HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING (R-20)

UNIT-I
Break down phenomenon in gaseous
Insulating Materials: Types - applications and properties:

An Electrical Insulating Material/Insulating Material is used to obstruct the flow of current. It forms
ionic bonds and the materials that have low conductivity and high resistivity are available in the
form of solid, liquid, gaseous like the plastic used for plugs, insulating oil used in transformer, etc.
These materials have very high resistance so the flow of electric current requires an extremely high
voltage like kilo or megavolts to send a few milli amperes of current to them. The insulators are
used primarily for storage and also in all domestic and commercial electrical equipment to isolate
the conductor from the earth.

Insulating Material/Electrical Insulating Material

The Electrical Insulating Material/insulating materials are the materials that inhibit heat
transmission, electric current, or noise. All the insulating materials have a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance and as such resistivity is reduced with an increase in temperature. The
function of the insulator is very important without which no electrical machine can work, the
majority of the breakdown in the field of electrical engineering is due to the failure of insulation.
The importance of the insulating materials is ever-increasing in day by day as there is an
innumerable number of types of insulators available in the market. The selection of the right type of
insulating matter is very important because the life of the equipment depends on the type of material
used.

Basics of Insulating Material

The insulators are the materials that have the valence electrons eight or nearer to eight. When the
valence electrons are eight obviously the atom is in a stable condition and they offer very high
resistance as there are no free electrons, also the forbidden gap between conduction and valence
band is more. The atomic structure of insulating material neon is shown in the below figure.

Atomic Structure of Neon Insulating Material

As shown in the above figure, that atom has eight electrons in the outermost orbit, hence they are
stable and it can be considered as an insulator. The atomic structure of fluorine has seven electrons
in their outermost orbit in a valence electron. The atomic structure of insulating material fluorine is
shown in the below figure.

Atomic Structure of Fluorine

The atoms like oxygen which have only six electrons in a valence electron they can be classified
also as an insulator but the insulating properties of oxygen are less than that of fluorine and neon.

Atomic Structure of Oxygen

The atoms having eight electrons and seven electrons in an outermost orbit behave as good insulator
compared to the atoms having six valence electrons.

Glass Insulator

At high temperature, the glass insulators are designed or manufactured by mixing the different types
of materials, including quartz and lime powder, and then cools in the mold. The main disadvantage
of the glass insulator is, compared to the other type of insulators the contaminations are observed
easily by the glass insulator and on the surface of the glass insulator; the moisture can be distilled
easily.

Properties

The properties of the glass insulator are

 Dielectric Strength: The approximate value of dielectric strength is 140 kV/cm.

 Compressive Strength: The approximate value of compressive strength is 10,000 Kg/cm².
 Tensile Strength: The approximate value of tensile strength is 35,000 Kg/cm².

Advantages

The advantages of the glass insulator are:

 Compare to porcelain the dielectric strength is very high in a glass insulator

 High resistivity
 The tensile strength is higher than porcelain
 It is cheaper than porcelain insulator
 Less cost

Polymer Insulator

The polymer or polymeric insulator is also known as a composite insulator. It is a light-weight

insulating material and has high mechanical strength. The disadvantage of the polymer insulator is
if there is any unwanted gap between weather shed and core their moisture may enter.

Properties

The polymeric or polymer insulator has excellent properties they are hydrophobicity, lightweight,
and anti-weather ability.

Advantages

The advantages of the polymer insulator are:

 Compare to porcelain and glass insulator the polymer insulator is very lightweight
 Installation cost is low
 Tensile strength is higher than porcelain
 Better performance

What is a Porcelain Insulator?

The porcelain insulator is an aluminum silicate insulating material. In the present day, this material
is used for the overhead insulator. The week in tension and poor shock resistance is the
disadvantages of a porcelain insulator. The porcelain can also be called as ceramic. The applications
of this insulator are distribution and transmission lines, isolators, transformer bushings, fuse units,
plugs, and sockets.

Properties

The properties of the porcelain insulator are

 Dielectric Strength: The approximate value of dielectric strength is 60 kV/cm.

 Compressive Strength: The approximate value of compressive strength is 70,000 Kg/cm².
 Tensile Strength: The approximate value of tensile strength is 500 Kg/cm².

Advantages

The advantages of the porcelain insulator are

 Compared to glass insulator the mechanical strength of porcelain insulator is very high
 Leakage current is low
 It is less affected by temperature
 Long life
 Easy to maintain
 Highly Flexible
 Highly reliable

Properties of Insulating Material

All the insulators when used should not only behave as an insulator over a wide range of electric
voltage but must strong mechanically. They shouldn’t be affected by heat, atmosphere and chemical
effects and should be free from deformation due to aging. Therefore before selecting an insulating
material, it is quite essential to know the various properties and their effects on insulation. The
various properties of insulating materials are electrical properties, visual properties, mechanical,
thermal, and chemical properties.

Electrical Properties

The electrical properties of insulating materials are divided into two types they are insulating
resistance and dielectric strength. The insulating resistance is again classified into two types they
are volume resistance and surface resistance. The factors affecting insulating resistance are
temperature, aging, applied voltage and moisture and the factors affecting dielectric strength are
temperature and humidity.

Visual Properties

The visual properties of insulating material are appearance, color, and it’s crystalline.

Mechanical Properties

Some of the mechanical properties which are to be taken care of while selecting the insulating
material are tension & compression, resistance to abrasion, tear, shear & impact, viscosity, porosity,
solubility, moisture absorption, and machinability and mouldability.
Thermal Properties

The thermal properties of insulating material are melting point, flash, volatility, thermal
conductivity, thermal expansion, and heat resistance.

Chemical Properties

The various chemical properties of insulating material are resistance to external chemical effects,
effects on other materials, chemical changes in the material, hygroscopicity, and aging.

Classification of Insulating Material (types)

The classification of insulating material is based on the thermal classification, physical

classification, structural, chemical classification, and the process of manufacture.

Thermal Classification

Thermally the insulators are classified into seven types or seven classes they are class-Y, class-A,
class-E, class-B, class-F, class-H, and class-C.

Class-Y

The class-Y limitation temperature is 900 0C and the materials come under class-Y are cotton,
paper, silk, and similar organic materials.

Class-A

The class-A limitation temperature is 1050 0C and the materials come under class-A are
impregnated paper, silk, polyamide, cotton, and resins.

Class-E

The class-E limitation temperature is 1200 0C and the materials come under class-E are enameled
wire insulation on the base of powdered plastics, polyvinyl epoxy resins, etc.

Class-B

The class-B limitation temperature is 1300 0C and the materials come under class-B are inorganic
materials impregnated with varnish.

Class-F

The class-F limitation temperature is 1550 0C and the materials come under class-F are mica,
polyester epoxide varnished in the high heat resistance.

Class-H

The class-H limitation temperature is 1800 0C and the materials come under class-H are composite
materials on mica, glass, fiber, etc.

Class-C

The class-C limitation temperature is >1800 0C and the materials come under class-C are glass,
mica, quartz, ceramics, Teflon, etc.
Physical Classification of Insulating Material

The physical classification of insulating material is classified into three types they are solid, liquid,
and gaseous. The physical classification of insulators is shown in the below figure.
pp.

Physical Classification of Insulating Materials

The solid insulating materials are fibrous, ceramic, mica, glass, rubber, and resinous. The liquid
insulating materials are mineral oils, synthetic oils, transformer oils, and miscellaneous oils. The
gaseous insulating materials are air, hydrogen, nitrogen, and Sulphur hexafluoride.

Structural Classification

The structural classification of insulating material is classified into two types they are cellulose and
fibrous.

Chemical Classification

The chemical classification of insulating material is classified into two types they are organic and
inorganic.

Process of Manufacture

The process of manufacture is classified into two types they are natural and synthetic.
Some of the insulating materials are fiberglass, mineral wool, cellulose, natural fibers, polystyrene,
polyisocyanurate, polyurethane, insulation facings, phenolic foam, urea-formaldehyde foam, etc.

Applications of Insulating Material

The applications of insulating material are:

 Cable and transmission lines

 Electronic systems
 Power systems
 Domestic portable appliances
 Electrical cable insulating tape
 Personal protective equipment
 Electrical rubber stamp

Gases as insulating media:

Simplest and the most commonly found dielectrics are gases. Most of the electrical apparatus use
air as the insulating medium, and in a few cases other gases such as nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide
(CO2), Freon (CCl2F2), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are also used.

A strongly conducting spark formed during breakdown practically produces a short-circuit between
the electrodes. The maximum voltage applied to the insulation at the moment of breakdown is
called the Breakdown voltage. The electrical discharges in gases are of two types, i.e., (i) non-
sustaining discharges, and (ii) self sustaining types. The breakdown in a gas, called spark
breakdown is the transition of a non-sustaining discharge into a self-sustaining discharge.

Two types of theories, viz., (i) Townsend theory, and (ii) Streamer theory are known which explain
the mechanism for breakdown under different conditions. The various physical conditions of gases,
namely, pressure, temperature, electrode field configuration, nature of electrode surfaces, and the
availability of initial conducting particles are known to govern the ionization processes.

Collision Processes:

Types of Collision:

An electrical discharge is normally created from unionized gas by collision processes. These
processes are mainly gas processes which occur due to the collision between the charged particles
and gas atoms or molecules.

These are of the following two types of Collision.

(a) Elastic Collisions:

Elastic collisions are collisions which when occur, no change takes place in the internal energy of
the particles but only their kinetic energy gets redistributed. When electrons collide with gas
molecules, a single electron traces a zig-zag path during its travel.

Between the collisions, electron is accelerated by the electric field. Since electrons are very light in
weight, they transfer only a part of their kinetic energy to the much heavier ions or gas molecules
with which they collide. This result in very little loss of energy by the electrons and therefore,
electrons gain very high energies and travel at a much higher speed than the ions.

(b) Inelastic Collisions:

Inelastic collisions are those in which internal changes in energy take place within an atom or
a molecule at the expense of the total kinetic energy of the colliding particle. This collision often
results in a change in the structure of the atom. Thus, all collisions that occur in practice are
inelastic collisions. For example ionization, attachment, excitation, recombination are inelastic
collisions.

Ionization Processes:

The processes that are primarily responsible for the breakdown of a gas are ionization by collision,
photo-ionization, and the secondary ionization processes. In insulating gases (also called electron-
attaching gases), the process of attachment also plays an important role.

Ionization by Collision:

The process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with the simultaneous production of a
positive ion is called ionization. In the process of ionization by collision, a free electron collides
with a neutral gas molecule and gives rise to a new electron and a positive ion.

If we consider a low pressure gas column in which an electric field is applied across two plane
parallel electrodes, as shown in figure 1, then, any electron starting at the cathode will be
accelerated more and more between collisions with other gas molecules during its travel towards the
anode.
If the energy (ε) gained during this travel between collisions exceeds the ionization potential, Vi ,
which is the energy required to dislodge an electron from its atomic shell, then ionization takes
place. This process can be represented as

where, A is the atom, A + is the positive ion and e − is the electron.

Figure 1. Arrangement for study of a Townsend discharge

A few of the electrons produced at the cathode by some external means, say by ultra-violet light
falling on the cathode, ionize neutral gas particles producing positive ions and additional electrons.
The additional electrons, then, themselves make ‘ionizing collisions’ and thus the process repeats
itself. This represents an increase in the electron current, since the number of electrons reaching the
anode per unit time is greater than those liberated at the cathode.

In addition, the positive ions also reach the cathode and on bombardment on the cathode give rise to
secondary electrons.

Photo-Ionization:

The phenomena associated with ionization by radiation, or photo-ionization, involves the

interaction of radiation with matter. Photo-ionization occurs when the amount of radiation energy
absorbed by an atom or molecule exceeds its ionization potential.

The processes, by which radiation can be absorbed by atoms or molecules, are

(a) excitation of the atom to a higher energy state, and
(b) continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or dissociation of diatomic molecule or
direct ionization, etc.

Just as an excited atom emits radiation when the electron returns to the lower state or to the ground
state, the reverse process takes place when an atom absorbs radiation. This reversible process can be
expressed as

Ionization occurs when

where, h is the Planck’s constant, c is the velocity of light, λ is the wavelength of the incident
radiation and Vi is the ionization energy of the atom.
Substituting for h and c, we get
where Vi is in electron volts ( eV ).

The higher the ionization energy, the shorter will be the wavelength of the radiation capable of
causing ionization. It was observed experimentally that a radiation having a wavelength of 1250 Å
is capable of causing photo-ionization of almost all gases.

Secondary Ionization Processes:

Secondary ionization processes by which secondary electrons are produced are the one which
sustain a discharge after it is established due to ionization by collision and photo-ionization.
They are:

(a) Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact,

(b) Electron Emission due to Photons and
(c) Electron Emission due to Metastable and Neutral Atoms

(a) Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact:

Positive ions are formed due to ionization by collision or by photo-ionization, and being positively
charged, they travel towards the cathode. A positive ion approaching a metallic cathode can cause
emission of electrons from the cathode by giving up its kinetic energy on impact.

If the total energy of the positive ion, namely, the sum of its kinetic energy and the ionization
energy, is greater than twice the work function of the metal then one electron will be ejected and a
second electron will neutralize the ion.

The probability of this process is measured as γi which is called the Townsend’s secondary
ionization coefficient due to positive ions and is defined as the net yield of electrons per incident
positive ion. γi increases with ion velocity and depends on the kind of gas and electrode material
used.

b) Electron Emission due to Photons:

To cause an electron to escape from a metal, it should be given enough energy to overcome the
surface potential barrier. The energy can also be supplied in the form of a photon of ultraviolet light
of suitable frequency. Electron emission from a metal surface occurs at the critical condition

where ϕ is the work function of the metallic electrode. The frequency (V) is given by the
relationship

is known as the threshold frequency.

c) Electron Emission due to Metastable and Neutral Atoms:

A meta-stable atom or molecule is an excited particle whose lifetime is very large (10-3 s) compared
to the lifetime of an ordinary particle (10-8 s).Electrons can be ejected from the metal surface by the
impact of excited (metastable) atoms, provided that their total energy is sufficient to overcome the
work function.

This process is most easily observed with metastable atoms, because the lifetime of other excited
states is too short for them to reach the cathode and cause electron emission, unless they originate
very near to the cathode surface.
 TOWNSEND’S FIRST IONIZATION COEFFICIENT:

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having gas as an insulating medium and separated by a distance
d as shown in figure 1.When no electric field is set up between the plates, a state of equilibrium
exists between the state of electron and positive ion generation due to the decay processes. This
state of equilibrium will be disturbed the moment a high electric field is applied.

Figure 1. Parallel plate capacitor

The current at first increased proportionally as the voltage is increased and then remains constant, at
I0 which corresponds to the saturation current.

At still higher voltages, the current increases exponentially.

The variation of current as a function of voltage is shown in figure 2. The exponential increase in
current is due to ionization of gas by electron collision.

Figure 2. Variation of current as a function of voltage

As the voltage increases V/d increases and hence the electrons are accelerated more and more and
between collisions these acquire higher kinetic energy and, therefore, knock out more and more
electrons.

