The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the UN process for

negotiating an agreement to limit dangerous climate change. It is an international treaty among

countries to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system". The main way to do this
is limiting the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.[1] It was signed in 1992 by 154 states at
the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the
Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro. The treaty entered into force on 21 March 1994.[2] "UNFCCC" is
also the name of the Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the convention, with offices
on the UN Campus in Bonn, Germany.[3]

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Type

Multilateral environmental agreement

Context

Environmentalism

Drafted

9 May 1992

Signed

4–14 June 1992

20 June 1992 – 19 June 1993

Location

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

New York, United States

Effective

21 March 1994

Condition

Ratification by 50 states
Signatories

165

Parties

198

Depositary

Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages

ArabicChineseEnglishFrenchRussianSpanish

Full text

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Wikisource

UNFCCC Annex I Parties, OECD, EU

Living Laudato Si' Philippines intervention at COP27 Catholic Actors meeting with the Holy See
delegation

The convention's main objective is explained in Article 2. It is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-
caused] interference with the climate system".[1] The treaty calls for continuing scientific research into
the climate. This research supports meetings and negotiations to lead to agreements. The aim is to allow
ecosystems to adapt to climate change. At the same time it aims to ensure there are no threats to food
production from climate change or measures to address it. And it aims to enable economic development
to proceed in a sustainable manner.[2][4]

Armen Sarkissian attends the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference

The UNFCCC's work currently focuses on implementing the Paris Agreement. This agreement entered
into force in 2016.[5][6] It aims to limit the rise in global temperature to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) above
levels before the Industrial Revolution, and even aiming to hold it at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). The Paris Agreement
superseded the UNFCCC's Kyoto Protocol which had been signed in 1997 and ran from 2005 to 2020.
By 2022, the UNFCCC had 198 parties. Its supreme decision-making body, the Conference of the Parties
(COP), meets every year. Other meetings at the regional and technical level take place throughout the
year.[7][8] The Paris Agreement mandates a review or "global stocktake" of progress towards meetings
its goals every five years. The first of these took place at COP28 in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in
2023.

The treaty sets out responsibilities for three categories of states. These are developed countries,
developed countries with special financial responsibilities, and developing countries.[4] The developed
countries are called Annex I countries. At first there were 38 of them. Annex I countries should adopt
national policies and take corresponding measures to limit their emissions of greenhouse gases. They
should also report on steps for returning individually or jointly to their 1990 greenhouse gas emission
levels.[4]

It is problematic that key signatory states are not adhering to their individual commitments. For this
reason, the UNFCCC has been criticized as being unsuccessful in reducing greenhouse gas emission since
its adoption.[9] Parties to the convention have not agreed on a process allowing for majority voting. All
decisions are taken by consensus, giving individual parties or countries a veto.[10] The effectiveness of
the Paris Agreement to reach its climate goals is also under debate, especially with regards to its more
ambitious goal of keeping the global temperature rise to under 1.5 °C.[11][12]

Development

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The IPCC's First Assessment Report appeared in 1990. The report gave a broad overview of climate
change science and the scientific consensus to date. It discussed uncertainties and provided evidence of
warming. The authors said they are certain that greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere
because of human activity. This is resulting in more warming of the Earth's surface.[13][14] The report
led to the establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
[15]

Convention Agreement in 1992

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The text of the Convention was produced during the meeting of an Intergovernmental Negotiating
Committee in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992. The Convention was adopted on 9 May 1992 and
opened for signature on 4 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro (known by its popular title, the Earth Summit).[16] On 12 June
1992, 154 nations signed the UNFCCC, which upon ratification committed signatories' governments to
reduce atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases with the goal of "preventing dangerous
anthropogenic interference with Earth's climate system". This commitment would require substantial
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (see the later section, "Stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations").[1][7] Parties to the Convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the
Parties (COPs) to assess progress in dealing with climate change.[8]

Article 3(1) of the Convention[17] states that Parties should act to protect the climate system on the
basis of "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities", and that developed
country Parties should "take the lead" in addressing climate change. Under Article 4, all Parties make
general commitments to address climate change through, for example, climate change mitigation and
adapting to the eventual impacts of climate change.[18] Article 4(7) states:[19]

The extent to which developing country Parties will effectively implement their commitments under the
Convention will depend on the effective implementation by developed country Parties of their
commitments under the Convention related to financial resources and transfer of technology and will
take fully into account that economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and
overriding priorities of the developing country Parties.

The Convention specifies the aim of Annex I Parties was stabilizing their greenhouse gas emissions
(carbon dioxide and other anthropogenic greenhouse gases not regulated under the Montreal Protocol)
at 1990 levels, by 2000.[20]

Overarching objective

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The ultimate objective of the Framework Convention is specified in Article 2: "stabilization of

greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic [i.e., human-caused] interference with the climate system".[1] Article 2 of the convention
says this "should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to
climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development
to proceed in a sustainable manner".[1]
Six priority areas (Action for Climate Empowerment)

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Main article: Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE)

Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE) is a term adopted by the UNFCCC in 2015 to have a better name
for this topic than "Article 6". It refers to Article 6 of the convention's original text (1992), focusing on six
priority areas: education, training, public awareness, public participation, public access to information,
and international cooperation on these issues. The implementation of all six areas has been identified as
the pivotal factor for everyone to understand and participate in solving the challenges presented by
climate change. ACE calls on governments to develop and implement educational and public awareness
programmes, train scientific, technical and managerial personnel, foster access to information, and
promote public participation in addressing climate change and its effects. It also urges countries to
cooperate in this process, by exchanging good practices and lessons learned, and strengthening national
institutions. This wide scope of activities is guided by specific objectives that, together, are seen as
crucial for effectively implementing climate adaptation and mitigation actions, and for achieving the
ultimate objective of the UNFCCC.[21]

Key agreements and protocols

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Kyoto Protocol

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Map of parties to the Kyoto Protocol

Annex B parties with binding targets in 1st and 2nd period

Annex B parties with binding targets in 1st period but not 2nd

Non-Annex B parties without binding targets

Annex B parties with binding targets in 1st period but which withdrew from the Protocol

Signatories to the Protocol that have not ratified

Other UN member states and observers that are not party to the Protocol

This section is an excerpt from Kyoto Protocol.[edit]

The Kyoto Protocol (Japanese: 京都議定書, Hepburn: Kyōto Giteisho) was an international treaty which
extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits
state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global warming
is occurring and that human-made CO2 emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in
Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties
(Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012)[22] to the Protocol in 2020.

The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by
reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven
greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
[23] Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round.[24]

The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged
that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic
development, and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries
on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.

