Table Of Contents

S.NO TITLE PAGE NO.

1. Introduction 1

2. Circuit Diagram 2

3. Circuit Description 3

4. Working 4

5. Component Table 5

5.1. Data Sheet of 741 IC

5.2. Light dependent resister (LDR)

5.3. Relays

5.4. Transistor

6. Printed Circuit Board 18

6.1. Types Of PCB

6.2. Manufacturing Process Of PCB

7. PCB layout 26

8. Applications 26

9. Conclusion 27

10. References 28
1.INTRODUCTION

Light sensor circuit is widely used in projects for security systems and
light control.

In our project we have performed sensing operation using a light dependent

resistor (LDR). This circuit will activate a relay when light falls to a preset
level. This kind of circuit is basically used in automatic turn on and off of
street light, security alarm etc.

For this project various components like transistor, relay, potentiometer,

resistor, capacitor, diode and 741 IC are used.

Components and there datasheets and working is being described in the

report.

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2.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

FIGURE 2.1- Circuit diagram of LIGHT SENSOR.

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3.CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The light sensor used is the ORP12 photocell. According to this circuit,

a relay will be activated when light falls to a preset level. Light level can be

adjusted with potentiometer and the relay contacts may be used to operate an

external light or buzzer.

Transistor is being used here as a switch. A diode is also connected which is

used for the protection of relay. LM 741 works as a comparator IC. LED is

being used for indication switching circuit.

By swapping the positions of the 10K resistor (R1) and the LDR (LDR1), the

relay will be closed when the LDR is under light rather than under darkness.

Therefore a device can automatically be switched off at night time.

Since this circuit still contains a relay we need to make some changes to

reduce the amount of power to make it more suitable for renewable resource

powered low current applications.

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4.WORKING

In our project “LIGHT SENSOR” the main sensing component used is

LDR (light dependent resistor). It follows the principle that intensity of light

falling is inversely proportional to resistance i.e. negative temperature

coefficient.

The light sensor used is the ORP12 photocell. In bright light the resistance of

the ORP12 can be as low as 80 ohm and at 50 lux(darkness) the resistance

increases to over 1Mohm. The 1M control should provide a wide range for

light intensities, if not its value may be increased.

The op-amp senses the voltage difference between pins 2 and 3. The control

VR1 is adjusted so that the relay is off, the output of the op-amp will be

around 2 volts. When light falls, the resistance of the photocell increases and

the difference in input voltage is amplified by the op-amp, the output will

swing towards full supply and drive the transistor and relay.

The 270k resister provides a small amount of hysteresis, so that the circuit

switches on and off with slightly different light levels. This eliminates relay

chatter.

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Now when the LDR is covered, the potential at collector junction increases

which drives the relay on, during this relay is normally open due to which

LED glows. The glowing of LED indicates the sensing of light and dark

conditions.

5.COMPONENT TABLE

Table 4.1- Component used in light sensor circuit.

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5.1 DATASHEET OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Figure 6.1- Circuit of LM741

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Table 7.1- Electrical characteristics of OP-AMP

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5.2 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR

A photoresistor or light dependent resistor is a component that is

sensitive to light. When light falls upon it then the resistance changes. Values

of the resistance of the LDR may change over many orders of magnitude the

value of the resistance falling as the level of light increases.

It is not uncommon for the values of resistance of an LDR or photoresistor to

be several megohms in darkness and then to fall to a few hundred ohms in

bright light. With such a wide variation in resistance, LDRs are easy to use

and there are many LDR circuits available.

LDRs are made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have their

light sensitive properties. Many materials can be used, but one popular

material for these photoresistors is cadmium sulphide (CdS).

Light dependent resistors or LDRs are often used in circuits where it is

necessary to detect the presence or the level of light. They can be described

by a variety of names from light dependent resistor, LDR, photoresistor, or

even photo cell (photocell) or photoconductor.

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Although other devices such as photodiodes or photo-transistor can also be

used, LDRs are a particularly convenient electronics component to use. They

provide large change in resistance for changes in light level.

In view of their low cost, ease of manufacture, and ease of use LDRs have

been used in a variety of different applications. At one time LDRs were used

in photographic light meters, and even now they are still used in a variety of

applications where it is necessary to detect light levels.

The device is used in control circuits to turn lights on and in photographic

exposure meters.