A coefficient α known as Townsend’s first ionization coefficient is defined as the number of

electrons produced by an electron per unit length of path in the direction of field.
Let no be the number of electrons leaving the cathode and when these have moved through a
distance x from the cathode, these become n. Now when these n electrons move through a distance
dx produce additional dn electrons due to collision.

dn =  n dx
(dn / n) = n dx
ln (n) = x + A.

Now at x = 0, n = no.
Therefore, ln (no) = A.

ln (n) = x + ln (no)
ln (n / no) = x.

At x = d, n = (no) e (d).
Therefore, in terms of current,
I = I0 e (d).
αd
The term e is called the electron avalanche and it represents the number of electrons produced by
one electron in travelling from cathode to anode.
TOWNSEND SECOND IONISATION COEFFICIENT:

Let us consider the phenomenon of self-sustained discharge where the electrons are released from
the cathode by positive ion bombardment.Let no be the number of electrons released from the
cathode due to positive ion bombardment and n the number of electrons reaching the anode. Let ν,
known as Townsend second ionization co-efficient be defined as the number of electrons released
from cathode per incident positive ion. Then

n = (no + n+) e (d)

Now total number of electrons released from the cathode is (no + n+) and those reaching the anode
are n, therefore, the number of electrons released from the gas = n – (no + n+), and corresponding to
each electron released from the gas there will be one positive ion and assuming each positive ion
releases  effective electrons from the cathode then

n+ =  [n- (no + n+)]

n+ = n -  no - n+
(1+ ) n+ =  (n- no)
n+ =  (n- no) / (1+ )

Substituting n+ in the previous expression for n, we have

CURRENT GROWTH IN THE PRESENCE OF SECONDARY PROCESSES:

The single avalanche process becomes complete when the initial set of electrons reaches the anode.
Since the amplification of electrons [exp (α d)] is occurring in the field, the probability of additional
new electrons being liberated in the gap by other mechanisms increases, and these new electrons
create further avalanches.

The other mechanisms are the following:

(i) The positive ions liberated may have sufficient energy to cause liberation of electrons from
the cathode when they impinge on it.
(ii) The excited atoms or molecules in avalanches may emit photons, and this will lead to the
emission of electrons due to photo-emission.
(iii) The metastable particles may diffuse back causing electron emission.
The electrons produced by these processes are called secondary electrons. The secondary ionization
coefficient γ is defined in the same way as the net number of secondary electrons produced per
incident positive ion, photon, excited particle, or metastable particle.
The total value of γ is the sum of the individual coefficients due to the three different processes, i.e.
γ = γ1 +γ2+γ3. γ is called the Townsend’s secondary ionization coefficient and is a function of the
gas pressure p and E/p.

TOWNSEND BREAKDOWN MECHANISM:

When voltage between the anode and cathode is increased, the current at the anode is given by

the current in the anode equals the current in the external circuit. Theoretically the current becomes
infinitely large under the above mentioned condition but practically it is limited by the resistance of
d
the external circuit and partially by the voltage drop in the arc. The condition (e ) = 1 defines
the condition for beginning of spark and is known as the Townsend criterion for spark formation or
Townsend breakdown criterion. Using the above equations, the following three conditions are
possible.
1) (ed) = 1.
The number of ion pairs produced in the gap by the passage of arc electron avalanche is sufficiently
large and the resulting positive ions on bombarding the cathode are able to release one secondary
electron and so cause a repetition of the avalanche process. The discharge is then said to be self-
sustained as the discharge will sustain itself even if the source producing Io is removed.
d
Therefore, the condition (e ) = 1 defines the threshold sparking condition.
2) (ed) > 1
Here ionization produced by successive avalanche is cumulative. The spark discharge grows more
d
rapidly the more (e ) exceeds unity.
d
3) (e ) < 1
Here the current I is not self-sustained i.e., on removal of the source the current Io ceases to flow.

Limitations of Townsend’s Theory

According to Townsend’s theory

1) Current growth occurs as a result of ionization process only.
In practice, breakdown voltages were found to depend on the gas pressure and the
geometry of the gap.
2) The Townsend mechanism predicts a very diffused form of discharge.
Actually discharges were found to be filamentary and irregular.
3) Fails to explain the formative time lag of breakdown. The mechanism predicts time lags of
order of 10-5s, but practically it was observed to occur at a very short time of 10-8s.
4) Fails to explain the effect of space charge.
5) Fails to explain the discharge under high potential difference.
THE SPARKING POTENTIAL PASCHEN’S LAW:
d
The Townsend’s Criterion (e - 1) = 1 enables the evaluation of breakdown voltage of the gap
by the use of appropriate values of α/p and  corresponding to the values E/p when the current is
too low to damage the cathode and also the space charge distortions are minimum. A close
agreement between the calculated and experimentally determined values is obtained when the gaps
are short or long and the pressure is relatively low.

An expression for the breakdown voltage for uniform field gaps as a function of gap length and gas
pressure can be derived from the threshold equation by expressing the ionization coefficient α/p as
a function of field strength E and gas pressure p i.e.,

This shows that the breakdown voltage of a uniform field gap is a unique function of the product of
gas pressure and the gap length for a particular gas and electrode material. This relation is known as
Paschen’s law. This relation does not mean that the breakdown voltage is directly proportional to
product pd even though it is found that for some region of the product pd the relation is linear i.e.,
the breakdown voltage varies linearly with the product pd. The variation over a large range is
shown in figure 1. This relation is known as Paschen’s law.

Figure 1. Paschen’s law curve

Let us now compare Paschen’s law and the Townsend’s criterion for spark potential. We draw the
experimentally obtained relation between the ionization coefficient α/p and the field strength f
(E/p) for a given gas. In figure 2, point Eb / p represents the onset of ionization.
 Figure 2. The relation between Townsend’s criterion for
spark = k and Paschen’s criterion

Now the Townsend’s criterion αd = K can be re-written as

This is equation to a straight line with slope equal to K/V depending upon the value of K. The
higher the voltage the smaller the slope and therefore, this line will intersect the ionization curve at
two points e.g., A and B in figure 2.

Therefore, there must exist two breakdown voltages at a constant pressure (p = constant), one
corresponding to the small value of gap length i.e., higher E (E = V/d) i.e., point B and the other to
the longer gap length i.e., smaller E or smaller E/p i.e., the point A.

At low values of voltage V the slope of the straight line is large and, therefore, there is no
intersection between the line and the curve 1.

This means no breakdown occurs with small voltages below Paschen’s minimum irrespective of the
value of pd. The point C on the curve indicates the lowest breakdown voltage or the minimum
sparking potential. The spark over voltages corresponding to points A, B, C are shown in the
Paschen’s curve in figure 1.

Streamer Theory of Breakdown in Gases

Streamer Theory of breakdown mainly arises due to the added effect of the space- charge field of an
avalanche and photo-electric ionization in the gas volume.

But in practice, breakdown voltages were found to depend on the gas pressure and the geometry of
the gap.

The growth of charge carriers in an avalanche is uniform field

described by e (d). This is valid only as long as the influence of the
space charge due to ions is very small compared to the applied filed.
On the effect of space charge on avalanche growth when the charge
concentration was between 106 and 108, the growth of avalanche
became weak.

When the charge concentration was higher than 108 , the avalanche
current was followed by a steep rise in the current between the
electrodes, leading to the breakdown of the gap. Both slow growth at low charge concentration
and fast growth at high charge concentration have been attributed to the modification to the
originally applied uniform field E by the space charge P.

The space charge at the head of the avalanche is assumed to have a spherical volume containing
negative charge at top because of the higher electron mobility. The field gets enhanced at the top of
the avalanche. At the bottom of the avalanche the field between the electrons and ions reduces the
applied field (E). Further the field between cathode and positive ions gets enhanced.
Thus the field distortion occurs and it becomes noticeable with
charge carrier number n > 106. If the charge density in the
avalanche approaches n = 108 the space charge filled field and the
applied field will have the same magnitude and this leads to the
initiation of a streamer.

When the avalanche in the gap reaches a critical size, the combined
applied field and the space charge field causes intense ionization
and excitation of the gas particles in front of the avalanche.

Instantaneous recombination between positive ions and electrons

releases photons which produces secondary electrons by photo -
ionization. The secondary electrons under the influence of the field
in the gab develop into secondary avalanche as shown in figure 2.
On the basis of experimental observation for the streamer spark
criterion of the form

α * xc = 17.7 + ln (xc) + ln (Er /E) --- (1)

Figure 1. Field distortion in
a gap due to space charge
where xc is the length of the avalanche in which secondary electrons
are produced.

Er is the space charged field directed radially at the head of the avalanche and E is the applied
field.

The conditions for the transition from the avalanche to

streamer assumes that the space charged field E, approaches
the externally applied field (E = Er) and hence the
breakdown criterion (eqn.2) becomes

α * xc = 17.7 + ln (xc) --- (2)

The transition from an avalanche to a streamer occurs when

the avalanche has just crossed a gap, d. The minimum
breakdown voltage by streamer mechanism occurs only
when a critical length xc =d. The field Er produced by the
space charge at the radius r, is given by Figure 2. Formation of secondary
avalanches due to photo-ionization

--- (3)

where α is Townsend’s first ionization coefficient, p is the gas pressure in torr, and
x is the distance to which the streamer has extended in the gap.

The minimum breakdown voltage is obtained when Er = E and x = d in (eqn.4).

The equation simplifies into

--- (4)
 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING ( R-20)
UNIT-II
Break down phenomenon in Liquids:

Minimum Sparking Potential

Minimum sparking potential can be obtained using the general expression for α/p.
If values of A, B and ν are known both the (pd) min and Vb(min) can be obtained.
LIQUIDS AS INSULATORS:
Liquid dielectrics are used mainly as impregnants in high-voltage cables and capacitors, and for
filling up of transformers, circuit breakers, etc. Liquid dielectrics also act as heat transfer agents in
transformers, and as arc-quenching media in circuit breakers.
Petroleum oils (Transformer oil) are the most commonly used liquid dielectrics. Synthetic
hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons are also used for certain applications. For very high-
temperature applications, silicone oils and fluorinated hydrocarbons are employed.
The presence of even 0.01% water in transformer oil reduces its electrical strength to 20% of the
dry oil value. The dielectric strength of oil reduces more sharply, if it contains fibrous impurities in
addition to water.
Classification of Liquid Dielectrics:

A substitute to mineral oils, other polyester oils have been developed which are extensively used in
transformers. One such oil is the halogen-free Penta – Etythrite - Tetra Fatty Acid Polyester oil
(PETFP oil) which has very good electrical, physical and thermal properties.
Transformer Oil (Mineral Oil):

Transformer oil is the most commonly used liquid dielectric in power apparatus. It is an almost
colorless liquid consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbons which include paraffins, isoparaffins,
naphthalenes and aromatics. When in service, the liquid in a transformer is subjected to prolonged
heating at high temperatures of about 95°C, and consequently it undergoes a gradual ageing
process.
a) Synthetic Hydrocarbons:

Among synthetic liquid dielectrics, polyolefins are the dielectrics of choice for applications in
power cables. Over 55% of synthetic hydrocarbons produced worldwide are polyolefins. The most
commonly used olefins are poly-butylene and alkyl aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., alkyl-benzene).
Their general characteristics are very similar to those of mineral oils.

(b) Chlorinated Hydrocarbons:

Two aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene and diphenyl, are chlorinated to produce chlorinated aromatic
compounds called askarels or simply polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). They possess high fire point
and excellent electrical properties. Their use has been banned throughout the world, because they
pose serious health hazards.
c) Silicone Oils:
Silicone oils represent an alternative to PCBs, but they are expensive. Even at a temperature of
150°C, they exhibit high long-term thermal stability. Silicone oils are resistant to most chemicals,
and are oxidation resistant, even at higher temperatures. They can be used at higher temperatures
than mineral oils. Silicone oils are an acceptable substitute for PCBs in transformers despite their
slightly inferior nonflammable properties.
Characteristics of Liquid Dielectrics:

A) Electrical Properties:

1) Permittivities of most of the petroleum oils vary from 2.0 to 2.6 while those of silicone oils from
2.0 to 73. In case of the non-polar liquids, the permittivity is independent of frequency but in the
case of polar liquids, such as water, it changes with frequency.
2) Resistivities of insulating liquids used for high-voltage applications should be more than 10 16
ohmmeter and most of the liquids in their pure state exhibit this property
3) Power Factor In the case of transformers, the dielectric loss in the oil is negligible when
compared to copper and iron losses. Pure and dry transformer oil will have a very low power factor
varying between 10-4 at 20°C and 10-3 at 90°C at a frequency of 50 Hz.
4) Dielectric Strength under practical conditions the dielectric strength depends on the material of
the electrodes, temperature, type of applied voltage, gas content in the liquid, etc., which change the
dielectric strength by changing the molecular properties of the liquid.
B) Heat Transfer Characteristics:

In equipment filled with a liquid dielectric (transformer, cable, circuit breaker, etc.), heat is
transferred mainly by convection. Under natural atmospheric cooling conditions convection (N) is
given by
N = f[K3AC/ν]n

where K = thermal conductivity, A = coefficient of expansion, C = specific heat per unit volume, v
= kinematic viscosity, and n = 0.25 ~ 0.33. The main factors that control the heat transfer are
thermal conductivity (K) and viscosity (v).
(C) Chemical Stability:

Insulating liquids are subjected to thermal and electrical stresses in the presence of materials like O2
, water, fibers and decomposition products of solid insulation. These, either singly or in
combination, cause degradation of the liquid with the result that soluble solid and gaseous products
are found, which can result in corrosion, impairment of heat transfer, deterioration of electrical
properties, increased dielectric losses, discharges and arcing. In the absence of remedial action, this
cycle continues and produces an ever-worsening liquid purity and equipment on.
PURE LIQUIDS AND COMMERCIAL LIQUIDS

Pure liquids are chemically pure and do not contain any other impurity even in traces of 1 in 109.
They are structurally simple. Examples of such pure liquids are n-hexane (C6H14), n-heptane
(C7H16) and other paraffin hydrocarbons. The commercial liquid oils are not chemically pure,
normally consist of mixtures of complex organic molecules which cannot be easily specified or
reproduced in a series of experiments.
CONDUCTION AND BREAKDOWN IN COMMERCIAL LIQUIDS

The breakdown mechanism in commercial liquids is dependent on the nature and condition of the
electrodes, the physical properties of the liquid, and the impurities and gases present in the liquid.
Several theories explain the breakdown in liquids, and they are classified as follows:
(a) Suspended Particle Mechanism,

(b) Cavitation and Bubble Mechanism and

(c) Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism.