The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully
participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to
resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their
national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 reduced
emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the
dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s.[25] Even though the 36
developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.
[26]

Paris Agreement

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Map of signatories and parties to the Paris Agreement[27]

Signatories that have not ratified

State parties

Parties also covered by EU ratification

 Agreement does not apply

This section is an excerpt from Paris Agreement.[edit]

The Paris Agreement (also called the Paris Accords or Paris Climate Accords) is an international treaty on
climate change that was signed in 2016.[28] The treaty covers climate change mitigation, adaptation,
and finance. The Paris Agreement was negotiated by 196 parties at the 2015 United Nations Climate
Change Conference near Paris, France. As of February 2023, 195 members of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are parties to the agreement. Of the three UNFCCC
member states which have not ratified the agreement, the only major emitter is Iran. The United States
withdrew from the agreement in 2020,[29] but rejoined in 2021.[30]

The Paris Agreement has a long-term temperature goal which is to keep the rise in global surface
temperature to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) above pre-industrial levels. The treaty also states that preferably
the limit of the increase should only be 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). The lower the temperature increase, the smaller
the effects of climate change can be expected. To achieve this temperature goal, greenhouse gas
emissions should be reduced as soon as, and by as much as, possible. They should even reach net zero
by the middle of the 21st century.[31] To stay below 1.5 °C of global warming, emissions need to be cut
by roughly 50% by 2030. This figure takes into account each country's documented pledges.[32]

Further commitments

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In addition to the Kyoto Protocol (and its amendment) and the Paris Agreement, parties to the
Convention have agreed to further commitments during UNFCCC Conferences of the Parties. These
include the Bali Action Plan (2007),[33] the Copenhagen Accord (2009),[34] the Cancún agreements
(2010),[35] and the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (2012).[36]

Bali Action Plan

Further information: Bali Road Map

As part of the Bali Action Plan, adopted in 2007, all developed country Parties have agreed to
"quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives, while ensuring the comparability of efforts
among them, taking into account differences in their national circumstances".[37] Developing country
Parties agreed to "[nationally] appropriate mitigation actions context of sustainable development,
supported and enabled by technology, financing and capacity-building, in a measurable, reportable and
verifiable manner."[37] 42 developed countries have submitted mitigation targets to the UNFCCC
secretariat,[38] as have 57 developing countries and the African Group (a group of countries within the
UN).[39]
Copenhagen Accord and Cancún agreements

Further information: Copenhagen Accord and 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference

As part of the 2009 Copenhagen negotiations, a number of countries produced the Copenhagen Accord.
[34] The Accord states that global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F).[34] The Accord
does not specify what the baseline is for these temperature targets (e.g., relative to pre-industrial or
1990 temperatures). According to the UNFCCC, these targets are relative to pre-industrial temperatures.
[40]

114 countries agreed to the Accord.[34] The UNFCCC secretariat notes that "Some Parties ... stated in
their communications to the secretariat specific understandings on the nature of the Accord and related
matters, based on which they have agreed to [the Accord]." The Accord was not formally adopted by the
Conference of the Parties. Instead, the COP "took note of the Copenhagen Accord."[34]

As part of the Accord, 17 developed country Parties and the EU-27 submitted mitigation targets,[41] as
did 45 developing country Parties.[42] Some developing country Parties noted the need for international
support in their plans.

As part of the Cancún agreements, developed and developing countries submitted mitigation plans to
the UNFCCC.[43][44] These plans were compiled with those made as part of the Bali Action Plan.

UN Race-to-Zero Emissions Breakthroughs

At the 2021 annual meeting UNFCCC launched the 'UN Race-to-Zero Emissions Breakthroughs'. The aim
of the campaign is to transform 20 sectors of the economy in order to achieve zero greenhouse gas
emissions. At least 20% of each sector should take specific measures, and 10 sectors should be
transformed before COP 26 in Glasgow. According to the organizers, 20% is a tipping point, after which
the whole sector begins to irreversibly change.[45][46]

Developing countries

At Berlin,[47] Cancún,[48] and Durban,[49] the development needs of developing country parties were
reiterated. For example, the Durban Platform reaffirms that:[49]
[...] social and economic development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities of
developing country Parties, and that a low-emission development strategy is central to sustainable
development, and that the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to
meet their social and development needs.

Green Climate Fund

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World map for Sustainable Development Goal 13 Indicator 13.A.1: Green Climate Fund mobilization of
$100 billion, 2018

The UN Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13) includes a target about the UNFCCC and explains
how the Green Climate Fund is meant to be used: One of the five targets under SDG 13, meant to be
achieved by 2030, states: "Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion
annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of
meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green
Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible."[50] This target only has one indicator:
Indicator 13.a is the "Amounts provided and mobilized in United States dollars per year in relation to the
continued existing collective mobilization goal of the $100 billion commitment through to 2025".[51]

This section is an excerpt from Green Climate Fund.[edit]

The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a fund for climate finance that was established within the framework of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Considered the world's largest
fund of its kind, GCF's objective is to assist developing countries with climate change adaptation and
mitigation activities.[52] The GCF is an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC. It is
based in Songdo, Incheon, South Korea. It is governed by a Board of 24 members and supported by a
Secretariat.

Mafalda Duarte, a Portuguese development economist, is the Fund's Executive Director.[53]

The Green Climate Fund supports projects and other activities in developing countries using thematic
funding windows.[54] It is intended that the Green Climate Fund be the centrepiece of efforts to raise
climate finance under the UNFCCC. There are four other, smaller multilateral climate funds for paying
out money in climate finance which are coordinated by the UNFCCC. These include the Adaptation Fund
(AF), the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and the Global
Environment Facility (GEF). The GCF is the largest of these five funds.[55][56]

As of Dec 2023, the GCF had a portfolio of 13.5 billion USD (51.9 billion USD including co-financing).[57]

The process of designing the GCF has raised several issues. These include ongoing questions on how
funds will be raised,[58] the role of the private sector,[59] the level of "country ownership" of resources,
[60] and the transparency of the Board itself.[61] Also, this additional international climate institution
might further fragment taxpayer's money that is put towards climate action.[62]

The Fund's former director Héla Cheikhrouhou has complained in 2016 that the Fund is backing too
many "business-as-usual types of investment proposals". This view is echoed by a number of civil society
organizations.[63]

In 2023, the Executive Director announced a series of reforms aimed at making the Fund more efficient
and positioned to deliver greater impact.[64]

Secretariat and offices

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UN Campus, Bonn, seat of the secretariat

"UNFCCC" is also the name of the Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the convention,
with offices on the UN Campus in Bonn, Germany. Offices were formerly located in Haus Carstanjen and
in a building on the UN Campus known as Langer Eugen.

