduct a survey? Who will be involved? How much time will it
take people to complete it? How much time will it take to prepare it and
tabulate the results?
– How much will it cost to analyze the information gathered and to
prepare a report with findings and recommendations?

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 5: Evaluate Feasibility
• Start by reviewing the answers to the questions you asked
• Operational feasibility
• Technical feasibility
• Economic feasibility
• Schedule feasibility

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 6: Present Results and Recommendations to
Management
• The final task in the preliminary investigation is to prepare a report to
management
• The format of the preliminary investigation report varies from one
company to another

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Preliminary Investigation
Overview
• Step 6: Present Results and
Recommendations to
Management
• Introduction
• Systems request summary
• Findings
• Case for action
• Project Roles
• Time & cost estimates
• Expected benefits
• Appendix

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Chapter Summary
• Strategic planning allows a company to examine its purpose,
vision, and values and develops a mission statement, which
leads to goals, objectives, day-to-day operations, and business
results that affect company stakeholders
• Systems projects are initiated to improve performance, provide
more information, reduce costs, strengthen controls, or provide
better service

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Chapter Summary
• Various internal and external factors affect systems projects,
such as user requests, top management directives, existing
systems, the IT department, software and hardware vendors,
technology, customers, competitors, the economy, and
government
• During the preliminary investigation, the analyst evaluates the
systems request and determines whether the project is feasible
from an operation, technical, economic, and schedule
standpoint

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Chapter Summary
• Analysts evaluate systems requests on the basis of their
expected costs and benefits, both tangible and intangible
• The steps in the preliminary investigation are to understand the
problem or opportunity; define the project scope and
constraints; perform fact-finding; analyze project usability, cost,
benefit, and schedule data; evaluate feasibility; and present
results and recommendations to management

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Chapter Summary
• The last task in a preliminary investigation is to prepare a report
to management
• The report must include an estimate of time, staffing
requirements, costs, benefits, and expected results for the next
phase of the SDLC

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 System Analysis and
Strategic Planning

11/14/2024 1
Introduction
• The term business case refers to the reasons, or justification,
for a proposal
• A strong business case suggests that the company should
pursue the alternative, above other options, because it would be
in the firm’s best interest to do so
• Systems development typically starts with a systems request,
followed by a preliminary investigation, which includes a
feasibility study

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Strategic Planning –
A Framework for IT Systems Development
• Strategic Planning Overview
• SWOT analysis

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Strategic Planning –
A Framework for IT Systems Development
• From Strategic Plans to
Business Results
• Mission statement
• Stakeholders
• Goals
• Objectives

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Strategic Planning –
A Framework for IT Systems Development
• A CASE Tool Example
• You are a systems analyst
• You research the Visible Analyst CASE tool
• Planning statements can include assumptions, goals, objectives, and
critical success factors, and many other types of statements
• Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE)
• It can be defined as the automation of part of, or the entire, systems
development process.

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Strategic Planning –
A Framework for IT Systems Development
• The Role of the IT Department in Project Evaluation
– Management leadership and information technology are linked closely,
and remarkable changes have occurred in both areas
– Today, systems development is much more team oriented
– Although team-oriented development is the norm, some companies
see the role of the IT department as a gatekeeper

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Strategic Planning –
A Framework for IT Systems Development
• The Future
• If you could look into the future, here is what you might see: new
industries, products, and services emerging from amazing advances in
information technology, customers who expect world-class IT support,
a surge in Internet-based commerce, and a global business
environment that is dynamic and incredibly challenging

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What Is a Business Case?
• Should be comprehensive,
yet easy to understand
• Should describe the project
clearly, provide the
justification to proceed, and
estimate the project’s financial
impact

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Information Systems Projects
• Main Reasons for Systems Projects

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Information Systems Projects
• Factors that Affect Systems Projects

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Information Systems Projects
• Project Management

 If the project is approved, it can be planned, scheduled, monitored and

controlled, and reported upon

 Individual analysts or IT staff members often handle small projects, but

companies usually designate a project manager to coordinate the
overall effort for complex projects

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Evaluation of Systems Requests
• Systems review committee or a computer resources
committee evaluate systems requests
• Systems Requests Forms
• A properly designed form streamlines the request process and ensures
consistency
• Occasionally a situation will arise that requires an immediate response

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Evaluation of Systems Requests
• Systems Review Committees

 Most large companies use a systems review committee to evaluate

systems requests

 Many smaller companies rely on one person to evaluate systems

requests instead of a committee

 The goal is to evaluate the requests and set priorities

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Feasibility Study:
• Feasibility study is an assessment of the practicality of a
proposed project or system.
• It aims to objectively and rationally uncover the strengths and
weaknesses of an existing business or proposed venture,
opportunities and threats present in the natural
environment, the resources required to carry through, and
ultimately the prospects for success.
• In its simplest terms, the two criteria to judge feasibility
are cost required and value to be attained.
Overview of Feasibility
• A systems request must pass
several tests, called a
feasibility study, to see
whether it is worthwhile to
proceed further

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Overview of Feasibility
Operational Feasibility
• Depends on several vital issues
Technical Feasibility
Economic Feasibility
• Total cost of ownership (TCO)
• Tangible benefits
• Intangible benefits
Schedule Feasibility

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Evaluating Feasibility
• The first step in evaluating feasibility is to identify and weed
out systems requests that are not feasible.

• Even if the request is feasible, it might not be necessary.

• Feasibility analysis is an ongoing task that must be performed

throughout the systems development process

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