Suspended Particle Theory:

These impurities will be present as fibers or as dispersed solid particles. The permittivity of these
particles (ε2 ) will be different from the permittivity of the liquid (ε1 ). If we consider these
impurities to be spherical particles of radius r, and if the applied field is E, then the particles

experience a force F, where

This force is directed towards areas of maximum stress, if ε2 > ε1 , for example, in the case of the
presence of solid particles like paper in the liquid. On the other hand, if only gas bubbles are present
in the liquid, i.e. ε2 < ε1 , the force will be in the direction of areas of lower stress. If the voltage is
continuously applied (dc) or the duration of the voltage is long (ac), then this force drives the
particles towards the areas of maximum stress. If the number of particles present are large, they
become aligned due to these forces, and thus form a stable chain bridging the electrode gap causing
a breakdown between the electrodes.
Cavitation and the Bubble Theory:

In many liquids, the breakdown strength depends strongly on the applied hydrostatic pressure,
means that a kind of vapor bubble formed is responsible for breakdown. The following processes
have been suggested to be responsible for the formation of the vapor bubbles:
i) Gas pockets at the surfaces of the electrodes;
ii) Electrostatic repulsive forces between space charges which may be sufficient to overcome the
surface tension;
iii) Gaseous products due to the dissociation of liquid molecules by electron collisions; and
iv) Vaporization of the liquid by corona type discharge from sharp points and irregularities on the
electrode surfaces.
Once a bubble is formed, it will elongate in the direction of the electric field under the influence of
electrostatic forces. The volume of the bubble remains constant during elongation. Breakdown
occurs when the voltage drop along the length of the bubble becomes equal to the minimum value
on the Paschen’s curve for the gas in the bubble.
The breakdown field is given as where

σ is the surface tension of the liquid, ε1 is the permittivity of the liquid, ε2 is the permittivity of the
gas bubble, r is the initial radius of the bubble assumed as a sphere and Vb is the voltage drop in the
bubble.
Stressed Oil Volume Theory:

In commercial liquids where minute traces of impurities are present, the breakdown strength is
determined by the ‘largest possible impurity’ or ‘weak link’. On a statistical basis, it was proposed
that the electrical breakdown strength of the oil is defined by the weakest region in the oil, namely,
the region which is stressed to the maximum and by the volume of oil included in that region. In
non uniform fields, the stressed oil volume is taken as the volume which is contained between the
maximum stress (Emax ) contour and 0.9*Emax contour. According to this theory, the breakdown
strength is inversely proportional to the stressed oil volume. The breakdown voltage is highly
influenced by the gas content in the oil, the viscosity of the oil, and the presence of other impurities.
The variation of the breakdown voltage stress with the stressed oil volume is shown in figure.
CONDUCTION AND BREAKDOWN IN PURE LIQUIDS

When low electric fields less than 1 kV/cm are applied, conductivities of 10 −18−10 −20 mho/cm
are obtained. These are probably due to the impurities remaining after purification. However, when
the fields are high (> 100 kV/cm) the currents not only increase rapidly, but also undergo violent
fluctuations which will die down after some time. A typical mean value of the conduction current in
hexane is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1.Conduction current-electric field Figure 2.Conduction current-electric field

characteristic in hexane at high fields characteristic in a hydrocarbon liquid
This is the condition nearer to breakdown. However, if this figure is redrawn starting from very
small currents, a current-electric field characteristic as shown in figure 2, can be obtained. This
curve will have three distinct regions as shown. At very low fields, the current is due to the
dissociation of ions. With intermediate fields, the current reaches a saturation value, and at high
fields the current generated because of the field-aided electron emission from the cathode gets
multiplied in the liquid medium by a Townsend type of mechanism. The current multiplication also
occurs from the electrons generated at the interfaces of liquid and impurities. The increase in
current by these processes continues till breakdown occurs.
The exact mechanism of current growth is not known; however, it appears that the electrons are
generated from the cathode by field emission of electrons. The electrons so liberated get multiplied
by a process similar to Townsend’s primary and secondary ionization in gases. As the breakdown
field is approached, the current increases rapidly due to a similar to the primary ionization process
and also the positive ions reaching the cathode generate secondary electrons, leading to breakdown.
The breakdown voltage depends on the field, gap separation, cathode work-function, and the
temperature of the cathode. In addition, the liquid viscosity, the liquid temperature, the density, and
the molecular structure of the liquid also influence the breakdown strength of the liquid
 Intrinsic Breakdown:
If the dielectric material is pure and homogeneous, the temperature and environmental conditions
suitably controlled and if the voltage is applied for a very short time of the order of 10-8 second, the
dielectric strength of the specimen increases rapidly to an upper limit known as intrinsic dielectric
strength. The intrinsic strength, therefore, depends mainly upon the structural design of the material
i.e., the material itself. It is affected by the ambient temperature as the structure itself might change
slightly by temperature condition. In order to obtain the intrinsic dielectric strength of a material,
the samples are so prepared that there is high stress in the center of the specimen and much low
stress at the corners as shown in the figure.

Figure. Specimen designed for intrinsic breakdown

The intrinsic breakdown is obtained in times of the order of 10-8sec. and, therefore, has been
considered to be electronic in nature. The stresses required are of the order of one million volt/cm.

Electromechanical Breakdown:

When a dielectric material is subjected to an electric field, charges of opposite nature are induced
on the two opposite surfaces of the material. Hence a force of attraction is developed and the
specimen is subjected to electrostatic compressive forces and when these forces exceed the
mechanical withstand strength of the material, the material collapses. If the initial thickness of the
material is do and is compressed to a thickness d under the applied voltage V then the compressive
stress developed due to electric field is
For any real value of voltage V, the reduction in thickness of the specimen cannot be more than
40%. If the ratio V/d at this value of V is less than the intrinsic strength of the specimen, a further
increase in V shall make the thickness unstable and the specimen collapses. The highest apparent
strength is then obtained by substituting d = 0.6 * do in the above expressions.

The above equation is approximate only as γ depends upon the mechanical stress. The possibility of
instability occurring for lower average field is ignored i.e., the effect of stress concentration at
irregularities is not taken into account.

Thermal breakdown:

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current, however small it may be, flows
through the material. The current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.The heat
generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction through the solid dielectric and
by radiation from its outer surfaces. Equilibrium is reached when the heat used to raise the
temperature of the dielectric, plus the heat radiated out, equals the heat generated. The heat
generated under dc stress E is given as

Wdc = E2*σ W/cm3

where, σ is the dc conductivity of the specimen. Under ac fields, the heat generated

Wac = E2*f*εr*tan (δ) / (1.8*1012) W/ cm3

where, f = frequency in Hz, δ = loss angle of the dielectric material, εr = relative permittivity of the
material and E = rms value.

The heat dissipated (WT) is given by

WT = Cv *(dT/dt) + div (K* grad T)

where CV = specific heat of the specimen, T = temperature of the specimen, K = thermal

conductivity of the specimen, and t = time over which the heat is dissipated. Equilibrium is reached
when the heat generated (Wdc or Wac) becomes equal to the heat dissipated (WT).

Breakdown occurs when Wdc or Wac exceeds WT.

The thermal instability condition is shown in figure. The heat lost is shown by a straight line, while
the heat generated at fields E1 and E2 are shown by separate curve.

Figure. Thermal instability in solid

dielectrics.

At field E2, breakdown occurs both at temperatures TA and TB. In the temperature region of TA and
TB heat generated is less than the heat lost for the field E2, and hence the breakdown will not occur.

Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown (treeing and tracking):

An electron within the dielectric, starting from the cathode will drift towards the anode and during
this motion gains energy from the field and loses it during collisions. When the energy gained by an
electron exceeds the lattice ionization potential, an additional electron will be liberated due to
collision of the first electron.

This process repeats itself resulting in the formation of an

electron avalanche. Breakdown will occur, when the
avalanche exceeds a certain critical size. In practice,
breakdown does not occur by the formation of a single
avalanche itself. It occurs as a result of many avalanches
formed within the dielectric and extending step by step
through the entire thickness of the material as shown in
figure.

Electrochemical Breakdown:

Whenever cavities are formed in solid dielectrics, the dielectric strength in these solid specimen
decreases. When the gas in the cavity breaks down, the surfaces of the specimen provide
instantaneous anode and cathode. Some of the electrons dashing against the anode with sufficient
energy shall break the chemical bonds of the in insulation surface.

Similarly, positive ions bombarding against the cathode may increase the surface temperature and
produce local thermal instability. Similarly, chemical degradation may also occur from the active
discharge products e.g., O3, NO2 etc. formed in air. Because of defects in manufacturing processes
and/or design, the dielectric strength decreases with time of voltage application or even without
voltage application.

In many cases, the decrease in dielectric strength (Eb) with time follows the following empirical
relation: t*Etn = constant.

where the exponent n depends upon the dielectric material, the ambient temperature humidity and
the quality of manufacture.

Mechanisms of Breakdown in Composite Dielectrics

(a) Short-term Breakdown:

Breakdown results from one or more discharges when the applied voltage is close to the observed
breakdown value. There exists a critical stress in the volume of the dielectric at which discharges of
a given magnitude can enter the insulation from the surface and propagate rapidly into its volume to
cause breakdown. Breakdown was observed to occur more readily when the bombarding particles
are electrons, rather than positive ions.

(b) Long-term Breakdown:

Long-term breakdown is also called the ageing of insulation. The principal effects responsible for
the ageing of the insulation which eventually leads to breakdown arise from the thermal processes
and partial discharges. Partial discharges normally occur within the volume of the composite
insulation systems. In addition, the charge accumulation and conduction on the surface of the
insulation also contributes significantly towards the ageing and failure of insulation.
 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

UNIT-III

Generation of High DC Voltages

Generation of High DC voltages:
Generation of high dc voltages is required in research work in the areas of pure and applied
physics. High direct voltages are needed in insulation tests on cables and capacitors. Impulse
generator charging units require high dc voltages of 100 to 200 kV. For the generation of dc
voltages of up to 100 kV, electronic valve rectifiers are used and the output currents are about
100 mA.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT:
The simplest circuit for generation of high direct voltage is the half wave rectifier shown in
figure. Here RL is the load resistance and C the capacitance to smoothen the d.c. output
voltage.If the circuit is loaded, the output voltage does not remain constant at Vmax.

Figure. (a) Single Phase rectifier (b) Output voltage without C (c) Output voltage with C

After point E (figure (c)), the supply voltage becomes less than the capacitor voltage, diode
stops conducting. The capacitor cannot discharge back into the a.c. system because of one
way action of the diode. Instead, the current now flows out of C to furnish the current i L
through the load. While giving up this energy, the capacitor voltage also decreases at a rate
depending on the time constant C*R of the circuit and it reaches the point F corresponding to
Vmin. Beyond F, the supply voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage and hence the diode
D starts conducting, charging the capacitor C again to Vmax and also during this period it
supplies current to the load also. This second pulse of ip (ic + iL) is of shorter duration than
the initial charging pulse as it serve mainly to restore into C the energy that C meanwhile had
supplied to load. Thus, while each pulse of diode current lasts much less than a half cycle, the
load receives current more continuously from C.
Assuming the charge supplied by the transformer to the load during the conduction period t,
which is very small to be negligible, the charge supplied by the transformer to the capacitor
during conduction equals the charge supplied by the capacitor to the load. Note that ic >> iL.
During one period T = 1/f of the a.c voltage, a charge Q is transferred to the load RL and is
given as

where I is the mean value of the d.c output iL(t) and VRL(t) the d.c. voltage which includes a
ripple as shown in figure (c). This charge is supplied by the capacitor over the period T when
the voltage changes from Vmax to Vmin over approximately period T neglecting the
conduction period of the diode. Suppose at any time the voltage of the capacitor is V and it
decreases by an amount of dV over the time dt then charge delivered by the capacitor during
this time is

Therefore, if voltage changes from Vmax to Vmin, the charge delivered by the capacitor

Or the magnitude of charge delivered by the capacitor

Using equation, >>>

Therefore,

or

Above equation shows that the ripple in a rectifier output depends upon the load current and
the circuit parameter like f and C. The product f*C is, therefore, an important design factor
for the rectifiers. The higher the frequency of supply and larger the value of filtering capacitor
the smaller will be the ripple in the d.c. output.
The single phase half-wave rectifier circuits have the following disadvantages:
(i) The size of the circuits is very large if high and pure d.c. output voltages are desired.
(ii) The h.t. transformer may get saturated if the amplitude of direct current is
comparable with the nominal alternating current of the transformer.
Voltage Doubler Circuit

When high d.c. voltages are to be generated, voltage doubler or cascaded voltage multiplier
circuits are used. One of the most popular doubler circuit due to Greinacher is shown in
figure.

Figure. Greinacher voltage doubler circuit

Suppose B is more positive with respect to A and the diode D1 conducts thus charging the
capacitor C1 to Vmax with polarity as shown in figure. During the next half cycle terminal A

of the capacitor C1 rises to Vmax and hence terminal M attains a potential of 2*Vmax. Thus,

the capacitor C2 is charged to 2*Vmax through D2. Normally the voltage across the load will

be less than 2*Vmax depending upon the time constant of the circuit C2 * RL.

COCKROFT-WALTON VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER CIRCUIT

Voltage multiplier circuit using Cockroft – Walton principle is shown in figure 1.

For higher output voltage of 4, 6 ... 2n of the input voltage V, the circuit is repeated with
cascade or series connection. Thus, the capacitor C4 is charged to 4*Vmax and C2n to

2*n*Vmax above the earth potential.

But the voltage across any individual capacitor or rectifier is only 2*Vmax.
The rectifiers D1, D3, ... D2n-1 shown in figure, operate and conduct during the positive half
cycles while the rectifiers D2, D4, ... D2n conduct during the negative half cycles.
 The voltage on C2 is the sum of the input ac
voltage, Vac and the voltage across condenser
C1, VC1. The mean voltage on C2 is less than
the positive peak charging voltage (Vac+ VC1).
The voltage after 2n stages will be Vac* (n1 +
n2 + ...), where n1, n2, ... are factors when
ripple and regulation are considered in the next
rectifier.

Figure 1. Cockcroft – Walton voltage multiplier

circuit

Ripple in Cascaded Voltage Multiplier Circuits:

With load, the output voltage of the cascaded rectifiers is less than 2nVmax , where n is the
number of stages. The ripple and the voltage regulation of the rectifier circuit may be
estimated as follows.
Let f = supply frequency,
q = charge transferred in each cycle,
I1 = load current from the rectifier,
t1 = conduction period of the rectifiers,
t2 = non-conduction period of rectifiers, and
δV = ripple voltage (peak to peak).
When load current I1 is supplied from capacitor C2 to load RL during the non-conducting
period, the charge transferred per cycle from the capacitor C2 to the load during the non
conduction period t2 is q, and is related as follows.

