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MPPSC MAINS

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PAPER-1 PART-B UNIT-1
GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION OF INDIA

@safaltaias
www.safaltaias.com

By:-Dr. Kuldeep Sir

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 Ancient Indian geographical concepts have a long history, which has been continuously
flourishing and growing in different periods.
 Inter-regional travels, literary descriptions, remains obtained from excavations of civilizations
are present as the sources of ancient geographical knowledge.

Sources of geographical knowledge

Sources of Vedic Ramayana Buddhist Mythological Historical

Harappan period and period sources journeys
civilization sources Mahabharata sources
period
sources
1. Sources of Harappan Civilization -
 Contemporary geographical details were obtained from the excavations of cities such as
Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal.
Like -
 All the cities were situated on the banks of rivers. Which shows the importance of rivers in
the development process.
 Knowledge of natural disasters is evident from the construction of granaries.

2. Vedic period sources

 Geographical information is obtained from Vedic period literature such as Vedas,
Brahmans, Aranyakas, Upanishads.
Like -
 Information about the origin of the universe is found in the 10th Mandal of Rigveda.
 Information about agricultural activities is found in Shatapath Brahman.

3. Ramayana and Mahabharata period sources

 This period is also full of geographical information.
Like -
 Information about mountains, rivers and plateaus is found from Ramayana. Pilgrimages
of Mahabharata are also rich in geographical knowledge.

4. Sources of Buddha period -

 The religious journeys and literature of this period provide geographical information.
Like -
 Pilgrimages of Buddha and Mahavira
 Pali literature

5. Sources of Purana period -

 In Vishnu Purana, India is described as follows –

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Uttar Yat Samudrastha Himadreshcheva Dakshinam.

Varsham Tad Bharatam Naam Bharati Yatra Santatih.
 That is, the country which is to the north of the sea and south of Himalayas is called India.

6. Historical journeys -
 Greek geographers (Hecataeus, Herodotus) and Chinese travellers provided geographical
information in their travel descriptions.
 Like - "Fahian" described the equable climate of Malwa as the best climate in the world.

Region wise geographical knowledge

Physical Economic Cultural Astronomical knowledge

1. Physical -
 Information about physical geography is obtained from literary sources, remains obtained from
excavations.
 For example -
Mountains -
 In Mahabharata, Satpura is described as 'Vadarya Parvat'.
 Himalaya Mountain is described in Rigveda.
Rivers -
 In 'Nadi Sukta' of 10th Mandal of Rigveda, 21 rivers are described.
 In Markandeya Purana also 'Sapta Saindhav' rivers are described.
Seasons -
 In ancient Indian texts, 6 seasons are described.
 For example - Varsha, Grishma, Sharad, Hemant, Shishir, Basant.
 The discovery of commercial coins describes the mutual cultural contact of civilizations.
 For example - coins of Egyptian and Harappa civilization.
Astronomical Knowledge -
 The Rigveda and Ayurveda provide us the knowledge about constellations, solar eclipse, lunar
eclipse and Earth's rotation.

Major Indian Geographic Thinkers

1. Brahmagupta -
 Works - Brahmasphuta Siddhanta and Khandakhandya
 Gave details of the Earth's attraction force (gravity).
 Solutions to geometrical and algebraic problems are given in Khandakhandya.
 Astronomy is described in Brahmasphuta Siddhanta.

2. Kalidasa -
 Works - Meghdootam, Ritusanharam
 Meghdootam contains description of clouds and the beauty of Amarkantak.

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 Ritusanharam describes the seasons in India.

3. Varahamihir -
 Works - Panchsiddhantika, Wrihatsanhita
 He has given detailed description of solar eclipse and lunar eclipse. ऽ Panchsiddhantika describes
the gravitational force of the earth.

4. Aryabhatta -
 Works - Surya Siddhanta, Aryabhattiyam
 He told that the earth is round and rotates on its own axis.

5. Bhaskaracharya-II
 Works - Siddhanta Shiromani, Karan Kautoohal
 He told about the motion of planets.
 He divided the earth into 3600 parts and used latitude and longitude lines for position determination.

India: Physiographic Regions

 It is the result of the geological structure, process and state
of development of a place.
 According to the Census Commission of 1951, 11% of the
total area is mountainous, 18% hilly, 28% plateau and 43%
plain.
 On the basis of strata, rock sequence, tectonic history,
processes and relief patterns, India can be divided into 5
major physical regions.

Types

Mountaino Vast plain of Peninsular Coastal Islands

us region of North India plateau plain
North
Northern Mountainous Region
 It forms the northern boundary of the Indian subcontinent.
 Location - From Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east
 Length - 2500 km.
 Climate - Temperate climate
 Formation - According to plate tectonics, the Himalayas originated due to the collision of the
Eurasian plate and the Indian plate and folding of the Tethys Sea situated between the two.
 The Northern Mountainous Region can be divided into three parts
1. Trans Himalayan Mountainous Region
2. Himalayan Mountainous Region

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3. Hills of Purvanchal

Origin of Himalayas according to Kober's Geosyncline theory

 According to Kober, folded mountains like Himalayas are formed in geosynclines (shallow seas)
 According to Kober, hard fronts (phreatogen), Brownian Cratogen and Indian Phreatogen were
present on both sides of the Tethyl Geosyncline.

 Due to erosion of these fronts, rivers started depositing sediments in the geosyncline, due to which
the bottom of the geosyncline started sinking and the fronts started sliding towards each other, due
to which the geosyncline continuously narrowed and started applying horizontal pressure on the
sediments at its bottom.

 Due to this horizontal pressure, folding started in the sediments and a folded mountain in the form
of Himalayas originated.

Stages of division

Division of Pangea Division of Gondwanaland

Himalayas originated on the basis of plate tectonics theory

 When about 250 million years ago in the Permian period of Paleozoic era, all the continents were
connected as a single supercontinent Pangea and all the oceans were connected as Panthalassa.

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Division of Pangea
 Division of Pangea took place 200 million years ago in the Triassic period of the Mesozoic era, in
two huge parts, Laurentia (including North America, Europe, Asia, Greenland, etc.) and
Gondwanaland (including Africa, South America, India, Australia, Antarctica, etc.) and the
displacement of Laurentia towards north and Gondwanaland towards south started.
 The sea formed between both the landmasses was named as Tethys Sea.

Division of Gondwanaland
 About 145 million years ago in the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era, Gondwanaland got divided
again and after separating from it, the displacement of the Indian plate towards north started,
which led to the formation of a new ocean, the Indian Ocean.

Collisions of plates
 60 million years ago, in the Paleocene era of Tertiary era, the Indian plate collided with the
Eurasian plate due to which the crustal rocks and sediments of Tethys Sea were uplifted along the
Indus-Tsangpo junction region. Presently, the Indus River and the Yarlang Tsangpo
(Brahmaputra) flow along this junction region.

Origins of fold mountains

 In the Eocene period of Tertiary Era (45-35 million years ago), folding of the rocks of Tibet Plateau,
volcanic eruptions led to the formation of Trans Himalayas and folding of the sediments of Tethys
Sea, which led to the rise of Greater Himalayas, Middle Himalayas and Shivalik ranges in Oligocene,
Miocene and Pliocene respectively.
 After this, the Indian plate rotated counterclockwise and closed towards the east, due to which wide
valleys were formed towards the west.

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 The mountain ranges of the Himalayas are separated from each other by a fault line.
Fault Line Boundary
Indus-Sangpo Junction Zone Tibet and Indian plate
Main Central Thrust Large and small regions
Main Boundary Fault Lesser Himalayas and Shivalik
Himalayan Frontal Fault Shivalik and northern plain

Trans Himalaya or Tibet Himalaya Range

 Location
 It is situated to the north of the Great Himalayas.
 Average height is 3000 m.
 It includes the Karakoram, Ladakh, Jaskar and Kailash
mountain ranges.

 Formation
 Trans Himalayas were formed in the Mesozoic period
before the Himalayas, i.e. Trans Himalayas is an older
mountain range than the Himalayas.
 Other name - Tibet China Himalaya
 Length - 1000 km.
 India's northernmost pass Dhingla Pass is situated in it.

 Ranges
 Trans Himalayas have three ranges.
a. Karakoram Range
b. Ladakh Range

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c. Jaskar Range

a- Karakoram
 Situated in the northern part of the Trans-Himalayan mountain range.
 It is also known as Krishnagiri.
 Other name - Backbone of High Asia.
 Location
 Karakoram is surrounded by the edge of the Tibetan plateau in the northeast and the Pamir
Mountains in the north.
 The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed from west to east by the Gilgit, Indus and
Shyok rivers, which separate it from the last edge of the northwestern Himalayan range and flow
in the southwest direction towards the plains of Pakistan.
 It forms the border with China and Afghanistan.

 Geographical conditions
 Due to high altitude, the Trans Himalaya remains snow-covered throughout the year, that’s why
vegetation is not found here.
 Extreme odd temperatures and debris of disintegrated rocks are its characteristics.

 Highest peak
 K2 (Godwin Austin) (8611 m) situated on Karakoram (Krishnagiri) is the highest peak of India
and the second highest peak of the world.

 Other major peaks

 Hidden peak, Broad peak, Gaserbrum, Maserbrum etc. are other major peaks of this mountain
range.
 Steppe like or desert landscape is an important feature of the Karakoram mountain range.
 Karakoram range acts as a watershed between India and Turkey.

 Glaciers
 Barring the polar regions, here the most number of glaciers in the world.
 Outside the polar regions, Siachen Glacier 70 km and Biafo Glacier 63 km are the second and
third longest glaciers in the world.
 Glaciers like Batura, Baltoro, Biafo and Hispar are also located in this mountain range.

 Glacial Surges-
 Recently, the phenomenon of ‘glacial surge’ was observed in more than 220 glaciers of the
Karakoram range.
 Glacial surge is a short-term phenomenon in which an increase in the length and volume of the
glacier is observed.

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 Passes
Pass Description
Mintaka Pass  Between northern Pakistan and China
 It is situated at the tri-junction of India-Afghanistan and China.
Parpik Pass  It connects Kashmir to China
Khunjerab Pass  Situated between Gilgit and China
 The Karakoram Highway originates from here.
Karakoram  India's highest pass
Pass  It connects Ladakh to China
Siah-la  It is situated to the north-west of the Siachen Glacier.
Bilafond Pass  It is situated to the west of Siachen.
 The ancient silk route passed through.

b- Ladakh Range
 Location
 It is located to the north of Leh.
 It joins the Kailash Range in Tibet.

 Geographical Conditions
 This is a dry region where there is a lack of
vegetation.
 Peaks
 Rakaposhi peak is on the Ladakh range.
 Rakaposhi peak is the steepest peak in the world.
 Drainage System
 This range extends from Shyok River in the north to
Indus River in the south.
 Indus River cuts this mountain range at a place
called Bunji and forms a 5200 meter deep gorge.
 Pangong Lake is situated in it which is the highest
salt water lake between India and China.
 Pass

Pass Description
Khardung-la  World's second highest motorable pass
 It connects Leh-Ladakh to Siachen.
Umling la  World's highest motorable pass
 It connects Demchok to China.

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 Aksai Chin
 Aksai Chin is situated in this range. It is a disputed area, which has been occupied by China
after the 1962 war.
 The Indus river flows between the Jaskar and Ladakh ranges and cuts the Ladakh range at a
place called 'Bunji' that form India's deepest gorge (5200 m deep).

c- Kailash mountain range

 It is a branch of the Ladakh mountain range, in Western Tibet.
 Its average height is 5500-6000 m and its average width is 30 km.

 Peaks
 'Mount Kailash' is the highest peak of this mountain range, with the height of 6714 m.
 The Indus river originates in Tibet from the northern slope of the Kailash mountain range.

d- Zaskar mountain range

 Location
 The Zaskar mountain range is separated from the Great Himalayas along the 𝟖𝟎𝟎 East
longitude line.
 The Great Himalayas to its south and the Ladakh mountain range to the north of this range are
spread parallelly.

 Peaks
 The average height of the Zaskar mountain range is 5800 m, but only a few of its peaks are
higher than 6000 m.
 ‘Nanga Parbat’ is the highest peak of this mountain range, whose height is 8126 m.
 The length of this mountain range is about 300 km.

 Passes

Pass State Description

Burjil Jammu and  It connects Srinagar to Gilgit-Balochistan.
Kashmir
Zojila Jammu and  The road from Srinagar to Kargil and Leh (NH-1D) passes
Kashmir through this pass.
Baralacha Himachal Pradesh  It connects Mandi and Leh.
Shipkila Himachal Pradesh  The Sutlej river enters India from Tibet through this pass
Himalayan Mountain Range
 The Himalayas are one of the newest folded mountains in the world which was formed due to the
folding of the sediments of the Tethys tectonic plateau.
 This mountain range extends from the Indus River Gorge in the west to the Brahmaputra River
Gorge in the east in a length of about 2500 km.
 The width of the Western Himalayas is about 500 km while the width of the Eastern Himalayas is
about 200 km.

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 The total area of this mountain range is about 5 lakh sq. km.
 The Pamir Plateau connects it with the high ranges of Central Asia.
 Its southern boundary is clear through the foothills (300 m contour line), but the northern boundary
is vague and joins the Tibetan Plateau.

Macrostructural Features of the Himalayas

Axis folds

Structural
Greater width of the features of the Arc shape
Western Himalayas Himalayas

Steep southern slope

1. Syntaxial folds
 The Himalayas are found to have axial
folds near Namcha Barwa and Nanga
Parbat. Where rivers form Syntaxial
Bends and the reason for its formation
is the strong compressional force
generated by the hard rocks of Aravalli
in N-W and Shillong Plateau in N-E on
the sediments of Tethys.
 From here, the Himalayas turn and
join the ranges like Purvanchal Himalayas in the east and Hindukush, Suleman in the west.

2. Arc shape
 This is due to the retreat of the weaker rocks of the Himalayas because the rocks of Tibet were
very strong.
3. Steep southern slope
 Due to the relatively higher speed of the Indian plate, the southern slope of the Himalayas has
become steep.
4. Western Himalayas being wider
 Due to the collision of the plate in the east, the western part was relieved of pressure, which led
to the expansion of the Western Himalayan ranges.
 The width of the Western Himalayas is about 500 km, while the width of the Eastern Himalayas
is about 200 km.

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Greater Himalayas
1. Formation - It is formed by metamorphosed rocks formed during the Oleocene period.
2. Expansion - From Nanga Parbat in the west to Namcha Barwa mountain in the east.
3. Length - 2400 km.
4. Height - 6100 km.
5. Rivers - Ganga and Yamuna
6. Climate - Temperate climate is found.
7. Tourist places - Amarnath, Vaishno Devi, Wular Lake,

Mountain peak Country/State Height above sea level (in

metres)
Bandarpoonch Uttarakhand
Gangotri Uttarakhand
Yamunotri Uttarakhand
Kamet Uttarakhand
Nar Uttarakhand
Narayan Uttarakhand
Trishul Uttarakhand
Nanda Devi Nepal 7,817
Mount Everest (highest mountain in Nepal 8,848
the world)
Makalu Nepal 8,481
Dhaulagiri India 8,172
Nanga Parbat (3rd highest mountain Nepal 8,l126
in India)
Annapurna India 8,078
Kanchenjunga (highest mountain in Tibet 8,598
India)
Namchabarwa Country/State 7,756

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 Geological conditions -
1. Foldings like symmetry, asymmetry, isocratic and crevasse are found here.
2. The rocks here are divided into four layers, upper sedimentary layer (made up of glaciers and
alluvium), intermediate metamorphic layer (made up of schist etc.), lower layer (made up of
Precambrian gneiss rocks) and internal rocks (composition of batholith made up of granite).
3. The MCT fault line looks like the valley of Kashmir, Kangra, Kathmandu and is affected by
earthquakes.
 Major passes
Passes State Connectivity
Niti Pass Uttarakhand 
It connects Uttarakhand to Tibet.
Mana Pass Uttarakhand 
It is a way to Kailash Mansarovar.

Mana is the last village of India when going from India to
Tibet.
Lipulekh Pass Uttarakhand  It gives way to Mansarovar and Kailash Parvat.
 The tri-junction of Nepal, China and Uttarakhand.
Nathu La Sikkim  Connects Darjeeling, Chumbi Valley and Tibet.
Jelepla Sikkim  Connects Kalimpong to Lhasa.
Boom La Arunachal Pradesh  It was a trade route in ancient times.
Tuju Pass Manipur  Connects Imphal to Myanmar.
Yangyap Pass Arunachal Pradesh  The Brahmaputra river enters India through this pass.)
Diphu Pass Arunachal Pradesh  It is the tri-junction of India, China, Myanmar border where
the borders of all three countries are adjacent.)
Likhapani  Connects Arunachal Pradesh to Myanmar.
Drainage system:- Indus, Sutlej, Shyok, Gilgit.

Middle/lesser Himalayas
 It was formed in the Miocene period.
 It is separated by the Main Central Region (MCT) in the south of the Greater Himalayas and the
Main Boundry Fault (MBF) in the north of the Shivalik range.
 Its average height is 1800 m - 3000 m but maximum height is up to 4500 m.
 Its width is between 80 and 100 km.
 There are many small ranges under the Lesser Himalayas which are as follows-
1. Pir Panjal Range
 It is spread in Kashmir between the Jhelum and Beas rivers.
 Height - 4000 meters
 Western range of Lesser Himalayas
Pass State Description
Pir Jammu  Connects Kashmir valley with Rajouri and Poonch by a twin road.
Panjal Kashmir
Banihal Jammu  The only highway connecting Srinagar to Jammu, ‘NH-1(A)’ passes
Kashmir through this pass.
 Jawahar tunnel is situated in this pass.

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Rohtang Himachal  Connects Kullu with Lahaul-Spiti valley.

Pradesh  Atal tunnel (9.02 km) has been constructed.
2. Dhauladhar Range
 Where Alaknanda crosses the Greater Himalayas near Badrinath, a range called Dhaulapur splits
towards the west to the south of the main range.
 It is the eastern range of the Lesser Himalayas.
 Tourist Place - Chamba
 Expansion -
 It is spread mainly in Himachal Pradesh and partly in Uttarakhand.

 Tourist Place -
 The most important city on the Dhauladhar Range is Shimla, which was the summer capital of
the British Government.
 Other important cities situated on the Middle/lesser Himalayas are Mussoorie, Nainital,
Ranikhet, Almora, Darjeeling, and Dalhousie.

3. Nagtibba Range -
 Where Kali Gandak cuts the Greater Himalayas near Dhaulagiri Peak (Nepal), the Nagtibba Range
goes towards the west.

4. Mahabharat Range -
It expands in Nepal.

 Valleys
 Two open valleys have developed between the Lesser Himalayas and the Greater Himalayas
a) Kashmir valley towards the west
b) Kathmandu valley towards the east
 Valleys like Kashmir and Kathmandu have been formed by the deposition of lakes. Dal lake and
Wular lake found in Kashmir are the example for this phenomenon.
 Climate
 Snowfall occurs here in 3-4 months of winter while summer is pleasant.
 Vegetation
 Its southern slope is steep and devoid of vegetation while the northern slope is gentle and covered
with dense forests.
 Temperate evergreen forests such as pine, deodar, oak, pine are found at an altitude of 1500 m
to 2400 m.
 Coniferous forests such as spruce, fir, birch etc. are found between the altitudes of 2400 m to
3000 m.
 Many pasture areas are found on the slopes of the central Himalayas. These are called Marg in
Kashmir like Gulmarg, Son Marg and Bugyal and Pyaar in Uttarakhand.
 Gulmarg is famous as a centre for winter sports.

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Shivalik Himalayas
 It is also called Outer Himalayas or Sub Himalayas.

 Location
 It is the outermost and newest range of the Himalayas.
 This range is separated from the middle Himalayas by the Great Boundary Fault.
 It is separated from the northern plain by HFF and a contour line of 300 m.
 It is spread as a parallel range from Punjab in the west to Kosi river in the east (870 east latitude)
that joins the middle Himalayas.

 Average height
 Its average height is 1200 m.

 Formation period
 Its formation period is considered to be from the Middle Miocene to the Lower Pleistocene
period. It is basically made up of sediments brought by the Himalayan rivers and its upliftment
is still continuing.

 Regional name

Jammu and Kashmir Jammu-Pahariya

Uttarakhand Dundwa range
Nepal Churia Muria
Arunachal Dafla, Mishmi, Miri, Abor

 Valleys
 Between the Shivalik range and the central Himalayas, there is the Doon valley in the west and
the Dwar valley in the east.
 Other major valleys like Doon are Udhampur and Kotli in Jammu, Kota, Patali, Chumbi,
Kiyadan, Kotri etc. in Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh.

 Vegetation
 Intensive agriculture is done in these valleys.
 There are tropical moist deciduous forests here.

 Rivers
 Ganga, Yamuna, Kali and Teesta rivers flow.

 Problems
 Here there is excessive rainfall and intensity of erosion.
 This area is affected from the problems of landslides, earthquakes, deforestation, de-
industrialization.
 There is a shortage of trees here.

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Regional division of the Himalayas

 A geologist named Sydney Burrard has classified the Himalayas on the basis of river valleys. He has
determined the western boundary of the Himalayas by the Indus River and the eastern boundary
by the Brahmaputra River.
 He has described four regions of the Himalayas.

1. Kashmir Himalaya/Punjab Himalaya/Himachal Himalaya

Extent From Indus river to Sutlej river, in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh states
Length 560 km.
Width 250 - 400 km.
Mountain ranges Jaskar, Ladakh, Karakoram, Pir Panjal, Dhauldhar ranges
Major peaks Rakaposhi Peak,
Rivers Indus, Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej
Valleys Kashmir Valley (It is famous for saffron production.)
Pass Zojila Pass, Rohtang Pass, Pir Panjal Pass, Banihal Pass,
Lakes Dal, Wular
Glaciers Hispar, Batula, Baltora

2. Kumaon Himalaya - This is a higher part than Punjab Himalaya.

Expansion From Sutlej river to Kali river in Uttarakhand
Length 320 km.
Width 250-400 km.
Part Western part Garhwal and eastern part Kumaon Himalaya
Main peaks Badrinath, Kedarnath, Trishul, Mana, Gangotri, Nanda, Devi, Kamet
Rivers Ganga and Yamuna originated from here.
Valleys Doon valleys
Pass Muling, Mana, Niti, Lipulekh
Lakes Nainital, Bhumital and Sattal lakes

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3. Nepal Himalaya- Regionally, this is the longest Himalayan part.

Expansion From Kali to Tista river in Nepal and Sikkim
Length 800 km.
Width 100-150 km.
Major peaks Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Everest, Manaslu, Dhaulagiri
Rivers The origin of Ganga and Yamuna are here.
Valleys Kathmandu Valley
Pass Nathu La, Jelpla
Special Kanchenjunga Biosphere and
Pashupatinath Temple (Nepal) are situated in this part.

4. Assam Himalaya
Expansion From Tista river to Brahmaputra river {in Bhutan, Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh}
Length 720 km.
Width 50-70 km.
Major peaks Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi, Namcha Barwa
Rivers Brahmaputra, Diwang, Dihang, Lohit, Manas, Subhanshri
Valleys Kathmandu valley
Pass Bomdila, Boom La, Yangyap
Special Kaziranga National Park and Digboi petroleum field are located.

Purvanchal Hills
Purvanchal Hills
 They are also called Eastern Hills. They are a part of the Himalayan mountain system. Near
Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayas bend and become oriented in the north-south direction.