The secretariat is established under Article 8 of the Convention and headed by the Executive Secretary.
The secretariat, augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies. Since
the signing of the UNFCCC treaty, Conferences of the Parties (COPs) have discussed how to achieve the
treaty's aims.
From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres, following by Patricia Espinosa
who was appointed Executive Secretary on 18 May 2016 by United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-
moon and took office on 18 July 2016.[65] Espinosa retired on 16 July 2022.[65] UN Under Secretary
General Ibrahim Thiaw served as the acting Executive Secretary in the interim.[66] On 15 August 2022,
Secretary-General António Guterres appointed former Grenadian climate minister Simon Stiell as
Executive Secretary, replacing Espinosa.[67]

Current and former executive secretaries are:

List of Executive Secretaries of the UNFCCC

Sources:[66][68]

Sr Executive Secretary CountryTenure Other offices held

From To

1 Michael Zammit CutajarMalta Malta 1995 2002

2 Joke Waller-Hunter Netherlands Netherlands 2002 2005 Director for

Sustainable Development (1994–98)

3 Yvo de Boer 10 August 2006 1 July 2010

4 Christiana Figueres Costa Rica Costa Rica 1 July 2010 18 July 2016

5 Patricia Espinosa Mexico Mexico 18 July 2016 16 July 2022 Secretary of Foreign
Affairs (2006–12)

Ambassador to Germany (2013–16)

Acting Ibrahim Thiaw Mauritania Mauritania 17 July 2022[69] 14 August 2022 Under
Secretary General of the United Nations and UNCCD Executive Secretary (2019-)

6 Simon Stiell Grenada Grenada 15 August 2022[67][70][71] current Environment

minister (2017–22)[71]

Processes

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Relationship with IPCC reports

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The reports published by IPCC play a key role in the annual climate negotiations held by the UNFCCC.
[72][73] For example, the UNFCCC invited the IPCC to prepare a report on global warming of 1.5 °C. The
IPCC subsequently released the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) in 2018.[74] The
report showed that it was possible to keep warming below 1.5 °C during the 21st century. But this would
mean deep cuts in emissions. It would also mean rapid, far-reaching changes in all aspects of society.
[75] The report showed warming of 2 °C would have much more severe impacts than 1.5 °C. In other
words: every bit of warming matters. SR15 had an unprecedented impact for an IPCC report in the
media and with the public.[76] It put the 1.5 °C target at the center of climate activism.[77]

Conferences of the Parties (CoP)

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Main article: United Nations Climate Change conference

Logo of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 21st Conference of the Parties (COP
21) and 11th Meeting of the Parties to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (CMP 11) from November, 30th till
December 2015, 12th.

The United Nations Climate Change Conference are yearly conferences held in the framework of the
UNFCCC. They serve as the formal meeting of the UNFCCC Parties (Conferences of the Parties) (COP) to
assess progress in dealing with climate change, and beginning in the mid-1990s, to negotiate the Kyoto
Protocol to establish legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions.[8] Since 2005 the Conferences also served as the Meetings of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol
(CMP) and since 2016 the Conferences also serve as Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement
(CMA).

The first conference (COP1) was held in 1995 in Berlin. The 3rd conference (COP3) was held in Kyoto and
resulted in the Kyoto protocol, which was amended during the 2012 Doha Conference (COP18, CMP 8).
The COP21 (CMP11) conference was held in Paris in 2015 and resulted in adoption of the Paris
Agreement. COP28 took place in the United Arab Emirates in 2023 and included the first global
stocktake under the Paris Agreement. The UAE nominated Sultan al-Jaber, who is also head of Abu
Dhabi's national oil company ADNOC, to preside over COP28.[78] Azerbaijan will host COP29 in 2024.

Subsidiary bodies

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A subsidiary body is a committee that assists the Conference of the Parties. Subsidiary bodies include:
[79]

Permanents:

The Subsidiary Body of Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) is established by Article 9 of the
convention to provide the Conference of the Parties and, as appropriate, its other subsidiary bodies with
timely information and advice on scientific and technological matters relating to the convention. It
serves as a link between information and assessments provided by expert sources (such as the IPCC) and
the COP, which focuses on setting policy.

The Subsidiary Body of Implementation (SBI) is established by Article 10 of the convention to assist the
Conference of the Parties in the assessment and review of the effective implementation of the
convention. It makes recommendations on policy and implementation issues to the COP and, if
requested, to other bodies.

Temporary:

Ad hoc Group on Article 13 (AG13), active from 1995 to 1998;

Ad hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate (AGBM), active from 1995 to 1997;

Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-
KP), established in 2005 by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol to consider further commitments of
industrialized countries under the Kyoto Protocol for the period beyond 2012; it concluded its work in
2012 when the CMP adopted the Doha Amendment;[80]

Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA), established in Bali in 2007 to
conduct negotiations on a strengthened international deal on climate change;

Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP), established at COP 17 in
Durban in 2011 "to develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force
under the Convention applicable to all Parties."[81] The ADP concluded its work in Paris on 5 December
2015.[82]

National communication

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A "National Communication" is a type of report submitted by the countries that have ratified the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[83] Developed countries are required to
submit National Communications every four years and developing countries should do so.[84][85][86]
Some Least Developed Countries have not submitted National Communications in the past 5–15 years,
[87] largely due to capacity constraints.
National Communication reports are often several hundred pages long and cover a country's measures
to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions as well as a description of its vulnerabilities and impacts from
climate change.[88] National Communications are prepared according to guidelines that have been
agreed by the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC. The (Intended) Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) that form the basis of the Paris Agreement are shorter and less detailed but also
follow a standardized structure and are subject to technical review by experts.

Nationally Determined Contributions

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Main article: Nationally Determined Contributions

At the 19th session of the Conference of the Parties in Warsaw in 2013, the UNFCCC created a
mechanism for Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) to be submitted in the run up to
the 21st session of the Conference of the Parties in Paris (COP21) in 2015.[89] Countries were given
freedom and flexibility to ensure that these climate change mitigation and adaptation plans were
nationally appropriate.[90] This flexibility, especially regarding the types of actions to be undertaken,
allowed for developing countries to tailor their plans to their specific adaptation and mitigation needs,
as well as towards other needs.

In the aftermath of COP21, these INDCs became Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) as each
country ratified the Paris Agreement, unless a new NDC was submitted to the UNFCCC at the same time.
[91] The 22nd session of the Conference of the Parties (COP22) in Marrakesh focused on these
Nationally Determined Contributions and their implementation, after the Paris Agreement entered into
force on 4 November 2016.[92]

Membership and participation

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Parties to the UNFCCC

Annex I and II parties

Annex I parties
 Non-annex parties

Observer states

Main article: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

As of 2022, the UNFCCC has 198 parties including all United Nations member states, United Nations
General Assembly observers the State of Palestine and the Holy See, UN non-member states Niue and
the Cook Islands, and the supranational union European Union.[93][94]

Classification of Parties and their commitments

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Parties to the UNFCCC are classified as:

Annex I: There are 43 Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex I of the convention, including the European
Union.[95] These Parties are classified as industrialized (developed) countries and "economies in
transition" (EITs).[96] The 14 EITs are the former centrally-planned (Soviet) economies of Russia and
Eastern Europe.[97]

Annex II: Of the Parties listed in Annex I of the convention, 24 are also listed in Annex II of the
convention, including the European Union.[98] These Parties are made up of members of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): these Parties consist of the members
of the OECD in 1992, minus Turkey, plus the EU. Annex II Parties are required to provide financial and
technical support to the EITs and developing countries to assist them in reducing their greenhouse gas
emissions (climate change mitigation) and manage the impacts of climate change (climate change
adaptation).[96]

Least-developed countries (LDCs): 49 Parties are LDCs, and are given special status under the treaty in
view of their limited capacity to adapt to the effects of climate change.[96]

Non-Annex I: Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the convention are mostly low-income[99]
developing countries.[96] Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they
are sufficiently developed.