Since t1 << t2 and t1 + t2 = 1/f (i.e., the period of the ac supply voltage),

t2 = 1/f,
Also, q= C2 δV,
Hence, δV= the ripple = I1 / ( f*C2)
At the same time a charge q is transferred from C1 to C2 during each cycle equal to I1 / (f *
C2). Thus the total voltage drop that occurs will be I1 / (f C1) + 2*I1 / (f C1).
Hence, regulation = mean voltage drop from 2* Vmax = (I1 / f) [(1/C1) + (2/C2)]
Therefore, the mean output voltage = [2* Vmax - (I1 / f) [(1/C1) + (2/C2)]]
For the cascade circuit, on no load, the voltages between stages are raised by 2*Vmax giving
an output voltage of 2*n*Vmax for n stages.
Let it be assumed that all capacitances C1 , C2,,..., C2n be equal to C. Let q be the charge
transferred from C2n to the load per cycle. Then the ripple at the capacitor C2n will be I1 /
(f*C).
Simultaneously, C2n-2 transfers as charge q to the load and to C2n-1. Hence, the ripple at the
capacitor C2n-2 is 2*I1 / (f*C). Similarly, C2n-4 transfers a charge q to the load, to C2n-3 , and
to C2n-2. Therefore, the ripple at capacitor C2n-4 is 3*I1 / (f*C). Proceeding in the same way,
the ripple at C2 will be n*I1 / (f*C).Hence, for n stages the total ripple (peak to peak) will be

and the average ripple = (δ*Vtotal / 2) = [ I1*n*(n+1)] / (4*f*C)

The major contribution to the ripple is from the lowest or ground end capacitors, C1 , C2 , C3 ,
C4, etc. Ripple can be reduced if the capacitance of these capacitors is increased
proportionately, i.e., C1, C2 are made as n*C and C3 , C4 are made as (n − 1)*C and so on, so
that the total ripple will be equal to n*I1 / (f*C).
Note: ‘n’ capacitors here mean n/2 stages only since two capacitors from each stage or a
doubler unit.
b) Voltage Drop on Load and Regulation:
The change of average voltage across the load from the no load theoretical value expressed as
a percentage of no load voltage is called the regulation. The change in voltage (i.e.) the
voltage drop ‘∆V’ is caused due to the ripple δV, and the capacitors not getting charged to the
full voltage Vm when they are supplying the load current I1.
The voltage drop under load condition ∆V is found by assuming that all the capacitors are of
equal value ‘C’. It is seen from the analysis of ripple that all the capacitors are not charged to
2*Vmax . The capacitor C2n is charged to (2*Vmax – n*I1 / (f*C) only instead of 2*Vmax
because the charge given through C2n-1, in one cycle is equal to a voltage drop of n*I1 / (f*C).
This is because, in each stage the loss of charge equal to a voltage drop of I1 / (f*C) to the
load.
In a similar manner the capacitor C2n-2 is charged to only [2*Vmax – n*I1 / (f*C) – n*I1 /
(f*C − (n − 1) I1/ (f*C)] since the reduction in voltage at this stage is further equal to n*I1
/(f*C) at the capacitor C2n-1 and (n − 1)*I1 /(f*C) at capacitor C2n-2.

Thus, if the voltage drops at each of the capacitor C2n , C2n-2, etc., to C2 are designated as
∆V2n, ∆V2n-2 , ... ∆V2, the total voltage drop will be

Summing up all the voltage drops

Here again the lowest capacitors contribute most to the voltage drop ∆V and so it is
advantageous to increase their capacitance in suitable steps. However, only a doubling of C1
is convenient as this capacitors has to withstand only half of the voltage of other capacitors.
Therefore, ∆V1 decreases by an amount n*I / (f*C) which reduces ∆V of every stage by the
same amount i.e., by
n*[n*I / (2*f*C)].

Hence

For large values of n (≥ 4), terms in the above equation, will become small compared to (2/3)

*n3 and may be neglected; then voltage drop can be approximated to

The maximum output voltage is given by

From above equation, it is clear that for a given number of stages, a given frequency and
capacitance of each stage, the output voltage decrease linearly with load current I. For a given
load, however, V0 = (V0max – V) may rise initially with the number of stages n, and reaches a
maximum value but decays beyond on optimum number of stage. The optimum number of
stages assuming a constant Vmax, I, f and C can be obtained for maximum value of V0max by
differentiating above equation with respect to n and equating it to zero.
Substituting nopt in the above equation we have

It is to be noted that in general it is more economical to use high frequency and smaller value
of capacitance to reduce the ripples or the voltage drop rather than low frequency and high
capacitance.
Comparison between the performance of half wave rectifier and voltage doubler circuits
for generation of high d.c. voltages

Sl.no Half -Wave Voltage Voltage doubler

Rectifier
1) Common point between input Available Not Available
and output lines for earthing
2) Ripple content High Low
3) Ripple Frequency Supply frequency Twice Supply
frequency
4) Voltage Regulation Poor Better than that of half
wave rectifier
5) Maximum voltage across each 2Vs max Vs max
capaticor
6) PIV rating of each diode 2Vs max 2Vs max
It is seen that half-wave or full-wave voltage doubler circuits provide twice the peak voltage
of the transformer secondary while requiring no centre – tapped transformer and only 2Vs max
PIV rating for diodes.
 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
Generation of High DC Voltages
ELECTROSTATIC GENERATOR:
In electromagnetic generators, current carrying conductors are moved against the
electromagnetic forces acting upon them. In contrast to the generator, electrostatic generators
convert mechanical energy into electric energy directly.
The electric charges are moved against the force of electric fields, thereby higher potential
energy is gained at the cost of mechanical energy.
The basic principle of operation is explained with the help of figure 1.
An insulated belt is moving with uniform velocity ν in an
electric field of strength E (x). Suppose the width of the belt is
b and the charge density σ consider a length dx of the belt, the
charge dq = σ b (dx).

Figure 1. Electrostatic generator

The force experienced by this charge (or the force experienced by the belt)

∫
dF = E(dq) = E σ b(dx) or F = σ b E (dx)

Normally the electric field is uniform >>> F = σ* b*V. The power required to move the belt =
Force *Velocity = F*v = σ bVv. Now current >> I = (dq /dt) σ b (dx/dt) = σ bv. The power
required to move the belt = P = F*v = σ bVv = V*I.
Assuming no losses, the power output is also equal to V*I.

Figure 2. Van de Graaf generator

An insulating belt is run over pulleys. The

belt, the width of which may vary from a few
cms to metres is driven at a speed of about 15
to 30 m/sec, by means of a motor connected
to the lower pulley.
The belt near the lower pulley is charged
electro statically by an excitation
arrangement. The lower charge spray unit consists of a number of needles connected to the
controllable d.c. source (10 kV–100 kV) so that the discharge between the points and the belt
is maintained.
The charge is conveyed to the upper end where it is collected from the belt by discharging
points connected to the inside of an insulated metal electrode through which the belt passes.
The entire equipment is enclosed in an earthed metal tank filled with insulating gases of good
dielectric strength viz. SF6 etc.
The shape of the h.t., electrode should be such that the surface gradient of electric field is
made uniform to reduce again corona discharges, even though it is desirable to avoid corona
entirely.
An isolated sphere is the most favorable electrode shape and will maintain a uniform field E
with a voltage of Er where r is the radius of the sphere. As the h.t. electrode collects charges
its potential rises. The potential at any instant is given as V = q/C where q is the charge
collected at that instant. It appears as though if the charge were collected for a long time any
amount of voltage could be generated.
As the potential of electrode rises, the field set up by the electrode increases and that may
ionize the surrounding medium and, therefore, this would be the limiting value of the voltage.
In practice, equilibrium is established at a terminal voltage which is such that the charging
current I = C (dV/ dt) equals the discharge current which will include the load current and the
leakage and corona loss currents.
Let us assume that the electric field E is normal to the belt and is homogeneous. We know that
D = ε0*E, where D is the flux density and since the medium surrounding the h.t. terminal is
say air εr = 1 and ε0 = 8.854 × 10-12 F/ metre.
According to Gauss law, D = σ the surface charge density.Therefore, D = σ = ε0 * E

Assuming E = 30 kV / cm or 30,000 kV / m.
σ = 8.854 * 10-12 *3,000*103 = 26.562 * 10-6 C / m2.
Assuming for a typical system b = 1 metre and velocity of the belt ν = 10 m/sec, the current
supplied by the generator is given as
I = σ bv = 26.562 *10-6 * 1 *10 = 26.562 *10-5 amp = 265 μA.
The advantages of the generator are: (i) Very high voltages can be easily generated (ii) Ripple
free output (iii) Precision and flexibility of control. The disadvantages are: (i) Low current
output (ii) Limitations on belt velocity due to its tendency for vibration. The vibrations may
make it difficult to have an accurate grading of electric fields. These generators are used in
nuclear physics laboratories for particle acceleration and other processes in research work.
GENERATION OF HIGH A.C. VOLTAGES

Cascaded Transformers:

Figure 1, shows a basic scheme for cascading three transformers. The primary of the first
stage transformer is connected to a low voltage supply. A voltage is available across the
secondary of this transformer. The tertiary winding (excitation winding) of first stage has the
same number of turns as the primary winding, and feeds the primary of the second stage
transformer.
The potential of the tertiary is fixed to the potential V of the secondary winding as shown in
figure. The secondary winding of the second stage transformer is connected in series with the
secondary winding of the first stage transformer, so that a voltage of 2V is available between
the ground and the terminal of secondary of the second stage transformer.
Similarly, the stage-III transformer is connected in
series with the second stage transformer. With this the
output voltage between ground and the third stage
transformer, secondary is 3V.
It is to be noted that the individual stages except the
upper most must have three-winding transformers.
The upper most, however, will be a two winding
transformer.

Figure 1. Basic 3 stage cascaded transformer

Figure 1, shows metal tank construction of transformers and the secondary winding is not
divided. Here the low voltage terminal of the secondary winding is connected to the tank. The
tank of stage-I transformer is earthed.
The tanks of stage-II and stage-III transformers have potentials of V and 2V, respectively
above earth and, therefore, these must be insulated from the earth with suitable solid
insulation. Through h.t. bushings, the leads from the tertiary winding and the h.v. winding are
brought out to be connected to the next stage transformer. The main disadvantage of
cascading the transformers is that the lower stages of the primaries of the transformers are
loaded more as compared with the upper stages.
The loading of various windings is indicated by P in figure. For the three-stage transformer,
the total output VA will be 3VI = 3P and, therefore, each of the secondary winding of the
transformer would carry a current of I = P/V.
The primary winding of stage-III transformer is loaded with P and so also the tertiary winding
of second stage transformer. Therefore, the primary of the second stage transformer would be
loaded with 2P. Extending the same logic, it is found that the first stage primary would be
loaded with P.
The equivalent circuit of an individual stage is shown in
figure 2. Here Z p , Zs , and Zt , are the impedances
associated with each winding. The impedances are shown
in series with an ideal 3-winding transformer with
corresponding number of turns Np , Ns and Nt.

Figure 2. Equivalent circuit of one stage

Let Z ps = leakage impedance measured on primary side with secondary short circuited and
tertiary open. Zpt = leakage impedance measured on primary side with tertiary short circuited
and secondary open. Zst = leakage impedance on secondary side with tertiary short circuited
and primary open. If these measured impedances are referred to primary side then
Z ps = Z p + Zs , Zpt = Z p + Zt and Zst = Zs + Z.
Solving these equations, we have
Z p = (1 / 2) (Z ps + Zpt – Zst), Zs = (1 / 2 )(Z ps + Zst – Zpt)
and Zt = (1 / 2) (Zpt + Zst – Z ps).
Assuming negligible magnetizing current, the sum of the ampere turns of all the windings
must be zero.
Np*Ip – Ns*Is – Nt*It - = 0.
Assuming lossless transformer, we have

Zp = j*XP, Zs = j* Xs and Zt = j*Xt

Also let Np = Nt for all stages, the equivalent circuit for a 3-stage transformer would be given
as in above figure. This can be reduced to a very simplified circuit as shown in the next
figure. The resulting short circuit reactance Xres is obtained from the
condition that the power rating of the two circuits be the same.
Figure 3. Equivalent circuit of 3-stage transformer

Figure 4. A simplified equivalent circuit

I2Xres = (3*I)2 * Xp + (2*I)2*Xp +I2*Xp+ I2*Xs+ I2*Xs+ I2*Xs+(2*I)2*Xt +I2*Xt

Xres = 14* Xp+3*Xs+5*Xt

instead of 3*(Xp+Xs+Xt) as might be expected. The above equation can be generalised for an
n- stage transformer as follows:

Xres =

where Xpi, Xsi and Xti are the short-circuit reactance of the primary, secondary and tertiary
windings of ith transformer. The impedance of a two-stage transformer is about 3–4 times the
impedance of one unit and a three-stage impedance is 8–9 times the impedance of one unit
transformer.
Resonant Transformers:
The equivalent circuit of a high-voltage testing transformer consists of the leakage reactance
of the windings, the winding resistances, the magnetizing reactance, and the shunt capacitance
across the output terminal due to the bushing of the high-voltage terminal and also that of the
test object. This is shown in figure 1a, with its equivalent circuit in figure 1b.
It may be seen that it is possible to have series resonance at power frequency ω, if (L1 +L2) =
1/(ω*C). With this condition, the current in the test object is very large and is limited only by
the resistance of the circuit. The waveform of the voltage across the test object will be purely
sinusoidal. The magnitude of the voltage across the capacitance C of the test object will be
where R is the total series resistance of the circuit

Figure.1a. Transformer Figure 1b. Equivalent circuit

The factor Xc /R = 1/ωCR is the Q factor of the circuit and gives the magnitude of the
voltage multiplication across the test object under resonance conditions. This principle is
utilized in testing at very high voltages and on occasions requiring large current outputs such
as cable testing, dielectric loss measurements, partial discharge measurements, etc.
The chief advantages of this principle are
a) it gives an output of pure sine wave,
b) power requirements are less,
c) cascading is also possible for very high voltages and
d) simple and compact test arrangement.
The disadvantages are the requirements of additional variable chokes capable of withstanding
the full test voltage and the full current rating. A simplified diagram of the series resonance
test system is given in figure 2a, and that of the parallel resonant test system in figure 2b.

A voltage regulator of either the auto-transformer type or the induction regulator type is
connected to the supply mains and the secondary winding of the exciter transformer is
connected across the hv reactor, L, and the capacitive load C.

The inductance of the reactor L is varied by varying its air gap and operating range is set in
the ratio 10:1. Capacitance C comprises of the capacitance of the test object, capacitance of
the measuring voltage divider, capacitance of the high-voltage bushing, etc.
Figure.2a. Series resonant ac test system Figure.2b. Parallel resonant ac test system

The Q-factor obtained in these circuits will be typically of the order of 50. In the parallel
resonant mode the high voltage reactor is connected as an auto-transformer and the circuit is
connected as a parallel resonant circuit. The advantage of the parallel resonant circuit is that
more stable output voltage can be obtained along with a high rate of rise of test voltage,
independent of the degree of tuning and the Q-factor.
Tesla Coil
The commonly used high-frequency resonant transformer is the Tesla coil (figure 1). It is
doubly tuned resonant circuit shown schematically in figure. The primary voltage rating is 10
kV and the secondary may be rated to as high as 500 to 1000 kV. The primary is fed from a
dc or ac supply through the capacitor C1.
Spark gap G connected across the primary is triggered at the desired voltage V1 which
induces a high self-excitation in the secondary. The primary and the secondary windings
(L1and L2 ) are wound on an insulated former with air-core and are immersed in oil. The
windings are tuned to a frequency of 10 to 100 kHz by means of the capacitors C1 and C2.

Figure 1. Tesla coil equivalent circuit and its output waveform

The primary coil is wound on an insulator fiber tube of about 1 m length to represent a
cylindrical or helical winding and consists of a few tens of turns (usually copper strip or
tubings). The secondary winding is spaced quite away from the primary winding on another
concentric fiber or Pyrex tube with a few thousand turns.
The whole assembly will be immersed in an oil tank under pressure. The primary winding is
supplied through a high voltage capacitor rectifier unit rated for 10 kV to 50 kV or more and
the power rating of the transformer may be 10 kVA or more. The output voltage V2 is a
function of the parameters L1, L2, C1, C2, and the mutual inductance M.
Usually, the winding resistances will be small and contribute only for damping of the
oscillations. Neglecting the winding resistances, let the capacitor C1 be charged to a voltage
V1 when the spark gap is triggered. Let a current i1 flow through the primary winding L1 and
produce a current i2 through L2 and C2.