State Purvanchal Hills

Arunachal Pradesh Patkai Bum
Nagaland Naga Hills, Kohima Range, Barail Hills
Manipur Manipur Hills, Lamatol Hills
Mizoram Mizo Hills
Tripura Tripura Hills, Jampui Hills

 Patkai Bum Hills -

 State - Arunachal Pradesh
 Pass - Pangsau Pass
 National Park - Namdapha National Park

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 Drainage System - Budhi River, Disang River

 Naga Hills -
 State - Nagaland
 Highest Peak - Sharamati
 Southern Part - Kohima Range
 Barail Hills -
 State - Nagaland and Assam
 Sanctuary - Dihing-Patkai
 National Park - Dibru-Shaikhowa
 Manipur Hills -
 State - Manipur
 Loktak Lake is situated between Manipur Hills and Lamatol.
 Mizo Hills -
 State - Mizoram
 Other Name - Lushai Hills
 Highest Peak - Blue Mountain (Phengpui)

Importance of Himalayas

a- Natural
 It forms a natural boundary.

b- Climatic
1. It prevents the winter season become harsh by preventing the cold winds coming from Central
Asia (Siberia) from entering India.
2. It causes rain by blocking the monsoon winds coming from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
Sea.
3. It helps in bringing monsoon to India by dividing the jet winds into two branches.

c- Strategic
1. It has been protecting India from external invaders since ancient times. However, after the Chinese
invasion in October 1962, the strategic importance of the Himalayas has decreased.

d- Economic
1. Source of rivers
 The Himalayas are the source of many important rivers.
 These rivers remain perennial due to snow melting in summer.
 The Himalayan rivers transport alluvial soil with them and provide fertile soil for agriculture.
 Waterfalls situated in the Himalayas can be the main source of hydroelectricity (eg - Bakhda
Nangal Dam).

2. Tourism
 The world's highest mountain peaks are located here, such as Mount Everest, K2, Kanchenjunga,
Makalu etc. These mountain peaks provide opportunities for adventure tourism.

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 The Himalayas are a major center of tourism due to natural beauty, healthy environment and
winter sports. Srinagar, Dalhousie, Dharamshala, Shimla, Kullu, Manali, Nainital, Ranikhet,
Almora, Darjeeling, Gangtok, etc. are the major tourist centers here.
 There are many pilgrimage sites in the Himalayas, among which Kailash, Mansarovar, Amarnath,
Badrinath, Kedarnath, Vaishno Devi, Jwala Devi, Gangotri, Yamunotri, etc. are prominent.

3. Forest products and medicines

 The Himalayas are rich in forest resources which provide fuel wood, raw material for forest based
industries, medicinal plants and pastures.

4. Agriculture and horticulture

 Crops like rice, wheat, maize, tobacco, ginger, tea etc. are grown on the Himalayan slopes. Fruits
like apple, grapes, pear, cherry, mulberry etc. are also produced.

5. Minerals
 The Himalayas have minerals like mineral oil, anthracite coal, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt,
antimony, tungsten etc. but their excavation is difficult due to inaccessible conditions.

e- Environmental importance
 This region also provides habitat for a diverse group of flora and fauna like tigers, elephants, musk
deer, red panda, snow leopard, rhodender, orchid, rare medicinal plants etc.

f- Water transport
 National water ways have been built on the rivers originating from the Himalayas.
For example - National Water Way-1 (Ganga River)
National Water Way-2 (Brahmaputra River)
Difference between Western and Eastern Himalayas
Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas
Expansion Extends from Indus to the western part In Sikkim, from the east of Singalila
of Kali river. Mountain to the eastern border of the
Himalayas.
Main source Western disturbance (winter) South-west monsoon (in summer)
of rainfall
Amount of Very less than Eastern Himalaya region Average rainfall 200 cm. or more
rainfall (average rainfall 100 cm or less)
Biodiversity Comparatively less Comparatively high
Biodiversity hot spots are also located
here.
Snow line Low than Eastern Himalayas (about Being close to the equator, high 3500 m.
2500 m)
Drainage Ganga, Yamuna and Indus Teesta, Brahmaputra
system
Mountain Karakoram, Dhauladhar, Jaskar, Patkai Bum, Naga Hills and
ranges Kailash, Pir Panjal etc. Kanchenjunga, Namcha Barwa

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Forests Coniferous and coniferous forests are Evergreen forests are found.
found
Minerals Minerals are available in less quantity. abundance of petrolium.
Vast Plain of India
 This plain is situated between the Himalaya mountain range and peninsular India.
 This fertile plain has been formed by the deposition of soil brought by rivers originating from the
Himalayas (like Ganga, Yamuna, Sindhu, Brahmaputra, Kosi etc.) and rivers coming from
peninsular India (like Son, Chambal etc.)
 This is the world's largest alluvial plain whose length is 3200 km from the Indus delta to the Ganges
delta, out of which 2400 km is located in India.

Average Width
 The average width of this plain is 150-300 km. The maximum width is in the west (500 km). Its width
decreases towards the east. (280 km near Allahabad, 160 km near Rajmahal Hills, 60-70 km in
Assam).
 The area of this plain is approximately 7.8 sq. km.
 Its average height from sea level is 200 m.
 Its depth is approximately 6100 m.
 On the basis of structural features and slope, we divide this plain into the following four parts.

Bhabhar Terai Bangar Khadar

(a) Bhabar
 In the foothills of Shivalik, from east to west from Indus to Teesta, there is a region full of pebbles
and stones.
 These alluvial fans together form a 8-16 km wide strip which is called Bhabar which forms the
northern boundary of the great plain.
 Due to high porosity, the rivers flowing here disappear i.e. they flow under the pebbles and stones
and are not visible from above.

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 This region is not suitable for agriculture.

(b) Terai region

 It is spread just south of Bhabar region. Deposits of fine sand and clay soil are found here.
 Since this region is quite flat, the water of the rivers spreads here and there and forms swamps.
 This region was covered with dense forests which are currently being cut and converted into
agricultural land.
 This area is not suitable for human habitation.

(c) Bangar
 This is a plain formed by ancient alluvium of the Middle Pleistocene period.
 This is a higher region than Khadar.
 Flood water generally does not reach this region.
 The Bangar region is mainly found in the areas between two rivers (Doab region).
 The Doab of Ganga-Yamuna and the plain of Sutlej are examples of this.
 Bangar has two regional divisions - (1) Barind Plain (2) Bhur region.
1. Barind Plain'
 'Barind Plain' is located in the deltaic areas of Bengal and in reality it is the ancient delta of
Ganga. It was formed in the Pleistocene period and has again eroded to become an area of laterite
soil.
2. Bhur
 The Bhur structure has developed in the region of Upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab. It is formed by
deposition by wind in the Pleistocene period.
 Due to excessive irrigation in some areas of Bangarh soil, white layers of salt get deposited on
the land. This is known as 'Reh' or 'Kallar'.

(d) Khadar
 It is formed by the deposition of new alluvium and is a relatively low region.
 Due to the abundance of 'Chika' in the soil of this land, the capacity to retain moisture is high.
 Flood water of rivers reaches here almost every year, due to which it remains fertile.
 The regions of Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal which are adjacent to river valleys come
under Khadar region.
 The delta region of Ganga-Brahmaputra is also an example of Khadar.
 In Uttar Pradesh and its neighbouring regions, such low lying areas are called Khadar while in
Punjab it is called 'Bet'.

Difference between Bhabar and Terai

Bhabar Terai

Expansion It is spread from Sindhu river to It is spread along the south of Bhabar region.
Tista river in the foothills of
Shivalik.

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Width 8 to 16 kilometers 20 to 30 kilometers

Geographical Due to the deposition of heavy Region made up of fine-grained alluvium

conditions stones, pebbles, gravel etc., it is a and covered with forests
region of permeable rocks.
Visibility of Due to permeable rocks, most of the The underground rivers of Bhabar region
rivers rivers go underground and become come to the surface in Terai and swamps are
invisible. formed.
Agriculture This region is not suitable for The forests have been cleared and made
agriculture. suitable for agriculture.

Difference between Bangar and Khadar

Bangar Khadar
1. It is a high part made up of old alluvial soil. 1. It is a low region made up of new alluvial soil.
2. The Bangar region is higher than the flood 2. There is flood every year in the Khadar region
level. and a new layer of alluvium is laid.
3. It has abundance of lime-rich deposits called 3. It is mainly a region made up of clay soil.
'Kankad'. 4. Intensive agriculture is done here.
4. It is not very useful for agriculture. 5. In the plains of Punjab, it is called 'Bet'.
5. In the plains of Punjab, it is called 'Dhaya'. 6. Its slope is low.
6. Its slope is high.

Regional division of the Great Northern Plains

 Although the entire Great Northern Plains is considered as one geographical unit with very flat and
gentle slopes (1:1000 to 1:2000), it can be divided into four parts on the basis of regional
characteristics.

Rajasthan Plain Punjab Gangetic The Brahmaputra

Haryana Plain Plain Plain

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Rajasthan Plain

Extension
 It is spread from Aravalli Hills to Indo-Pak border for a length of about 640 km.
 50 cm isohyet line which is parallel to Aravalli forms its eastern boundary.
 It includes both semi-arid area and desert area situated to the west of Aravalli.
 Area
 Its area is about 1.75 lakh sq. km.

 Slope
 Its slope is from north-east to south-west.

 Average height

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 Its average height is about 325 m.

 The slope of this plain is from north-east to south-west.
 This plain influenced by sea during Permi-Carboniferous period, the proof of which are saline water
filled lakes found here like Sambhar, Didwana etc. and oil and gas reserves.

 Division
 25 cm isohyet line divides it into the following two parts.

a. Rajasthan Bangar (Semi-arid region)

 This is a semi-arid region in which annual rainfall is 25 to 50 cm.
 This Bangar plain has Ghaggar basin in the north and Luni basin in the south.
 Ghaggar is the remains of Saraswati river.
 Luni river reaches the Arabian Sea through Rann of Kutch.
 Here the Aravalli ranges appear like inselbergs on the pediplain.

‘Dhoro’ Dried ancient river valleys

Dhaya Embankments of ancient rivers
Thali Northern part of Luni river which is a sandy desert.
‘Rohi‘ Alluvial and fertile soil area

b. Desert region (Western Rajasthan Plain)

 It is 25 cm lower than Rajasthan by isohyet.
 It was a part of Tethys Sea from Jurassic to Eocene period. It was formed due to the retreat of
Tethys Sea.
 It is an extension of Thar Desert.

Dhryan Displacing sand dunes

Talli Downhills between sand dunes
Playa Basins of dry lakes like- Sambhar, Didwana, Panchpradha

 Some special trees like Khetri are found here.

 Excessive animal grazing and use of fuelwood is the cause of less vegetation, which is promoting the
process of desertification.

Minerals - Gypsum, coal, limestone, copper (Khetri), marble, mineral oil etc. are found here.
Soil - 90-95 percent of the total soil here is sand while 5-7 percent is clay.

Agriculture - Although there is a lack of cultivable land in Rajasthan, agriculture still has an important
place in the economy here. Change in land use taking place because of Indira Gandhi Canal and
Rajasthan ranks 5th in the country in wheat production.

Animal husbandry
 The main occupation of this state is animal husbandry. 60 percent of the land of Bikaner division
and 50 percent of the land of Jodhpur division is found in the form of pastures.

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Industry
 This region is industrially backward. Most of the industries are cottage and small scale in which
agriculture based industries are predominant.
 Ganganagar (cotton cloth, woolen cloth, chemicals), Bikaner (woolen cloth, lead, iron pipes) Khetri
(copper) are the main industrial centres. Salt is produced from Sambhar (India's largest inland salt
water lake), didwana and Kuchaman lakes.

Transport
 Means of transport have developed considerably here.
 The Delhi Ahmedabad railway line passes along the eastern border of this region and the
Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jodhpur railway line passes through its central part.
 The road has been developed to connect Bikaner and Jodhpur with other cities.

Special -
 In this region, the flat depressions surrounded by hills are called 'Walsans' and the small lakes with
flat and flowing basins are called 'Pyala'.

Plain of Punjab Haryana

 It is named so because of the doab of 5 rivers.

Sindhu Sagar Doab Between Indus and Jhelum rivers

Chhaj Doab Between Jhelum and Chenab

Rechna Doab Between Ravi and Chenab rivers

Bari Doab Between Ravi and Beas rivers

Bist Doab Between Beas and Sutlej rivers

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Punjab Plains

Punjab Plains Haryana Plains

Semi- Plains
mountainous
Plains

Bari Doab Malwa

Vist Doab Plains

1. Plain of Punjab
 The plain of Punjab can be divided into two parts from the viewpoint of geographical conditions.

(a) Semi-mountainous plain

 It is spread from Ravi river to Ghaggar river in the foothills of Shivalik hills.
 Numerous rivers flow rapidly here which are called Chos.
 These rivers have caused a lot of erosion in this region.
 It is not very fertile due to the deposition of pebbles, floods etc.
 The rainfall here is about 120 mm.
 The climate here is temperate and moist.
 Pine trees etc. are found in the higher regions whereas broad-leafed trees like Ashoka and Deodar
are found in the lower regions. Maize, rice, potatoes, tea and fruits can be grown in terraced fields
in valleys and slopes. Limestone and slate are found here.
(b) Plain region
 It can again be divided into 3 parts.
A. Bari Doab
B. Bist Doab
C. Malwa Plain

 Malwa Plain/Sutlej-Ghaggar Plain

 This plain is situated to the south of Sutlej.

Rainfall
 The average annual rainfall here is 75-120 cm. This region has a semi-arid climate.

Soil
 Alluvial soil is generally found here, both Khadar and Bangar are included.

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 At many places, due to waterlogging, the soil has become alkaline and saline, which is called Reh or
Kallar.
 The Bangar region is called Dhaya and the Khadar region is called Bet.

Irrigation
 75 percent of the area here is irrigated. Because -
(1) Himalayan rivers flow
(2) Digging wells is convenient as the surface is soft

Vegetation
 Forests are found only on 3.3% of the total area.
 Here you find pointed-leafed trees - pine and broad-leafed trees - deodar.
 Due to deforestation, there is a dearth of wildlife, however, deer, wolves, foxes, many kinds of birds,
peacocks etc. are found.

Agriculture
 The agriculture of Punjab has the following characteristics.
 The land is fertile due to the abundance of alluvial soil.
 Irrigation facility is available on 70-75% of the area.
 Here the land is not divided into small pieces, due to which full use of land and modern agriculture
is possible.
 Every area of Punjab is connected by roads, hence marketing is easy.
 Modern agriculture is done due to green revolution.
 In Punjab, maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, rice, groundnut, Kharif crops and wheat, barley,
rice, rye, peas, mustard, Rabi crops are grown.

Animal husbandry
 Apart from grains, farmers of Punjab are dependent on fruits, vegetables, milk and butter for food.
 Hence, buffaloes of good breed and foreign cows are reared for milk.
 Sheep and goats are reared near the mountainous areas.
 Importance giving to silkworm rearing and beekeeping nowadays.

Minerals
 There is a lack of mineral-rich rocks here, yet quartz stones of the Shivalik ranges are found.
 Excellent sand, building stone, ochre stone and Multani soil are found here.

Industry
 Textile industry (Amritsar, Ludhiana) and light engineering industries like agricultural equipment,
sewing machines, bicycles etc. are developed in the plains of Punjab.
 Apart from this, big factories were also set up in cities like Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Kapurthala.

Transport
 Grand Trunk Road passes through here.
 Amritsar has an international airport, Chandigarh, Ludhiana and Patiala have domestic airports.

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2. Haryana Plain
 This plain is bounded by Ghaggar river and Thar desert in the south-west, Shivalik hills in the
north-east, Punjab plain in the north, Yamuna river in the east and Aravali hills in the south.
 Since it is situated between Ghaggar and Yamuna river, it is made up of alluvial soil.
 Here there are sand dunes made of bangar, the lower parts in between which are called Talli.
 When these get filled with water during rainy season, temporary lakes like Dhandh are formed.

Climate
 Here the temperature in summer remains up to 400c and in the areas near Thar desert it remains
up to 450c.
 The average temperature in winter remains 140c.
 The average annual rainfall here is 40 cm, but in the mountainous region of the north, rainfall up
to 200 cm has been recorded.

Natural vegetation
 Natural vegetation is often absent in the plains of Haryana.
 Forests are found only on 3.7% of the land. Date palm, cactus, babul, shrubs are found here and
pine and monsoon trees are found in the humid parts of the north.
 A bird sanctuary has been developed near Sultanpur. State parks have been built for the protection
of deer in Kurukshetra and Hisar.

Irrigation
 Haryana is an agriculture-dominated state, where irrigation is done through canals. 84% of the total
land here is irrigated.

Agriculture
 75% of the population of Haryana is engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry.
 Food grains are produced on 60% of the total agricultural land.
 Hisar Agricultural University benefits the farmers by doing continuous research here.
 Wheat, gram, sugarcane and barley are Rabi crops and rice, sorghum, maize are Kharif crops.

Animal husbandry
 The country's important milk-giving breeds Haryanvi cows, Murrah buffaloes are found here.
 Poultry farming is done in Gurugram and Ambala.
 Fish farming is done in Yamuna-Ghaggar and reservoirs.

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Minerals

Industry
 Panipat, Sonipat, Gurgaon, Faridabad, Rohtak, Bhiwani etc. are industrial centers here.
 There is an Atlas bicycle factory in Sonipat.

Transportation
 All the villages here are connected by paved roads.
 Railways are developed in Ambala, Rohtak, etc.
 There are airports in Hisar, Karnal, Bhiwani.

Problem
 Soil salinity has increased due to excessive irrigation.
 Fertility has decreased due to excessive use of urea.

Importance
 It is the leading region in production per hectare.

Ganga Plain
Expansion
 This plain is about 1400 km long from Yamuna river in the west to the western border of Bengal in
the east and 300 km wide. It is spread between Shivalik and Peninsular plateau.

Total area
 About 3.5 lakh sq. km.

Classification
 It can be divided into the following three parts.

Ganga Plain

Upper Ganga Plain Middle Ganga Plain Lower Ganga Plain

 Rohilkhand Plain  Awadh Plain  Duar Region

 Peradelta
 Mithila Plain
 Ganga-Yamuna Doab  Rarh Delta Region

 Chambal Upland  Magadha Plain

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1. Upper Ganga Plain

 State area Uttarakhand and Western Uttar Pradesh
 This part of the plain is bounded by Delhi-Ambala Ridge, Yamuna River in the west and 100 meter
contour line or 100 cm isohyet line in the east.
 Its northern boundary is determined by 300 meter contour line which separates it from Garhwal,
Kumaon Himalayas and the southern boundary is formed by Yamuna River which separates it from
Bundelkhand Plateau.

 Rohilkhand Plain
 The area between Ganga and Gomti or adjoining the Terai, is named Rohilkhand because of the
Afghan tribe called Rohila.
 Here is flood affected Barley area.( 90-100 cm rainfall flood )
 Here mainly sandy 100 m.
 Highest point of the plain is Moradabad (290 m)

 Ganga Yamuna Doab

 Here soil containing 100 m of clay deposited by wind is found which is called Bhur and it is beneficial
for sugarcane cultivation because it has high water holding capacity.
 Doab region.
 Very fertile and despite of rainfall 75-90 cm., there is appropriate development of canals.

 Chambal-Yamuna Erosion Land

 Chambal and its tributary rivers have created a large erosion area in India. Where ravines
developed on the bare soil due to overgrazing.

 It is sub-humid region.Here rainfall is 70-80 cm.

Description of the Upper Ganga Plain

Physical Conditions
 This plain is almost a flat plain, but in between, Khadar and Bangar land hinder the uniformity of
this region.
 In its north, parallel to the Shivalik Hills, semi-mountainous plains are found and in the south-west,
Yamuna ravines are found.
 The general height of the plain is 100 to 270 meters.
 This plain is made up of fertile alluvial soil brought by rivers like Yamuna, Ganga, Ramganga and
Ghaghra originating from the Himalayas. Hence, it is naturally more fertile.
 The slope of this plain is from north-west to south-east.

Drainage
 This region is mainly a part of the Ganga river system, whose main rivers are Yamuna, Ghaghra,
Sharda, Saryu, Kali River, Gomti etc.
 Almost all the rivers flow from north-west to south-east.

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 The main rivers originating from Shivalik in the north are Panja, Solani, Ratbhau, Pilashwar and
Makkara.
 The rivers originating from Terai and Bhabar are Kali, Sukhta and Gomti.
 In the far north, Yamuna, Ganga, Ramganga and Ghaghara originate from the main Himalayas.

Climate
 This plain is a sub-humid region situated between the dry Punjab plain and the humid middle Ganga
plain.
 Generally, the climate of this region is continental.
 Hot winds blow in summer and cold in winter here.

Distribution of rainfall
 Most of the rainfall occurs from the Bay of Bengal branch of the south-west monsoon. The annual
rainfall is about 60 cm, but the northern and eastern parts receive more rainfall.

Natural vegetation - Tropical deciduous forest

 Due to continuous increase in population, most of the forest areas cleared for the need of land for
agriculture, transport routes and settlements. Hence, at present, forests are found only on 7.5% of
the area.

Agriculture
 Agriculture is the main occupation of the residents of this state. Food grains and pulses are grown
on 85% of the area. Sugarcane is grown in about 8% of the area and oilseeds, cotton, fruits,
vegetables, etc. are grown on the remaining part.

Minerals
 This region is not very important in the production of minerals because the entire plain is made up
of alluvial soil. Limestone, silica, phosphate, special clays and magnesite are the main minerals here.
There are two hydroelectric power organizations in this region.
1. Ganga Hydroelectric Organization Scheme
2. Sharda Organization
 An atomic power plant near Narora is also very important here. National Thermal Power
Corporation has also established super thermal power plants in Singrauli, Rihand and Delhi.
Natural gas based power plants are operational in Odia and Dadri.

Industry
 Most of the expensive consumer goods are produced in small and medium industries. Under the big
industries, cotton textile, sugar, engineering, leather, woolen textile, oil refinery, electronics, petro-
chemical, fertilizer, vehicle and glass industries have been established.
Transportation
 Due to the uniformity and flatness of the surface, there is a network of transport routes here.
Northern Railway, North-Eastern Railway, Central Railway pass through this plain. Grand Trunk
Road and other national highways pass through this area.

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2. Middle Ganga Plain

Location and expansion -
 State area Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
 It’s western boundary starts from the upper plain of Ganga.
 35 m in the east and Kosi river and 75 m contour line in the south and 300 m contour line in the
north, between which is the international boundary of Nepal in the humid north.
 150 m contour line in the south, its southern boundary is the Chhota Nagpur plateau and the
northern part of the Vindhyachal plateau.
 The western boundary is determined by the 100 cm rainfall line.

Three parts
1. Avadh Plain
 Between Gomti and Ghaghra, Eastern U.P., flood affected, 100 m rainfall, dense population,
subsistence agriculture.

2. Mithila Plain
 Plain with flood-prone rivers which is situated between Ghaghra and Kosi.
 Rivers change their course
 Rainfall 125 cm.
 Deforestation in the Terai region
 Abundance Ponds, lakes.
 Natural availibility of fish.

3. Magadh Plain
 The land between the Son and Ganga has high soil fertility because mineral-rich sediments are
brought by the plateau rivers, humid area, rainfall 100-125 m. But droughts are common because
agriculture is rain-fed.