Parties: Annexes, EU, OECD, EITs[100]

List of parties

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Annex I countries

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There are 43 Annex I Parties including the European Union.[95] These countries are classified as
industrialized countries and economies in transition.[96] Of these, 24 are also Annex II Parties, including
the European Union,[98] and 14 are Economies in Transition.[97]

Annex I countries (24 of these are also Annex II Parties):

Australia Australia[a]

Austria Austria[a]

Belgium Belgium[a]

Canada Canada[a]

Cyprus Cyprus

Denmark Denmark[a]

European Union EU[a]

Finland Finland[a]

France France[a]

Germany Germany[a]

Greece Greece[a]

Iceland Iceland[a]

Republic of Ireland Ireland[a]

Italy Italy[a]

Japan Japan[a]

Liechtenstein Liechtenstein

Luxembourg Luxembourg[a]

Malta Malta
Monaco Monaco

Netherlands Netherlands[a]

New Zealand New Zealand[a]

Norway Norway[a]

Portugal Portugal[a]

Spain Spain[a]

Sweden Sweden[a]

Switzerland Switzerland[a]

Turkey Turkey

United Kingdom United Kingdom[a]

United States United States of America[a]

Annex I countries that are Economies in Transition:

Belarus Belarus

Bulgaria Bulgaria

Croatia Croatia

Czech Republic Czech Republic

Estonia Estonia

Hungary Hungary

Latvia Latvia

Lithuania Lithuania

Poland Poland

Romania Romania

Russia Russian Federation

Slovakia Slovakia
Slovenia Slovenia

Ukraine Ukraine

Engagement of civil society

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In 2014, The UN with Peru and France created the Global Climate Action Portal NAZCA for writing and
checking all the climate commitments.[101][102]

Thousands of observers from civil society, business and academia attend the COPs. They organize a huge
programme of activities including officially coordinated "side events". These complement and inform the
official negotiations.

Civil Society Observers under the UNFCCC have organized themselves in loose groups, covering about
90% of all admitted organisations. Some groups remain outside these broad groupings, such as faith
groups or national parliamentarians.[103] The UNFCCC secretariat also recognizes the following groups
as informal NGO groups (2016):[104] Faith-based organizations, Education and Capacity Building and
Outreach NGOs, parliamentarians.

An overview is given in the table below:[103]

Name Abbreviation Admitted since

Business and industry NGOs BINGO 1992

Environmental NGOs ENGO 1992

Local government and municipal authorities LGMA COP1 (1995)

Indigenous peoples organizations IPO Archived 1 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine COP7
(2001)

Research and independent NGOs RINGO COP9 (2003)

Trade union NGOs TUNGO Before COP 14 (2008)

Women and gender WGC Shortly before COP17 (2011)

Youth NGOs YOUNGO Archived 19 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine Shortly before COP17
(2011)

Farmers Farmers (2014)

Analysis

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Interpreting ultimate objective in Article 2

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Further information: Climate change mitigation and Effects of climate change

A "family photo" in 2016, organized by Greenpeace, at the entrance to the United Nations, with a
banner reading "We Will Move Ahead". It highlighted the resolve, despite all the differences, that we
will continue to pursue strong climate action, moving towards 100 per cent renewals and aiming for
1.5C target.

The ultimate objective of the Framework Convention contains some key words that are discussed
further below and shown here in italics: "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-caused] interference
with the climate system".[1]

To stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations, global anthropogenic GHG emissions would need to peak
then decline (see climate change mitigation).[105] Lower stabilization levels would require emissions to
peak and decline earlier compared to higher stabilization levels.[105] These lower stabilization levels are
associated with lower magnitudes of global warming compared to higher stabilization levels.[105]

There are a range of views over what level of climate change is dangerous.[106]: 29–33 Scientific
analysis can provide information on the risks of climate change, but deciding which risks are dangerous
requires value judgements.[107]

The global warming that has already occurred poses a risk to some human and natural systems.[108]
Higher magnitudes of global warming will generally increase the risk of negative impacts.[109] Climate
change risks are "considerable" with 1 to 2 °C of global warming, relative to pre-industrial levels. 4 °C
warming would lead to significantly increased risks, with potential impacts including widespread loss of
biodiversity and reduced global and regional food security.[109]
Climate change policies may lead to costs that are relevant to the article 2.[107] For example, more
stringent policies to control GHG emissions may reduce the risk of more severe climate change, but may
also be more expensive to implement.[109][110][111]

In decision making, the precautionary principle is considered when possibly dangerous, irreversible, or
catastrophic events are identified, but scientific evaluation of the potential damage is not sufficiently
certain.[112]: 655–656 The precautionary principle implies an emphasis on the need to prevent such
adverse effects. Following the precautionary principle, uncertainty (about the exact effects of climate
change) is not a reason for inaction, and this is acknowledged in Article 3.3 of the UNFCCC.[112]: 656

International trade

edit

Academics and environmentalists criticize article 3(5) of the convention, which states that any climate
measures that would restrict international trade should be avoided.[citation needed]

Reception

edit

Criticism of processes

edit

See also: Criticism of the Kyoto Protocol

The overall umbrella and processes of the UNFCCC and the adopted Kyoto Protocol have been criticized
by some as not having achieved their stated goals of reducing the emission of greenhouse gases.[9] The
UNFCCC is a multilateral body concerned with climate change and can be an inefficient system for
enacting international policy: Because the framework system includes over 190 countries and because
negotiations are governed by consensus, small groups of countries can often block progress.[113][10]

There has been a failure to achieve effective greenhouse gas emission reduction policy treaties since
1992. This has driven some countries like the United States to hold back from ratifying the UNFCCC's
most important agreement—the Kyoto Protocol—in large part because the treaty did not cover
developing countries which now include the largest CO2 emitters. However, this failed to take into
account both the historical responsibility for climate change since industrialization, which is a
contentious issue in the talks, and also responsibility for emissions from consumption and importation
of goods (see carbon footprint).[114] It has also led Canada to withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol in 2011
out of a wish not to make its citizens pay penalties that would result in wealth transfers out of Canada.
[115] Both the US and Canada are looking at internal Voluntary Emissions Reduction schemes to curb
carbon dioxide emissions outside the Kyoto Protocol.[116]

The perceived lack of progress has also led some countries to seek and focus on alternative high-value
activities like the creation of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate
Pollutants which seeks to regulate short-lived pollutants such as methane, black carbon and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which together are believed to account for up to one third of current global
warming but whose regulation is not as fraught with wide economic impacts and opposition.[117]