The Laplace transformed equations for the above are,

and

where I1 and I2 are the Laplace transformed values of i1 and i2. The output voltage V2 across
the capacitor C2 is

where V2(s) is the Laplace transform of V2.

The solution for V2 from the above equations
will be

where K= coefficient of coupling between the windings L1 and L2

The peak amplitude of the secondary voltage V2 can be expressed as

Energy stored in the primary circuit in the capacitance C1 is transferred to C2 via the magnetic
coupling.
If W1 is the energy stored in C1 and W2 is the energy transferred to C2 and if the efficiency of
the transformer is η, then

Example.1. A Tesla coil has a primary winding rated for 10 kV. If Lp L2 and coefficient of
coupling K are 10 mH, 200 mH, and 0.6 respectively find the peak value of the output voltage
if the capacitance in the primary side is 2.0μF and that on the secondary side is 1 nF. Neglect
the winding resistance. Find also the highest resonant frequency produced with rated voltage
applied.
Example 2. A ten stage Cockcroft-Walton circuit has all capacitors of 0.06 µF. The
secondary voltage of the supply transformer is 100 kV at a frequency of 150 Hz. If the load
current is 1 mA, determine (i) voltage regulation (ii) the ripple (iii) the optimum number of
stages for maximum output voltage (iv) the maximum output voltage.
Example 3. A Cockcroft-Walton type voltage multiplier has eight stages with capacitances,
all equal to 0.05 μF. The supply transformer secondary voltage is 125 kV at a frequency of
150 Hz. If the load current to be supplied is 5 mA, find (a) the percentage ripple, (b) the
regulation, and (c) the optimum number of stages for minimum regulation or voltage drop.
 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
Generation of Impulse voltages
UNIT-IV
SPECIFICATIONS: IMPULSE VOLTAGE:
An impulse voltage is a unidirectional voltage which, without appreciable oscillations, rises
rapidly to a maximum value and falls more or less rapidly to zero.
Figure indicates the shape the typical impulse voltage. The maximum value is called the pea
value of the impulse and the impulse voltage is specified by this value.
If an impulse voltage develops without causing flash
over or puncture, it is called a full impulse voltage. If
flash over or puncture occur, thus causing a sudden
collapse of the impulse voltage, it is called a chopped
impulse voltage.
A full impulse voltage is characterized by its peak value
and its two time intervals, the wave front and wave tail
time intervals.The wave front time of an impulse wave is
Figure.Full impulse wave the time taken by the wave to reach to its maximum
value starting from zero value.
The wave front time is specified as 1.25 times (t2 – t1 ), where t2 is the time for the wave to
reach to its 90% of the peak value and t1 is the time to reach 10% of the peak value. Since (t2
– t1) represents about 80% of the wave front time, it is multiplied by 1.25 to give total wave
front time. The point where the line AC intersects the time axis is referred to be the nominal
starting point of the wave. The nominal wave tail time is measured between the nominal
starting point t0 and the point on the wave tail where the voltage is 50% of the peak value i.e.
wave fail time is expressed as (t3 – t0).
The nominal steepness of the wave front is the average rate of rise of voltage between the
points on the wave front where the voltage is 10% and 90% of the peak value respectively.
The standard wave shape specified in BSS and ISS is a 1/50 micro sec, i.e. a wave front of 1
micro sec. and a wave tail of 50 micro sec. A tolerance of not more than ±50% on the duration
of the wave front and 20% on the time to half value on the wave tail is allowed. The wave is
completely specified as 100 kV, 1/50 micro sec, where 100 kV is the peak value of the wave.
The wave shape recommended by the American Standard Association is 1.5/40 micro sec.
with permissible variations of 0.5 micro sec. on the wave front and ±10 micro sec. on the
wave tail. Here wave front time is taken as 1.67 times the time taken by the wave to rise from
30% to 90% of its peak value and wave tail time is computed as (t3 – t0).
Chopped Wave:
If an impulse voltage is applied to a piece of insulation and if a flash over or puncture occurs
causing sudden collapse of the impulse voltage, it is called a Chopped impulse voltage. If
chopping takes place on the front part of the wave, it is known as front chopped wave, figure
(a), else, it is known as a chopped wave, figure (b).
Figure. Chopped waves. (a) Front
chopped wave (b) Chopped wave

Impulse Flash Over Voltage: A 50 per cent impulse flash over voltage is the peak value of
that impulse flash over voltage which causes flash over of the object under test for about half
the number of applications of impulses. The flash over also depends upon the polarity,
duration of wave front and wave tails of the applied impulse voltages. If the flash over occurs
more than 50% of the number of applications, it is defined as impulse flash over voltage in
excess of 50 %.
Impulse Puncture Voltage: The impulse puncture voltage is the peak value of the impulse
voltage which causes puncture of the material when puncture occurs on the wave tail and is
the value of the voltage at the instant of puncture when puncture occurs on the wave front.
Impulse Ratio for Flash Over: The impulse ratio for flash over is the ratio of impulse flash
over voltage to the peak value of power frequency flash over voltage.
Impulse Ratio for Puncture: The impulse ratio for puncture is the ratio of the impulse
puncture voltage to the peak value of the power frequency puncture voltage.
IMPULSE GENERATOR CIRCUITS:

Figure. Exact
equivalent circuit of
a single stage
impulse generator
with a typical load.
C1 is the capacitance of the generator charged from a d.c. source to a suitable voltage which
causes discharge through the sphere gap. Capacitance C1 consist of a single capacitance, the
generator is known as a single stage generator. C1 is the total capacitance of a group of
capacitors charged in parallel and then discharged in series, it is then known as a multistage
generator. L1 is the inductance of the generator and the leads connecting the generator to the
discharge circuit and is usually kept as small as possible.
The resistance R1 consists of the inherent series resistance of the capacitances and leads. Also
includes additional lumped resistance inserted within the generator for damping purposes and
for output waveform control. L3, R3 are the external elements which may be connected at the
generator terminal for waveform control. R2 and R4 control the duration of the wave. R4 also
serves as a potential divider when a CRO is used for measurement purposes.
C2 and C4 represent the capacitances to earth of the high voltage components and leads. C4
also includes the capacitance of the test object and of any other load capacitance required for
producing the required wave shape. L4 represents the inductance of the test object and may
also affect the wave shape appreciably. One terminal of the impulse generator is solidly
grounded. The polarity of the output voltage can be changed by changing the polarity of the
d.c. charging voltage.
Circuits for Producing Impulse Waves:
A double exponential waveform of the type mentioned in Eq. (6.15) may be produced in the
laboratory with a combination of a series R-L-C circuit under over damped conditions or by
the combination of two R-C circuits. Different equivalent circuits that produce impulse waves
are given in figures 1a to 1d. Out of these circuits, the ones shown in figures 1a to 1d are
commonly used. Circuit shown in figure 1a is limited to model generators only, and
commercial generators employ circuits shown in figures 1b to 1d.

Figure 1. Circuits for producing impulse waves

A capacitor (C1 or C) previously charged to a particular d.c. voltage is by closing the switch
S. The discharge voltage V0(t) shown in figure 1, gives the desired double exponential wave
shape.
The wave front and the wave tail times are controlled by changing the values of R and L
simultaneously with a given generator capacitance C; choosing a suitable value for L, β or the
wave front time is determined and α or the wave tail time is controlled by the value of R in the
circuit. The advantage of this circuit is its simplicity. But the waveshape control is not flexible
and independent. Another disadvantage is that the basic circuit is altered when a test object
which will be mainly capacitive id nature, is connected across the output. Hence, the wave
shape gets changed with the change of test object.
MULTISTAGE IMPULSE GENERATOR CIRCUIT ( Marx Circuit)

In order to obtain higher and higher impulse voltage, a single stage circuit is inconvenient for
the following reasons: (i) The physical size of the circuit elements becomes very large. (ii)
High d.c. charging voltage is required. (iii) Suppression of corona discharges from the
structure and leads during the charging period is difficult. (iv) Switching of vary high voltages
with spark gaps is difficult. In 1923 E. Marx suggested a multiplier circuit which is
commonly used to obtain impulse voltages with as high a peak value as possible for a given
d.c. charging voltage.
The schematic diagram of Marx circuit and its modification are shown in figures 1 and 2
respectively. Usually the charging resistance Rs is chosen to limit the charging current to
about 50 to 100 mA, and the generator capacitance C is chosen such that the product CRs is
about 10 s to 1 min. The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown voltage of the gap G
is greater than the charging voltage V. Thus, all the capacitances are charged to the voltage V
in about 1 minute. When the impulse generator is to be discharged, the gaps G are made to
spark over simultaneously by some external means. Thus, all the capacitors C get connected
in series and discharge into the load capacitance or the test object. The discharge time
constant CR1 /n (for n stages) will be very small (microseconds), compared to the charging
time constant CRs which will be few seconds. Hence, no discharge takes place through the
charging resistors Rs. In the Marx circuit is of figure 1, the impulse wave-shaping circuit is
connected externally to the capacitor unit. In figure 2, the modified Marx circuit is shown
wherein the resistances R1 and R2 are incorporated inside the unit. R1 is divided into n parts
equal to R1 / n and put in series with the gap G. R2 is also divided into n parts and arranged
across each capacitor unit after the gap G. This arrangement saves space, and also the cost is
reduced. But, in case the wave shape is to be varied widely, the variation becomes difficult.
The additional advantages gained by distributing R1 and R2 inside the unit are that the control
resistors are smaller in size and the efficiency (V0ZnV) is high.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Marx circuit arrangement for multistage impulse generator

Figure 2. Multistage impulse generator incorporating the series and wave tail resistances
within the generator

Impulse generators are nominally rated by the total voltage (nominal), the number of stages,
and the gross energy stored. The nominal output voltage is the number of stages multiplied by
the charging voltage. The nominal energy stored is given by ½ C1V2 where C1 = C/n (the
discharge capacitance) and V is the nominal maximum voltage (n times charging voltage). A
16-stage impulse generator having a stage capacitance of 0.280μF and a maximum charging
voltage of 300 kV will have an energy rating of 192 kWs. The height of the generator will be
about 15 m and will occupy a floor area of about 3.25 × 3.00 m. The waveform of either
polarity can be obtained by suitably changing the charging unit polarity.
 High Voltage Engineering
Generation of Impulse Currents:
IMPULSE CURRENT GENERATION:
The impulse current wave is specified on the similar lines as an impulse voltage wave. A
typical impulse current wave is shown in figure.

High current impulse generators consist of a

large number of capacitors connected in parallel
to the common discharge path.

Figure. A typical impulse current wave

The equivalent circuit of the generator is shown in the following figure. Approximated to that
of a capacitance C charged to a voltage V0 which can be considered to discharge through an
inductance L and a resistance R. Both L and R are the effective inductance and resistance of
the leads, capacitors and the test objects.

Figure. A typical impulse current circuit. 1) Charging unit, 2) Earthing device, 3) Capacitors
with damping resistors, 4) Firing sphere gap, 5) Reactor coil, 6) Protective sphere gap, 7) Test
specimen (LA), 8) Test transformer for power frequency.

Analysis of Impulse Current Generator:

After the gap S is triggered, the Laplace transform current is given as
Figure. Analysis of Impulse Current Generator
where tmax is the time when the first maximum value of current occurs and
Substituting the value of t = tmax in the eqn.

the first maximum value of current is given as

Above equation can be written as

is the initial energy stored by the generator.

If R = 0, ν = 0 then from the above equation, it is clear that

From equation

Below figure shows the current response for different values of ν

Figure. Current response of circuit given in previous figure.

Definition of Impulse Current Waveforms

The wave shapes used in testing surge diverters are 4/10 and 8/20 μs, the figures respectively
representing the nominal wave-front and wave-tail times. The tolerances allowed on these are
±10% only. Apart from the standard impulse current waves, rectangular waves of long
duration are also used for testing. The wave shape should be nominally rectangular in shape.
The rectangular waves generally have durations of the order of 0.5 to 5 μs, with rise and fall
times of the waves being less than ±10% of their total duration. The tolerance allowed on the
peak value is +20% and -0% (the peak value may be more than the specified value but not
less). The duration of the wave is defined as the total time of the wave during which the
current is at least 10% of its peak value.

Example.1. An impulse current generator has total capacitance of 15 µF, the charging voltage
125 KV, the circuit inductance 2 mH and the dynamic resistance 1 ohm. Determine the peak
current and wave shape of the wave.
The maximum value of current is given as
 HGIH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
Tripping and Control of Impulse Generators
In large impulse generators, the spark gaps are generally sphere gaps or gaps formed by
hemispherical electrodes. The gaps are arranged such that sparking of one gap results in
automatic sparking of other gaps as overvoltage is impressed on the other.
A simple method of controlled tripping consists of making the first gap a three electrode gap
and firing it from a controlled source ( figure 1)..
The first stage of the impulse generator is fitted with a three electrode gap, and the central
electrode is maintained at a potential in-between that of the top and the bottom electrodes with
the resistors R1 and R1. The tripping is initiated by applying a pulse to the thyratron G by
closing the switch S.
The capacitor C produces an exponentially decaying pulse of positive polarity, the pulse goes
and initiates the oscillograph time base. The thyratron conducts on receiving the pulse from
the switch S and produces a negative pulse through the capacitance C1 at the central electrode.
Hence, the voltage between the central electrode and the top electrode of the three electrode
gap goes above its sparking potential and thus the gap conducts. This requires much smaller
voltage for operation compared to the three electrode gap.

Figure 1. Tripping of an impulse generator with a three electrode gap

The time lag required for the thyratron firing and breakdown of the three electrode gap
ensures that the sweep circuit of the oscilloscope begins before the start of the impulse
generator voltage. The resistance R2 ensures decoupling of voltage oscillations produced at
the spark gap entering the oscilloscope through the common trip circuit.
 Figure 2. The trigatron spark gap

Figure 3. A typical tripping

circuit of a trigatron

Tripping of the impulse generator is effected by a trip pulse which produces a spark between
the trigger electrode and the earthed sphere. Due to space charge effects and distortion of the
field in the main gap. The trigatron gap is polarity sensitive and a proper polarity pulse should
be applied for correct operation.

Wave shape Control

Generally, for a given Series Inductance in Impulse Generator Circuit of figure 1, the
generator capacitance C1 and load capacitance C2 will be fixed depending on the design of the
generator and the test object. Hence, the desired wave shape is obtained by controlling R1 and
R2. The following approximate analysis is used to calculate the wave front and wave tail
times.

Figure 1. Series inductance in impulse generator circuit

where
Lc —Inductance of the generator capacitance C1 and lead capacitances
L1— Inductance of the series resistance and the circuit loop inductance
LL — Test object inductance
The resistance R2 will be large. Hence, the simplified circuit shown in figure 2, is used for
wave front time calculation. Taking the circuit inductance to be negligible during charging,
C1 charges the load capacitance C2 through R1.
Then the time taken for charging is approximately three times the time constant of the circuit
and is given by

where,

If R1 is given in ohms and Ce in microfarads, t1 is obtained in microseconds.