Description of the Middle Ganga Plain

Drainage
 Tree-shaped water flow.
 The rivers meet each other making a turn.
 The Ganga is the main river of this entire plain region.
 Its tributaries are Gomti, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Son, each of which has its own separate flow
systems. Kosi river is called the grief of Bihar due to its terrible floods.

Climate
 This plain has intermediate conditions due to being situated between the dry Upper Ganga plain in
the west and the very humid Lower Ganga plain in the east.
 Monsoon winds prone area.
 The eastern part of this region also receives rainfall due to the Norwester winds in March-April-
May.

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 The average rainfall in the eastern part is up to 170 cm, while the western part receives 100 cm
rainfall.
 The average temperature in summer is 30-340 Celsius.
 May is the hottest month in the year.
 The winter season is usually dry.
 Sometimes temperate cyclones cause rainfall, which is beneficial for the Rabi crop.
 One more characteristic of this plain is that drought and floods occur simultaneously.
 Drought disrupts the economy of the western part and floods disrupt the economy of the eastern
regions.

Natural vegetation - Tropical deciduous forests

 At present, forest areas are found only in Champaran district and the Terai region.
 Swampy vegetation and fruit gardens are found in the plains of North Bihar, but in the southern
part, mainly open forests and Shisham and Sabai grass are found here and there.
 Sal forests are found in the Shivalik region of Champaran.

Soils
 Fertile alluvial soil is found everywhere.
 Both types of land, Khadar and Bangar, are found here, where alluvial soil and sandy and pebbly
soil are found respectively.

Industry
 Agriculture based industries have developed a lot in this region. Soda ash and aluminium chloride
factory in Varanasi, diesel engine and heavy engineering goods manufacturing factory and
aluminium factory in Pipri and Renukoot have been established.

3. Lower Ganga Plain

Location
 State West Bengal
 The eastern boundary of this plain is the international border between India and Bangladesh.
 From the foothills of Darjeeling Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south, from the
Chhota Nagpur Plateau in the south-west to Bangladesh and the Bay of Bengal in the south.

1. Dooars region
 Valley region of the Darjeeling mountain range
 Semi-mountainous region

2. Para Delta
 Where rivers form erosional plains, this is the delta region which is called Sundarban Delta because
of the Sundari tree. And it is filled with sand dunes and marshy lakes which are called 'Chuar and
beel' respectively.

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3. Rar Plain
 In the southern part of the delta, adjacent to Chhota Nagpur, is the Rar Plain which is less fertile
and some places are barren.
 The high land containing laterite is called Barind.

4. Delta Plains
 The most extensive plains. Inland fishing and jute cultivation.

Description of the Lower Ganga Plain

Physical Conditions
 Except the northern and south-western parts, the entire region is a flat plain, whose average height
is 50 meters from the sea level.
 The southern part is only 15 meters above the sea level.
 The Darjeeling mountainous region in the north and the high eastern edges of the Chhota Nagpur
plateau in the south-west determine its boundary.
 Khadar and marshy land are found in abundance in the entire region.

Drainage Area
 The main rivers of this region are Ganga and Brahmaputra.
 Padma, Bhagirathi, Mahananda, Karatoya, Tista Sankosh, etc. rivers originate from the Himalayas
and meet the Ganga.

Climate
 The location of this region particularly affects its climate.
 The Bay of Bengal in the south, the high parts of the Himalayan mountain range in the north, the
plateau of Meghalaya in the north-east all affect its climate.
 Except the western part of this region, the relative humidity is above 50 percent in all other parts.

Rainfall
 Rainfall in this region usually occurs from June to September due to the south-western monsoons
coming from the Bay of Bengal. The rainfall ranges from 160 cm to 400 cm.
 In winter, the north-eastern monsoon winds do not cause rain as they blow from the land. Only
when they start blowing over the Bay of Bengal, they get filled with some steam.
 Thus, some rainfall occurs in the coastal areas.
 Some rainfall occurs in the pre-monsoon period from March to May due to 'Kaal Vaishakhi' or
'Norbesters'.
 Thus, it rains here from March to October.

Natural Vegetation
 The forests here have been getting destroyed since the Mughal period.
 Warm deciduous forests are found in the western part of this region, moist warm forests in the
northern part and warm moist evergreen forests in the deltaic region.

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Agriculture -
 Paddy and jute are cultivated in this region.

Brahmaputra Plain / Assam Plain

 This is an international plain which is located in India and Bangladesh.
 It is 700 km long and 80 km wide from Sadiya in the east to Dhubri in the west.
 Its area is approximately 56.2 thousand sq. km.
 Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh are located in its north, Meghalaya and Tripura in the south,
Bangladesh in the west and Nagaland and Manipur in the south-east.
 Slope - from north to south-west
 Forest - Tropical evergreen forest

 It can be divided into two parts.

a. Upper Brahmaputra Plain

 Location
 It is located between Dihang and Subansiri.

 Rainfall
 Approximately 200 cm.

 Vegetation
 Semi-evergreen forest
 This area is prone to floods, earthquakes and landslides.
 The world's largest river island Majuli is situated here.
 It is dotted with flood-prone rivers, Brahmaputra, Subansiri, Dibang, Lohit, Manas, Kamla.
 Landslide sediments from Shivalik increase the depression here, due to which the world's largest
river island Majuli is formed.

b. Lower Brahmaputra Plain

 It is situated between Subansiri and Teesta rivers.

 Rainfall - 150 m. Rainfall

 Rivers
 Brahmaputra, Teesta
 Agriculture
 Due to marshy land and bamboo thickets, agriculture is done on only 25 percent of the area.
Food grains (mainly rice) are grown on 75 percent of the agricultural land, tea, jute, sugarcane,
etc. commercial crops are grown on 20 percent of the land and fruits and vegetables are grown
on the remaining 5 percent of the land.
 Minerals
 Apart from mineral oil and coal, no other important mineral is found here.
 Mineral oil wells are found in Digboi, Naharkatiya of Lakhimpur district.

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 Coal is found here in the form of lignite and peat.

Importance of Northern Plains
1. Fertile alluvial soil which is important for food security.
2. Perennial rivers which are the source of drinking water and irrigation.
3. Rich ground water.
4. Suitable for inland water transport due to gentle slope.
5. Development of roads and railways for infrastructure is relatively easy.
6. Suitable for industrialization and urbanization.
7. Many tourist places like Agra, Mathura, Varanasi, Prayagraj,
Haridwar etc.
8. Petroleum and gas reserves are located in sedimentary rocks.
9. Ganga-Jamuna culture developed on the banks of rivers.
10. It supplies food grains to 40% of India's population.

Peninsular Plateau of India

1. It is the Pre Cambrian Gondwana Shield.
2. It is surrounded by hills on three sides, Aravali in the north,
Rajmahal, Western Ghats in the west and Eastern Ghats in the
east.
3. It is of irregular triangular shape, whose apex is at Kanyakumari
and base is at Rajmahal Hills and Delhi Ambala Ridge.
4. It is spread over 16 lakh sq. km. in the south-western part of 220 latitude.
5. From the geological point of view, it has remained stable and intact from tectonic processes for
millions of years. Hence, there is influence of exogenous forces on the geo-physical structure.
6. This region is composed of discontinuous hills, chain plateaus, valleys, plains.
7. It is basically made up of crystalline granite and rocks on which metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks and lava of Deccan are found.
8. It is spread over 28% of India's land area.

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Division of Peninsular Plateau –

Peninsular Plateau of India

Central highlands Deccan Plateau

Northern Central Southern Central Eastern Northern Southern Deccan

Highlands Highlands Deccan Plateau Plateau
 Baghelkhand
 Aravalli  Malwa Plateau Plateau  Satpura  Karnataka
mountain range  Vindhya Kagari  Chhotanagpur Mountain Range
Plateau
 Hadoti Plateau region Plateau  Maharashtra
 Andhra
 Vindhya  Plateau
 Central India Dandakaranya Plateau
Plateau Mountain Range Plateau
 Bundelkhand  Narmada-Son  Orissa Hills
Plateau Valley  Mahanadi Basin

Central Highland
Location
 Yamuna basin in the north, Narmada fault line in the south, Aravalli in the west and Son river in
the east form its boundary. It is called the plateau of Central India which is made up of marine
sedimentary fossil-rich rocks of Vindhya.
 Central Highland can be divided into the following sub-divisions.
1. Aravalli mountain range
2. Mewar plateau
3. Malwa plateau
4. Bundelkhand plateau
5. Vindhya mountain range
6. Baghelkhand plateau
7. Chota Nagpur plateau

Aravalli Range
 Its expansion from Khedbrahma (Palanpur) of Gujarat to Raisina Hill of Delhi.
 Its length is 692 cm out of which 550 km. is in Rajasthan.
 Its average height is 930 meters.

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 It is the oldest mountain range of the world (Precambrian period) which is currently present in the
form of residual mountains.
 The Aravalli mountain range is 9 percent of the total area of Rajasthan.
 10 percent of the total population of Rajasthan lives here.

Rainfall
 The rainfall here is 50-90 cm

Rocks
 Metamorphic rocks of Precambrian period like gneiss
 Sedimentary rocks like-Kanglomret, sandstone (balua patthar) fiijh njkZ
 Marine sedimentary rocks like- Vindhya

Soil
 Black soil
gYnh?kkVh njkZ
Main crops
 Maize

Minerals
 Rich in terms of minerals
 There are huge reserves of copper, lead, zinc, silver, granite, marble, limestone, iron, aluminium etc.

Tribes
 Bhil (Pratapgarh-Banswana) and Meena (Udaipur) tribes live here.

Watershed
 This is the watershed of the plains of Rajasthan and the plains of Ganga

Importance
 Religious - Dilwara, Pushkar, Ajmer
 Tourism - Mount Abu
 Economic - Abundance of minerals

 Division
1. Delhi Ambala Cuttack (Raysina)

 This is a very low land. The length of Northern Aravali between Ghaggar and Luni is up to 300 m.,
80 to 90 cm rainfall, granite gneiss, schist rocks are spread.

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2. Northern Aravali

 This is spread in Jhunjhunu, Alwar, Sikar and Jaipur districts.

 Raghunathgarh (1055 m.), Malkhet (1052 m.) are situated in Sikar district and Kho Hills are
situated in Jaipur district.
 Khetri of Jhunjhunu is famous for the production of copper while Javra is famous for the
production of zinc and silver.
3. Central Aravalli

 It is between Luni and Western Banas (goes to Kutch) (Eastern Banas merges with Chambal).
 From north to south, respectively, Bar Pass, Sheopur (Shivpur) Pass, Sura Ghat, Pipli Ghat, Diwari
Pass are found.
 Western desert is expanding towards east through these passes/ghats.
 Here the height reaches upto 250 m. It is a semi-arid region. It is divided from Malwa by 50 cm
isohyet line.
4. South Aravalli

 Between Banas and Saraswati in Rajsamand, Udaipur and Sirohi districts.

 The average height of Abu hill and Palani hill is 800-1700 m because Mount Abu has been re-raised
in the process of origin of Himalayas.
 This is an example of elevated peneplain.
 The highest peak in Sirohi is Guru Shikhar (1722 m) on Mount Abu which is a major pilgrimage
site for Jains.
 Nakki Lake, Dewar Lake, Pushkar Lake are found in Mount Abu.

Rajasthan High Land / Hadauti Plateau

 This is the high western part of the Indian Peninsular Plateau
 To its west are the Aravali Mountains, to the east are the Malwa Plateau, to the south are the
Vindhya mountain range and to the north-east are the Yamuna plains.
 The slope of this region is towards the north-east, so the water of this region merges with Yamuna
and its tributaries.
 Since this has been the kingdom of Rajput kings, it is also called Rajput region.
 Banas river (tributary of Chambal) originates from this region.

a. Climate
 Since the Tropic of Cancer passes through its middle, its temperature in summers is more than 40°C,
but in winters it is 16°C. The average annual rainfall is 60-120 cm.

b.Vegetation
 Generally, trees like Babul, Sheesham, Jamun, Mahua, Neem, Khejri etc. are found here.
 In the lower parts, grasslands are found in which animal husbandry is being done.
 Due to extreme deforestation, forests are found only on 10 percent of the land area.

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Agriculture
 Due to uneven terrain and infertile land, agriculture is done only on 25-30 percent of the area.
 Agriculture is mainly done on river valleys, hill slopes and flat plateau regions.
 Most of the agriculture is rain based. Jowar, millet, gram, pulses, wheat are the main crops here.
 In the areas where irrigation facilities are available from wells and ponds, sugarcane, vegetables
and crops are cultivated there. Dairy industry is also developing rapidly here.

Minerals
NksVk ukxiqj
 This region is rich in minerals. Zinc, lead, iron, dk iBkj
mica, copper, marble, lime etc. are found here.

egkunh csflu

Industry
 Due to lack of energy resources, this state deprive of
development. In southern Rajasthan, cutting of white
colored building stones has developed as an
important industry. Stone cutting machines have n.Mdkj.;
been installed on both sides of National Highway No. dk iBkj
6 (Delhi-Mumbai) in Jaipur, Ajmer and Udaipur.
 Cement factories are located in Chittorgarh,
Udaipur, Sawai Madhopur.
 Here the cotton textile factories are in Alwar, Jaipur and Kota. Apart from this, woolen and silk
textile industries, jewellery and shoe factories are also developed.

Transportation
 The main means of transport are road and railway. The western railway line is spread across this
entire region.

 Malwa Plateau
 Check in M.P. G.K.

 Bundelkhand
 Check in M.P. G.K.

 Vindhya Pradesh
 Check in M.P. G.K.

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Eastern Plateau and Hills

 It has 5 secondary regions.
1. Baghelkhand Plateau
2. Chhota Nagpur Plateau
3. Chhattisgarh Plains/ Mahanadi Basin
4. Dandakaranya Plateau
5. Hills of Orissa/ Garhjat Hills

a. Baghelkhand Plateau

b. Chhota Nagpur Plateau

 Location
 It has the lower plains of Ganga in the east, Baghelkhand Plateau in the west, Middle Ganga Plain
in the north and the northern part of Eastern Ghats in the south.
 It is not a single plateau but is spread as a series of plateaus and each plateau is separated from each
other by fault brinks (Bhransh Kagar).
 The contour line of 500 feet separates it from the plains of Bihar (Middle Ganga Plains).

 Geographical Features
 Before the Tertiary period, due to erosion, the Jharkhand plateau was converted into a plain. During
the formation of the Himalayas, the westernmost part of Jharkhand, Pat Pradesh, was uplifted in
the Eocene period. During the Miocene period, the area east of Pat region, the plateau block of
Ranchi and Hazaribagh, rose up after being affected by the upliftment and the height of Pat region
increased further.

 Rocks
Archean Granite and Gneiss

 Archean Granite and Gneiss are found in Ranchi, Gumla etc. which are called Bengal or Chhota
Nagpur Gneiss.
Rocks of Dharwad series

 Rocks of Archaean period

 Example - Quartzite, Phyllite, Schist rocks
 Metallic and non-metallic minerals (iron ore, copper, chromite, uranium) are found in the Dharwad
rocks of West Singhbhum, whereas mica is produced in the schist rocks of Hazaribagh Koderma.

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Rocks of Vindhya series

 Sandstone, quartzite, limestone and dolomitic limestone are found here.

Gondwana series rocks

 Carboniferous period Gondwana series rocks are present in Jharia and Raniganj of Damodar valley
where sandstone and coal are found.
Rajmahal Trap

 Developed due to lava flow in Jurassic period

 Division
a. Pat region

 Its western part is the highest which is called Pat region which is spread in Palamu, Lohardagga
and Gumla.
 Pat means hills with flat peaks. Remains of Deccan lava are found in this region.

b- Hazaribagh Plateau and Ranchi Plateau

 The fault line of Damodar river divides it into Hazaribagh Plateau and Ranchi Plateau

Hazaribagh Plateau
Physical conditions

 That region is made up of Archaean granite and gneiss rocks.

 Its northern and southern part is made up of Dharwad rocks.
 You must be found Gondwana rocks in Damodar river Ghati.
 Deposition of basaltic red soil is found on the Rajmahal hills.
 The highest hill of this region is Parasnath (pilgrim place of Jainism) (1365 m) (Hazari Bagh-610
m).
Climate
Rainfall

 Rainfall occurs from the branch of Bay of Bengal.

 The average annual rainfall is 150 cm.
 Due to sudden heavy rainfall, this region totally influence with the problem of soil erosion.

Temperature

 Since the Tropic of Cancer passes through, the reason temperature of this region remains high
throughout the year.
 The average temperature is 35 degrees Celsius in summer and 21 degrees Celsius in winter.

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Vegetation - Tropical deciduous forest

 Forests are found in about 1/3 part of this region, most of which are monsoon deciduous, among
which rosewood, teak, khair, mulberry etc. are prominent.
Agriculture

 The main occupation of this region is agriculture. Agriculture is done on about 40 percent of the
area.
 Paddy, wheat, jowar, millet, oilseeds, pulses are grown in terraced fields in river valleys and hill
slopes.
 Fruits and vegetables are cultivated in plains with irrigation.
 Silkworm rearing, beekeeping, bidi industry, bamboo, dairy industry are developing as subsidiary
industries.
Minerals

 Chhota Nagpur is called the Ruhr of India.

 Coal is found in Jharia (Damodar river basin), uranium (Jadugauda), Raniganj, etc. areas here.
 Due to the availability of lime dolomite etc. here, steel plants have been established in Bokaro,
Rourkela, Jamshedpur.
 Apart from this, iron and manganese are found in Singhbhum, Sundargarh.
Tribes

 Oraon, Munda, Santhal and Gond tribes resides here.

Transportation

 The population density is low but the North-Eastern Railway and Central Railway connect it to
West Bengal through which minerals are exploited and industrialized.
c. Chhattisgarh Plain/Mahanadi Basin
 The upper plain of Mahanadi is called Chhattisgarh Plain.
Location -

 State - Chhattisgarh and Orissa

 Orissa Hills in the east, Maikal in the west, Dandakaranya in the south and Chhota Nagpur in the
north.

Other name - Rice Bowl

Physical Conditions
 Wing or saucer shaped basin

Climate
 Rainfall is 125 m. It is a humid monsoon.

Soil
 Red and laterite soil

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Drainage system
 Mahanadi and tributary rivers Til, Hasdo, Jonk, Shivnath, Mand, Ib, etc.
 Hirakud Dam.

Economic activities
 It is called the rice bowl because more than 20,000 varieties of rice crops are found here.
 The rocks are mainly of the Kadapa group in which iron ore is found.
 Gandwana rocks are near Korba where coal is found.

d. Dandakaranya Plateau
 Ancient name - Mahakantar
Dandakaranya Plateau

Kotri Basin Hills of Bastar Plateau Bastar Plain

Abujhmad
Location
 Chota Nagpur Plateau in its north, Lava region in the west, Uttari Sarkar region in the east

Expansion
 It includes Kalahandi, Bolangir, Korapur (KBK) in Orissa, Dantewada, Bastar in Chhattisgarh,
Karimnagar and some parts of Chandrapur in Andhra Pradesh.
 The highest peak is Bailadila.

 Iron ore mines are located in Bailadila.

1. Kotri Basin
 It is formed by Kotri, a tributary of Indravati.
 Raoghat hill is located to the north of Kotri basin in which iron ore deposits/reserves are found.

2. Abujhmad Hills
 Located in Narayanpur district to the north of Indravati river.
 Due to heavy rainfall, it is also called the Cherrapunji of Chhattisgarh.

3. Bastar Plateau
 Bailadila hill in Dantewada district
 Nandiraj peak of Bailadila hill is the highest peak (1210 m) of Dandakaranya plateau.

4. Bastar Plain
 It is formed by the Indravati river which originates from Munger hill in Kalahandi district of
Odisha on which the Chitrakoot waterfall is situated which is called the Niagara waterfall of India.

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Physical conditions
 The surface of this region is very uneven because many rivers have cut it and divided it into many
parts. Generally, this part is more than 150 meters high everywhere.
 At some places, its height is found to be up to 610 meters.
 This is the eastern part of Satpura, Mahadev and Maikal.
 These hills are separated from the northern part by the Mahanadi river.
 Due to rocky surface, the land is not suitable for agriculture but there is abundance of minerals
here.
 Climate - Tropical monsoon climate
 Forests - About 30% of the total area.

Drainage system
 Indravati river (Lifeline of Bastar)

Climate
 The temperature remains high throughout the year.
 The average rainfall is up to 100 cm, but in the northern part it becomes 127 cm.
 Most of the rainfall occurs from the summer monsoon coming from the Bay of Bengal.
Rocks
 Granite, gneiss, Dharwad vindhya.

Soil
 Shallow and thin soil is found in most parts of the plateau.
 Sandy and red clay soil is also found here.

Vtation - Tropical deciduous forest

 1/3rd of the region is covered with forests.
 Abundance of forests on the slopes of the intermediate hills and the Eastern Ghats.
 Trees like Mahua, Sal, Teak, Bamboo, Lakh, Peepal, Banyan, Timru, Sheesham, Mulberry, etc. are
found in abundance here.

Human and economic conditions

 The main occupation is agriculture.
 Mostly agriculture is done with the help of ponds.
 The valley of Godavari and the plain of Chhattisgarh are very suitable for farming.
 Now animal husbandry for dairy is also becoming an important business.
 This is rich in minerals, however, this region is the least known and backward region of India.
Minerals like manganese, mica, iron and asbestos are found near Chhindwara.
 Lead, mica, bauxite, copper and silver are found near Raipur and iron in Barauta and manganese
in Nagpur, Bhandara and Balaghat.
 Coal is found in Sigrani and Palani.
 Tin metal is found in Bastar region.

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Tribes
 Residence of Gond, Khodh, Abujhmadia tribes
 Practice of Jhum agriculture
 Affected by Naxalism.

e. Orissa Hills
Location
 Malaygiri, Panchpatmali, Gadhjat Hills are included in it.
Rainfall

 150 m. rainfall
Soil
 Laterite soil
Vegetation -
 Wet monsoon forest Sal tree

Economic activities
 Mainly bauxite is found which is obtained from laterite soil.
 Iron ore and manganese are found in Keonjhar, Sundargarh and Mayurganj plateaus.
 Lime stone are found on the Sundargarh plateau.
Maharashtra Plateau
 Formed - By volcanic eruption in the Cretaceous era
 It is a part of the northern Deccan plateau which is shaped (covered) by the Deccan Trap. Rivers
divided it into many small parts.
Average height - 450-750 m.
Important cities - Pune, Nagpur, Sholapur
Rocks - Igneous, especially basalt and granite
Highest peak - Kalsubai (1646 m), other peaks - Mahabaleshwar (1438 m)
Major passes - Thal Ghat, Bhor Ghat, Kumbharli, Amba, Fonda Amboli.

Mountain ranges
 The branches of the Western Ghats and Satpura mountain ranges are spread on the Maharashtra
plateau.

Mahadev mountain range

 Extensive mountain ranges are found towards the east of the Western Ghats, in which the Mahadev
mountain range at 180 N is the southernmost mountain range. Mahabaleshwar and Panchghani
plateaus are situated on Mahadev mountain range.

Harishchandra mountain range and Balaghat mountain range

 Harishchandra mountain range is situated to its north-west and Balaghat mountain range to its east.
Ahmednagar plateau is situated in Balaghat mountain range.