In 2010, Japan stated that it will not sign up to a second Kyoto term, because it would impose
restrictions on it not faced by its main economic competitors, China, India and Indonesia.[118] A similar
indication was given by the Prime Minister of New Zealand in November 2012.[119] At the 2012
conference, last-minute objections at the conference by Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan were
ignored by the governing officials, and they have indicated that they will likely withdraw or not ratify the
treaty.[120] These defections place additional pressures on the UNFCCC process that is seen by some as
cumbersome and expensive: in the UK alone, the climate change department has taken over 3,000
flights in two years at a cost of over £1,300,000 (British pounds sterling).[121]

Further, the UNFCCC (mainly during the Kyoto protocol) failed to facilitate the transfer of
environmentally sound technologies (SETs) which are mechanisms used to decrease the vulnerability of
the human race against the unfavorable effects of climate change. One of the more widely used of these
being renewable energy sources. The UNFCCC created the body "technology mechanism" who would
distribute these resources to developing countries; however this distribution was too moderate and,
coupled with the failings of the first commitment period of the Kyoto protocol,[122] led to low
ratification numbers for the second commitment (resulting in it not going ahead). Before the 2015
United Nations Climate Change Conference, National Geographic magazine added to the criticism,
writing: "Since 1992, when the world's nations agreed at Rio de Janeiro to avoid 'dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system,' they've met 20 times without moving the needle
on carbon emissions. In that interval we've added almost as much carbon to the atmosphere as we did
in the previous century.

Criticism of effectiveness of Paris Agreement

edit
This section is an excerpt from Paris Agreement § Effectiveness.[edit]

Scenarios of global greenhouse gas emissions. If all countries achieve their current Paris Agreement
pledges, average warming by 2100 would still exceed the maximum 2°C target set by the agreement.

The effectiveness of the Paris Agreement to reach its climate goals is under debate, with most experts
saying it is insufficient for its more ambitious goal of keeping global temperature rise under 1.5°C.[124]
[125] Many of the exact provisions of the Paris Agreement have yet to be straightened out, so that it
may be too early to judge effectiveness.[124] According to the 2020 United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), with the current climate commitments of the Paris Agreement, global mean
temperatures will likely rise by more than 3°C by the end of the 21st century. Newer net zero
commitments were not included in the Nationally Determined Contributions, and may bring down
temperatures by a further 0.5°C.[126]

With initial pledges by countries inadequate, faster and more expensive future mitigation would be
needed to still reach the targets.[127] Furthermore, there is a gap between pledges by countries in their
NDCs and implementation of these pledges; one third of the emission gap between the lowest-costs and
actual reductions in emissions would be closed by implementing existing pledges.[128] A pair of studies
in Nature found that as of 2017 none of the major industrialized nations were implementing the policies
they had pledged, and none met their pledged emission reduction targets,[129] and even if they had,
the sum of all member pledges (as of 2016) would not keep global temperature rise "well below 2°C".
[130][131]

In 2021, a study using a probabilistic model concluded that the rates of emissions reductions would have
to increase by 80% beyond NDCs to likely meet the 2°C upper target of the Paris Agreement, that the
probabilities of major emitters meeting their NDCs without such an increase is very low. It estimated
that with current trends the probability of staying below 2 °C of warming is 5% – and 26% if NDCs were
met and continued post-2030 by all signatories.[132]

As of 2020, there is little scientific literature on the topics of the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement on
capacity building and adaptation, even though they feature prominently in the Paris Agreement. The
literature available is mostly mixed in its conclusions about loss and damage, and adaptation.[124]

According to the stocktake report, the agreement has a significant effect: while in 2010 the expected
temperature rise by 2100 was 3.7–4.8 °C, at COP 27 it was 2.4–2.6°C and if all countries will fulfill their
long-term pledges even 1.7–2.1 °C. Despite it, the world is still very far from reaching the aim of the
agreement: limiting temperature rise to 1.5 degrees. For doing this, emissions must peak by 2025.[133]
[134]

Awards

edit

In 2016, the UNFCCC received the "Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation"
by the Princess of Asturias Awards.[135]

Meetings of the Parties

edit

A Conference of the Parties (COP) has been held annually for most years since 1995.

List of COPs of the UNFCCC

COP Year CountryBegin End Days City Link

COP1 1995 Germany 28.03.1995 07.04.1995 10 Berlin [COP

1](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-1)

COP2 1996 Switzerland 08.07.1996 19.07.1996 11 Geneva [COP

2](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-2)

COP3 1997 Japan 01.12.1997 10.12.1997 10 Kyoto [COP

3](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-3)

COP4 1998 Argentina 02.11.1998 13.11.1998 12 Buenos Aires [COP 4]

(https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-4)

COP5 1999 Germany 25.10.1999 05.11.1999 12 Bonn [COP

5](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-5)

COP6 2001 Netherlands 13.11.2000 24.11.2000 12 The Hague [COP 6]

(https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-6)

COP7 2001 Morocco 29.10.2001 10.11.2001 12 Marrakech [COP 7]

(https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-7)

COP8 2002 India 23.10.2002 01.11.2002 10 New Delhi [COP

8](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-8)
COP9 2003 Italy 01.12.2003 12.12.2003 12 Milan [COP
9](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-9)

COP10 2004 Argentina 01.12.2004 12.12.2004 12 Buenos Aires [COP 10]

(https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-10)

COP11 2005 Canada 28.11.2005 10.12.2005 12 Montreal [COP

11](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-11)

COP12 2006 Kenya 06.11.2006 17.11.2006 12 Nairobi [COP

12](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-12)

COP13 2007 Indonesia 03.12.2007 15.12.2007 12 Bali [COP

13](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-13)

COP14 2008 Poland 01.12.2008 12.12.2008 12 Poznań [COP

14](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-14)

COP15 2009 Denmark 07.12.2009 18.12.2009 12 Copenhagen [COP 15]

(https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-15)

COP16 2010 Mexico 29.11.2010 11.12.2010 12 Cancún [COP

16](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-16)

COP17 2011 South Africa 28.11.2011 11.12.2011 14 Durban [COP

17](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-17)

COP18 2012 Qatar 26.11.2012 08.12.2012 12 Doha [COP

18](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-18)

COP19 2013 Poland 11.11.2013 22.11.2013 12 Warsaw [COP

19](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-19)

COP20 2014 Peru 01.12.2014 12.12.2014 12 Lima [COP

20](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-20)

COP21 2015 France 30.11.2015 12.12.2015 12 Paris [COP

21](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-21)

COP22 2016 Morocco 07.11.2016 18.11.2016 12 Marrakech [COP 22]

(https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-22)

COP23 2017 Germany 06.11.2017 17.11.2017 12 Bonn [COP

23](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-23)