Figure 2. Simplified circuit for calculation of wave front time L = LC + L1 + any other added
inductance
For discharging or tail time, the capacitances C1 and C2 may be considered to be in parallel
and discharging occurs through R1 and R2. Hence, the time for 50% discharge is
approximately given by

Example 1. A ten-stage impulse generator has 0.250 µF condensers. The wave front and
wave tail resistances are 75 ohms and 2600 respectively. If the load capacitance is 2.5 nF,
determine the wave front and wave tail times of the impulse wave.
 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
Measurement of high DC,AC Voltages
UNIT-V
High-voltage measurement techniques

High-current measurement techniques

Type of current Device or technique

a Direct currents i (i) Resistive shunts with milli ammeter
ii Hall effect generators
iii Magnetic links
b Alternating currents i Resistive shunts
(Power frequency) ii Electromagnetic current transformer
c High frequency ac, i Resistive shunt
impulse and rapidly ii Magnetic potentiometers or Rogowski coils
changing currents iii Magnetic links
Hall effect generator

Resistance Potential Dividers for dc Voltages

A resistance potential divider with an electrostatic or high impedance voltmeter is shown in
figure. The influence of temperature and voltage on the elements is eliminated in the voltage
divider arrangement. The high-voltage magnitude is given by [(R1+ R2 )/R2] V2 , where V2 is
the dc voltage across the low-voltage arm R2.
With sudden changes in voltage, such as switching operations, flashover of the test objects, or
source short circuits, flashover or damage may occur to the divider elements due to the stray
capacitance across the elements and due to ground capacitances.

Figure.1.Resistance potential Figure 2. Series resistor with parallel capacitors

divider with an electrostatic voltmeter for potential linearization for transient voltages

To avoid these transient voltages, voltage controlling capacitors are connected across the
elements. A corona-free termination is also necessary to avoid unnecessary discharges at high
voltage ends. A series resistor with a parallel capacitor connection for linearization of
transient potential distribution is shown in figure 2. Potential dividers are made with 0.05%
accuracy up to 100 kV, with 0.1% accuracy up to 300 kV, and with better than 0.5% accuracy
for 500 kV.
Generating Voltmeters:
High-voltage measuring devices employ generating principle when source loading is
prohibited (as with Van de Graaf generators, etc.) or when direct connection to the high-
voltage source is to be avoided. A generating voltmeter is a variable capacitor electrostatic
voltage generator which generates current proportional to the applied external voltage. The
device is driven by an external synchronous or constant speed motor and does not absorb
power or energy from the voltage measuring source.

Principle of Operation: The charge stored in a capacitor of capacitance C is given by q =

CV. If the capacitance of the capacitor varies with time when connected to the source of
voltage V, the current through the capacitor.
For dc voltages dV/dt = 0. Hence,

For a constant angular frequency ω, the current is proportional to the applied voltage V.
More often, the generated current is rectified and measured by a moving coil meter.
Generating voltmeter can be used for ac voltage measurements also provided the angular
frequency ω is the same or equal to half that of the supply frequency.
A generating voltmeter with a rotating cylinder consists of two exciting field electrodes and a
rotating two pole armature driven by a synchronous motor at a constant speed n. The ac
current flowing between the two halves of the armature is rectified by a commutator whose
arithmetic mean may be calculated from

For a symmetric voltage Cmin = 0. When the voltage is not symmetrical, one of the electrodes
is grounded and Cmin has a finite value. The factor of proportionality, ∆C is determined by
calibration. This device can be used for measuring ac voltages provided the speed of the
drive-motor is half the frequency of the voltage to be measured.
Thus a four-pole synchronous motor with 1500 rpm is suitable for 50 Hz.
For peak value measurements, the phase angle of the motor must also be so adjusted that Cmax
and the crest value occur at the same instant. Generating voltmeters employ rotating sectors or
vanes for variation of capacitance. Figure gives a schematic diagram of a generating
voltmeter.
The high voltage source is connected to a disc electrode S3 which is kept at a fixed distance
on the axis of the other low voltage electrodes S0. S1 and S2.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a generating voltmeter (rotating vane type)

The rotor vanes of S0 cause periodic change in capacitance between the insulated disc S2 and
the hv electrode S3. The shape and number of the vanes of S0 and S1 are so designed that they
produce sinusoidal variation in the capacitance. The generated ac current through the
resistance R is rectified and read by a moving coil instrument. An amplifier is needed, if the
shunt capacitance is large or longer leads are used for connection to rectifier and meter. The
instrument is calibrated using a potential divider or sphere gap. The meter scale is linear and
its range can be extended by extrapolation. Typical calibration curves of a generating
voltmeter are given in figure 2 (a and b).
Advantages of Generating Voltmeters:
i) No source loading by the meter,
ii) No direct connection to high voltage electrode,
iii) Scale is linear and extension of range is easy and
iv) A very convenient instrument for electrostatic devices such as Van de Graaff generator
and particle accelerators.

Limitations of Generating Voltmeters:

i) They require calibration,
ii) Careful construction is needed and is a cumbersome instrument requiring an auxiliary
drive and
iii) Disturbance in position and mounting of the electrodes make the calibration invalid.
Figure 2. Calibration curves for a generating voltmeter

SPHERE GAP:
It is one of the standard methods for the measurement of peak value of d.c. a.c. and impulse
voltages. It is used for checking the voltmeters and other voltage measuring devices used in
high voltage test circuits. Two identical metallic spheres separated by certain distance form a
sphere gap.
The sphere gap can be used for measurement of impulse voltage of either polarity provided
that the impulse is of a standard wave form and has wave front time at least 1 micro sec. and
wave tail time of 5 micro sec. Also, the gap length between the sphere should not exceed a
sphere radius.
The specifications regarding the shape, mounting, clearances of the spheres are met, the
results obtained by the use of sphere gaps are reliable to within ±3%.
Sphere gaps can be arranged either
i) vertically with lower sphere grounded or
ii) horizontally with both spheres connected to the source voltage or one sphere grounded.
The voltage to be measured is applied between the two spheres and the distance or spacing S
between them gives a measure of the spark over voltage. A series resistance is usually
connected between the source and the sphere gap to (i) limit the breakdown current, and (ii) to
suppress unwanted oscillations in the source voltage when breakdown occurs (in case of
impulse voltages).
The value of the series resistance may vary from 100 to 1000 kilo ohms for ac or dc voltages
and not more than 500 Ω in the case of impulse voltage.
Factors Influencing the Spark over Voltage of Sphere Gaps:
i) Nearby earthed objects:
The spark over voltage is reduced because of the nearby earthed objects.
Figure. Sphere gap for voltage measurement

Figure. Horizontal arrangement of sphere gap

The reduction was observed to be where, ∆V = percentage

reduction, B = diameter of earthed enclosing cylinder, D = diameter of the spheres, S =
spacing, and m and C are constants.
ii) Effect of Atmospheric Conditions:
The spark over voltages of a spark gap depends on the air density which varies with the
changes in both temperature and pressure. If the spark over voltage is V under test conditions
of temperature T and pressure p torr and if the spark over voltage is V0 under standard
conditions of temperature T= 20°C and pressure p = 760 torr, then V = k*V0,
where k is a function of the air density factor d, given by
The humidity effect increases with the size of spheres and is maximum for uniform field gaps.
The spark over voltage increases with the partial pressure of water vapor in air, and for a
given humidity condition, the change in spark over voltage increases with the gap length.
iii) Effect of Irradiation:
Illumination of sphere gaps with ultra-violet or X-rays aids easy ionization in gaps.
Irradiation is necessary for smaller sphere gaps of gap spacing less than 1 cm for obtaining
consistent values.
Figure. Influence of humidity on dc and ac
breakdown voltages (25 cm diameter sphere
gap, 1 cm spacing)

iv) Effect of Polarity and Waveform:

The spark over voltages for positive and negative polarity impulses are different. For sphere
gaps of 6.25 to 25 cm diameter, the difference between positive and negative dc voltages is
not more than 1%. For smaller sphere gaps (2 cm diameter and less) the difference was about
8% between negative and positive impulses of 1/50 µs waveform. The wave-front and wave
tail durations also influence the breakdown voltage.

Capacitance Voltage Transformer (CVT):

Capacitance divider with a suitable matching or isolating potential transformer tuned for
resonance condition is often used in power systems for voltage measurements. A CVT can be
connected to a low impedance device like a wattmeter pressure coil or a relay coil.CVT can
supply a load of a few VA. The schematic diagram of a CVT with its equivalent circuit is
given in figure.
C1 is made of a few units of high-voltage capacitors, and the total capacitance will be around
a few thousand pico farads. A matching transformer is connected between the load or meter
M and C2. The h.v. winding rating may be 10 to 30 kV with the l.v. winding rated from 100
to 500 V.
 Figure 1. Capacitive
voltage transformer
(CVT).

The value of the tuning choke L is chosen to make the equivalent circuit of the CVT purely
resistive or to bring resonance condition. This condition is satisfied when ω*(L+LT) = 1 / (ω
(C1+C2)) where, L = inductance of the choke, and LT = equivalent inductance of the
transformer referred to hv side. The phasor diagram of the CVT under resonant conditions is
shown in figure.

Figure 2. Phasor diagram of a CVT under resonance conditions

The meter reactance, Xm is neglected and is taken as a resistance load Rm when the load is
connected to the voltage divider side. The voltage across the potential transformer V2 =
Im*Rm and the voltage across the capacitor = V2 + Im (Re + jXe ). The phasor diagram is
written taking V1 as the reference phasor.

The voltage ratio is

V1 = VC1 + VC2 and total current = Im + Ic· It can be seen that with proper tuning V2 will be
in phase with V1. Neglecting the reactance drop Inl*Xe, VRi is the voltage drop across the
tuning inductor and the transformer resistance. The voltage V2 (meter voltage) will be in
phase with the input voltage V1.
Advantages of a CVT:
i) simple design and easy installation,
ii) frequency independent voltage distribution along elements
iii) provides isolation between the h.v. terminal and l.v. metering.
Disadvantages of a CVT:
i) Voltage ratio is susceptible to temperature variations and
ii) Problem of inducing ferro-resonance in power systems.

ELECTROSTATIC VOLTMETER:
The electric field according to Coulomb is the field of forces. The electric field is produced
by voltage and, therefore, if the field force could be measured, the voltage can also be
measured. Whenever a voltage is applied to a parallel plate electrode arrangement, an electric
field is set up between the plates. It is possible to have uniform electric field between the
plates with suitable arrangement of the plates.

The field is uniform, normal to the two plates and directed towards the negative plate. If A is
the area of the plate and E is the electric field intensity between the plates ε the permittivity of
the medium between the plates, we know that the energy density of the electric field between
the plates is given as, Wd = (1/2)εE2.
Consider a differential volume between the plates and parallel to the plates with area A and
thickness dx, the energy content in this differential volume A*dx is dW = WdA (dx) =
(1/2) εE2*A*dx. Now force F between the plates is defined as the derivative of stored electric

energy along the field direction i.e., F = dW / dx = (1/2) εE2*A. Now E = V/d where V is the
voltage to be measured and d the distance of separation between the plates. Therefore, the
expression for force F = (1//2)*ε*V2*A / d2.
Since the two plates are oppositely charged, there is always force of attraction between the
plates. If the voltage is time dependent, the force developed is also time dependent. In such a
case the mean value of force is used to measure the voltage.
Thus
 Figure. Schematic diagram
of electrostatic voltmeter

Electrostatic voltmeters measure the force based on the above equations and are arranged such
that one of the plates is rigidly fixed whereas the other is allowed to move. With this the
electric field gets disturbed. As the force is proportional to square of Vrms, the meter can be
used both for a.c. and d.c. voltage measurement. The force developed between the plates is
sufficient to be used to measure the voltage. The greatest advantage of the electrostatic
voltmeter is its extremely low loading effect as only electric fields are required to be set up.
Because of high resistance of the medium between the plates, the active power loss is
negligibly small.

The voltage source loading is, therefore, limited only to the reactive power required to charge
the instrument capacitance which can be as low as a few pico farads for low voltage
voltmeters. The measuring system as such does not put any upper limit on the frequency of
supply to be measured. Figure shows a schematic diagram of an absolute electrostatic
voltmeter. The hemispherical metal dome D encloses a sensitive balance B which measures
the force of attraction between the movable disc which hangs from one of its arms and the
lower plate P. The movable electrode M hangs with a clearance of above 0.01 cm, in a central
opening in the upper plate which serves as a guard ring. The diameter of each of the plates is
1 meter.
Light reflected from a mirror carried by the balance beam serves to magnify its motion and to
indicate to the operator at a safe distance when a condition of equilibrium is reached. As the
spacing between the two electrodes is large (about 100 cms for a voltage of about 300 kV),
the uniformity of the electric field is maintained by the guard rings G which surround the
space between the discs M and P. The guard rings G are maintained at a constant potential in
space by a capacitance divider ensuring a uniform spatial potential distribution. When
voltages in the range 10 to 100 kV are measured, the accuracy is of the order of 0.01 per cent.
The spheres are arranged with a vertical axis and at spacing slightly greater than the sparking
distance for the particular voltage to be measured. The upper high voltage sphere is supported
on a spring and the extension of spring caused by the electrostatic force is magnified by a
lamp-mirror scale arrangement. An accuracy of 0.5 per cent has been achieved by the
arrangement.
Electrostatic voltmeters using compressed gas as the insulating medium have been developed.
One such voltmeter using SF6 gas has been used which can measure voltages upto 1000 kV
and accuracy is of the order of 0.1%.
 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
Measurement of Impulse Voltages & Currents:

Potential Dividers with CRO:

Potential or voltage dividers for high-voltage impulse measurements, high frequency ac

measurements, or for fast rising transient voltage measurements are usually either resistive or
capacitive or mixed element type. The low-voltage arm of the divider is usually connected to
a fast recording oscillograph or a peak reading instrument through a delay cable.
A schematic diagram of a potential divider with its terminating equipment is given in figure.
Z1 is usually a resistor or a series of resistors in case of a resistance potential divider, or a
single or a number of capacitors in case of a capacitance divider. It can also be a combination
of both resistors and capacitors.
Z2 will be a resistor or a capacitor or an R-C impedance depending upon the type of the
divider. Each element in the divider, in case of high-voltage dividers, has a self-resistance or
capacitance. In addition, the resistive elements have residual inductances, a terminal stray
capacitance to ground, and terminal to terminal capacitances.
When a step or fast rising voltage is applied at the high voltage terminal, the voltage
developed across the element Z2 will not have the true waveform as that of the applied
voltage. The cable can also introduce distortion in the wave shape.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a potential divider

with a delay cable and oscilloscope.
Hall Generators:
Hall effect (see figure) is used to measure very high direct current. Whenever electric current
flows through a metal plate placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to it, Lorenz force will
deflect the electrons in the metal structure in a direction perpendicular to the direction of both
the magnetic field and the flow of current.
The charge displacement results in an e.m.f. in the perpendicular direction called the Hall
voltage. The Hall voltage is proportional to the current I, the magnetic flux density B and
inversely proportional to the plate thickness d i.e., VH = R*B*I / d, where R is the Hall
coefficient which depends upon the material of the plate and temperature of the plate. For
metals the Hall coefficient is very small and hence semiconductor materials are used for
which the Hall coefficient is high.
When large d.c. currents are to be measured the current carrying conductor is passed through
an iron cored magnetic circuit (figure 1b).