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Ajanta mountain range

 Ajanta mountain range is situated to the north of Harishchandra mountain range which gets divided
into two parts in the east - Satmala range in the north and Nirmal range in the south.

 Buldhana plateau and Malegaon plateau are situated on Ajanta range.

Gaawilgarh mountain range

 The western part of Satpura mountain range is present in the form of Gawaligarh mountain range
to the north of Maharashtra plateau.
 Soil - Black soil which is formed by the erosion of basaltic rocks.
 Main Crop - Cotton, Sugarcane
 Industry - Cotton Textile Industry
 Forest - Dry Deciduous Forest
 Rivers - Tapti, Krishna, Godavari
 Importance -
 Religious - Tryambakeshwar, Shirdi
 Tourism - Ajanta, Ellora, Mahabaleshwar,
Economic - Cotton, wheat, and sugarcane
 Challenge -
It is a rain shadow area

Karnataka Plateau
The plateau of Karnataka can be divided into two parts.

Malnad region Plains region

Malnad region
 This is the western high region of Karnataka plateau which is attached to the Western Ghats.
 Malnad region can be divided into the following 3 parts.
a. Northern Karnataka Plateau
 Formed from Deccan Trap

 Average height - 300-600 m.

 Drainage system - Krishna, Bhima, Ghatprabha, Malaprabha
 Soil - Black cotton soil
 Main cities - Belgaum, Bidar, Bijapur, Gulbarga.

b. Central Karnataka Plateau

 Districts - Bellary, Chikmagalur, Chitradurga, Dharwad, Raichur, Shimoga
 Average height - 450-750 m.
 Drainage system - Tungabhadra River, Sharavati River

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 Waterfalls - Jog/Garsoppa/Mahatma Gandhi Falls (Sharavati River), Kunchikuli Falls (Varahi

River, India's highest waterfall)
 Bababudan hill is situated in Chikmagalur, whose highest peak is Mullayanagiri and the second
highest peak is Kudremukh.

c. South Karnataka Plateau

 Districts - Bengaluru, Hassan, Mysore, Tumkur
 Drainage system - Kaveri
 Average height - 600-900 m.
 Major peaks - Biligiriranjan, Brahmagiri
Plains region
 This is the eastern plain part of the Karnataka plateau which is formed by the Krishna and Kaveri
river basins.
 Importance -
Religious - Shravanabelagola, Aihole caves,
Tourism - Bandipur National Park,
Economic - Gold (Kolar Hatti mine), Iron (Baba Budan hill)

Andhra Plateau
 It is located in the western part of Andhra Pradesh
 Rocks - Granite
 It is divided into two parts.

Rayalaseema Plateau Telangana Plateau

 Telangana Plateau
Telangana Plateau
 It is the northern part of Andhra Plateau
 Drainage system - Godavari, Krishna Godavari River
 Rayalaseema Plateau
 It is the southern part of Andhra Plateau. Rayalaseema Plateau
 Drainage system - Pennar
 Districts - Kurnool, Kudappa, Anantapur, Chittur
 Plains region
 Forest - Tropical Thorn Forest
 Soil - Red Soil
 Lake - Kolleru Lake

Challenges -
 Rain shadow area
 Affected by illegal mining

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North-Eastern Plateau and Hills

1. It is spread up to Shillong Plateau and Mikir, Regma, Karbi Yanglang.
2. Garo, Khasi, Jaintia are included in Shillong Plateau.
3. Here, there are basically Dharwad rocks which are up to 200 cm. It is eroded and dispersed due to
rain.
4. Average height is 800-1600 m. Highest peak is Nokrek (Garo)
5. Khasi has funnel-shaped valleys. This is the area with the highest rainfall. (1400 cm in Masinram)
6. Gentle slope towards the south, escarpment towards the north and radial drainage system on Mikir
hill are other features.
7. Moist deciduous forests, uranium and lignite generate economic activities in Khasi hills. Tribals are
inhabited.
8. This area is affected by shifting agriculture and is prone to drought because the drainage system is
intense.
9. It is separated from Chhota Nagpur by Rajmahal Garo Gap in the west. Malda fault line is found
here. The combined stream of Ganga-Brahmaputra is found from this gap.
10. It comes under seismic zone 5.
11. It is spread in Assam and Meghalaya.
12. Laterite soil and red soil are found in this region.
13. Rivers - Dudhnai and Krishnai,
14. Crops - gram and paddy are cultivated.
15. Biodiversity is found in abundance in this region.
Western Ghats
Location
 It is called Sahyadri in the Puranas and it is parallel to the western coast from Tapi valley to
Kanyakumari has a ledge-like structure. And towards the sea terraced like structure.
 The length of the Western Ghats is 1600 km.
 The western slope of the Western Ghats is ledge-like and the eastern slope is gentle and it blends into
the Deccan plateau.
 From the geological point of view, it is the edge of the peninsula, so being made up of extremely hard
rocks like charnockite, granitic gneiss, it is less affected by erosion, hence it is high land.
 During the origin of Himalayas, its inclination towards east led to its regeneration while the western
slopes were formed due to the subsidence of Arabian basin. It is the main water divider of South
India whose top is determined by the isohyet line of 100 m and it is a wonderful ecosystem with
evergreen vegetation which is considered as a hotspot of ecology.
 Four major passes have developed in the Western Ghats which are as follows from north to south.

Pass Description
Thal Ghat  It connects Nasik to Mumbai. Indirectly it connects Kolkata to Mumbai as the
route from Kolkata to Mumbai passes through Nasik.
Bhor Ghat  It connects Mumbai and Pune.
Pal Ghat  Connects Kochi and Chennai (Between Nilgiri and Annamalai hills.)
Senkota Pass  This pass between Nagercoil and Cardamom hills connects
Thiruvananthapuram and Madurai.

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Classification
 It has three parts.

1. Northern Sahyadri
 It is found as a series of isolated and disconnected rivers covered by the Deccan Trap between Tapi
and 150 latitudes, where there are two major gaps, Thal Ghat (Mumbai-Nashik), Bhor Ghat
(Mumbai-Pune)
 Rainfall - 200 cm.
 Vegetation - Semi-green forest
 Highest peak Kalsubai (1646 m)
 Hill stations, Pachghani, Mahabaleshwar (source of Krishna river), source of Godavari in Nashik,
Triambakeshwar.


Economic activities
 Plantation is the main economic activity in which mango, cashew are grown.

2. Central Sahyadri
 Between 150-110 latitudes
 Rock - Granitic gneiss
 Highest peaks - Kudremukh and Babumala.
 Minerals - iron ore in Bababudan hills,
 Drainage pattern - Rivers are swift here which form nick points towards the west. For example- Jog
/ Garsoppa/ Mahatma Gandhi waterfalls at Sharabati.
 rainfall - 250 m.
 Vegetation - Evergreen forests.
 Commercial crops like coffee are cultivated in this region.

3. Southern Sahyadri
 It is also called the Southern Mountain Complex.
 It is situated between 110 - 80 4’.
 Its highest peak is Doddabetta (2636 m).

Ranges
 Here Nilgiri, Annamalai, Cardamom are parallel ranges respectively whereas Palani Hills are
transverse ranges. Highest peak Doddabetta (Nilgiri)
 This mountain is made of Charnockite rocks and Carnitiferous volcanic rocks are hard and
resistant, colour is greenish blue.
 Country's first biosphere ecosystem
 Plantation agriculture. Destroyed by the Portuguese due to potatoes, tea and coffee.
 Ooty is situated in.

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 Eastern Ghats meet Western Ghats near Nilgiri at Cuddalore and Nilgiri is separated from
Annamalai by Palghat gap through which Kochi Chennai highway passes.
 The highest peak of Annamalai is Anaimudi.
 Made of Charnockite and Khondalite rocks.
 These mountains were uplifted due to the north-eastern tilt of the peninsula which is related to the
closure of the Tethys. The Sencotta gap separates the Annamalai and Cardamom ranges through
which the Trivandrum Madurai Highway passes. The highest peak here is Agasthmalai.
 Kudaikanal is on the Palni Hills.
 This region receives 15-20 cm of winter rainfall.
 Coconut and spices are cultivated in this region.

Rivers – origin of Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri.

Special - There is abundance of biodiversity here. (Declared World Heritage Site by
UNESCO in 2012)
Challenge - Soil erosion, and deforestation
Importance -
o Religious - Triyambakeshwar (Nashik),
o Tourism - Ooty

Eastern Ghats
Location - It is extends from Mahanadi to Nilgiri Mountains in the form of a discontinuous chain.

Eastern Ghats originated from tectonic activities 2.1 billion years ago, almost contemporary to
Aravalli.
Hence, these are ancient folded mountains which are found spread in the geological
structure from Tamil Nadu to Shillong plateau. But the visible land is divided into three parts.

Expansion - In five states, total area 75,000 sq. km. Area

State Percentage
Orissa 25%
Andhra Pradesh 40%
Telangana 5%
Karnataka 5%
Tamil Nadu 25%

Expansion in Orissa (Between Mahanadi and Godavari)

Mountain Range District
Simlipal Mayurbhanj
Gadjat Hills Sundargarh, Kendujhar
Niyamgiri Kalahandi
Deomali Koraput
Mahendragiri Gajapati

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Rocks
 Charnockite and Khendolite
 Dharwad rocks in Orissa absent but, hills are rcih in mica and quartz


Hills in Andhra Pradesh from north to south

Mountain Range Key Facts
Papikonda
Armakonda 1680 m
Nallamala Nagarjuna-Sagar (Amrabad Plateau)
Erramala
Seshachalam Tirumala, Yanadis Tribe
Paalakonda
Velikonda
Nagari

 Laterite soil deposits and bauxite deposits are found on top of the hills.
 Cudappa rocks consist of limestone, sandstone and shale. Since the Curdappa rocks are very
hard, forest growth is relatively low.

Sequence of hills in Tamil Nadu from North-south

Jawadi Hills
Shevroy Hills
Pachamalai Hills
Sirumalai Hills (Silver Hill)

Length - Its average length is 1400 km.

Difference between Western and Eastern Ghats

Western Ghats Eastern Ghats
Extent It extends from Tapi river to Kanyakumari in It is spread parallel to the east
a north-south direction parallel to the west coast, north-east to south-west
coast. direction from Orissa to Nilgiri
Hills.
Average 900 to 1100 m Height less than Western Ghats,
height 600 m
Average 50 to 80 km 100 to 200 km.
width
Slope Sharp, can be crossed only through passes Slow

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Continuity continue Big rivers have made their way

through it and divided it into
many parts.
Rainfall It is almost perpendicular to the south-west It is almost parallel to the south-
monsoon winds blowing from the Arabian west monsoon winds coming from
Sea and brings heavy rainfall to the western the Bay of Bengal and does not
coastal plains. receive much rainfall.
River source It is the source of major rivers flowing in the It is not the source of any big
peninsular plateau. river.
Structure Structurally uniform Structurally, it is not uniform.

Biodiversity High Biodiversity It has less biodiversity.

Forest Evergreen forests are found. Thorny and deciduous forests.

Deccan Traps
 The area formed by the deposition of basaltic lava in several layers on the Deccan plateau during
the Cretaceous period is called Deccan Trap.
 The term Deccan Trap was coined by W.H. Skyes in 1833.
 The word ‘Deccan’ is derived from the word ‘southern’ of Sanskrit language while the word ‘Trap’
is derived from the Scandinavian word trappa which means a stepped structure.
 Distribution - Spread over about 5 lakh square km in western and central India.
 States - Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Goa, Daman and Diu
 Thickness -
 The thickness of each flow ranges from a few meters to 40 meters.
 A total of 48 flows of lava have been identified.
 The maximum thickness of the Deccan Trap is about 2.5 km near Mumbai on the western edge
of the peninsular plateau.
 The sedimentary bed found just below these flows is called Lameta Bed and below it is Bagh
Bed.
 Main constituent - Tholeiite
Stratigraphy -
 Trap- distribution
 Upper - Mumbai and Saurashtra
 Middle - Malwa
 Lower - Madhya Pradesh

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Classification of Deccan Traps

Western Deccan Malwa Plateau Eastern Deccan Saurashtra Plateau

Volcanic Province Volcanic Province

Located in Maharashtra, Jabalpur, In the Narmada-Sone

south of Narmada River Chhindwara Fault in the south of
Gujarat

Economic Importance of Deccan Plateau

Guha Temple Ferrous Natural Gas

Black Soil Non-Ferrous Geotherma
(Elephanta Minerals Minerals l Energy
Caves)
Bombay High, Jalgaon
Iron, Manganese and Area
Ankleshwar

Mica, Limestone,
Coal, Petroleum

 Importance of Peninsular Plateau -

1. 98% of the Gondwana coal reserves of the country are located in the Peninsular Plateau.
2. Precious metallic and non-metallic minerals are found in Chota Nagpur Plateau, Aravalli Range,
Maharashtra Plateau and Karnataka Plateau.
3. Black, laterite soil is formed in the Peninsular Plateau which is suitable for cotton and spices
respectively.
4. Rivers can become a source of hydroelectricity while descending to the coast in the Peninsular
Plateau.
5. Western Ghats and North-Eastern Plateau are the centres of biodiversity and precious forest
wealth.
6. Ooty, Mahabaleshwar, Pachmarhi, Mount Abu are the major tourist destinations.
7. Habitat of tribes like Bhil, Gond, Uraab, Santhal etc.

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Difference in the features of relief of Indian Plateau and Himalaya Mountains

Indian Plateau Himalayan Mountains
1. Indian plateau is an ancient land mass of hard 1. Himalaya is a new mountain made of soft
rocks. rocks.
2. Indian plateau is formed as a plateau. 2. Himalaya is a folded mountain which is
3. Ancient Balan mountains like Aravali are formed by various movements.
situated in this region. 3. The new mountain ranges in this region are
4. Valleys are found on this plateau due to world famous for their high peaks.
cracks. 4. There are three parallel mountain ranges in
5. The surface of this region is uneven in which this region with valleys in between them.
rivers have created deep valleys. 5. In this region, the rivers have created narrow,
6. Indian plateau is triangular. deep or (U)-shaped valleys.
7. Mostly igneous rocks are found in it. 6. Himalaya is in the form of an arch.
7. Mostly sedimentary rocks are found in it.

Coastal Plain

Formation - Coastal plains are formed by erosion by sea waves and deposits and sediments brought by
rivers. Coastal plains of India are located in 9 states.

These coastal plains are classified into 2 parts.

Classification

Western Coastal Plain Eastern Coastal Plain

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Western Coast of India

 Expansion - It is spread over 5 states of India.
1. Gujarat Plain
 It has 3 parts.
a. Kutch
 From the geological point of view, it is a part of the Aravalli range
 It was a former island which was made a part of the mainland of India by sedimentation by Indus
and tributary rivers.
 It is an example of inland drainage system and saline marshland has been formed here by rivers
like Luni, Banas, Saraswati and there is a sanctuary for wild donkeys here.
 This region is called Rann of Kutch
 Here, about 25-40 cm of rainfall, semi-arid region, vegetation with thorny bushes, most affected
area, undulating coast
 Agriculture of millet
b. Kathiawar
 Its extension is from Surat to Daman.
 Kathiawad is an extension of the rocks of the Deccan Plateau and the spread of Deccan lava is
found on granitic gneiss.
 It is an example of radial drainage system. The highest peak is Girinar and the mountain ranges
are called Mandav, Wardha and Gir.
 Main rivers, Satrunji, Bhogwa, Bhadar and Ojal
 60 cm. rainfall, semi-arid vegetation, black soil has developed.
 Rivers - Sabarmati, Narmada, Mahi, Tapti
 Special - presence of tidal port, Kandla

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Salt production area

c. Gujarat Plain
 This is the plain area formed by Sabarmati and Mahe rivers, where earlier the Gulf of Khambhat
was extended but due to sedimentation plains were formed. Sub-humid but semi-arid, rainfall 60-
75 cm, area of black soil, oil wells of Mesozoic period are found
2. Konkan Plain
 This region is a narrow strip between the Arabian Sea and the peak of the Western Ghats. In the
north, this belt has become wider due to the Narmada and Tapi deltas.
 This region extends from Daman and Diu to Goa.
 Width: about 40-100 cm.
 This is an example of submerged coast and covered with laterite soil.
 The coast is most eroded because rivers create creeks and estuaries.
 Rivers - Mandovi and Zuari
 Ports - Jawaharlal Nehru, Nhavashova, Marmagwan

Physical conditions
 Near the ghats, the rivers have created cones of fertile alluvial deposits.
 Waves have created sand dunes near the coasts.
 Due to sand dunes, rivers are unable to reach the sea, as a result of which water often spreads all
around, forming shallow lagoon lakes.
 The land near the coasts is sandy and is unsuitable for agriculture.
 Therefore, fishing is done here instead of agriculture.

Climate
 The climate of this region is hot and humid.
 The temperature in summers is up to 350C and in winters it is 260C.
 Rainfall occurs in summers due to the monsoons of the Arabian Sea.
 200 cm rainfall
 The heavy rainfall on the Western Ghats, and increases from north to south.

Vegetation
 Forests are found on 25 percent of the area.
 Generally, dense monsoon and tropical forests are found towards the eastern parts.
 Groves of cashew, rubber, coconut, betel nut and banana are found in the coastal areas.

Human and economic conditions

 The main industry of this state is agriculture. Under agriculture, coconut, banana, sugarcane,
betel nut, cashew, mango, paddy, vegetables and other fruits are cultivated extensively. Coconut
and betel nut trees are planted along the paddy fields. There is a lack of minerals here.
 Only bauxite and chromite are found in the southern part. Suitable climatic conditions are found
near the sea for making salt. The rivers are small and fast flowing and hence are useful for hydro-
electric power.
 Fishing activity near the sea coast.

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 The industries like textile, engineering, chemicals, electronics, ships and vehicles etc. are the most
developed here.
 The dense population. Due to the uneven surface transport in the southern part is not well
developed. Railways is not good. But the arrangement of roads is good.
 Soil - Red and laterite soil is found.
 Port - Mangalore
 Special - Famous area for coffee production.

3. Kanara Coast
 It is 20-60 km flat from Marmagao to New Mangalore, very narrow coast and uneven because of
fast rivers flow from Western Ghats suddenly descend from the ledge like slope and many
waterfalls are found here. Rainfall is 250 cm and evergreen forests are found.

4. Malabar Coast
Location
 This region is spread on the western coast from New Mangalore to Kanyakumari Cape in the form
of a long narrow strip which is generally 70 to 90 km wide.
 Arabian Sea is on its west side, Western Ghats, Nilgiri, Anamalai and Cardamom hills are on its
east. To the south of Nilgiri, it meets Central Deccan and eastern coastal areas through the pass of
Palghat.

a. Physical Conditions
 This is a completely plain area which is made up of soil brought by the rivers. Emerging coast,
depositional topography, the backwater area is called Kayal where sea water is found during high
tide and river water during low tide.
 The marshy soil is called Kari, and the lagoon here is Bembanad (Kochi) Ashtamridi which is a
wetland.
 Silent valley in Palkar district.

b. Climate - Hot and humid climate

 Humid region due to its proximity to the sea.
 The temperature is not very high.
 Rainfall here starts from April and continues till November.
 In the northern parts, the hill slopes receive rainfall up to 400 cm, but the average rainfall is up to
250 cm.

c. Flora
 This is a biodiversity hot spot region.
 30 percent of this region is covered with forests.
 Dense forests in the evergreen category due to high temperature and heavy rainfall.
 Teak, sandalwood, cinchona, sal, gutta-parcha, rubber, ebony, rosewood, etc. are the main trees.

d. Human and economic conditions

 Molecular minerals are found. Such as - monzoite,

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 Malabar region is an advanced agricultural region.

 About 50 percent of the population is engaged in agricultural industry.
 Many crops (rubber, cinchona, coffee, garam masala, coconut) are grown in fertile loamy and
clayey soil.
 Fishing is more because hybrid species are obtained from interbreeding of fishes living in both
clean water and salty water. Tropical fruit gardens are also find everywhere.
 The fast flowing rivers are most.
 Canals for irrigation by building dams at many places. Hydro-electric power is also produced
from these.

 Eastern Coastal Plain

 It is extended from Suvarnarekha River Delta to Kanyakumari between the Eastern Ghats and the
Bay of Bengal. It is broader than the western coastal plain. It can be divided into the following 3
parts.

Utkal Plains Andhra Plains Coromandel Coast

1. Utkal Plain -
 Other name - Northern Government
 Expansion - Extends from Suvarnarekha to Kolleru Lake.
 Agriculture - Rice and Jute
 Forest - Tidal forests are found.
 Drainage system - Suvarnarekha, Vaitarni, Brahmani, Mahanadi
Chilka Lake -
 It is Asia's largest lagoon and salty lake. It was identified as India's first Ramsar site in 1981.
 It is located at the Daya River estuary.
 It is famous as a shelter for flamingo birds.
 Nalabana Bird Sanctuary is located in the middle of Chilika Lake.
2. Andhra Plain -
 It is located between Kolleru Lake and Pulicat Lake.
 It is formed by Godavari and Krishna Basin.
 Shri Harikota Island is situated in this plain on which Satish Dhawan Space Center is located.
 APJ Abdul Kalam (Wheeler) Island is situated on it.
 Agriculture - Coconut, banana, tobacco, cotton are cultivated because of being flat and fertile.
 Ports - Visakhapatnam, Masulipatnam, Kakinada

Koleru Lake
 It is located in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
 It is located on the Krishna and Godavari delta.
 It was declared a Ramsar site in 2002.

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3. Coromondal Coast
 It is spread from Tamil Nadu Pulicat Lake to Kanyakumari.
 It is formed by the Kaveri basin.
 Burghingam Canal is on this coast.
 Rivers - Kaveri, Pennar, Vaigai, Malar
 The Gulf of Mannar here is famous for pearls.
 Ports - Chennai, Tuticorin, Nagapattinam

Pulicut Lake
 It is located on the Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu border.
 It is the second largest lagoon in India after Chilika.

Comparison of Western and Eastern Coastal Plain

Dimensions Western Coastal Plains Eastern Coastal Plains
Location It is situated between the It is situated between the Eastern Ghats
Western Ghats and the and the coast of the Bay of Bengal.
coast of the Arabian Sea.
Width It is a narrow plain whose It is a relatively wide plain whose
average width is 64 km. average width is 80 to 100 km.
Shape of delta Many small and fast-flowing Major rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari,
rivers flow in this plain Krishna, Kaveri have formed large
which are unable to form deltas.
deltas.
Number of Many lagoons are found in Lagoons are found in fewer numbers in
lagoons the southern part of this this plain.
plain.
Harbors The western coast is more The eastern coast is less eroded that’s
fractured that’s why more why there are fewer ports here.
ports are found here.
Rainfall Rainfall occurs from the Rainfall occurs from the branch of the
branch of the Arabian Sea. Bay of Bengal.

Sundarban Delta -
 This is an international plain extend from India to Bangladesh.
 It is formed by the sediments brought by the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
 Rainfall - More than 200 cm.
 Tree - Trees called Sundari are found.
 Soil - Alluvial
 Agriculture - Rice and Jute
 Islands - Newmore and Ganga Sagar Islands

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Islands
 Definition - Such land masses which are surrounded by water from all sides are called islands.
 Broadly we divide the Indian islands into two parts.
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands located in the Bay of Bengal.
2. Lakshadweep Group adjacent to the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

General Introduction
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also famous as Emerald Islands. Latitudinal extension - 6045' to
140 North latitude
Formation
 When the Indian plate collides with the Burma plate towards the east, it forms the Arakan Yoma
mountain range in the Eocene period.
 The Andaman Nicobar Islands are the southern extension of this mountain range.