COP24 2018 Poland 02.12.2018 14.12.2018 12 Katowice [COP

24](https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/conference-of-the-parties/cop-24)
COP25 2019 Spain 02.12.2019 13.12.2019 12 Madrid [COP
25](https://unfccc.int/conference/un-climate-change-conference-december-2019)

COP26 2021 United Kingdom 31.10.2021 12.11.2021 12 Glasgow [COP

26](https://unfccc.int/conference/glasgow-climate-change-conference-october-november-2021)

COP27 2022 Egypt 06.11.2022 18.11.2022 12 Sharm el-Sheikh [COP 27]

(https://unfccc.int/cop27)

COP28 2023 United Arab Emirates 30.11.2023 12.12.2023 12 Dubai [COP 28]
(https://unfccc.int/cop28)

COP29 2024 Azerbaijan 11.11.2021 22.11.2021 12 Baku [COP

29](https://unfccc.int/cop29)

COP30 2025 Brazil 31.10.2021 12.11.2021

17 2010 COP 16 CMP 6 Cancún MexicoGRULAC

18 2011 COP 17 CMP 7 Durban South Africa Africa Group

19 2012 COP 18 CMP 8 Doha Qatar Asia and Pacific Group

20 2013 COP 19 CMP 9 Warsaw Poland Eastern Europe Group

21 2014 COP 20 CMP 10 Lima Peru GRULAC

22 2015 COP 21 CMP 11 Paris France WEOG

23 2016 COP 22 CMP 12 / CMA 1 Marrakech Morocco Africa Group

24 2017 COP 23 CMP 13 / CMA 1-2 Bonn Germany WEOG (COP President: Fiji, Asia
and Pacific Group)

25 2018 COP 24 CMP 14 / CMA 1-3 Katowice Poland Eastern Europe Group

26 2019 SB50 Bonn Germany WEOG

27 2019 COP 25 CMP 15 / CMA 2 Madrid Spain WEOG (COP President: Chile, GRULAC)

28 2021 COP 26 CMP 16 / CMA 3 Glasgow United Kingdom WEOG

29 2022 COP 27 CMP 17 / CMA 4 Sharm El Sheikh Egypt Africa Group

30 2023 COP 28 CMP 18 / CMA 5 Dubai United Arab Emirates Asia and Pacific Group
31 2024 COP 29 CMP 19 / CMA 6 Baku Azerbaijan Eastern Europe Group[8]

32 2025 COP 30 CMP 20 / CMA 7 Belém Brazil GRULAC

33 2026 COP 31 CMP 21 / CMA 8 WEOG Australia and Pacific Nations

1995: COP 1, Berlin, Germany

edit

The first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties took place from 28 March to 7 April 1995 in Berlin, Germany.
[9][10] Delegates from 117 Parties and 53 Observer States attended the conference. One of the central
issues of COP 1 was the adequacy of individual country commitments, resulting in a mandate to begin a
process toward individual country action for the period beyond 2000. This included strengthening the
commitments of Annex I Parties in Article 4.2(a) and (b).[11]

Delegates also established: a pilot phase for Joint Implementation projects; an agreement that the
Permanent Secretariat should be located in Bonn, Germany; and the Subsidiary Bodies. Conference
delegates did not reach consensus on the Rules of Procedures, and a decision on voting rules was
deferred to COP 2.[12]

1996: COP 2, Geneva, Switzerland

edit

COP 2 took place from 8–19 July 1996 in Geneva, Switzerland.[13] Its ministerial declaration was noted
(but not adopted) on 18 July 1996, and reflected a United States position statement presented by
Timothy Wirth, former Under Secretary for Global Affairs for the United States Department of State at
that meeting, which:[14][15]

Accepted the scientific findings on climate change proffered by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) in its second assessment (1995);

Rejected uniform "harmonized policies" in favor of flexibility;

Called for "legally binding mid-term targets".

1997: COP 3, Kyoto, Japan

edit
COP 3 took place on 1–11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. After intensive negotiations, it adopted the
Kyoto Protocol, which outlined the greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation for Annex I countries,
along with what came to be known as Kyoto mechanisms such as emissions trading, clean development
mechanism and joint implementation.[16] In a separate decision of the Conference of Parties, countries
agreed to a range of national security exemptions which stated that bunker fuels and emissions from
multilateral military operations would not be part of national emissions totals and would be reported
outside of those totals.[17] Most industrialized countries and some central European economies in
transition (all defined as Annex B countries) agreed to legally binding reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions of an average of 6 to 8% below 1990 levels between the years 2008–2012, defined as the first
emissions budget period. The United States would be required to reduce its total emissions an average
of 7% below 1990 levels; however Congress did not ratify the treaty after Clinton signed it. The Bush
administration explicitly rejected the protocol in 2001.

1998: COP 4, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Main article: 1998 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 4 took place on 2–14 November 1998 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It had been expected that the
remaining issues unresolved in Kyoto would be finalized at this meeting. However, the complexity and
difficulty of finding agreement on these issues proved insurmountable, and instead the parties adopted
a two-year "Buenos Aires Plan of Action" (BAPA) to advance efforts and to devise mechanisms for
implementing the Kyoto Protocol, to be completed by 2000. During COP 4, Argentina and Kazakhstan
expressed their commitment to take on the greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation, the first two
non-Annex countries to do so.

1999: COP 5, Bonn, Germany

edit

COP 5 took place between 25 October and 5 November 1999, in Bonn, Germany.[18] It was primarily a
technical meeting, and did not reach major conclusions. 165 Parties were represented at the
conference. Conference delegates continued their work toward fulfilling the Buenos Aires Plan of Action
(BAPA) adopted at COP 4. In the last two days of the Conference, COP 5 adopted 32 draft decisions and
conclusions related to the review of the implementation of commitments.[19] Despite reaching no
major conclusions, COP-5 served as an important "intermediate step" laying out the difficult path to
finalizing the Kyoto Protocol at COP-6.[20]
2000: COP 6, The Hague, Netherlands

edit

COP 6 took place on 13–25 November 2000, in The Hague, Netherlands. Many in the international
community and domestic environmental groups saw this meeting as a chance to finalize a Protocol that
could secure ratification. Specifically, COP-6 was intended to complete work on the two-year Buenos
Aires Plan of Action (BAPA), agreed upon at COP-4.[21] However, these groups saw the United States as
a roadblock to finalize such a Protocol.[22] The discussions evolved rapidly into a high-level negotiation
over the major political issues. These included major controversy over the United States' proposal to
allow credit for carbon "sinks" in forests and agricultural lands that would satisfy a major proportion of
the U.S. emissions reductions in this way; disagreements over consequences for non-compliance by
countries that did not meet their emission reduction targets; and difficulties in resolving how developing
countries could obtain financial assistance to deal with adverse effects of climate change[23] and meet
their obligations to plan for measuring and possibly reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