Figure. Hall generator for

measuring high dc currents

The magnetic field intensity produced by the conductor in the air gap at a depth d is given by
H = 1 / (2πd).
The Hall element is placed in the air gap and a small constant d.c. current is passed through
the element. The voltage developed across the Hall element is measured and by using the
expression for Hall voltage the flux density B is calculated and hence the value of current I is
obtained.
Magnetic potentiometers or Rogowski coil Current Transformer:
Rogowski Coils:
If a coil is placed surrounding a current carrying conductor, the voltage signal induced in the
coil is vt (t) = M dI(t)/dt where M is the mutual inductance between the conductor and the
coil, and I(t) is the current flowing in the conductor. The coil is wound on a nonmagnetic
former of toroidal shape and is coaxially placed surrounding the current-carrying conductor.
The number of turns on the coil is chosen to be large, to get enough signal induced. The coil
is wound cross-wise to reduce the leakage inductance. An integrating circuit (figure) is
employed to get the output signal voltage proportional to the current to be measured. The
output voltage is given by

Rogowski coils with electronic or active integrator circuits have large bandwidths (about 100
MHz). Miniature probes having nanosecond response time are made using very few turns of
copper strips for UHF measurements.

Figure. Rogowski coil for high impulse

current measurements.
 R-20-IV-1-B.Tech., EEE-23-24
Question Bank
HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – IV)

Unit-1
Break down phenomenon in Gases:

Topic-Insulating Materials: Types - applications and properties.

1) What are the types and applications of insulating materials? (R)

Classification of Insulating Material

The classification of insulating material is based on the thermal classification, physical

classification, structural, chemical classification, and the process of manufacture.

Thermal Classification

Thermally the insulators are classified into seven types or seven classes they are class-Y, class-A,
class-E, class-B, class-F, class-H, and class-C.

Class-Y

The class-Y limitation temperature is 900 C and the materials come under class-Y are cotton, paper,
silk, and similar organic materials.

Class-A

The class-A limitation temperature is 1050 C and the materials come under class-A are impregnated
paper, silk, polyamide, cotton, and resins.

Class-E

The class-E limitation temperature is 1200 0C and the materials come under class-E are enameled
wire insulation on the base of powdered plastics, polyvinyl epoxy resins, etc.

Class-B

The class-B limitation temperature is 1300 C and the materials come under class-B are inorganic
materials impregnated with varnish.

Class-F

The class-F limitation temperature is 1550 C and the materials come under class-F are mica,
polyester epoxide varnished in the high heat resistance.

Class-H

The class-H limitation temperature is 1800 C and the materials come under class-H are composite
materials on mica, glass, fiber, etc.
Class-C

The class-C limitation temperature is >1800 C and the materials come under class-C are glass,
mica, quartz, ceramics, Teflon, etc.

Physical Classification of Insulating Material

The physical classification of insulating material is classified into three types they are solid, liquid,
and gaseous. The physical classification of insulators is shown in the below figure.

Physical Classification of Insulating Materials

The solid insulating materials are fibrous, ceramic, mica, glass, rubber, and resinous. The liquid
insulating materials are mineral oils, synthetic oils, transformer oils, and miscellaneous oils. The
gaseous insulating materials are air, hydrogen, nitrogen, and Sulphur hexafluoride.

Structural Classification

The structural classification of insulating material is classified into two types they are cellulose and
fibrous.

Chemical Classification

The chemical classification of insulating material is classified into two types they are organic and
inorganic.

Process of Manufacture

The process of manufacture is classified into two types they are natural and synthetic.
Some of the insulating materials are fiberglass, mineral wool, cellulose, natural fibers, polystyrene,
polyisocyanurate, polyurethane, insulation facings, phenolic foam, urea-formaldehyde foam, etc.

Applications of Insulating Material

The applications of insulating material are

 Cable and transmission lines

 Electronic systems
 Power systems
 Domestic portable appliances
 Electrical cable insulating tape
 Personal protective equipment
 Electrical rubber stamp

Topic-Gases as insulating media – Collision process

1) Explain the process of ionization by collision in gaseous discharge. (U)

Ionization by Collision:

The process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with the simultaneous production of a
positive ion is called ionization. In the process of ionization by collision, a free electron collides
with a neutral gas molecule and gives rise to a new electron and a positive ion.
If we consider a low pressure gas column in which an electric field is applied across two plane
parallel electrodes, as shown in figure 1, then, any electron starting at the cathode will be
accelerated more and more between collisions with other gas molecules during its travel towards the
anode.
If the energy (ε) gained during this travel between collisions exceeds the ionization potential, Vi ,
which is the energy required to dislodge an electron from its atomic shell, then ionization takes
place. This process can be represented as

where, A is the atom, A + is the positive ion and e − is the electron.

Figure 1. Arrangement for study of a Townsend discharge

A few of the electrons produced at the cathode by some external means, say by ultra-violet light
falling on the cathode, ionize neutral gas particles producing positive ions and additional electrons.
The additional electrons, then, themselves make ‘ionizing collisions’ and thus the process repeats
itself. This represents an increase in the electron current, since the number of electrons reaching the
anode per unit time is greater than those liberated at the cathode.

In addition, the positive ions also reach the cathode and on bombardment on the cathode give rise to
secondary electron.

2) What are the types of collision and narrate them briefly. (U)

Types of Collision:
An electrical discharge is normally created from unionized gas by collision processes. These
processes are mainly gas processes which occur due to the collision between the charged particles
and gas atoms or molecules.
These are of the following two types of Collision.

(a) Elastic Collisions:

Elastic collisions are collisions which when occur, no change takes place in the internal energy of
the particles but only their kinetic energy gets redistributed. When electrons collide with gas
molecules, a single electron traces a zig-zag path during its travel.
Between the collisions, electron is accelerated by the electric field. Since electrons are very light in
weight, they transfer only a part of their kinetic energy to the much heavier ions or gas molecules
with which they collide. This result in very little loss of energy by the electrons and therefore,
electrons gain very high energies and travel at a much higher speed than the ions.

(b) Inelastic Collisions:

Inelastic collisions are those in which internal changes in energy take place within an atom or
a molecule at the expense of the total kinetic energy of the colliding particle. This collision often
results in a change in the structure of the atom. Thus, all collisions that occur in practice are
inelastic collisions. For example ionization, attachment, excitation, recombination are inelastic
collisions.
Topic- Ionization process
1) What is Photo-ionization? Explain the secondary ionization process also. (U)
R-16-Sep-2020-Set-1

Photo-Ionization:

The phenomena associated with ionization by radiation, or photo-ionization, involves the

interaction of radiation with matter. Photo-ionization occurs when the amount of radiation energy
absorbed by an atom or molecule exceeds its ionization potential.
The processes, by which radiation can be absorbed by atoms or molecules, are
(a) excitation of the atom to a higher energy state, and
(b) continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or dissociation of diatomic molecule or
direct ionization, etc.
Just as an excited atom emits radiation when the electron returns to the lower state or to the ground
state, the reverse process takes place when an atom absorbs radiation. This reversible process can be
expressed as

Ionization occurs when

where, h is the Planck’s constant, c is the velocity of light, λ is the wavelength of the incident
radiation and Vi is the ionization energy of the atom.
Substituting for h and c, we get

where Vi is in electron volts ( eV ).

The higher the ionization energy, the shorter will be the wavelength of the radiation capable of
causing ionization. It was observed experimentally that a radiation having a wavelength of 1250 Å
is capable of causing photo-ionization of almost all gases.

Secondary Ionization Processes:

Secondary ionization processes by which secondary electrons are produced are the one which
sustain a discharge after it is established due to ionization by collision and photo-ionization.
They are:
(a) Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact

Positive ions are formed due to ionization by collision or by photo-ionization, and being positively
charged, they travel towards the cathode. A positive ion approaching a metallic cathode can cause
emission of electrons from the cathode by giving up its kinetic energy on impact.

If the total energy of the positive ion, namely, the sum of its kinetic energy and the ionization
energy, is greater than twice the work function of the metal then one electron will be ejected and a
second electron will neutralize the ion.

The probability of this process is measured as γi which is called the Townsend’s secondary
ionization coefficient due to positive ions and is defined as the net yield of electrons per incident
positive ion. γi increases with ion velocity and depends on the kind of gas and electrode material
used.

b) Electron Emission due to Photons:

To cause an electron to escape from a metal, it should be given enough energy to overcome the
surface potential barrier. The energy can also be supplied in the form of a photon of ultraviolet light
of suitable frequency. Electron emission from a metal surface occurs at the critical condition

where ϕ is the work function of the metallic electrode. The frequency (V) is given by the
relationship

is known as the threshold frequency.

c) Electron Emission due to Metastable and Neutral Atoms:

A meta-stable atom or molecule is an excited particle whose lifetime is very large (10-3 s) compared
to the lifetime of an ordinary particle (10-8 s).Electrons can be ejected from the metal surface by the
impact of excited (metastable) atoms, provided that their total energy is sufficient to overcome the
work function.

This process is most easily observed with metastable atoms, because the lifetime of other excited
states is too short for them to reach the cathode and cause electron emission, unless they originate
very near to the cathode surface.

Topic- – Townsend’s criteria of breakdown in gases and its limitations

1) Define Townsend’s first and second ionization coefficients. Explain Townsend’s
criterion for spark breakdown. (R) R-10-Oct-2018-Set-1

A coefficient α known as Townsend’s first ionization coefficient is defined as the number of

electrons produced by an electron per unit length of path in the direction of field.

Let ν, known as Townsend second ionization co-efficient be defined as the number of electrons
released from cathode per incident positive ion. Then
n = (no + n+) e (d).

TOWNSEND BREAKDOWN MECHANISM:

When voltage between the anode and cathode is increased, the current at the anode is given by

the current in the anode equals the current in the external circuit. Theoretically the current becomes
infinitely large under the above mentioned condition but practically it is limited by the resistance of
d
the external circuit and partially by the voltage drop in the arc. The condition (e ) = 1 defines
the condition for beginning of spark and is known as the Townsend criterion for spark formation or
Townsend breakdown criterion. Using the above equations, the following three conditions are
possible.
1) (ed) = 1.
The number of ion pairs produced in the gap by the passage of arc electron avalanche is sufficiently
large and the resulting positive ions on bombarding the cathode are able to release one secondary
electron and so cause a repetition of the avalanche process. The discharge is then said to be self-
sustained as the discharge will sustain itself even if the source producing Io is removed.
d
Therefore, the condition (e ) = 1 defines the threshold sparking condition.
2) (ed) > 1
Here ionization produced by successive avalanche is cumulative. The spark discharge grows more
d
rapidly the more (e ) exceeds unity.
d
3) (e ) < 1
Here the current I is not self-sustained i.e., on removal of the source the current Io ceases to flow.

Topic- – Streamers Theory of break down

1) Explain streamer theory breakdown in gases. (R) R-19-Nov-2022-Set-1

Streamer Theory of breakdown mainly arises due to the added effect of the space- charge field of an
avalanche and photo-electric ionization in the gas volume.

But in practice, breakdown voltages were found to depend on the gas pressure and the geometry of
the gap.

The growth of charge carriers in an avalanche is uniform field described

(d)
by e . This is valid only as long as the influence of the space charge
due to ions is very small compared to the applied filed. On the effect of
space charge on avalanche growth when the charge concentration was
6 8
between 10 and 10 , the growth of avalanche became weak.
8
When the charge concentration was higher than 10 , the avalanche
current was followed by a steep rise in the current between the electrodes,
leading to the breakdown of the gap. Both slow growth at low charge
concentration and fast growth at high charge concentration have been attributed to the
modification to the originally applied uniform field E by the space charge P.

The space charge at the head of the avalanche is assumed to have a spherical volume containing
negative charge at top because of the higher electron mobility. The
field gets enhanced at the top of the avalanche. At the bottom of the
avalanche the field between the electrons and ions reduces the
applied field (E). Further the field between cathode and positive
ions gets enhanced.

Thus the field distortion occurs and it becomes noticeable with

6
charge carrier number n > 10 . If the charge density in the avalanche
8
approaches n = 10 the space charge filled field and the applied
field will have the same magnitude and this leads to the initiation of a
streamer.

When the avalanche in the gap reaches a critical size, the combined
applied field and the space charge field causes intense ionization and
excitation of the gas particles in front of the avalanche.

Figure 1. Field distortion in

a gap due to space charge
Instantaneous recombination between positive ions and electrons releases photons which produces
secondary electrons by photo - ionization. The secondary electrons under the influence of the field
in the gab develop into secondary avalanche as shown in figure 2.

On the basis of experimental observation for the streamer spark criterion of the form
α * xc = 17.7 + ln (xc) + ln (Er /E) --- (1)
where xc is the length of the avalanche in which secondary electrons are produced.
Er is the space charged field directed radially at the head of the avalanche and E is the applied
field.

The conditions for the transition from the avalanche to streamer assumes that the space charged
field E, approaches the externally applied field (E = Er) and hence the breakdown criterion (eqn.2)
becomes
α * xc = 17.7 + ln (xc) --- (2)

The transition from an avalanche to a streamer occurs when

the avalanche has just crossed a gap, d. The minimum
breakdown voltage by streamer mechanism occurs only
when a critical length xc =d. The field Er produced by the
space charge at the radius r, is given by

Figure 2. Formation of secondary

avalanches due to photo-ionization

--- (3)

where α is Townsend’s first ionization coefficient,

p is the gas pressure in torr, and
x is the distance to which the streamer has extended in the gap.
The minimum breakdown voltage is obtained when Er = E and x = d in (eqn.4).

The equation simplifies into

--- (4)

Topic- – Paschen’s law- Paschen’s curve

1) Derive an expression for the minimum ‘pd’ value of the Paschen’s curve from the first
principles. (C) R-10-Feb-2018-Set-1

THE SPARKING POTENTIAL PASCHEN’S LAW

d
The Townsend’s Criterion (e - 1) = 1 enables the evaluation of breakdown voltage of the gap
by the use of appropriate values of α/p and  corresponding to the values E/p when the current is
too low to damage the cathode and also the space charge distortions are minimum. A close
agreement between the calculated and experimentally determined values is obtained when the gaps
are short or long and the pressure is relatively low.
An expression for the breakdown voltage for uniform field gaps as a function of gap length and gas
pressure can be derived from the threshold equation by expressing the ionization coefficient α/p as
a function of field strength E and gas pressure p i.e.,

This shows that the breakdown voltage of a uniform field gap is a unique function of the product of
gas pressure and the gap length for a particular gas and electrode material. This relation is known as
Paschen’s law. This relation does not mean that the breakdown voltage is directly proportional to
product pd even though it is found that for some region of the product pd the relation is linear i.e.,
the breakdown voltage varies linearly with the product pd. The variation over a large range is
shown in figure 1. This relation is known as Paschen’s law.

2) What is the Paschen’s law? R-16-Sep-2020-Set-1

An expression for the breakdown voltage for uniform field gaps as a function of gap length and gas
pressure can be derived from the threshold equation by expressing the ionization coefficient α/p as
a function of field strength E and gas pressure p i.e.,

This equation is known as Paschen’s law.