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How an LDR works

An LDR or photoresistor is made of any semiconductor (such as

Cadmium Sulphide) material with a high resistance. It has a high resistance

because there are very few electrons that are free and able to move – the vast

majority of the electrons are locked into the crystal lattice and unable to

move. Therefore in this state there is a high LDR resistance.

As light falls on the semiconductor, the light photons are absorbed by the

semiconductor lattice and some of their energy is transferred to the electrons.

This gives some of them sufficient energy to break free from the crystal

lattice so that they can then conduct electricity. This results in a lowering of

the resistance of the semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance.

The resistance of the LDR decreases as the intensity of the light falling on it

increases. Incident photons drive electrons from the valency band into the

conduction band.

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5.3 RELAYS

A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an

electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or

closing of another circuit. Relays are like remote control switches and are

used in many applications because of their relative simplicity, long life, and

proven high reliability. They are used in a wide variety of applications

throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and

automation systems.

How do relays work?

All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by

AC or DC current. When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold

value, the coil activates the armature, which operates either to close the open

contacts or to open the closed contacts. When a power is supplied to the coil,

it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch mechanism. The

magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to another.

The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second is called the load

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circuit. A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an

electrical current.

The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another

circuit.

Figure.5.3.1 Relay

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Datasheet

FEATURES

• Ultra-miniature size with universal terminal footprint

• High contact capacity: 10 A

• Class B coil insulation type available

• TV-5 type available

o 1 Form A type → TV-5

o 1 Form C type → TV-5 (N.O. side only)

• VDE, TÜV also approved

• Sealed construction for automatic cleaning

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SPECIFICATIONS

Contact

Table 11.1- Specification of Relay

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Characteristics

Table 12.1- Characteristics of relay

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ADVANTAGES OF RELAYS:

• Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.

• Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors.

• Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

• Relays can switch many contacts at once.

DISADVANTAGES OF RELAYS:

• Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

• Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can

switch many times per second.

• Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.

• Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power

transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

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5.4 Transistor

FEATURES

• High current (max. 800 mA)

• Low voltage (max. 40 V).

APPLICATIONS

• Linear amplification and switching.

DESCRIPTION

• NPN switching transistor in a TO-18 metal package.

• PNP complement: 2N2907A.

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QUICK REFERENCE DATA

Table 14.1- Characteristics of transistor

6 . PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

The use of miniaturization and sub miniaturization in electronic

equipment design has been responsible for the introduction of a new

technique in inters component wiring and assembly that is popularly known

as printed circuit.

The printed circuit boards (PCBs) consist of an insulating substrate material

with metallic circuitry photo chemically formed upon that substrate. Thus

PCB provides sufficient mechanical support and necessary electrical

connections for an electronic circuit.

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Advantages of printed circuit boards: -

1) Circuit characteristics can be maintained without introducing

variations inter circuit capacitance.

2) Wave soldering or vapour phase reflow soldering can mechanize

component wiring and assembly.

3) Mass production can be achieved at lower cost.

4) The size of component assembly can be reduced with corresponding

decrease in weight.

5) Inspection time is reduced as probability of error is eliminated.

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6.1 TYPES OF PCB’S

There are four major types of PCB’s: -

1) Single sided PCB: - In this, copper tracks are on one side of the board, and

are the simplest form of PCB. These are simplest to manufacture thus have

low production cost.

2) Double sided PCB:- In this, copper tracks are provided on both sides of the

substrate. To achieve the connections between the boards, hole plating is

done, which increase the manufacturing complexity.

3) Multilayered PCB: - In this, two or more pieces of dielectric substrate

material with circuitry formed upon them are stacked up and bonded together.

Electrically connections are established from one side to the other and to the

layer circuitry by drilled holes, which are subsequently plated through

copper.

4) Flexible PCB: - Flexible circuit is basically a highly flexible variant of the

conventional rigid printed circuit board theme.

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6.2 DESIGNING OF PCB

PCB can be manufactured by a number of processes. One of the processes is

mentioned below:

STAGE 1: Lith film manufacture

Lith film (photo film) used in this process was earlier used for black and

white photography.

REMEMBER: All the processes for the manufacture of lith film are performed

in the dark room under minimal amount of light.

Before beginning with the steps we prepare 3 trays of solutions:

Tray 1: A+B tray which is Butyl + Sodium Carbonate with concentration 1

teaspoon in 1 litre of water both added in same ratio.