Geographical location
 This island group is a union territory of India located in the southern part of the Bay of Bengal,
which includes about 572 small and big islands, out of which only 38 are inhabited.
 These islands are spread in an arc shape from Myanmar in the north to Sumatra (Indonesia) in
the south in a sea area of 800 km.
 These islands are divided into two major archipelagos - Andaman Islands in the north and
Nicobar Islands in the south.
 Andaman (Little Andaman) and Nicobar (Car Nicobar) are separated from each other by a 100
channel.
 Andaman is divided into two parts - Great Andaman and Little Andaman.

A. Great Andaman
 Great Andaman is made up of five large islands from north to south namely North Andaman,
Middle Andaman, South Little Andaman, Baratang and Rutland Island.

i. North Andaman
 The highest peak of Andaman and Nicobar is Saddle Peak (732 m) in North Andaman and a
dormant volcano called Narcondam is found.
 Coco Channel is located between North Andaman and Coco Island.
 The main economic activities here are paddy cultivation and orange cultivation.

ii. Middle Andaman

 The largest island is 'Middle Andaman'.
 Its area is 1536 square kilometers.
 India's only active volcano named Barren is found in Middle Andaman.
 The people of the Jarawa community are also concentrated on this island.

iii. South Andaman

 Port Blair, the capital of Andaman and Nicobar, is located in South Andaman.

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 The third highest peak of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Mount Harriet (365 m) is located
here.
 Chidiya Tapu is here which is famous for birds.
 The famous Cellular Jail is here where the people kept under Kalapani.
 Ross Island has been renamed as Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island.
 One of the largest saw mills of Asia, the Chautham Sau Mill was established in 1883.
 Samudrika Naval Marine Museum has been established.
 Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park is located in Port Blair.
 Central Island Research Institute has been established in Port Blair.
 Duncan Pass' is between South Andaman and Little Andaman.

iv. Viper Island

 Prisoners were kept on this island before the construction of cellular Jail.
v. Baratang Island
vi. Ratland Island

Little Andaman
 The Onge tribe resides in
 Little Andaman and South

B. Nicobar Islands
 The order of the major islands in the Nicobar Islands from north to south is as follows
i. Car Nicobar
ii. Little Nicobar
iii. Great Nicobar

i. Car Nicobar
 It is the northernmost and most populated island of the Nicobar Islands of India.
 This island was badly damaged in the 2004 tsunami.
 There is an important base of the Indian Air Force on the island.
ii. Little Nicobar

iii. Great Nicobar

 Mount Thullier (642 m) in Great Nicobar is the second highest peak of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
 India's southernmost point is in Great Nicobar which is called Indira Point or Pygmalion Point.
 It was included in the World Heritage in 1989 and in the UNESCO network in 2013.

Climate of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

 The climate of Andaman is between the south-western monsoon climate of India and the equatorial
climate of the eastern islands.
 The temperature here remains almost the same throughout the year, with an average value of 30
degrees Celsius.
 The average annual rainfall is 100 cm.

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 The rainfall is more from June to September and the remaining months are dry.

Vegetation –
 Evergreen forests are found.
 Except for some densely populated areas of Andaman, the rest of the area is mostly covered with
tropical forests.
 This is a biodiversity hot spot area.

Fauna
 There are comparatively less number of animals in Andaman.
 There are very few species of dairy animals.
 Among the big animals pigs and lynxes are the main.

Economic activities
 With the continuous efforts of the Indian government, forests have been cleared and a lot of space
has been created for habitation, where by 1937 about four thousand displaced people have been
settled.
 The main produce of Andaman is the wild wood, among which Andaman red wood is famous.
 Apart from these coconut and rubber trees also grow well.
 At present efforts are being made to grow fibre producing plants called Manilla hemp and Sisal
hemp here.
 The main import items include tea, coffee, cocoa, flax, sal etc.
 There are more Sundari trees here. These trees are used as fuel.
Importance of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
1. The location of Andaman is very beneficial for forecasting the weather of the Bay of Bengal and
the Indian Ocean. For this reason, a large weather center was opened in Port Blair in 1868.
Even today, this center gives accurate information about the direction and intensity of storms
to the ships sailing in these seas.
2. Provides about 30% of India's Exclusive Economic Zone.
3. Andaman and Nicobar Islands are home to five PVTG (Particularly Vulnerable Tribe Group),
which include the Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Ongs, Shompen and North Sentinelese.
4. Are part of a chain of strategically important island groups in the Indian Ocean.

Development Plans
1. The Government of Japan approved a grant of about Rs 265 crore for development projects in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands will be developed as maritime and startup hubs. 12 islands of this
group have been selected for effective projects.
3. Emphasis will be laid on promoting the trade of sea-based, organic and coconut-based products
in this region.
4. Niti Aayog Project for Great Nicobar
 The following facilities will be developed under the Niti Aayog developmental project in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands

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a. International container trans-shipment terminal,

b. Greenfield international airport,
c. Power plant,
d. Township complex,
e. Convention centre,
f. Hospital
g. Exclusive forest resort.
 Niti Aayog Proposal for Little Andaman The plan includes building a new greenfield coastal city,
which will be developed as a free trade zone on the lines of Singapore and Hong Kong.
5. Andamanese tribes are being protected on the Strait Islands.
Problems
1. Lack of connectivity
 Less connectivity with the Indian mainland and global cities.
2. Geographical instability
 The island group is located in a highly seismically active zone.
3. Declining population
 The population of indigenous communities such as Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawa and North
Sentinelese has fallen from 1,999 to 550 in 2011 as compared to 1901.
4. Ecologically vulnerable tribes
 The Onge tribe is almost extinct in Little Andaman Island due to large-scale projects, epidemics
and disability problems.
 The developmental project proposed by Niti Aayog for Little Andaman involves de-reserving
32% of reserved forests and de-notifying 31% of tribal forests, which has endangered the
settlements of tribal groups.
5. Illegal fishing
6. Climate change - rising water levels threaten to submerge islands
7. Waste management
8. Exploitation of local people by tourists

(ii) Lakshadweep Islands

Geographical Location
 Lakshadweep is situated in the Arabian Sea at a distance of 220-240 km from the western coast of
the mainland of India.
 The 80 Channel (80 Northern Latitude) separates Minicoy and Maldives.
 The 90 Channel (90 Northern Latitude) separates Minicoy from the main Lakshadweep group.
 There are 36 islands under the Lakshadweep group (Area-32 sq. km.) out of which 10 are inhabited.
 Example- Agatti, Amini, Kadamat Kalpeni, Quilatan Minicoy etc.
 Kavaratti is the capital of Lakshadweep and Agatti is the only island here which has an airport.
 Andrott is the largest (4.90 sq. km.) island of the Lakshadweep group. Minicoy/Maliku is the second
largest island (4.80 sq. km) situated in the southernmost part of Lakshadweep.
 Most of the islands are flat. The height of the islands is rarely more than 2 meters.
 This group of islands is formed by the deposition of corals on the Lakshadweep-Chagos submarine
ridge.
 Atolls found in the Indian Ocean are mainly found in Lakshadweep.

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 Coral reefs are found all around the islands on which there are coconut trees.
 Pitti Bird Sanctuary is situated.

Districts of Lakshadweep
 Lakshadweep itself IS ONLY DISTRICT.

Climate of Lakshadweep -
 Rainfall - 200 cm. More than
 Forest - Evergreen forest
 Lakshadweep is a tropical region
 The temperature here remains pleasant even during summer.
 During summer, the maximum temperature of Lakshadweep is 35°C while the minimum
temperature is around 25°C.
 Lakshadweep is near Kerala, so to a large extent the geographical conditions of Lakshadweep match
with Kerala.

Demographics of Lakshadweep
 All the natives here come under the Scheduled Tribes.
 According to the 2011 census, 94.6% of the state's population belongs to the Scheduled Tribes.
 There is no Scheduled Caste population here.
 According to the 2011 census, the literacy rate is 91.85%
 About 94% of the population here is Muslim and belongs to the Shafi school of the Sunni sect.

Tribes of Lakshadweep
 Lakshadweep is inhabited by four main tribes - Melacheri, Malmi, Koyas, Aminidivi.
a. 'Aminidivi' tribe
 They are the local people here.
b. Koyas
 The class of land owners
c. Malmi
 Name of the labour class here.

Language of Lakshadweep
 Malayalam language is spoken in all the islands located here.
 Minicoy is the only exception, where 'Mahal' language is spoken.
 Mahal is written in Videhi script. It is basically the language of Maldives.
Major tourist places of Lakshadweep
 Domestic tourists are allowed to visit 6 islands of Lakshadweep and foreign tourists are allowed to
visit two islands - Bangaram and Agatti.

Kavaratti Island
 It is the capital of Lakshadweep
 It is mainly known for Kavaratti Island, 12 atolls, 5 submerged banks and three coral reefs.

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 Marine Museum is located here

Kalpeni Island
 This island is also known as Koifani Island.
 This island is a group of Cheriyam, Pitti and Tilalakam islands.
 The ‘Pitti’ island located here has been declared a bird sanctuary.
 Sports like scuba diving, reef walking, canoeing and boating can be enjoyed in this island.

Economic activities
 Coconut is the only agricultural product here.
 Fishing is the main occupation here.
 ‘Tuna’ is the main fish caught here.
 A small industry has been set up in Minicoy for its packaging.
Challenges –
1.Danger of sinking of islands due to global warming
2.Increase in the incidence of coral bleaching

Some other major islands of India

 Sriharikota –
 Andhra Pradesh
 It is located in the front part of Pulicat Lake.
 It is a coral island.
 Satish Dhawan Space Centre is located here.
 It is used in launching rockets.

 Pamban Island
 It is located between India and Sri Lanka in the Gulf of Mannar.
 Rameshwaram pilgrimage site is located on Pamban Island.
 It is a part of Adam's Bridge.

 New Moore Island

 This island is a very new island formed by the deposition of debris at the mouth of the Ganges on
the border of Bangladesh and India in the Bay of Bengal.
 There is a dispute between the two countries over its rights.
 It is called Dakshin Talpatti in Bangladesh and Purbasa in India.

 Abdul Kalam Island (Wheeler Island)

 It is used for missile launching.
 It is located on the coast of Orissa.
 It was named A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Island in 2015.

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 Sagar Island
 Situated on the Ganges delta
 Famous Hindu pilgrimage center

 Salsette
 Island located near Mumbai on the west coast of India. Mumbai city is located on this island.
 Borivali National Park is located on it.
 Lakes - Powai, Tulsi, Vihar

 Majuli Island
 Kherkutia flows to its north and Brahmaputra river flows to its south.
 The largest river island in the world. The country's first island district formed by the Brahmaputra
river. Located in the state of Assam. The center of Vaishnav ideology. The southernmost part of
Pamban Island is called Dhanushkodi.

Dimension Western Islands Eastern Islands

Location Located in Arabian Sea Located in the Bay of Bengal
Number Large in number (about 36) Large in number (572 islands)
Name These are called Lakshadweep These are called the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Islands.
Building They are made up of coral These are volcanic mountains formed by
reefs. the collision of the Indian plate and the
Burma plate.
Biodiversity Low biodiversity. Have more biodiversity (9 national parks)
Vulnerability More vulnerable to climate Less vulnerable to climate change
change

Major hills
Karakoram Range -
1. It is also called the backbone of Upper Asia.
2. State area - Ladakh
3. The northernmost range of Trans Himalayas
4. Highest peak Godwin Austin / Mount K2 (8611 m.)
5. Siachen, Batura, Baltero glaciers are present near it.

Ladakh Range -
1. Region - Ladakh
2. It is the middle range of the Trans Himalayas.
3. Buddhist monks of Mongol species are in abundance here.
4. Its eastern part is the Kailash Range (Tibet, China).

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Jaskar Range -
1. Location - Indus River in the north and Great Himalayas in the south.
2. It is the southernmost range of the Trans Himalayas.
3. India's coldest region Drans is located here.

Pir Panjal Range -

1. Location - Jammu and Kashmir
2. It is the range that divides Jammu from the Kashmir Valley.
3. Jawahar Tunnel is located in it. 4. This range is a part of the Lesser Himalayas.

Dhauladhar Range -
 Location - Himachal Pradesh
 Kangra and Kullu valleys are famous here.
 Tourist place - Dharamshala
 Other name - White Mountain

Shivaling Range -
 Location - From Potwar Basin in Punjab to Koshi River in the east.
 Shivalik is known as Dafla, Abor, Mishmi, Miri Hills in Arunachal Pradesh.
 This is the southernmost range of the Himalayas.
 Its average height is 900 to 1200 meters.
 It is also known as the newest mountain range of the Himalayas.

Nagtibba Range and Mahabharat Range -

 This is the range of the middle Himalayas located in Nepal.

Satpura Range -
 Location - This is an example of block mountain situated between Narmada and Tapti rivers.
 Its highest peak - Dhoopgarh (1350 m)
 Its parts from west to east are Rajpipla, Mahadev, and Maikal respectively.
 It is spread in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh.

Vidhyachal mountain range -

 Location - From Gujarat to Bihar
 The highest peak is Goodwill (725 meters).
 Minerals - limestone, sandstone, and diamonds
 Kaimur range located in its eastern part, is the water divider of Ganga and Narmada.

Aravalli
 Location - Gujarat to Delhi
 Highest peak - Gurushikhar (1722 meters)
 It is an example of residual mountain.
 The famous Jain pilgrimage site Dilwara is located on it near Mount Abu.

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 It is an older mountain range than the Himalayas.

Rajmahal Hills -
 It is located in the state of Jharkhand.
 There is abundance of mineral resources.
 The Santhal tribe resides near it.

Ajanta Range -
 Location - Maharashtra
 The caves of Ajanta and Ellora are located on it. Which is included in the World Heritage Site.

Maikal Range -
 Location - Eastern Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh
 Shape - Semi-circular
 It is the water divider of Narmada and Mahanadi.
 Its highest peak is Amarkantak (1072 meters).

Talcher Range -
 Location - Odisha
 Mineral - Coal is found.
 Brahmani river originates near it.

Chilpi Range -
 Location - Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh,
 Mineral - Copper, and Manganese

Sausar Range -
 Location - Situated in Chhidwara.
 Champion Range -
 Location - Karnataka
 This is a Dharwad series rock.
 The world famous gold mine (Kolar Hatti) is situated here.

Babudan Hill -
 Location - Karnataka
 This is famous for coffee production.

Badam Hill
 Location - Odisha
 It is famous for iron ore and dolomite mineral.
 Iron ore is sent from here to Jamshedpur and Bokaro.

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Parasnath Hills -
 Location - Jharkhand
 Jain pilgrimage site Sabed Shikhar is situated here.

Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia Hills

 Location - Meghalaya
 It is separated from the peninsular plateau by the Malda Gap.
 India's highest rainfall places Mawsynram and Chairapuji are located here.

Cardamom Hills
 Location - On the border of Kerala and Tamil Nadu
 Tamrapani river originates here.
 It is the southernmost extension of the Western Ghats.
 The highest peak Agastyamalai (1868 meters) is situated here.

Dalma Hills
 Location - Jharkhand and West Bengal

Barail Hills
 Location - Nagaland and Manipur
 Barak River originates from here.

Arakanyoma Hills
 Location - Extended from north to south in the northeastern states.
 It is the eastern extension of the Himalayas.
 It forms the border between India and Myanmar.
 Irrawaddy River originates from it.
Jawadi Hills -
 Location - Tamil Nadu
 It is famous for its fruits, medicinal and sandalwood trees.

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Plateau

Definition - Plateaus are those landforms of the earth's surface, whose slope on at least one side is
higher and steeper than the nearby surface or sea coast and its upper part is flat in the shape of a table
Characteristics of Plateau -
1. The biggest characteristic of plateaus is their flat but wide peak.
2. The slopes of the plateau are steep.
3. In terms of height, it is an intermediate topography.
4. Due to erosion, the upper surface of the plateau becomes uneven.
 For example - Pat topography situated on Ranchi Plateau.
5. The plateau is higher than its adjacent surface.

Classification of plateaus

Plateaus formed by exogenous factors Plateaus formed by endogenous forces

Intermountain
Glaciated Wind formed Water formed Volcanic
plateaus Giripad
plateaus plateaus plateaus
plateaus Dome
plateaus Coastal
continental
 Glacial Plateau -
 Glacial Plateau turns flat plateau by the process of erosing glacial mountain.
 Example - Garhwal Plateau of India

 Alluvial Plateau –
 The land mass keeps rising due to deposition of sediments by rivers. Due to deposition of
sediments, most of the sedimentary rocks keep changing and rise, as a result a plateau is formed.
 Example - Vindhya Plateau,

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 Wind-created Plateau –
 The wind brings fine particles of soil with it and deposits them at a specific place. This leads to
the formation of a plateau.
 Example - Loess Plateau of China

 Intermountain Plateau –
 As these plateaus are surrounded by mountains from all sides, they are called intermountainous
plateaus. Intermountainous plateaus are formed with the formation of folded mountains by
endogenous forces. Example - Tibetan Plateau

 Giripad Plateau -
 The plateaus situated at the base of mountains are called Giripad Plateau. These plateaus are
surrounded by high mountains on one side and are surrounded by sea or plains on the other
side.
 Example - Piedmont Plateau of United States of America

 Dome-shaped Plateau -
 When the landmass is raised in such a way by the action of folding that the middle part is high
and the edge parts are circular, then it is called dome shaped plateau.
 Example - Chota Nagpur Plateau

 Continental Plateau -
 Plateaus which are away from mountainous regions but are surrounded by sea coasts and plains
are called continental plateaus.
 Example - Peninsular India Plateau

 Coastal Plateau -
 Plateaus located near the sea coasts are included under coastal plateau.
 Example - Coromandel Coast

 Volcanic Plateau -
 After volcanic eruption, as a result of the deposition of lava layer by layer, the landmass becomes
higher than the nearby surface. And the lava forms a plateau.

Rivers
Major rivers of India -
 On the basis of geographical shapes, the drainage system of the rivers of India is divided into two
categories, such as –
Classification

Dainage system of Himalayan rivers Drainage system of peninsular rivers

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Dainage system of Himalayan rivers -

 The rivers originating from Himalayas mainly include the
drainage system of 3 rivers –

Major rivers of India -

 Based on geographical features, the drainage system of Indian
rivers is divided into two categories, such as

Classification

Indus River Drainage System Ganga Drainage System Brahmaputra River System

Indus River Drainage System -

 Origin - From Bokhar Chu glacier near Kailash mountain range.
 Total length - 2880 km. (in India - 1114 km.)
 Tributary rivers - Panchnad (in Indus near Methane core) -
(Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej), Shyok, Gilgit, Shigar,
Kabul, Jaskar.
 Drainage area - India, China, Pakistan
 Direction of flow - Initially flows in the north-west direction and
cuts the Ladakh range and forms a deep gorge.
 Muhana - Arabian Sea

Tributaries -
 Jhelum -
 Origin - Sheshnag Lake (near Berinag)
 Length - 725 km.
 Flow - Flowing from Wular Lake of Srinagar, it joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
 Project -
 Mangla Dam (Pakistan)
 Tulbul and Uri Project (Jammu-Kashmir)
 Chenab River -
 Origin - It is formed by the meeting of two rivers named Chandra and Bhaga at Tandi near
Keylong.
 Length – 605 miles (974km.)
 It is the largest tributary of Indus River.
 Flow - It flows parallel to Pir Panjal towards west from its origin and enters the plains near
Akhnoor.
 Project -

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 Baglihar, Salal, Dulhasti

 Ravi River -
 Origin - From Kullu mountain near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
 Length - 720 km.
 Mouth - It joins Chenab near Sarai Sindhu in Pakistan.
 Project - Ranjit Sagar and Shahpur Kandi Dam.
 Beas River -
 Origin - From Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass.
 Length - 470 km.
 It is the only river of Panchnad, which flows only in India.
 Mouth - Sutlej
 Project - India's longest canal Indira Gandhi is constructed from Harike Barrage at the
confluence of Beas and Sutlej.
 Sutlej River -
 Origin - Originates from Rakastal near Mansarovar.
 Length - 1450 km. (India - 1050 km.)
 It is an example of an earlier river.
 Forms the Indo-Pak border between Ferozepur and Fazilka (Punjab).
 Special - Bhakra-Nangal Project -
 It is the largest river valley project of India.
 In this, Bhakra and Nangal dams have been built at two different places, in which
hydroelectricity is generated from Bhakra dam and irrigation is done from Nangal dam.
 It is the highest gravity dam in India.
 This project benefits Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan.
Indira Gandhi Canal -
 It is drawn from Harike Barrage situated at the confluence of Beas and Sutlej.
 It is the longest canal in the world.
 Nickname - Maruganga of Rajasthan
 Shyok River -
 Origin - Remo Glacier (Ladakh)
 It flows parallel to Indus.
 Tubra -
 Origin - Siachen Glacier
 Tributary of Shyok
 Zoskar -
 Origin - Penjira Pass
 It is completely covered with snow in winters.
 Other name - Ice Sheet
 Kabul -
 Origin - Hindukush mountain range
 Afghanistan's capital (Kabul) and Chabahar port are situated on this.

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Ganga river drainage system -

 Origin - Alaknanda originating from Satopach and Bhagirathi originating
from Gomukh, after meeting at Devprayog are collectively called Ganga
river.
 Drainage area - Tibet (China), India (Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal), Nepal and Bangladesh
 Length - 2525 km.
 Tributary rivers -
 Left bank - Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghra, Gandak, Koshi, Mahananda
 Right bank - Yamuna, Tons, Son

Projects -
 Namami Gange Project (1 July, 2014)
 Farakka Dam (West Bengal)
 Bhimgonda Dam (Haridwar, Uttarakhand)
Other information -
 In West Bengal, Ganga is divided into two streams, in which the stream flowing in West Bengal
is called Hooghly and the stream flowing in Bangladesh is called Padma.
 In Bangladesh, Padma and Brahmaputra (Yamuna) join together and form an estuary in the
Bay of Bengal by the name of Meghna.
 1620 km NW-I has been built between Allahabad and Haldia on the river Ganga.
 2008 - Given the status of National River.
 2017 - Uttarakhand High Court gave the status of living river to Ganga and Yamuna.
Tributaries of Ganga -
 Yamuna -
 Origin - Yamunotri Glacier, Uttarakhand
 Length - 1365 km.
 Tributaries -
 Left bank - Chambal, Sindh, Ken, Betwa
 Right bank - Hindon, Sengar, Varuna, Karen.
 In terms of length, it is the fourth largest river of India.
 Ramganga -
 Origin - Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand
 Originates from Jim Corbett NP.
 Meets Ganga near Kannauj (Uttar Pradesh).