In the final hours of COP 6, despite some compromises agreed between the United States and some EU
countries, notably the United Kingdom, the EU countries as a whole, led by Denmark and Germany,
rejected the compromise positions, and the talks in The Hague collapsed. Jan Pronk, the President of
COP 6, suspended COP 6 without agreement, with the expectation that negotiations would later
resume.[24] It was later announced that the COP 6 meetings (termed "COP 6 bis") would be resumed in
Bonn, Germany, in the second half of July. The next regularly scheduled meeting of the parties to the
UNFCCC, COP 7, had been set for Marrakech, Morocco, in October–November 2001.2001: COP 6-2,
Bonn, Germany

edit

COP 6 negotiations resumed on 16–27 July 2001, in Bonn, Germany, with little progress having been
made in resolving the differences that had produced an impasse in The Hague. However, this meeting
took place after George W. Bush had become the President of the United States and had rejected the
Kyoto Protocol in March 2001; as a result the United States delegation to this meeting declined to
participate in the negotiations related to the Protocol and chose to take the role of observer at the
meeting. As the other parties negotiated the key issues, agreement was reached on most of the major
political issues, to the surprise of most observers, given the low expectations that preceded the meeting.
[citation needed] The agreements included:

Flexible mechanisms: The "flexibility mechanisms" which the United States had strongly favored when
the Protocol was initially put together, including emissions trading, joint implementation (JI), and the
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) which allows industrialized countries to fund emissions reduction
activities in developing countries as an alternative to domestic emission reductions. One of the key
elements of this agreement was that there would be no quantitative limit on the credit a country could
claim from use of these mechanisms provided domestic action constituted a significant element of the
efforts of each Annex B country to meet their targets.

Carbon sinks: It was agreed that credit would be granted for broad activities that absorb carbon from
the atmosphere or store it, including forest and cropland management, and re-vegetation, with no over-
all cap on the amount of credit that a country could claim for sinks activities. In the case of forest
management, an Appendix Z establishes country-specific caps for each Annex I country. Thus, a cap of
13 million tons could be credited to Japan (which represents about 4% of its base-year emissions). For
cropland management, countries could receive credit only for carbon sequestration increases above
1990 levels.

Compliance: Final action on compliance procedures and mechanisms that would address non-
compliance with Protocol provisions was deferred to COP 7, but included broad outlines of
consequences for failing to meet emissions targets that would include a requirement to "make up"
shortfalls at 1.3 tons to 1, suspension of the right to sell credits for surplus emissions reductions, and a
required compliance action plan for those not meeting their targets.

Financing: There was agreement on the establishment of three new funds to provide assistance for
needs associated with climate change: (1) a fund for climate change that supports a series of climate
measures; (2) a least-developed-country fund to support National Adaptation Programs of Action; and
(3) a Kyoto Protocol adaptation fund supported by a CDM levy and voluntary contributions.

A number of operational details attendant upon these decisions remained to be negotiated and agreed
upon, and these were the major issues considered by the COP 7 meeting that followed.

2001: COP 7, Marrakech, Morocco

edit

Main article: 2001 United Nations Climate Change Conference

At the COP 7 meeting in Marrakech, Morocco, from 29 October to 10 November 2001, negotiators
wrapped up the work on the Buenos Aires Plan of Action, finalizing most of the operational details and
setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. The completed package of decisions is known
as the Marrakech Accords. The United States delegation maintained its observer role, declining to
participate actively in the negotiations. Other parties continued to express hope that the United States
would re-engage in the process at some point and worked to achieve ratification of the Kyoto Protocol
by the requisite number of countries to bring it into force (55 countries needed to ratify it, including
those accounting for 55% of developed-country emissions of carbon dioxide in 1990). The date of the
World Summit on Sustainable Development (August–September 2002) was put forward as a target to
bring the Kyoto Protocol into force. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) was to be
held in Johannesburg, South Africa.
The main decisions at COP 7 included:

Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the CDM and
joint implementation;

A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to
the parties to the Protocol, once it came into force, the decision on whether those consequences would
be legally binding;

Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms;

A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might
lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries.

2002: COP 8, New Delhi, India

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Main article: 2002 United Nations Climate Change Conference

Taking place from 23 October to 1 November 2002, in New Delhi COP 8 adopted the Delhi Ministerial
Declaration[25] that, amongst others, called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology
and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries. It is also approved the New Delhi
work programme[26][27][28][29] on Article 6 of the Convention.[30] The COP 8 was marked by Russia's
hesitation, stating that it needed more time to think it over. The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force
once it was ratified by 55 countries, including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed
world's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions. With the United States (36.1 per cent share of developed-world
carbon dioxide) and Australia refusing ratification, Russia's agreement (17% of global emissions in 1990)
was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process.[31][32]

2003: COP 9, Milan, Italy

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Main article: 2003 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 9 took place on 1–12 December 2003 in Milan, Italy. The parties agreed to use the Adaptation Fund
established at COP 7 in 2001 primarily in supporting developing countries better adapt to climate
change. The fund would also be used for capacity-building through technology transfer. At COP 9, the
parties also agreed to review the first national reports submitted by 110 non-Annex I countries.
2004: COP 10, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Main article: 2004 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 10 took place on 6–17 December 2004. COP 10 discussed the progress made since the first
Conference of the Parties 10 years ago and its future challenges, with special emphasis on climate
change mitigation and adaptation. To promote developing countries better adapt to climate change, the
Buenos Aires Plan of Action[33] was adopted. The parties also began discussing the post-Kyoto
mechanism, on how to allocate emission reduction obligation following 2012, when the first
commitment period ends.

2005: COP 11/CMP 1, Montreal, Canada

edit

Main article: 2005 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 11/CMP 1 took place between 28 November and 9 December 2005, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
It was the first Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol
(CMP 1) since their initial meeting in Kyoto in 1997. It was one of the largest intergovernmental
conferences on climate change ever. The event marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol.
Hosting more than 10000 delegates, it was one of Canada's largest international events ever and the
largest gathering in Montreal since Expo 67. The Montreal Action Plan was an agreement to "extend the
life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse-gas
emissions".[34] Canada's environment minister at the time, Stéphane Dion, said the agreement provides
a "map for the future".[35][36]

2006: COP 12/CMP 2, Nairobi, Kenya

edit

Main article: 2006 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 12/CMP 2 took place on 6–17 November 2006 in Nairobi, Kenya. At the meeting, BBC reporter
Richard Black coined the phrase "climate tourists" to describe some delegates who attended "to see
Africa, take snaps of the wildlife, the poor, dying African children and women". Black also noted that due
to delegates concerns over economic costs and possible losses of competitiveness, the majority of the
discussions avoided any mention of reducing emissions. Black concluded that was a disconnect between
the political process and the scientific imperative.[37] Despite such criticism, certain strides were made
at COP12, including in the areas of support for developing countries and clean development mechanism.
The parties adopted a five-year plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing
countries, and agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund. They also agreed to
improve the projects for clean development mechanism.