Tray 2: Ordinary water

Tray 3: It consists of fixer (developer), the chemical is dissolved 2 teaspoons

in 1 litre of water.

1. The first step is to prepare the layout of the circuit on a transparent

sheet.
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 2. Lith film is a sheet with two sides, one side is brown and the other is
gray.

3. The lith film is now cut to an approximate size of the layout.

4. The lith film is now placed in the lith making machine with readable
part on the upper side.

5. The brown side of the lith film should touch the layout.

6. Now put the door of the machine down for not more than 8 seconds
and push the switch ON.

7. Remove the lith film and wash it in the first tray continuously in
movement till the complete circuit is developed. Minimum time required is 2-
3 minutes.

8. The circuit after the first tray appears transparent and the rest of the
film turns black.

9. Now shift the lith film in second tray and wash it for 2-3 minutes.

10. Lastly wash the lith film in the fixer tray for the same time interval.

11. Now, dry the film in air/oven at normal temperature say 40 degrees
till the film dries. The negative is ready to be processed further. PCB
consists of an insulating substrate material.

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STAGE 2: Photolithography

After preparing the negative, the next stage is photolithography. The steps

performed under this are mentioned below.

REMEMBER: All the processes for the manufacture of lith film are performed

in the dark room under minimal amount of light.

1. First of all we take a single sided copper clad board and cut it in size

of the layout.

2. Clean it by metallic jute to see the shiny copper surface.

3. Now dip the PCB in the dip coating machine so that a layer photo

resist material is coated on the PCB. Photo resist is an organic solution which

when exposed to light of particular wavelength change their solubility in the

developer. In dip coating copper clad board is clamped with the machine and

when the machine is switched on the copper clad gets dipped in the material.

4. After a layer of photo resist material is applied on the board surface,

we dry the copper clad in the oven at 500C

5. The basic purpose of applying photo resist material is that when this

material is subjected to the UV light, the circuit gets imprinted on the board.
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 6. Now the copper clad board along with the layout is placed in the UV

light machine to get the imprint of the circuit. In this machine the laminated

copper clad and the negative film (lith film) kept in glass frame, for (2-3)

minutes and after the time interval the circuit becomes partially visible on the

board.

7. Ultimately we drop the copper board in the machine which consists

of white dye and blue dye in separate tanks. We immerse the copper board

first in white dye for approximately one minute for the visibility of the

circuit.

8. The next step is to wash the copper clad in simple water after which

the circuit becomes completely visible on the board.

9. After the above step, we put the copper board in blue dye for

approximately one minute.

STAGE 3: Etching

The next step after pre processing is etching The etching process is performed

by exposing the surface of the board to an etchant solution which dissolves

away the exposed copper areas other than the one deposited on the circuit

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.The different solutions used are: FeCl, CuCl, etc. CHROMATIC ACID,

ALKALINE AMMONIA

STAGE 4: Drilling

Drilling is used to create the component lead holes in a PCB .The drilling can

be done before or after the track defined for the components.

STAGE 5: Component Mounting And Soldering

It is the process in which components are mounted on the PCB with the help

of soldering ion and soldering wire.

STAGE 6: PCB Testing

Each board needs to ensure that the required connections exist, that there are

no short circuits and holes are properly placed. The testing usually consists of

visual inspection and continuity testing.

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7. PCB LAYOUT

8. APPLICATIONS

1. Street lights

2. Shadow alarm, Burglar alarm, Fire alarm

3. Garage door and car control systems

4. Other remote control systems

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9.CONCLUSION

During the making of the project “LIGHT SENSOR” ,we developed a

vast knowledge on working of IC’S ,LDR’s and concept of Relay.

We also studied and collected information on the various fields of

implementations of the system. This project is very beneficial in today’s life

as we worked on electronics equipments.

The task was decided between the group members and every task was

interrelated, so it was our duty to ensure that every one of us completed our

task before moving to next step. This helped us to develop an understanding

of the team work and the need to carry everyone along working for a group

project.

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10.References

Websites:

1.http://pecworld.zxq.net/Assets/SOURCE/PDF_fun_circuit/All_pdf_files_m

anual/20303_June05.pdf

2. www. datasheets catalog.com/ datasheets _pdf/N/.../ NE 555. shtml

3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch

Book:

Ramakant A. Gayakwad- “OP AMP and linear integrated circuits” 4th

edition(2001), Page no. 33, 331, 133-147.

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