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 Gomti -
 Origin - Pilibhit, Uttarakhand
 In Ganga near Ghazipur.
 Lucknow and Jaunpur are situated on its banks.
 Ghaghra -
 Origin - Mapaya Chung Glacier (near Mansarovar)
 In Nepal it is called Karnali/Karnali.
 Tributary - Sharda
 Gandak -
 Origin - Nepal Himalaya
 Other names - Narayani and Shaligram
 Tributary - Trishuli Bari
 Flows into Ganga near Sonpur (Patna)
 Koshi -
 Origin - Gosaidhan Peak (Tibet)
 Is an example of antecedent river.
 Other name - Sorrow of Bihar
 To get rid of this problem, a dam named Hanumangarh was built in Nepal in 1965.
 Mahananda -
 Origin - Darjeeling Hills
 It is the last river on the left bank of Ganga.
 Hooghly -
 Name of a stream of Ganga in Bengal.
 Tributary - Damodar (Sorrow of Bengal)
 Solution - Construction of Konar, Panchet and Tilaiya Dams
 Son River -
 Origin - Maikal Hills (Amarkantak)
 Mouth - Ganga near Patna
 Project - Bansagar (Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar).

Brahmaputra River System -

 Origin - Chemamungdung Glacier (Kailash Range)
 Length - 2900 km.
 Estuary - Bay of Bengal
 Flow area - China, India, Bangladesh
 Tributaries - Teesta, Sankosh, Manas, Lohit, Dibang,
Kelang, Subhanshri, Dhanshri. Projects - NW-II (891
km.) (Sadiya to Dubri)
 Special - Forms the world's largest river island in Majuli
(Assam).
 Flow - Flows eastward from its source, where it is known
as Sangyo in Tibet and flows southward through Yangyay pass near Namcha Barwa in
Arunachal Pradesh and enters India, where it is known as Siang/Dihang and further on the

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confluence of Dibang and Lohit rivers, it is known as Brahmaputra which merges with Ganga
(Padma) in the form of Jamuna in Bangladesh.

Tributaries of Brahmaputra -
 Diwang -
 Origin - Ketha Pass (India-Tibet border)
 Flow area - Assam-Arunachal Pradesh
 Lohit -
 Origin - Jyalakhu Mountain
 When it flows from the red soil area near Mishmi mountain, it becomes red in color, so it is called
'River of Blood'.
 Teesta -
 Origin - Zemu Glacier
 It is famous for its rapid flow.
 Manas -
 Origin - Assam
 An example of an antecedent river.
 Length - 376 km.
 It is the largest river of Bhutan.
 Barak -
 Origin - Lemarol Hills (Manipur)
 Length - 1000 km. (approx.)
 Other name – Antimony

River valley projects of India related to Brahmaputra river

Ranga River Hydroelectric Project Arunachal Pradesh.
Paki Hydroelectric Project Arunachal Pradesh.
Kopli Hydroelectric Project Assam.
Doyang Hydroelectric Project Nagaland.
Loktak Hydroelectric Project Manipur.
Tipaimukh Hydroelectric Project Manipur.
Thaleshwari Hydroelectric Project Mizoram.
Tuibai Hydroelectric Project Mizoram.

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Rivers of Peninsular India

 The Peninsular rivers and their river system are older than the Himalayan rivers. Generally, the
rivers of Peninsular India are divided into two parts -

Classification

Eastern flowing rivers Western flowing rivers

 Mahanadi  Sabarmati
 Swarnarekha  Mahi
 Godavari  Tapti, Mandvi, Juwari
 Krishna  Periyar
 Kaveri
 Yennar
 Vegai
 Tamrapani

East flowing rivers -

 Damodar -
 Origin - Chota Nagpur Plateau
 Estuary - Bay of Bengal (Odisha)
 Tilaiya, Mepan, Panchet dams were built on it under the Damodar Valley Project started in 1948
for flood control.
 Swarnarekha -
 Origin - Chota Nagpur Plateau
 Estuary - Bay of Bengal
 Due to pollution, it is called a water desert.
 Industrial cities - Dhanbad, Ranchi, Jamshedpur

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 Vetarani River -
 Origin - Keonjhar Plateau, Odisha
 This river merges in Odisha itself. Brahmani River -
 Origin - Where the Koel and Shankh streams meet
 Mouth - Near Wheeler Island (Odisha)
 Mahanadi -
 Origin - Singhaba (Chhattisgarh)
 Mouth - Bay of Bengal
 Tributaries - Jonk, Tel, Mand, Long
 Length - 851 km.
 Coastal cities - Raipur, Cuttack, Durg, Puri
 Mineral - Coal
 Project - Hirakud, Tikrapara
 Godavari -
 Origin - Triambakeshwar (Nashik, Maharashtra)
 Length - 1465 km.
 It is the largest river of peninsular India.
 Mouth - Bay of Bengal
 Tributaries - Purna, Wainganga, Penganga, Pranahita, Indravati, Manjira, Dudhna, Pravara.
Minerals - Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas
 Projects - Pochampad and Jayakwadi
 Other names - Budhi Ganga
 Krishna -
 Origin - Mahabaleshwar (Western Ghats)
 Mouth - Bay of Bengal
 Length - 1401 km.
 It is the third longest river of India and second longest river of peninsular India.
 Projects -
 Sri Shelam, Andhra Pradesh
 Nagarjuna Sagar, Andhra Pradesh
 Unmati Dam, Andhra Pradesh
 Industrial city - Pune and Bengaluru
 Tributaries -
 Tungabhudra, Koyna
 Ghataprabha, Musi
 Malaprabha, Bhima
 Doodhganga
 Panchganga
 Pennar River -
 Origin - Nandidurga Hill (Karnataka)
 Length - 600 km.
 City - Nellore
 Tributaries - Jayamangali, Kundaru, Papagani, Cheyaru.

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 Kaveri River -

Kaveri River -

 Origin - Brahmagiri Hill (Karnataka)

 Length - 800 km.
 Nickname - Ganga of the South
 Tributaries - Hemavathi, Lokapavani, Shimsa, Bhavani, Amaravati, Kambini.
 Waterfalls - Shivasamudram, Gheganekal, Stanley. Islands - The river forms 3 islands -
 Srirangapatna
 Sriranam
 Shivasamudram
 Cauvery water dispute - between Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Puducherry due to
construction of Krishnaraja Sagar dam in 1902-03.
 It forms a quadrangular delta.
 Vaigai River -
 Origin - Varunanadu Hills (Tamil Nadu)
 Mouth - In BOB near Rameswaram.
 Tamrapani River -
 Origin - Cardamom Mountains
 Mount - Gulf of Mannar

Rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea

 These rivers are fast and swift, as these rivers enter the sea areas directly from the mountain
and plateau regions, as a result of which they are not able to collect their sediments in the sea
coastal areas and form a delta and create an estuary. For example - Narmada and Tapti.
 Luni River -
 Origin - Pushkar Dhari, near Ajmer (Rajasthan)
 Length - 495 km. (Interflowing river)
 Mouth - Merges in the Rann of Kutch.
 Other names - Lunari, Lavnawari
 Tributaries - Sukri, Khari, Mishri, Jawai, Sagi, Jojri, Bundi.
 Sabarmati River -
 Origin - Aravalli Mountain near Udaipur in Mewar.
 Mouth - Arabian Sea
 Length - 371 km.
 Coastal cities - Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad
 Tributary – Bhogwa

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 Mahi River -
 Origin - Mehad Lake, Dhar
 Mouth - Gulf of Khambhat
 Length - 580 km.
 Flow area - Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat
 Coastal city - Vadodara
 Special - It crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice.
 Narmada -
 Origin - Amarkantak, Anuppur
 Mouth - Gulf of Khambhat
 Length - 1312 km. (Madhya Pradesh - 1077 km.)
 Flow area - Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra
 Tributaries -
 Left bank - Barna, Banjar, Sher, Shakkar, Dudhi, Tawa, Ganjala.
 Right bank - Hiran, Kanhar, Maan, Uri, Chandkesar.
 Waterfalls -
 Dhuandhar - Jabalpur
 Mandhata - Khandwa
 Sahastradhara - Maheshwar
 Dardi - Khandwa
 Kapildhara - Anuppur
 Dudhdhara - Anuppur
 Projects -
 Rani Avanti Sagar - Jabalpur (Bargi)
 Indira Sagar - Punasa, Khandwa
 Omkareshwar - Khandwa (Floting Solar)
 Sardar Sarovar - Bhaduch, Gujarat
 Other information -
 It is the fifth largest river of India and the third largest river of peninsular India.
 This river forms a tree-like system.
 In 2017, Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly gave it the status of living river.
 (Statue of Unity) (182 M) was established on its banks.
 This fault river flows in the valley.
 In Gujarat, the river named Adiabet and Khadiabet creates islands.

 Narmada -
 Origin - Multai Hills, Betul
 Mouth - Gulf of Khambhat
 Length - 724 km.
 Flow- Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat
 Tributaries- Girja, Hathnur, Gopad, Aner, Beer, Panzara, Mona, Bori
 Coastal cities- Surat, Nepanagar
 It flows in a fault river valley.
 Project- Kakarpada (Maharashtra), Ukai (Gujarat)

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 Mandvi-
 Origin- On the border of Karnataka and Goa
 Estuary- Arabian Sea
 Length- 77 km.
 Coastal city- Panaji
 Waterfalls- Dudhsagar, Vajrapoha
 Zuari River-
 Origin- Western Ghats (near Goa)
 Mouth- Arabian Sea
 Length- 92 km.
 Coastal city- Panaji
 Mandovi and Zuari rivers are connected by Kambajua Canal.
 Sharavati River-
 Origin- Shimoga, (Karnataka)
 Mouth- Arabian Sea
 Length- 128 km.
 Waterfall- Jog (253 m.)
 Gangavalley-
 Origin- Dharwad, (Karnataka)
 Mouth- Arabian Sea
 Length- 152 km.
 Periyar River-
 Origin- Annamalai Hills, (Kerala)
 Lifeline of Kerala
 Length - 245 km.
 Idukki dam is built on this.
 Pamba River-
 Origin- Annamalai Hills
 Mouth- Vembanad Lake
 It is a tributary of Periyar.
 Bharathapuzha River-
 Origin- Annamalai Hills
 Mouth- Arabian Sea
 Length- 250 km.

Difference between Himalayan and Peninsular Indian Rivers

S.N. Dimensions Himalayan River Peninsular River
1 Nature This is a perennial river. This is a river of seasonal
nature.
2 Catchment This catchment area is huge. This catchment area is small.
area
3 Topography This creates deep gorge. This creates shallow valleys.

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4 Flow path This meanders in plain areas This flows in its own path.
and changes its course.
5 Status This is a river of young age. This is a mature river.
6 Type This is a type of prehistoric This is a type of follow-up
river. river.
7 Water Water transport is easy in these. Water transport is relatively
transport difficult in these.
8 Tributary These have many tributaries. These have fewer tributaries.
rivers
9 Shape of These rivers create huge deltas. These rivers are small in size
delta and create estuaries.
10 Flood It increases the area in plain These rivers have less flood
problem areas every year and creates problems. And they make the
alluvial soil area. coastal plain fertile.

Drainage Patterns of Rivers

 Definition- That special shape When the river and its tributaries form a special type of shape in the
flow path, then this structure is called drainage pattern.

Types of drainage pattern

Dense Circular Centrifugal Centripetal Reticulate Parallel

Rectangular
 Tree-shaped-
 In flat and plain areas, when the branches of rivers come from all directions and meet the main
river, then this type of structure is formed.
 For example - Ganga, Godavari, Kaveri etc. form tree-shaped structures.
 Centrifugal-
 When the water streams flow from the central high part in all directions, then the geometric
structure formed is called centrifugal pattern.
 For example - Narmada, Son, Johila
 Parallel-
 When the main river and tributaries flow parallel to each other, then the geometric structure
formed is called parallel pattern.
 For example, the pattern formed by Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
 Centripetal -
 When rivers flowing from all four directions meet in a lake or concave part, then a centripetal
pattern is formed.
 For example, Loktak lake
 Lattice -
 When the main rivers flow parallel to each other and the tributary rivers meet the main rivers
at a right angle (90), then a lattice-like drainage pattern is formed.
 For example, Singhbhum situated in Chhota Nagpur region.

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 Rectangular -
 When the tributary rivers meet the main river at an angle of 90° with a right-angle turn, then
the geometric structure formed is called rectangular drainage pattern.
 For example, it is a river flowing in Vindhyachal mountain and Jharkhand (Palamu region).

Classification on the basis of direction of rivers

Classification based on the direction of rivers

Successive Non-successive

Consquent Counter- Neo-successive

sequent
Subsequent Preceding Superimposed

Successive -
 Those rivers, which determine their path on the basis of topographical features and whose flow is
according to the slope, are called sequential rivers.
 Example - Almost all the rivers of peninsular India.
 These have been divided into 04 parts.
1. Consequent
 They are the ones that follow the general direction of the slope
Example Chambal, Godavari, Kaveri etc.
2. Subsequent
 Streams that have generally developed after the original stream (tributary rivers).
 Example Indravati, Sabri, Kali Sindh etc.
3. Counter-sequent
 The river flowing in the opposite direction of the flow direction of the main successor rivers is
called counter-sequent.
4. Neo-successional
 The rivers which flow in the same direction as the flow of the main successor rivers are called
neo-successional.

Non-successional -
 The rivers whose flow does not depend on the topographical features and slope and they make their
own path, are called non-successional rivers.
 They are divided into 02 parts
1. Precedent
 These rivers do not flow according to the slope but make their own path through erosion.
Examples of these rivers are Indus, Brahmaputra, Sutlej etc.

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2. Superimposed
 When a river cuts off its upper and new layer through the process of erosion and starts flowing
again in the old path and drainage area, then that river is called superimposed river.

Projects related to Himalayan rivers

Project Related River Related States
Bhakra Nangal Project Sutlej River Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan
Indira Gandhi Project Sutlej Beas River Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
Pong Project Beas River Himachal Pradesh
Chamera Project Ravi River Himachal Pradesh
Thein Project Ravi River Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir
Nathpa-Jhakri Project Sutlej River Himachal Pradesh
Salal Project Chenab River Jammu & Kashmir
Chaglihar Project Chenab River Jammu & Kashmir
Dulhasti Project Chenab River Jammu & Kashmir
Tulbul Project Jhelum River Jammu & Kashmir
Hari Project Jhelum River Uttarakhand
Tehri Project Bhilangna + Bhagirathi Uttarakhand
River
Ramganga Project Ramganga River Uttarakhand, Nepal
Tanakpur Project Kali (Sharda) River Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Nepal
Gandak River Project Gandak River Bihar, Nepal
Kosi Project Kosi River Uttar Pradesh
Rihand Project Rihand River Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar
Bansagar Project Son River Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
Matatila Project Betwa River Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
Chambal Project Chambal River Jharkhand, West Bengal
Damodar Valley Project Damodar River Jharkhand, West Bengal
Mayurakshi Project Mayurakshi River West Bengal
Farakka Project Ganga River Madhya Pradesh
Gandhi Sagar Project Chambal River Rajasthan
Jawahar Sagar Project Chambal River Himachal Pradesh
Koldam Project Sutlej River Himachal Pradesh
Mandi Project Beas River Arunachal Pradesh
Kameng Hydroelectric Kameng River Manipur
Project
Tipaimukh Barak + Tuivai River Jharkhand
Hydroelectric Project
Tilaiya Project Barakar River Related States

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Major Waterfalls of India

Waterfalls River State
Jog/Garsoppa/Mahatma Gandhi Falls Sharavati River Karnataka
Dhuandhar, Dudhdhara, Kapildhara Narmada Madhya Pradesh
Duduma Falls Machhakund Odisha
Gokak Falls Ghatprabha Karnataka
Chulia Falls Chambal River Rajasthan
Chitrakoot (Chitrakot) Falls (known as Indravati River Chhattisgarh
Niagara of India)
Hundru Falls Swarnarekha River Jharkhand
Dudhsagar Falls Mandvi River Goa
Chachai Falls Bihad River Madhya Pradesh
Shivasamudra Falls Kaveri River Karnataka
Kunchikal Falls (highest in India) Varahi River Karnataka
Gautam Dhara/Jonha Raru River Jharkhand
Dasam Kanchi River Jharkhand
Saadni Shankh River Jharkhand
Boodha Ghagh Falls Budhaghagh River Jharkhand
Chachai Falls Bihad River Madhya Pradesh
Barkana Falls Sita River Karnataka
Khandadhar Korapani Nala Odisha
States and Union Territories and Major Lakes

State Lakes
Uttarakhand Nainital, Bhimtal, Naukuchhiyatal, Khurpatal, Roopkund

Gujarat Nal Sarovar, Narayan Sarovar, Kankaria, Hamrisar

Haryana Surajkund
Punjab Kanjali, Harike, Ropar
Rajasthan Pichola, Sambhar, Panchpadra, Rajsamand, Jaisamand, Didwana,
Pushkar, Fateh Sagar, Udai Sagar.

Jammu-Kashmir Dal, Wular, Anantnag, Nagin, Berinag, Sheshnag

Ladakh Pangong Tso, Somoriri

Meghalaya Umiam
Manipur Loktak
Mizoram Pala
Sikkim Gurudongmar, Cholamu
Kerala Vembanad, Ashtamudi (Lagoon Lake), Sasthamkotta

Karnataka Bellandur, Pampa Sarovar

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Tamil Nadu Berijam, Ooty, Kodaikanal, Chembarambakkam

Assam Deepor Beel, Son Beel, Haflong

Maharashtra Lonar, Powai, Gorewada, Salim Ali Sarovar

Telangana Hussain Sagar, Osmansagar, Himayat Sagar

Andhra Pradesh Koleru

Lake
 Lake is a stable body of water. Which is surrounded by landmass from all sides. Many natural and
man-made lakes are found in India.
 On the basis of classification, the division of lakes is as follows.

General classification of lakes

Process of Based on origin Based on nature

formation

Natural Artific Salt water Fresh

ial water

Glacier River Wind Crater Tectonic Lagoon

formed formed formed lake lake lake

Natural lake -
 It is a relatively large and stable reservoir of water found naturally on the surface of the earth.
Artificial -
 The lake formed as a result of dams built on rivers is called an artificial lake.
 Example - Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar
Glacial lake
 These lakes are formed as a result of erosion of glaciers.
 Example - Nainital lake
River-formed lake -
 Lake is formed by the river on its flow path and mouth. It is as follows.

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1. Oxbow Lake
 When rivers enter the plains, they flow through large bends due to horizontal erosion. These
bends create meanders, which separate and form oxbow lakes.
 Example - Kanwar Lake (Bihar)

2. Delta Lake
 In the deltaic region, rivers flow through many water distributaries.
 Water collects in the deep space between the deltaic region situated between two branches and
forms a lake.
 Example - Kolleru Lake (Krishna-Godavari Delta)

Tectonic Lake -
 It is formed by the rise or sinking of the surface.
 Example - Wular Lake (Jammu-Kashmir)
Crater Lake -
 When the mouth of a volcano expands more, it is called a crater or volcanic cavity. The lake formed
by the collection of water in this cavity is called a crater lake.
 Example - Lonar Lake Maharashtra
Wind-made Lake -
 Lakes formed by the flow of winds and erosion are called wind-made lakes.
 Generally, these lakes are saline in nature.
 Example - Sambhar, Didwana Lake
Lagoon Lake -
 When some part of the sea water gets separated from the main water by sand and rocks, then a
lagoon lake is formed.
 Example - Chilika, Pulicat, Ashtamudi

Classification of lakes on the basis of salinity

1. Freshwater lakes -
 In such lakes, both water supply and drainage is in large quantity.
 In such lakes, water supply is done by rain in humid areas, and in areas with glaciers, water is
obtained from melting of glaciers.
 Example - Loktak Lake
2. Salt water lakes
 Saline lakes are called salty lakes or salt water lakes.
 These lakes are the lakes of wet dry and arid desert regions.
 Here the amount of evaporation is more than the water supply.
 Example - Sambhar Lake

Importance of lakes -
 The lakes present on the earth are not only the center of natural beauty and tourism, but also
contribute significantly to economic and human development.
 Fresh water lakes supply drinking water to the nearby areas.

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 Salt and fresh water lakes ensure the supply of water for industries. Due to which industrial cities
develop on its banks.
 Many types of grass and vegetation are found in the lakes.
 Salt water lakes produce salt.
 For example - Sambhar and Lunkaransar (Rajasthan)
 Fish is obtained from lakes as food.
 Lakes are an important means of water transport.
 For example - National Highway 3 was developed in Kerala based on canals.
 Lakes provide irrigation facilities in the nearby areas.
 For example - Jaisamudra, Rajsamudra, Udayasagar (Rajasthan)
 Lakes create eco-climate in their nearby areas due to which more concentration of population is
found near them.

Hkkjr esa e`nk

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 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICR) has divided the soil of India into eight categories.
1. Alluvial Soil
 Formation - This soil is formed from the sediments brought by rivers.
 This is the soil found on the largest area of land in India (43%).
 This soil is found in the northern plains, river valleys and delta regions.
 This is the most fertile soil, hence it does not require fertilizer.
 It has the highest amount of potash but lacks nitrogen and humus.
 It is suitable for wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables.
 It can be divided into two parts
A. Bangar soil (ancient alluvial soil)
 This is alluvial soil found in relatively high places
 Sometimes infertile alkaline soil is found in these which is called Dhaya, Bhur, Barind, Usar, Reh
or Kallar.
B. Khadar soil (new alluvial soil)
 This is found in relatively low places on flood plains.
 In Punjab it is called Bet.
 Deficiency - Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Humus
 Excess - Potash and lime
Characteristics -
1. Its colour is grey.
2. It is a soil of neutral nature.
3. It is the most fertile soil.
4. All three sand, silt and clay are found in it.
2. Red-yellow soil
 It is the most common soil after alluvial soil and is found on 18% of the total area
 It is formed by the erosion of Archaean rocks
 Its colour is due to ferric oxide
 It lacks nitrogen, humus and potash
 Coarse grains are cultivated on it.
 In areas with irrigation facilities, wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds and potatoes are
cultivated on this soil. The fertility of this soil is low.
 Its area is in peninsular India's Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, eastern Maharashtra
and eastern Madhya Pradesh.
 It contains iron ore and lime in abundance.
Characteristics -
1. It is an acidic soil
2. It is a porous soil.
3. Sand and gravel are found in it.
3. Black soil
 It is found on 15% of the total area
 It is formed by the disintegration of basaltic rocks.
 It is also called Regur or black cotton soil.
 It is suitable for cotton and soybean cultivation
 Irrigation is not required due to its high water holding capacity.
 Due to the predominance of clay, cracks appear on drying, hence it is called self-ploughing soil

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 The black colour of this soil is due to titaniferous magnetite

 Due to the iron-rich granular structure, it is resistant to water and wind erosion.
 It lacks nitrogen and humus
 This soil is spread over Malwa, Gujarat, Maharashtra and northern Karnataka
 The black soil found in steppe grasslands is called chernozem
 It contains lime, iron, potash and aluminium in abundance.
Characteristics -
1. It is a dark black soil.
2. Its water holding capacity is high.
4. Laterite soil
 The word ‘laterite’ is derived from the Latin word ‘letter’ which means ‘brick’
 These soils are soft in the presence of moisture but become very hard on drying.
 They are found in high rainfall (more than 200 cm) and tropical areas
 Silica gets leached out due to high rainfall. There is abundance of aluminium and iron in them
whereas there is deficiency of nitrogen, potash, potassium and lime.
 Due to abundance of bacteria in tropical regions, rapid decomposition of organic matter takes
place.
 The fertility of this soil is low.
 The red colour of laterite soil is due to iron oxide.
 Laterite soil is spread in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Bengal and Meghalaya.
 Cashew, tea, sugarcane, rice etc. are cultivated in this soil.
Characteristics -
1. This is acidic soil.
2. This is less fertile soil.
5. Alkaline or saline soil
 It is found in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.
 Due to excessive irrigation in the soil of dry areas, sodium, calcium, magnesium and other salts
come to the upper surface of the soil. It is also called Reh or Kallar.
 This soil can be improved by lime or gypsum.
Characteristics -
1. It is an impermeable soil.
6. Peat / swampy soil
 This soil remains submerged in water during rainy season.
 It is highly acidic.
 It is spread over Orissa, Bengal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu etc.
 It lacks potash.
 It has an abundance of humus and iron.
Characteristics -
1. It is a black colored soil.
2. It is an acidic soil.
7. Mountain Soil
 It is spread from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
 It is a podzol type soil found at an altitude of 2700-3000 m in the Himalayas.
 Other name - Forest Soil
 Agriculture - Horticulture

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Features -
1. It is a porous soil.
2. It is less deep.
3. Its colour is dark brown.
8. Desert Soil
 It is found in dry and semi-arid areas.
 It can be made cultivable by providing irrigation facilities.
 It is spread over Rajasthan and Gujarat.
 Agriculture - coarse grains (jowar and millet)
Characteristics -
1. It is a saline soil.
2. Its structure is of sandy type.