2007: COP 13/CMP 3, Bali, Indonesia

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Main article: 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 13/CMP 3 took place on 3–15 December 2007, at Nusa Dua, in Bali, Indonesia. Agreement on a
timeline and structured negotiation on the post-2012 framework (the end of the first commitment
period of the Kyoto Protocol) was achieved with the adoption of the Bali Action Plan (Decision 1/CP.13).
The Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA) was
established as a new subsidiary body to conduct the negotiations aimed at urgently enhancing the
implementation of the Convention up to and beyond 2012. Decision 9/CP.13 is an Amended to the New
Delhi work programme.[38] These negotiations took place during 2008 (leading to COP 14/CMP 4 in
Poznan, Poland) and 2009 (leading to COP 15/CMP 5 in Copenhagen).

2008: COP 14/CMP 4, Poznań, Poland

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Main article: 2008 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 14/CMP 4 took place on 1–12 December 2008 in Poznań, Poland.[39] Delegates agreed on
principles for the financing of a fund to help the poorest nations cope with the effects of climate change
and they approved a mechanism to incorporate forest protection into the efforts of the international
community to combat climate change.[40]

Negotiations on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol were the primary focus of the conference.

2009: COP 15/CMP 5, Copenhagen, Denmark

edit

Main article: 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 15 took place in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 7–18 December 2009. The overall goal for the COP
15/CMP 5 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Denmark was to establish an ambitious global
climate agreement for the period from 2012 when the first commitment period under the Kyoto
Protocol expires. However, on 14 November 2009, the New York Times announced that "President
Obama and other world leaders have decided to put off the difficult task of reaching a climate change
agreement... agreeing instead to make it the mission of the Copenhagen conference to reach a less
specific "politically binding" agreement that would punt the most difficult issues into the future".[41]
Ministers and officials from 192 countries took part in the Copenhagen meeting and in addition there
were participants from a large number of civil society organizations. As many Annex 1 industrialized
countries are now reluctant to fulfill commitments under the Kyoto Protocol, a large part of the
diplomatic work that lays the foundation for a post-Kyoto agreement was undertaken up to the COP 15.

The conference did not achieve a binding agreement for long-term action. A 13-paragraph 'political
accord' was negotiated by approximately 25 parties including US and China, but it was only 'noted' by
the COP as it is considered an external document, not negotiated within the UNFCCC process.[42] The
accord was notable in that it referred to a collective commitment by developed countries for new and
additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will
approach US$30 billion for the period 2010–2012. Longer-term options on climate financing mentioned
in the accord are being discussed within the UN Secretary General's High Level Advisory Group on
Climate Financing, which is due to report in November 2010. The negotiations on extending the Kyoto
Protocol had unresolved issues as did the negotiations on a framework for long-term cooperative action.
The working groups on these tracks to the negotiations are now due to report to COP 16 and CMP 6 in
Mexico.

2010: COP 16/CMP 6, Cancún, Mexico

edit

Main article: 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 16 was held in Cancún, Mexico, from 28 November to 10 December 2010.[43][44]

The outcome of the summit was an agreement adopted by the states' parties that called for the US$100
billion per annum "Green Climate Fund", and a "Climate Technology Centre" and network. However the
funding of the Green Climate Fund was not agreed upon. Nor was a commitment to a second period of
the Kyoto Protocol agreed upon, but it was concluded that the base year shall be 1990 and the global
warming potentials shall be those provided by the IPCC.
All parties "Recognizing that climate change represents an urgent and potentially irreversible threat to
human societies and the planet, and thus requires to be urgently addressed by all Parties". It recognizes
the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report goal of a maximum 2 °C global warming and all parties should take
urgent action to meet this goal. It also agreed upon greenhouse gas emissions should peak as soon as
possible, but recognizing that the time frame for peaking will be longer in developing countries, since
social and economic development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities of
developing countries

Main article: 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference

COP 28 took place at Expo City Dubai, in the United Arab Emirates,[79] from 30 November to 12
December 2023.[80][81][82]

In advance to the conference, Pope Francis issued an apostolic exhortation called Laudate Deum in
which he calls for brisk action against the climate crisis and condemns climate change denial. At the
beginning of November 2023, the Pope announced he would attend the conference and would stay
there for 3 days, but unfortunately he had to cancel his trip due to health issues.[83][84]

Charles III, King of the United Kingdom, gave the opening address at the summit, his first speech on the
climate crisis since becoming monarch.[85] United States president Joe Biden did not attend, with the
2023 Israel–Hamas war and internal US government spending difficulties being cited as possible causes

2024: COP 29/CMP 19/CMA 6, Baku, Azerbaijan

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Main article: 2024 United Nations Climate Change Conference

See also: Climate change in Azerbaijan

The Czech Republic announced it was considering entering a bid to host the conference.[87] Bulgaria
also expressed its desire to host COP 29, with President Rumen Radev presenting Bulgaria's candidacy to
host in 2024.[88] During the Bonn Climate Change meeting in May 2023, Azerbaijan and Armenia also
announced their interest in hosting COP 29. The Eastern Europe Group had difficulties in identifying a
potential host due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[89]

Bulgaria and Armenia dropped their bids to host COP29 leading to Azerbaijan being the sole host bid in
Baku.[8] The decision to host COP29 in Azerbaijan was criticized by human rights activists and political
analysts due to Azerbaijan's human rights abuses and the country's reliance on fossil-fuels.[90][91]
2025: COP 30/CMP 20/CMA 7, Belém, Brazil

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On 26 May 2023, Lula da Silva confirmed the city of Belém was chosen as COP 30 host. On the left,
Helder Barbalho and, on the right, Mauro Vieira

In 2022, during his statement at COP 27, president-elect Lula said he would seek to make Brazil the host
of COP 30 in 2025 and would aim to put the venue in one of the country's Amazon states (most of them
in the north region), rather than the more populous coastal region.[92] That would be the first time that
Brazil, which is home to 60% of the Amazon Rainforest, the world's largest intact forest, hosts the event.
[93] On 11 January 2023, President Lula and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced the city of Belém
in the state of Pará as the Brazil's candidate host city of the event.[94] On 26 May 2023, it was claimed
that a U.N. Latin America regional group endorsed the city chosen to host the COP 30, a first for a city in
the Amazon region.[95][96]

Belém was officially chosen as the COP 30 host during the COP 28 in Dubai on 11 December 2023.[97]

2026: COP 31/CMP 21/CMA 8

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See also: Greenhouse gas emissions by Australia and Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey

In 2022, Australia announced plans to host COP 31 along with its Pacific island neighbours, and
discussed this at the Pacific Islands Forum.[98][99]

Also in 2022, Turkey's Minister of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change Murat Kurum declared
Turkey's candidacy to host COP 31.[100] In August 2023, Turkey withdrew from hosting the United
Nations' COP 16 biodiversity summit in 2024.[101] However its COP31 bid was reconfirmed later in
2023.[102]

Any offer to host COP 31, will first need to be approved by the Western Europe and Other Group before
being presented and approved at COP 30.