Seasons in India
 Season is a short period of the year, in which the seasonal conditions are almost the
same.
 The following 3 seasons are found in India.

Seasons

Summer season Rainy season Autumn season Winter season

1- 1. Summer season
 Reason for arrival- Uttarayan of the Sun
 Duration- 15 March to 15 June
 Temperature- Temperature of Deccan plateau in March is around 380 Celsius, temperature of
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat is around 420 Celsius in April, temperature of north-western parts is
around 450 Celsius in May, temperature is low in peninsular India due to sea effect.
 Major events- Decrease in air pressure in northern part of India, effect of hot winds called Loo from
the west, pre-monsoon rains like Kal Vaishakhi, Mango rain, Cherry blossom.
 With the Uttarayan of the Sun, the Tropical Convergence Zone (TCR) shifts towards the north and
produces low pressure.
2- Arrival of rainy season/monsoon
 Duration - 15 June to 15 September
 In this, to fill the low pressure created in summer, the south-east trade winds cross the equator and
enter India in the form of south-west monsoon winds. And these winds cause rain in India.
 These winds divide into two parts and cause rain-
 1. Arabian Sea branch
 2. Bay of Bengal branch
3- 3. Autumn season -
 Duration - 15 September to 15 December

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 As a result of the southward movement of the Sun, the temperature of the Indian subcontinent
decreases as well as the pressure starts increasing.
4- 4. Winter season
 Reason for arrival- Southward movement of the Sun
 Duration- November-February
 Temperature- Decrease in temperature from south to north, average temperature of Chennai is 250
Celsius while in northern plains it is 10-150 Celsius.
 In this season the isotherms remain straight from east to west.
 In this season the temperate cyclones arising from the Mediterranean Sea enter India with the help of
western jet stream. This is called 'Western disturbance'.
 This disturbance causes rain in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan. Which is called
'Maawath'.

Rain
 The average rainfall in India is about 125 cm. Local factors
have a special contribution in the distribution of rainfall,
among which distance from the sea, latitudinal position, relief
are important.
 The distribution of rainfall in India is uneven. On one hand,
Mawsynram and Cherrapunji on the Khasi hill in Meghalaya
receive more than 1000 cm of rainfall, while on the other hand,
Leh Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir is among the places with
less rainfall, where less than 20 cm of rainfall occurs.

Distribution of rainfall

 Area with high rainfall -

High rainfall area Medium rainfall area Low rainfall area Insufficient rainfall
 This area receives more than 200 cm of rainfall.
 Major areas - Western coast, western part of Western Ghats, eastern part of Eastern Ghats, Meghalaya
plateau, Lakshadweep and Andaman Nicowar
 Reason - This is the windward slope area.

 Area with medium rainfall -

 This area receives 100-200 cm of rainfall.
 Major areas - South Gujarat, Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh

 Area with low rainfall -

 This area receives less than 100 cm of rainfall.

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 Major areas - Southern part of Punjab and Haryana, mountainous region of Jammu and Kashmir,
northern part of Gujarat and entire area of Rajasthan.
 Reason - This is the windward slope area.
 Three rain shadow areas are formed under this.
Such as -
1. Aravalli region
2. Bundelkhand region
3. Triangular region of peninsular India
 Inadequate rainfall -
 This region receives less than 50 cm of rainfall.
 Major regions - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Ladakh and western Rajasthan
 Reasons - Rain shadow region, greater distance from the sea, lack of humidity

Monsoon
 The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word mausim which means reversal of winds.
 The monsoon phenomenon was first noticed by the sailors who came to India in historical times. This
reversal of the wind system benefited them as their ships were dependent on the direction of wind
flow. The Arabs who came to India as traders named this seasonal reversal of the wind system as
monsoon.

Characteristics of Monsoon
1. Seasonal reversal of winds
2. Wet and dry seasons
3. Influenced by topography
4. Moved by pressure difference

Theory of origin of monsoon

Classical Concept Dynamic/ TTCZ Concept/ Jet Stream

(Thermal Concept) Air Mass Concept Theory

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Thermal concept
 It is also called classical theory. It was presented by Edmund
Halley in 1686.
 According to Halley, during winter solstice (December), the
sun rays fall perpendicularly on the Tropic of Capricorn, due
to which the vast landmass of Asia cools down rapidly and
becomes a high pressure area. On the contrary, low pressure
develops in the southern Indian Ocean. Hence, winds start
blowing from the high pressure of the landmass towards the
low pressure of the ocean, which is called the north-east
monsoon. This monsoon coming from the landmass is dry. But
the winds coming from the Bay of Bengal collect moisture and
cause rain on the Coromandel coast.
 With the summer solstice, the sun rays fall perpendicularly on
the Tropic of Cancer, then the landmass of Asia becomes hot
and becomes a low pressure area. At this time, there is high air
pressure in the southern part of the Indian Ocean, as a result of which winds start blowing from
the Indian Ocean towards the landmass of Asia, which is called the south-west monsoon. Coming
from the ocean, these winds contain moisture which causes rain when obstruction occurs.
Criticism of thermal concept -
 This is a simplified explanation of monsoon because the position of northward and southward
movement of the Sun remains fixed every year whereas uncertainty exists in the arrival of
monsoon.

Air mass ideology/ dynamic concept/ equatorial westerly wind theory -

 This is also called ITCZ concept. It was presented by H. Flon of Germany. According to this, ITCZ
shifts towards the north in July, due to which the winds start moving towards the north in the form
of sea winds and take the form of south-west monsoon. At this time, due to the northward
movement of the Sun, ITCZ is located on the plains of Ganga. It is also called monsoon trough in
monsoon season.
 Low pressure areas are formed over the land parts of India due to high insolation, whereas high
pressure areas are formed over the nearby seas.
 t this time, a high pressure area is formed in the southern Indian Ocean. As a result, south-eastern
trade winds start blowing. As soon as they cross the equator, due to the Coriolis force, their
direction becomes south-west and they start moving towards the Indian subcontinent in the form
of south-west monsoon.

Jet Stream Theory

 It is a very fast air flow system in the upper atmosphere, which also affects the weather of the
lower atmosphere.
 According to this theory, the 'tropical eastern jet stream' causes the origin of the 'south-west
monsoon' in India and the 'subtropical western jet stream' helps in the origin of the 'north-east
monsoon' (winter monsoon).

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 In winter, the subtropical western jet stream flows from west to east throughout western and
central Asia and when it reaches the Tibetan plateau, it gets divided into two branches due to
obstruction.
 One branch starts flowing parallel to the Tibetan
plateau from the north and the other branch moves
eastwards south of the Himalayas, which brings
'western disturbance' over the Indian subcontinent in
winter.
 In summer (at the time of the northward movement
of the Sun) all the temperature zones get displaced
towards the north, due to which the 'subtropical
western jet stream' also gets displaced towards the north of the Tibetan plateau. Due to this, the
effect of 'tropical eastern jet stream' is created in the upper atmosphere of the Indian subcontinent.
The tropical eastern jet stream is a type of regional and seasonal jet stream. It originates from the
center of high air pressure developed in the upper layers of the troposphere due to the ascent of
hot air (air getting heated and rising) due to high temperature on the Tibetan plateau during
summer.
 The wind blowing from the center of high air pressure towards the South Indian Ocean through
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea is called the 'tropical eastern jet stream'.
 Due to this jet stream, high air pressure develops due to the descent of air near the island of
Madagascar. When the south-eastern trade winds blowing from here cross the equator, they turn
to the right due to the Coriolis force and hit the coast of the Indian subcontinent and cause rain.
These are known as the 'south-west monsoon'.

Factors affecting the Indian monsoon

Factors responsible for Factors affecting the

the arrival of monsoon intensity of monsoon

 Warming of Tibetan  Walker Cycle

Plateau  Somalia Jet
 Subtropical  El Nino
 Tropical  Lan Nina
 Easterly Jet  Indian Dipole
 ITCZ/ Monsoon Trough  Madden-Julian Oscillation

1- El-Nino -
 It is a warm current flowing on the coast of Peru which flows from east to west.
 When it spreads in the eastern central region of the Indian Ocean, it attracts the Indian monsoon
towards itself and weakens the monsoon in the Indian subcontinent.

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2- La-Nino -
 It is a cold current flowing on the coast of Peru, which lowers the temperature in the western
Pacific Ocean. Due to which a high pressure situation is created in this region. As a result, the
Indian monsoon is positively affected.
3- Jet Stream -
 It is a form of westerly winds flowing at high altitude (tropopause). It flows over the Tibetan
plateau during winters. Due to the obstruction of the Tibetan plateau, it gets divided into two parts,
north and south of the Himalayas.
 The southern branch of the Mediterranean cyclone causes rain (western disturbance) in
northwestern India.
4- ITCZ –
 It is a low pressure area on the equator where trade winds occur. In summers, it becomes
perpendicular to the Tropic of Cancer and forms a low pressure area.
 As a result, the trade winds of the southern hemisphere flow towards north-east due to Coriolis
force at 00 and cause rainfall.
 In winters, when displaced in the southern hemisphere, the direction of the winds becomes south-
west.
5- Somalia Current -
 It is a cold current flowing on the eastern coast of Africa, which reduces the temperature of the
Arabian Sea to the west of India, which has a positive effect on the Indian monsoon.

6- Indian Ocean Dipole -

 Changes in the pressure conditions on the southern oceans also affect the monsoon.
Branches of South-West Monsoon
1- Arabian Sea Branch
2- Bay of Bengal Branch

Sub-branches of Arabian Sea Branch

Sub- effect
branch
First  250-400 cm rainfall on the western coast of Western Ghats
Branch  Formation of rain shadow area on Telangana plateau on the eastern side of
Western Ghats
Second  Rainfall in Narmada and Tapi river valleys between Vindhya mountain range
Branch and Satpura mountain range
 15 cm rainfall in Chhota Nagpur plateau
 Meets Bay of Bengal branch on the plain of Ganga
Third  Upto 250 cm rainfall on Kanara coast
Branch  Upto 200 cm rainfall on Konkan coast
 50-60 cm rainfall due to Pune being in eye shadow area
 Saurashtra, Kutch
 Only 50-60 cm rainfall in Rajasthan due to Aravalli hills being parallel to the
monsoon winds. Rainfall
 90-100 cm rainfall after colliding with Shivalik range

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Sub-branches of Bay of Bengal branch

 Formation of two branches after colliding with Arakan Yoma
First  More than 300 cm rainfall on Meghalaya plateau
branch  World’s highest raining at Masinram and Cherapunji in Meghalaya.
Second  250 cm rainfall in West Bengal
branch  200 cm rainfall in Bihar
 More than 130 cm rainfall in Rewa-Panna plateau of Madhya Pradesh
 Meeting with Arabian Sea branch in Shivalik range

Reason for scanty rainfall in Rajasthan

 Arabian Sea branch gives very less rainfall in Rajasthan because
1. Aravali is parallel to Arabian branch.
2. The height of Aravali is 250-300 cm which cannot act as a barrier.
3. The inversion of temperature which is found in deserts.
4. The high pressure generated over the Thar Desert also extends to the western part of
Rajasthan.

Pre-monsoon showers
 Between March and May, due to northward movement of the Sun and the entry of the equinox
(monsoon trough) into the Arabian Sea, thunderstorms are formed. At this time, the general
direction of the wind becomes south-easterly, which leads to rainfall, which is called

Region Local name of pre-monsoon showers

Bengal Kal Baisakhi
Assam Bordeaux Chilla/ Norwester
Karnataka Coffee showers/ Mango showers
Kerala Cherry blossom

Loo
 If there is lack of moisture in the ITCZ, then hot winds enter, which are called westerly loo.

Monsoon break
 There are also rainless intervals during the monsoon season. This phenomenon is called monsoon
break.
 There are following three reasons for this:-
a. ITCZ getting displaced on Shivalik
b. Moist winds on the western coast flowing parallel to the coast
c. Moist winds causing rain not rising due to inversion of temperature in Rajasthan

Retreating of monsoon
 The retreat or return of monsoon is called retreat of monsoon.

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Reason: End of conditions responsible for heating of Tibetan plateau in the beginning of
September and displacement of ITCZ towards south

 Due to the above reasons, monsoon starts retreating from north-western India and by mid-
October it starts returning from rest of India except southern India.
 The retreating monsoon winds take water vapour from the Bay of Bengal and cause rain in the
Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu in the form of north-eastern monsoon. The retreating monsoon
(north-eastern monsoon) generally does not bring rain because it becomes dry as it moves from
land to the sea. The temperature of these winds increases due to friction on land.
a. It is dry because it moves from land towards the sea.
b. The temperature of these winds increases due to friction on the land.
Western Disturbance/Maawath
Reason Acquisition of moisture from Mediterranean and Black Sea by subtropical
jet (Bird Disturbance)
Time October-November
Wind direction West to East
Effect Rainfall in Afghanistan (25 cm), Jammu and Kashmir (20 cm), Punjab (15
cm), Allahabad (10 cm) and Patna (5 cm)

October Heat
 The months of October and November are the period of transition from hot rainy season to cold
season. With the withdrawal of monsoon, the sky becomes clear and the temperature increases.
The day temperature is high, while the nights are cool and pleasant. The land is still humid. Due
to high temperature and humidity, the daytime weather becomes unbearable. This is commonly
known as the 'humidity of summer'.

Walker Circulation
 The longitudinal (east-west) circulation over the equatorial Pacific is called Walker Circulation.
 This circulation can have the following 3 phases.

Normal state Elnino state Lanina state

 Walker circulation is formed due to temperature and pressure gradient on both the coasts of the
Pacific.

Normal condition
 In a normal year, due to the east to west flow of southern trade winds in the equatorial Pacific, the
warm surface water of the eastern Pacific is displaced towards the western Pacific. At this time,
high temperature and low pressure are formed on the eastern Pacific. Warm air rises on the
western Pacific coast and causes precipitation and after drying, returns back to the eastern Pacific
coast and completes a cycle.

El Niño year

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 When the trade winds weaken, the warm surface water of the eastern Pacific is not able to migrate
to the western Pacific, due to which a warm ocean current flows on the coast of Peru, which is
called the warm current of El Niño.
 At this time, the Walker circulation becomes weak, due to which the Indian monsoon also becomes
weak, and a situation of drought is created.

La Nina Year
 When the trade winds are very strong, the warm surface water of the eastern Pacific collects in
greater quantity than usual on the western Pacific coast, due to which a colder than normal ocean
current starts flowing on the coast of Peru, which is called La Nina. At this time the Walker
circulation becomes strong, due to which the Indian monsoon becomes strong, and flood conditions
arise.

Characteristics of Indian Monsoon

1- Seasonal
 Monsoon rainfall is limited to a few months of the year between June and September.
2- Influenced by relief
 Monsoon rainfall is influenced by topography and relief, for example, due to the Western Ghats
being windward, there is about 300 cm of rainfall. Similarly, the Eastern Himalayas also receive
high rainfall due to the presence of mountain ranges.
3- Decrease in rainfall with distance from the sea
 Monsoon rainfall starts decreasing as we move away from the sea. For example, Calcutta receives
119 cm, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56 cm of rainfall.
4- Uneven distribution
 There are disparities in the spatial distribution of monsoon rainfall, for example, the western coast
receives more than 300 cm of rainfall, while western Rajasthan receives 20-25 cm of rainfall.
5- Irregularity
 Monsoon rain does not occur on time every year. Sometimes it is delayed and sometimes it is not
quick.
6- Others -
 India receives heavy rainfall due to the southwest monsoon.
 The amount and time of rainfall in India is uncertain. Due to which sometimes floods and
sometimes droughts occur.
 Sometimes torrential rains cause soil erosion.

Upper air circulation - Jet stream

Definition -
 Jet stream is a fast and narrow air stream, which remains concentrated along a semi-horizontal axis
in the upper atmosphere or stratosphere. The very fast horizontal winds blowing near the northern
boundary of the troposphere are called jet flow.
 Width - 150 km.
 Thickness - 2-3 km.
 Normal speed - 150-200 km/hour

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Classification

Permanent jet streams Temporary jet streams

1. Permanent jet streams

-
Permanent jet streams are mainly of two types. Which are
written below.
i. Polar jet streams -
 Latitude - These are found in latitudes north of 60° in both the
northern and southern hemispheres.
 Direction - In the northern hemisphere, their direction is from
south-west to north-east and in the southern hemisphere from
north-west to south-east.
 Cell position - It flows between the polar cell and the Ferrel cell in
both the hemispheres.
ii. Subtropical westerly jet streams -
 Latitude - It flows between 300 to 350 latitudes in both the hemispheres.
 Direction - Its direction is from west to east.
 These jet winds are responsible for bringing western disturbances between December and
February in India.
 Cell position - It flows between the Ferrel cell and the Hadley cell.

1. Polar air jet streams -

I. Polar air jet streams -

 Latitude - It flows between 400 to 600 in both hemispheres.
 Formation - It occurs above the convergence zone of terrestrial polar cold air masses and tropical
air masses.
 Due to two opposite air masses, their temperature gradient is high.
 Direction - It flows from south-west to north-east, but is more irregular.

II. Tropical easterly jet streams -

 This jet stream originates in the summer season in the upper troposphere above the terrestrial
easterly trade winds over India and Africa.
 It moves towards the north-east direction opposite to the direction of the other three jet streams
and is found only in the northern hemisphere.
 Its origin is related to the warming of the Tibetan plateau. This is also one of the factors responsible
for the origin of Indian monsoon.

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Characteristics of jet streams -

1. Jet streams circulate in a narrow strip from west to east in the upper troposphere at an altitude of
7.5 to 14 km.
2. Generally, their length is thousands of km, width is hundreds of km and depth is up to a few km.
3. They circulate in both hemispheres from 20° latitude between the poles.
4. Their flow path is diffused and wavy.
5. The expansion of jet streams reduces in summers, while it is at its maximum expansion in winters.

Jet stream and Indian monsoon -

 The origin of Indian monsoon is believed to be in jet streams. According to this, monsoon winds
are generated due to jet streams of high atmosphere. The westerly jet stream generally flows in a
spiral manner to the north of the Himalayas. In winter, the Padua jet stream gets displaced
towards the south and its southern branch passes south of Himalayas/Tibet.
 This westerly jet stream blocks the flow of I-bandh coming from the sea, as a result of which dry
conditions are found in winter. Apart from this, this branch of the westerly jet stream is
responsible for snowfall in the glacial region and westerly disturbances in North India with the
help of cyclones of the Mediterranean Sea.
 In summer, the southern branch of the westerly jet stream gets shifted to the north of the
Himalayas. As a result, tropical moist winds enter the inner parts of the subcontinent and cause
rain. In summer, the eastern jet stream originates in the Tibetan plateau, which subducts in the
Arabian Sea and creates high air pressure. As a result, the monsoon I-bandh collides with the
Western Ghats and causes rain in India, which is also called monsoon burst.

Importance of Monsoon

Climatic

Ecological Import
Economic
ance of
Monso

Religious Socio-Cultural

1- Climatic importance
a- Main source of rainfall
 90% of the total rainfall on the Indian subcontinent is received from monsoon rain.
b- Temperature regulation
 Monsoon brings down the temperature through rain, and provides relief from heat.

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2- Economic importance
 Major percentage of Indian agriculture depends on monsoon, so it is also called the gamble of
monsoon.

a- Rural economy
 Monsoon is not only related to crop production but is also the source of livelihood for crores of
people in rural areas, it creates rural demand.

b- Energy production
 Main hydroelectricity is produced by storing monsoon water in dams etc.

c- Water supply for industries

 Many water intensive industries like steel industry, leather industry are dependent on monsoon
rain for water.

d- Agro-based industries
 Many industries like textile industry, food processing etc. depend on agriculture for raw material,
hence are indirectly dependent on monsoon rain.

e- Food inflation
 The regular arrival of monsoon maintains continuity in food production and keeps food inflation
under control.
a- Basis of festivals
 In many areas of India, festivals and celebrations begin with the arrival of monsoon.
b- Art and literature
 Poets and writers use monsoon to express human emotions and human sentiments.
c- Cuisine
 Many dishes are influenced by the Indian monsoon, and are made in the monsoon season. Such
as: chaat, pakoras.
3- Ecological importance
a- Drinking water
 Monsoon rain is the main supplier of clean surface and underground water.
b- Enrichment of biodiversity
 Monsoon rain is essential for the life cycle of many flora and fauna.
c- Recycling of water resources
 Monsoon rain recharges water resources like rivers, ponds etc.

Negative effects of monsoon

1- Soil erosion
2- Flood
3- Landslides
4- Increase in vector-borne diseases
El Nino -
 Meaning - Little boy

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 This is a warm water current flowing on the coast of Peru which occurs in 3.8 years. Due to this,
the normal temperature of sea water changes by 30-50.
 According to this, the temperature of the South Equatorial Current increases from the area of
warm water which moves from east to west. When it spreads in the eastern central region of the
Indian Ocean, low pressure is generated there and attracts the Indian monsoon towards itself
due to which there is less rainfall in Indian regions.
 Its effect was maximum in the year 1997-
98.

Effects -
 The normal effect of El Niño lasts for less
than 1 year.
 The following are its effects region-wise -
 Drought conditions are created in
India, Indonesia, Australia.
 Flood-like conditions are created in
South America.
 There is a negative effect on fisheries.
 Cases of flood-related diseases like
dengue, malaria increase.
 There is a decrease in the incidence of
storms in the Atlantic Ocean.
La Niña -
 Meaning - In Spanish, La Niña means little girl.
 This is a cold current flowing on the coast of Peru which reduces the water temperature in the
eastern Pacific Ocean region below normal and creates high pressure conditions in this region.
Effects -
 The effect of La Niña usually lasts for 2 to 3 years.
 A widespread La Niña phenomenon was observed in 2010.
 Positive -
 It reduces the number of autumn storms in Europe.
 It generally has a positive effect on the fishing industry of Western and South America.
 Negative -
 It causes drought in Peru and Ecuador.
 It causes heavy floods in Africa and Australia.

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Western Disturbance

When the sun moves north, a low pressure area is formed over the Sahara Desert of Africa. Due to
which the winds rise up and move towards the right. These advancing winds collect moisture from
the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea.
When it collides with the Himalayas, it gets divided into two branches.

Northern Southern
branch branch

Causes rain in Central Asia  Causes rain in North-West

Indian region.
 This branch is called
Western Disturbance.

 Major areas - PB, HR, RJ, UP, J&K

 Beneficial for Rabi crops
 It is called Mawath of rain that occurs in winter.

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Indian Ocean Bipole

Indian Ocean Bipole is an irregular oscillation of sea surface

temperature. In which the surface temperature of the western
Indian Ocean keeps on decreasing and increasing gradually as
compared to the eastern Indian Ocean.
IOD is also called Indian Nino.
Impact of IOD on Indian Monsoon
1- The effect of neutral IOD is almost zero.
2- Negative IOD - Reduces the intensity of rainfall in Indian
monsoon.
3- Eastern Indian Ocean and Australia N-W part receive more
rainfall.
4- Positive IOD -
 Indian subcontinent and western Indian Ocean receive more rainfall.
 N-W Australia, eastern Indian Ocean receive less than average rainfall.

Southern Oscillation
 Southern Oscillation is a recurring climate pattern, in which the water temperature in the central
and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean changes.
 The Southern Oscillation theory was presented by Gilbert Walkat in 1924.
 Southern Oxygen Index (SOI) is used to measure it.
 In a positive Southern Oxygen Index, the temperature of the Indian Ocean becomes lower than that
of the Pacific Ocean during winter.
 In a negative Southern Oxygen Index, the temperature of the Pacific Ocean becomes lower than that
of the Indian Ocean.

Climate Change
 According to UNFCCC, climate change is a change in the climate which changes the composition of
the atmosphere directly or indirectly through human activities.

Causes of climate change

Natural causes Anthropogenic causes

 Natural causes
 The following natural events are responsible for climate change.

1- Plate tectonics
 According to tectonics, climate change occurs in those areas due to displacement of plates.

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2- Change in the Earth's orbit

Climate change occurs due to changes in the position of the Earth's orbit axis, inclination on the
axis etc.

3- Change in the number of sunspots

 The number of sunspots keeps changing every 11 years, which causes climate change.

4- Volcano
 A large amount of heat is released during volcanic eruption.

 Man-made causes
1- Emission of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels (coal, petrol)
2- Deforestation
3- Lack of waste management
4- Shifting agriculture
5- Encroachment on wet sites
6- Animal husbandry
7- Use of nitrogenous fertilizers

Consequences of climate change

Global warming Acid rain Ozone depletion

A. Global warmingrkiu

 Due to greenhouse effect, terrestrial radiation (long wavelength) is not able to cross the atmosphere.
Due to this, the increase in the average temperature of the earth is called global warming. ?
 The following happen take place.
 Greenhouse gases
 The gases which show greenhouse effect are called greenhouse gases -

1- Water vapour
 It is the greenhouse gas found in the highest quantity. The quantity of water vapour changes with
time, region, latitude and height. It is not considered an important greenhouse. It is present in the
atmosphere for a short time.

2- Carbon dioxide
 It is the most important greenhouse gas.
 It remains in the atmosphere for a long time, so it contributes the most to global warming.

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 It is produced due to natural and man-made reasons.

3- Natural sources
 Volcanoes
 Animal respiration
4- Anthropogenic sources
 Deforestation
 Burning of fossil fuels
5- Methane (CH4)
 Produced by the decomposition of organic matter such as landfills and agricultural and arboreal
animals
 20-30 times more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
6- Nitrous oxide (N2O)
 Produced during the production and use of organic fertilizers.
 Also emitted from the burning of fossil fuels
7- Fluorinated gases
 These are anthropogenic compounds used in refrigerants and air conditioners.
(a) Chlorofluorocarbon [C.F.C]
(b) Hydrofluorocarbon [H.F.C]
(c) Perfluorocarbon [P.F.C]
(d) Sulphur Hexafluorite [SF6]
 Apart from this, black carbon and brown carbon also show greenhouse effect.

 Consequences of Global Warming

1- Melting of glaciers
 Due to the increase in temperature, the Himalayan glaciers are receding at the rate of 1.5 feet per
year since 2000.
 Due to global warming, the melting of glaciers will cause floods in the rivers dependent on them.
 The sea level will rise
 The release of CO2 stored in them will further increase global warming.

2- Effect on marine ecosystem

 Due to global warming, the temperature of sea water will increase, due to which marine creatures
will migrate towards the poles
 The expansion/spread of sea water will create a danger of drowning of cities, countries and islands
located on the coast, due to which a large part of the population will be forced to migrate.
 The increase in the temperature of sea water will cause coral bleaching, while the mangroves will be
submerged due to the increase in sea level.
 Due to increase in the amount of CO2, the sea water will heat up, due to which most of the sunlight
will be absorbed, which will further increase global warming.
 Due to acidity, the formation of calcium carbonate will be hindered.

3- Decline in agricultural productivity

 If the temperature increases by 1°C in tropical regions, agricultural productivity will fall by 25-30
percent.

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 Production will decrease in tropical regions, while production will increase in temperate/cold
regions.
 Due to increase in temperature, the area of Kharif crops will increase, and there will be a huge
decrease in the area of Rabi crops.

4- Loss of biodiversity
 Due to climate change, species are not able to migrate quickly, due to which their existence is in
danger.
 Red-tailed rat is the first mammal to become extinct due to anthropogenic climate change.
 Marine mangroves and corals are also getting destroyed.
 Incidents of fire in tropical forests will lead to the destruction of forests and loss of biodiversity.

5- Increase in extreme weather events

 Due to global warming, the intensity and frequency of natural disasters like floods, droughts,
cyclones will increase gradually.
For example - floods in Kerala and Bihar in 2019+
 In the last five years, there has been a 32 percent increase in cyclones in the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal, which cause extensive damage to life and property.
 According to BSPN Heat Wave 2021, India ranks 7th in deaths due to increase in weather extremes.

6- Effect on human health

 Due to global warming, the outbreak of heat wave is increasing
 In 2019, 184 people have died in Bihar alone. ‘
 If the global temperature continues to rise like this, then their outbreak can increase 2000 times.
 Global warming will increase vector-borne diseases like malaria, dengue etc.

7- Political conflict
 Due to global warming, water resources will decrease, which will increase conflicts between
countries over the water sharing of international rivers and between states over inter-state rivers.
 Example - Cauvery, Sindhu, Brahmaputra, conflicts are being seen.

8- Economic loss
 Due to global warming, global domestic production will fall by 5-20 percent.

B. Acid rain

 When oxides of sulphur and nitrogen react with moisture in the atmosphere, rain with pH less than
5.6 occurs which is called acid rain.
 Its sources are as follows -

Natural sources
Natural sources
Man-made sources

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a- Natural sources &

1- Volcanic eruption
2- Decomposition of organic matter
3- Seas and oceans

b- Anthropogenic sources - &

 60% SO2 is obtained from burning of coal, 30% from burning of petroleum products and the
remaining sulfur is obtained from the manufacture of H2SO4 and fertilizer industry.

Natural sources
 Sources of Nitrogen
Anthropogenic sources

Natural sources -
 Lightning
 Volcanic eruptions
 Biological activities

Anthropogenic sources
 Burning of fossil fuels
 Forest fires
 Fertilizer industry

 Effects of acid rain

a- Effects on humans
 Skin irritation in humans
 Low visibility
 Difficulty in breathing
 Cancer
 Food poisoning
 Imature age

b- Effects on soil
 Soil becomes infertile due to leaching of nutrients
 Increase in ammonia content and decrease in nitrate content in soil due to reduced rate of
decomposition

c- Effects on aquatic life

 Acidification of oceans
 Damage to eggs and sperm of fishes and frogs
d. Acidification of oceans

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 The decrease in the pH of ocean water due to increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in it is
called acidification of oceans.
 The process of calcification slows down.
 Fisheries affected due to the marine food chain being affected.
 Coral bleaching
e. Effect on terrestrial life
 Trees and animals becoming colourless.
f. Effect on microorganisms
 Decrease in the activity of microorganisms
 Decrease in the rate of decomposition of dead organisms
 Decrease in the fertility of soil due to lack of organic elements
g. Effect on buildings, monuments and materials
 Negatively affected.
 Limestone, marble get destroyed and a yellow layer starts forming.

C. Ozone depletion

 A layer of ozone gas is found at a height of 25-30 km in the stratosphere level of the atmosphere.
 It prevents the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth, thereby protecting us
from dangers like skin cancer etc.
 Normally, the formation and disintegration of ozone remains in balance, but due to ozone depleting
substances (ODS), the rate of disintegration of ozone has become more than its formation rate.
 This is called ozone depletion.
 It was first observed in 1985 over Antarctica where the amount of ozone had reduced to 50 percent
of its original amount.

CFC (Chloro Fluoro Carbon)

 Chemically stable
 Non-flammable
 Being non-toxic, it is used in refrigerators, AC, foam.
 Its life span is 40-150 years.
 When CBCl evaporates and reaches the atmosphere, its chlorine molecule is released under the
effect of ultraviolet rays.
 This free chlorine molecule reacts with ozone to form chlorine mono oxide and disintegrates ozone.

 Effect of polar stratosphere -

 Polar stratosphere clouds are found at an altitude of 50-60 km above the poles.
 Chlorine reacts with methane in the upper atmosphere to form HO and nitrogen dioxide to form
chlorine nitrate.
 Polar stratosphere acts as their storage, due to which ozone is depleted more.

Effects of ozone depletion -

 Skin cancer, eye diseases, respiratory diseases
 Restriction in growth and development of plants.

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 Reduction in the life span of phytoplankton.

 Increase in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the air.

 Effects of climate change on India -

1- 1.30C rise in the temperature of Himalayas between 1952 and 2014
2- 10C rise in the surface temperature of Indian Ocean (global average 0.70C)
3- 75% of the districts in the country are affected by extreme climate events (cyclones, floods,
droughts, cold and heat waves).
4- There has been a change in the pattern of climate disasters in 40% of the districts in the country.
For example, flood-affected districts have turned into drought-affected districts and drought-
affected districts into flood-affected districts.
5- Monsoon has been affected due to abnormal warming of the Arabian Sea.

International efforts to combat climate change

1- UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme -

 It was established in 1972 at the Stockholm Conference (Sweden).
 Headquarters - Nairobi, Kenya
 Its main function is to coordinate programs related to sustainable development within the United
Nations system.
Its scope is as follows.
1- Climate change
2- Disaster and conflict
3- Ecological management
4- Environmental administration
5- Environmental review
6- Harmful substances
7- Efficient use of resources

 In 2019, UNEP presented the 6th edition of the Global Environment Outlook Report, according to
which 1.24 million people died in India in 2018 due to air pollution, which is 12.5 percent of the total
deaths.

2- IPCC Inter Governmental Pannel On Climate Change -

 It was established in 1988 by UNEP and WMO (World Meteorological Organization) together.
 Its main function is to publish research and investigations related to climate change across the
world.
3- UNFCCC Unted Nation Framework Convention On Climate Change -
 It was established in 1992 at the United Nation Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
 It was signed in June 1992 and implemented on 21 March 1994.
 Its main objective is to control human-induced emission of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
 It has 197 parties. ऽ Since 1995, these parties meet every year, which is called Conference of Parties
(COP).

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 UNFCCC is the supreme body of the conference, which works to effectively implement and review
the provisions of the conferences.
 It has 6 major areas of work
1- Energy conservation
2- Climate finance
3- Industry transition
4- Nature based solutions
5- Action at city and local level
6- Resilience
 Under this, several major agreements have been made.
4- Kyoto Protocol -
 It was accepted in COP-3 1997.
 India signed it in 2002 and it is in force since 2005.
 2 commitment periods are mentioned in this agreement.
a- 2008&2012
 During this period, the emission of 6 greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, SF6) is to be
reduced by 5 percent from the 1990 level.
 USA never signed the Kyoto Protocol while Canada separated itself in 2012.

b- 2013-2020
 It was implemented after the Doha Round of 2012.
 It set a target of reducing the greenhouse level by 20 percent from 1990 levels by 2020.
 Russia, Japan and New Zealand did not sign it.
 It included 7 greenhouse gases - CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, SF6, NF3.

Working of Kyoto Protocol

i. Carbon Trading -
 When an Annex country (developed countries like USA and countries with symmetric economies
like Greece, Turkey) exceeds its emission limit, they have to buy carbon credits.
 One ton of carbon is called one carbon unit.

Carbon credit

Carbon absorber Carbon emitter

PAISA

ii. Clean Development Management -

 In this, an Annex country helps a developing or underdeveloped country to reduce its greenhouse
gas emissions.
iii. Joint Implementation -
 When an Annex helps another Annex country to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions.

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5- Earth Summit -
 June 1992, This was the first summit in which efforts were made to conserve environment along
with human development at global level.
 This is where COP has started every year.
i. COP – 1
 1995 Berlin (Germany)

ii. COP – 3
 1997 (Kyoto Protocol)
 This is the first document which is binding on all member countries.
 In this, discussion was held on reducing greenhouse gas and preventing climate change.
 It talked about reducing greenhouse gas to 5.2 percent from the 1990 level.

iii. COP – 8
 2002 (Delhi Declaration) - &
 It focuses on the development needs of the poorest countries and the need for technology transfer
to reduce climate change.
iv. COP – 13
2007 Bali, (Indonesia)
 In this, the members have agreed on a common vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology and
finance.

v. COP – 16 – 2010 ¼ Cancun½

Green Climate Fund, Technology Mechanism and Cancun Adaptation Framework have been
established to help developing countries deal with climate change.

vi. COP – 21 – 2015 ¼ Paris Agreement½

 During COP-21 in 2015, an agreement was reached on greenhouse gases in Paris, France.
 On 22 April 2016, 175 countries signed it in Newark.
 It came into effect from 4 November 2016.
 It will replace the Kyoto Protocol on 31 January 2020.
 The main provisions are as follows.
1. The target has been set to keep the average global temperature at most 2C0 and if possible 1-
50C above the pre-industrial temperature by the end of the 21st century.
2. In this, the provision of common but differentiated responsibility (CBDR) was kept, eliminating
the provision of historical responsibility.
3. In this, every country has to declare its own commitment which is called INDCs (Intended
Nationally Determined Contrition).

vii. COP - 22 - 2016 (Marrakech)

A framework for action was prepared to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system.

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viii. COP - 23 - 2017 (Bonn, Germany)

 It discussed how the agreement would work from 2020.
 Donald Trump announced his withdrawal from the Paris Agreement this year.

ix. COP - 25 - 2019 (Spain)

Its objective was to develop guidelines on the working methods of international carbon markets.

x. COP - 26 - 2021 (Glasgow, Scotland)

 this, India has given the principle of Panchamrit Tatva -
 45 percent reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases of 2005 by 2030.
 Production of 50 percent of total energy from renewable sources by 2030.
 Production of 500 gigawatts of renewable energy by 2030.
 Storage of 2.5 to 3 billion tons of CO2 by 2030 through renewables.
 Achieving the target of net zero by 2070

xi. COP - 27 - 2022 (Egypt)

 An agreement was reached to provide funding to vulnerable countries under the loss and damage
fund.
 The necessary funds will be allocated from this fund to save and rebuild the physical and social
infrastructure of countries that suffer losses due to extreme weather.

xii. COP - 28 - 2023 (Dubai)

 Global Stocktake Text -
 This is a periodic review mechanism established under the 2015 Paris Agreement.
 It calls for doubling the global average rate of renewable energy efficiency improvement globally
by 2023.
 It calls for a comprehensive reduction in emissions by 2030.

 Moving away from fossil fuels -

COP-28 has called for moving away from fossil fuels in energy systems, to achieve net zero by
2050.

 Global Goal on Adaptation -

It focuses on increasing adaptive capacity and reducing vulnerability for sustainable
development. The text calls for doubling finance and planning for assessing and monitoring
adaptation needs in the future.

 Global Renewable and Energy Capacity Commitment -

Committed to work together to triple the world's installed renewable energy generation capacity
(at least 11,000 GW) by 2023.

 Nuclear Energy -
Nuclear energy capacity is to be tripled by 2050.

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 Green Credit Initiative -

This is an initiative supported by India.
It is compiled as a mechanism to encourage voluntary household support actions. It envisages
issuing green loans for restoration of natural ecosystems and plantation of trees in watershed
areas.

 Second phase of Leadership Group for Industry Transformation -

It will focus on inclusive and equitable industry transformation, development and transfer of
low carbon technology and financial support to emerging economies for industry
transformation.

 Global River Cities Alliance -

It was launched at COP-28 as a part of India’s leadership of ‘National Mission for Clean
Ganga’.
It will serve as a platform to facilitate exchange of knowledge, river city engagement and
dissemination of best practices.

xiii. GOP-29 – November-2024 (Baku, Azerbaijan)

India's INDCs -
 Reduction of 45% of 2005 greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.
 Generation of 50% of total energy from renewable sources by 2030.
 Generation of 500 GW of renewable energy by 2030.
 Storage of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 by 2030 through afforestation.
 Achieve the goal of net zero by 2070.

REDD (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation)

 It is a mechanism under the UNFCCC that provides financial incentives to developing countries for
reducing deforestation and forest degradation.

REDD + (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation)

 It is a mechanism under the UNFCCC that provides incentives to developing countries for positive
factors such as deforestation, reduction of forest degradation, conservation of forests, sustainable
management and forest carbon storage.
 This program will provide India with 1 billion tonnes of additional carbon dioxide capture capacity
over the next three decades and more than $3 billion will be available as incentives for this.

Major conferences for the protection of the ozone layer

1- Vienna Convention
 It was held in Vienna in 1985
 This convention paved the way for the Montreal Protocol

2- Montreal Protocol
 It was held in Montreal, Canada in 1987

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 Its main goal is to phase out 100% of the use of chlorofluorocarbons, halons and other ozone-
depleting substances by 2010.
 It was successful in achieving its goal.

3- Kigali Convention
 In 2016, an agreement was signed in Kigali (Rwanda) for the next round of the Montreal Protocol.
 It has come into force from 01 January 2019 in place of Montreal.
 Its goal is to phase out hydrofluorocarbons by 2040.

Efforts to mitigate climate change at the national level

1. National Action Plan on Climate Change -

 This action plan was started in 2008 under which there are 8 missions.
 In this, multidimensional, long-term and integrated strategies have been laid down in the context of
climate change.

i. National Solar Mission

 Under this, Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission was started in January 2010.
 In which the target of 20,000 MW solar energy by 2022 was set which has now been increased to
100GW.

ii. ii. National Water Mission

 This mission was approved in 2011.
 Through this mission, the efficiency of water is to be increased by 20 percent.
 In this, an important part of the water requirement of urban areas will be ensured by recycling
wastewater and the efficiency of the current irrigation system will be increased.

iii. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

 Was approved in 2009.
 Includes the following four initiatives to enhance energy efficiency.

Performance and Trading Scheme (PAT)

 Under this, a market-based mechanism will be developed to reduce energy consumption in energy
intensive industries.
Marketing of Energy Efficiency (MTEE)
 Under this, energy efficient equipment will be developed to make products more affordable.
Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)
 Under this, financial institutions will be given confidence to promote energy efficiency initiatives.
Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED)
 Under this, hedging will be used to reduce investment risks.
 Energy Efficiency Bureau was established under the Energy Conservation Act 2001, which has
started star rating from 2010.

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iv. National Green India Mission

 National Green India Mission was approved in 2014.
 The following objectives have been kept under this mission.
1- Planting trees on 5mn hec deforested land
2- The target is to improve the quality of 5mn hec forest.
3- Increasing forest-based livelihood of three lakh families living in and around forests

v. National Sustainable Housing Mission

 Three initiatives were started under this.
1- Energy demand of buildings will be optimized through Energy Conservation Building Code.
2- Recycling of urban waste
3- Better urban planning and public family

vi. National Sustainable Agriculture Mission

 It was started in 2008.
 The target was to make agriculture climate change friendly.
 For this, traditional knowledge, practice systems, information technology and biotechnologies will
be used.

vii. National Mission for Sustainable Himalayan Ecology

 It was launched in 2014
 In this, management measures will be taken to maintain and protect the glaciers and mountain
ecosystems of the Himalayas.
 By encouraging community organizations and panchayats, community management of these
ecosystems will be promoted.

viii. PP Strategic Knowledge Mission on Climate Change

 Under this, the challenges of climate change will be identified and measures will be taken to deal
with them through research and technology development including open source platform.
2- National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change
Established - 2015
Objective -
 To meet the cost of climate change for states and union territories vulnerable to climate change.
4- International Solar Alliance -
 Formed on - 30 November 2015 by India and France during the Paris Climate Conference.
 Headquarters - Gurugram (Haryana)
 It is a treaty-based inter-governmental organization of solar energy-rich countries.
 Objective - To achieve more than 1000 gw of solar energy production capacity globally and to
raise about 1000 billion rupees for investment in solar energy by 2030.

5- Swachh Bharat Mission -

 Started - 2014
 Objective - To provide stability to the climate by creating a clean environment.

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6- FAME India Program -

 Full name - Faster adoption and manufacturing of hybrid & electric vehicles in India.
 Start - 2015
 Objective - To reduce greenhouse emissions by promoting the manufacture and use of electric and
hybrid vehicles.

7- Kusum Yojana -
 Full name - Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthan Mahabhiyan
 Start - 2019
 Objective - To reduce dependence on fossil fuels by irrigating with solar pumps.

8-Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya Yojana -

 Start - 2024
 Objective - To increase dependence on renewable energy by providing subsidy in solar rooftop and
installing solar panels on the roofs of 1 crore houses.

9- B.S. - VI vehicles -
 Implemented - 1 April 2020
 Objective - To control PM 2.5 particles and nitrogen oxide by implementing the mandatory use of
B.S. - VI engines in vehicles.

 Climate Funding -
1- Global Environmental Facilities
 It was established in 1991 under the World Bank.
 It provides grants and concessional funds to underdeveloped and developing countries to run
projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, ozone
depletion, Persitance Carbonic Pollutant (POP) etc.
 It also administers LDCF and SCCF.

LDCF (Least Developed Countries Fund

 It provides grants to least developed countries for adaptation programs.

SCCF (Special Climate Chang Fund)

 It was established in 2001 during COP-7 in Marrakech (Morocco).
 It provides funds for projects related to adaptation, technology transfer, capacity building, energy,
transport, industry, agriculture, forestry, waste management and economic diversification in
countries that are highly dependent on income from fossil fuels.

2- Adaptation Fund
 It was established in 2001
 It receives funds from Clean Development Management (CDM)
 It funds the adaptation programs of developing countries that are partners of the Kyoto
Protocol.

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3- Green Climate Fund

 It comes under the UNFCCC.
 It was proposed in Copenhagen 2009 (COP-15) and was approved in the Durban Conference 2011
(COP-17).
 An amount of $100 billion was approved in the Cancun conference of COP-16.
 World Bank has been made its trustee.

Geo Engineering
 Under this, those methods come by which the global temperature is reduced by removing
atmospheric CO2 or reducing the amount of sunlight on the earth.

Methods to remove CO2

a- Carbon Capture and Storage
 The emitted CO2 is collected and stored elsewhere.

b- Carbon Capture Utilization Storage

 In this, CO2 is collected from thermal power stations and stored for use elsewhere.

Methods to reduce the amount of sunlight on the earth

1- Stratospheric Aersol Injection
 In this, aerosol is used so that most of the sunlight can be stopped in the upper atmosphere itself.

2- Cirrus Cloud Mainpulator

 This method reduces the amount of terrestrial radiation blocked by cirrus clouds by removing or
thinning them.

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