Figure 1. Paschen’s law curve
 R-20-IV-1-B.Tech., EEE-23-24
Question Bank
HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – IV)

Unit-2
Break down phenomenon in Liquids:

Topic- Liquid as Insulator – Pure and commercial liquids

1) What are the commercial liquid dielectrics? How do they differ from pure liquid
dielectrics? (C) R-16-Sep-2020-Set-3

The commercial liquid dielectrics are Transformer oil, Synthetic Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated
Hydrocarbons, Silicone Oils and Esters.

Liquids which are chemically pure, structurally simple and do not contain any impurity even in
traces of 1 in 109, are known as pure liquids. In contrast, commercial liquids used as insulating
liquids are chemically impure and contain mixtures of complex organic molecules. In fact their
behavior is quite erratic. No two samples of oil taken out from the same container will behave
identically.

2) What are the different theories of breakdown in commercial liquids? R-16-Sep-2020-Set-1

(C)
The breakdown mechanism in commercial liquids is dependent on several factors, such as the
nature and condition of the electrodes, the physical properties of the liquid, and the impurities and
gases present in the liquid. Several theories have been proposed to explain the breakdown in liquids,
and they are classified as follows: (a) Suspended Particle Mechanism (b) Cavitation and Bubble
Mechanism (c) Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism.

Topic- Breakdown in pure and commercial liquids

1) Explain the Cavitation and bubble theory in commercial liquids. (R) R-10-Feb-2019-Set-1

Cavitation and the Bubble Theory

In many liquids, the breakdown strength depends strongly on the applied hydrostatic pressure,
means that a kind of vapor bubble formed is responsible for breakdown. The following processes
have been suggested to be responsible for the formation of the vapor bubbles:

i) Gas pockets at the surfaces of the electrodes;

ii) Electrostatic repulsive forces between space charges which may be sufficient to overcome the
surface tension;
iii) Gaseous products due to the dissociation of liquid molecules by electron collisions; and
iv) Vaporization of the liquid by corona type discharge from sharp points and irregularities on the
electrode surfaces.

Once a bubble is formed, it will elongate in the direction of the electric field under the influence of
electrostatic forces. The volume of the bubble remains constant during elongation. Breakdown
occurs when the voltage drop along the length of the bubble becomes equal to the minimum value
on the Paschen’s curve for the gas in the bubble.

The breakdown field is given as where

σ is the surface tension of the liquid, ε1 is the permittivity of the liquid, ε2 is the permittivity of the
gas bubble, r is the initial radius of the bubble assumed as a sphere and Vb is the voltage drop in
the bubble.

2) Explain suspended particle theory in commercial liquids. (R) R-10-Oct-2017-Set-1

Suspended Particle Theory:

These impurities will be present as fibers or as dispersed solid particles. The permittivity of these
particles (ε2 ) will be different from the permittivity of the liquid (ε1). If we consider these
impurities to be spherical particles of radius r, and if the applied field is E, then the particles
experience a force F, where

This force is directed towards areas of maximum stress, if ε2 > ε1 , for example, in the case of the
presence of solid particles like paper in the liquid. On the other hand, if only gas bubbles are present
in the liquid, i.e., ε2 < ε1 , the force will be in the direction of areas of lower stress. If the voltage is
continuously applied (dc) or the duration of the voltage is long (ac), then this force drives the
particles towards the areas of maximum stress. If the number of particles present are large, they
become aligned due to these forces, and thus form a stable chain bridging the electrode gap causing
a breakdown between the electrodes.

Conduction and Breakdown in Commercial Liquids are not chemically pure and have impurities
like gas bubbles, suspended particles, etc. These impurities reduce the breakdown strength of these
liquids considerably. The breakdown mechanisms are also considerably influenced by the presence
of these impurities. In addition, when breakdown occurs in these liquids, additional gases and gas
bubbles are evolved and solid decomposition products are formed. The electrode surfaces become
rough, and at times explosive sounds are heard due to the generation of impulsive pressure through
the liquid

Break down phenomenon in Solids

Topic- Intrinsic breakdown

1) Briefly discuss the intrinsic breakdown in solid insulating materials. (C)

If the dielectric material is pure and homogeneous, the temperature and environmental conditions
suitably controlled and if the voltage is applied for a very short time of the order of 10-8 second, the
dielectric strength of the specimen increases rapidly to an upper limit known as intrinsic dielectric
strength. The intrinsic strength, therefore, depends mainly upon the structural design of the material
i.e., the material itself. It is affected by the ambient temperature as the structure itself might change
slightly by temperature condition. In order to obtain the intrinsic dielectric strength of a material,
the samples are so prepared that there is high stress in the center of the specimen and much low
stress at the corners as shown in the figure 1.

Figure 1. Specimen designed for intrinsic breakdown

The intrinsic breakdown is obtained in times of the order of 10-8sec. and, therefore, has been
considered to be electronic in nature. The stresses required are of the order of one million volt/cm.

Topic- – Electromechanical breakdown

1) Explain, in detail, electromechanical breakdown in solid insulating materials. (U)
R-10-Feb-2018-Set-1

Electromechanical Breakdown:

When a dielectric material is subjected to an electric field, charges of opposite nature are induced
on the two opposite surfaces of the material. Hence a force of attraction is developed and the
specimen is subjected to electrostatic compressive forces and when these forces exceed the
mechanical withstand strength of the material, the material collapses. If the initial thickness of the
material is do and is compressed to a thickness d under the applied voltage V then the compressive
stress developed due to electric field is

For any real value of voltage V, the reduction in thickness of the specimen cannot be more than
40%. If the ratio V/d at this value of V is less than the intrinsic strength of the specimen, a further
increase in V shall make the thickness unstable and the specimen collapses. The highest apparent
strength is then obtained by substituting d = 0.6 * do in the above expressions.

The above equation is approximate only as γ depends upon the mechanical stress. The possibility of
instability occurring for lower average field is ignored i.e., the effect of stress concentration at
irregularities is not taken into account.

Topic- Thermal breakdown

1) Explain the phenomena of thermal breakdown in solid dielectrics. (U)
R-10-Oct-2017-Set-1
Thermal breakdown:

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current, however small it may be, flows
through the material. The current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises. The heat
generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction through the solid dielectric and
by radiation from its outer surfaces. Equilibrium is reached when the heat used to raise the
temperature of the dielectric, plus the heat radiated out, equals the heat generated. The heat
generated under dc stress E is given as

where, σ is the dc conductivity of the specimen.

Under ac fields, the heat generated

where, f = frequency in Hz, δ = loss angle of the dielectric material, εr = relative permittivity of the
material and E = rms value.

The heat dissipated (WT) is given by

where CV = specific heat of the specimen, T = temperature of the specimen, K = thermal

conductivity of the specimen, and t = time over which the heat is dissipated.

Equilibrium is reached when the heat generated (Wdc or Wac) becomes equal to the heat dissipated
(WT).
In actual practice, there is always some heat that is radiated out.

Breakdown occurs when Wdc or Wac exceeds WT. The thermal instability condition is shown in
figure 1. The heat lost is shown by a straight line, while the heat generated at fields E1 and E2 are
shown by separate curves. At field E2 breakdown occurs both at temperatures TA and TB . In the
temperature region of TA and TB heat generated is less than the heat lost for the field E2 , and hence
the breakdown will not occur.

Figure 1. Thermal instability in solid dielectrics

Topic- Breakdown of composite solid dielectrics
1) Discuss the breakdown in composite solid dielectrics. (C)

Mechanisms of Breakdown in Composite Dielectrics

(a) Short-term Breakdown:
Breakdown results from one or more discharges when the applied voltage is close to the observed
breakdown value. There exists a critical stress in the volume of the dielectric at which discharges of
a given magnitude can enter the insulation from the surface and propagate rapidly into its volume to
cause breakdown. Breakdown was observed to occur more readily when the bombarding particles
are electrons, rather than positive ions.

(b) Long-term Breakdown:

Long-term breakdown is also called the ageing of insulation. The principal effects responsible for
the ageing of the insulation which eventually leads to breakdown arise from the thermal processes
and partial discharges. Partial discharges normally occur within the volume of the composite
insulation systems. In addition, the charge accumulation and conduction on the surface of the
insulation also contributes significantly towards the ageing and failure of insulation.
 R-20-IV-1-B.Tech., EEE-23-24
Question Bank
HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – IV)

Unit-3
Generation of High DC voltages: (Part-1)

Topic- Voltage Doubler Circuit

1) Compare the performance of half wave rectifier and voltage doubler circuits for
generation of high d.c. voltages. (U) R-16-July-2021-Set-1

Sl.no Half -Wave Voltage Rectifier Voltage doubler

1) Common point between input and Available Not Available
output lines for earthing
2) Ripple content High Low
3) Ripple Frequency Supply frequency Twice Supply frequency
4) Voltage Regulation Poor Better than that of half
wave rectifier
5) Maximum voltage across each 2Vs max Vs max
capaticor
6) PIV rating of each diode 2Vs max 2Vs max

It is seen that half-wave or full-wave voltage doubler circuits provide twice the peak voltage of the
transformer secondary while requiring no centre – tapped transformer and only 2Vs max PIV rating
for diodes.

Topic- Voltage Multiplier Circuit

2) Derive the expression for voltage ripple and regulation in a voltage multiplier circuit. (C)
R-19-Nov-2022-Set-1
b) Voltage Drop on Load and Regulation:

The change of average voltage across the load from the no load theoretical value expressed as a
percentage of no load voltage is called the regulation. The change in voltage (i.e.) the voltage drop
‘∆V’ is caused due to the ripple δV, and the capacitors not getting charged to the full voltage Vm
when they are supplying the load current I1.

The voltage drop under load condition ∆V is found by assuming that all the capacitors are of equal
value ‘C’. It is seen from the analysis of ripple that all the capacitors are not charged to 2*Vmax .
The capacitor C2n is charged to (2*Vmax – n*I1 /(f*C) only instead of 2*Vmax because the
charge given through C2n-1, in one cycle is equal to a voltage drop of n*I1/(f*C). This is because, in
each stage the loss of charge equal to a voltage drop of I1 / (f*C) to the load.

In a similar manner the capacitor C2n-2 is charged to only [2*Vmax – n*I1 / (f*C) – n*I1 / (f*C) −
(n − 1) I1/ (f*C)] since the reduction in voltage at this stage is further equal to n*I1 /(f*C) at the
capacitor C2n-1 and (n − 1)*I1 /(f*C) at capacitor C2n-2.

Thus, if the voltage drops at each of the capacitor C2n , C2n-2, etc., to C2 are designated as ∆V2n,
∆V2n-2 , ... ∆V2, the total voltage drop will be
Summing up all the voltage drops

Here again the lowest capacitors contribute most to the voltage drop ∆V and so it is advantageous to
increase their capacitance in suitable steps. However, only a doubling of C1 is convenient as this
capacitors has to withstand only half of the voltage of other capacitors. Therefore, ∆V1 decreases by
an amount n*I / (f*C) which reduces ∆V of every stage by the same amount i.e., by
n*[n*I / (2*f*C)].

For large values of n (≥ 4), terms in the above equation, will become small compared to (2/3) *n3
and may be neglected; then voltage drop can be approximated to

From above equation, it is clear that for a given number of stages, a given frequency and
capacitance of each stage, the output voltage decrease linearly with load current I. For a given load,
however, V0 = (V0max – V) may rise initially with the number of stages n, and reaches a maximum
value but decays beyond on optimum number of stage. The optimum number of stages assuming a
constant Vmax, I, f and C can be obtained for maximum value of V0max by differentiating above
equation with respect to n and equating it to zero.

Substituting nopt in the above equation we have

It is to be noted that in general it is more economical to use high frequency and smaller value of
capacitance to reduce the ripples or the voltage drop rather than low frequency and high
capacitance.

Figure 1. Cockcroft – Walton voltage multiplier circuit

3) a) Why is a Cockcroft – Walton circuit preferred for voltage multiplier circuits? (R)
b) Explain its working with a neat circuit diagram. (U) R-19-Nov-2022-Set-3

(Same as above question)

Topic- Vande- Graaff Generator

4) Describe with a neat sketch, the working of a van de Graff generator. What are the factors
that limit the maximum voltage obtained? (U) R-10-Oct-2019-Set-1

Figure 1. Van de Graff generator

An insulating belt is run over pulleys. The belt, the width of which may vary from a few cms to
metres is driven at a speed of about 15 to 30 m/sec, by means of a motor connected to the lower
pulley.

The belt near the lower pulley is charged electro statically by an excitation arrangement. The lower
charge spray unit consists of a number of needles connected to the controllable d.c. source (10 kV–
100 kV) so that the discharge between the points and the belt is maintained.

The charge is conveyed to the upper end where it is collected from the belt by discharging points
connected to the inside of an insulated metal electrode through which the belt passes. The entire
equipment is enclosed in an earthed metal tank filled with insulating gases of good dielectric
strength viz. SF6 etc.

The shape of the h.t., electrode should be such that the surface gradient of electric field is made
uniform to reduce again corona discharges, even though it is desirable to avoid corona entirely.

An isolated sphere is the most favorable electrode shape and will maintain a uniform field E with a
voltage of Er where r is the radius of the sphere. As the h.t. electrode collects charges its potential
rises. The potential at any instant is given as V = q/C where q is the charge collected at that instant.
It appears as though if the charge were collected for a long time any amount of voltage could be
generated.

As the potential of electrode rises, the field set up by the electrode increases and that may ionize the
surrounding medium and, therefore, this would be the limiting value of the voltage. In practice,
equilibrium is established at a terminal voltage which is such that the charging current I = C (dV/
dt) equals the discharge current which will include the load current and the leakage and corona loss
currents.

Let us assume that the electric field E is normal to the belt and is homogeneous. We know that D =
ε0*E, where D is the flux density and since the medium surrounding the h.t. terminal is say air εr
= 1 and ε0 = 8.854 × 10-12 F/metre.
According to Gauss law, D = σ the surface charge density.Therefore, D = σ = ε0 * E Assuming E =
30 kV / cm or 30,000 kV / m.
σ = 8.854 * 10-12 *3,000*103 = 26.562 * 10-6 C / m2.
Assuming for a typical system b = 1 metre and velocity of the belt ν = 10 m/sec, the current
supplied by the generator is given as
I = σ bv = 26.562 *10-6 * 1 *10 = 26.562 *10-5 amp = 265 μA.

The advantages of the generator are: (i) Very high voltages can be easily generated (ii) Ripple free
output (iii) Precision and flexibility of control. The disadvantages are: (i) Low current output (ii)
Limitations on belt velocity due to its tendency for vibration. The vibrations may make it difficult to
have an accurate grading of electric fields. These generators are used in nuclear physics laboratories
for particle acceleration and other processes in research work.

Limitations

1) Low current output

2) Limitations on belt velocity due to its tendency for vibrations. The vibrations may make it
difficult to have an accurate grading of electric field.

The factors that limit the maximum voltage obtained:

The voltage produced by an open-air Van de Graaff machine is limited by arcing and corona
discharge to about 5 MV.
 R-20-IV-1-B.Tech., EEE-23-24
Question Bank
HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – IV)

Generation of High AC voltages: (part-2)

Topic- Cascaded Transformers

1) Draw the equivalent circuit of a 3-stage Cascade transformer and determine the
expression for short circuit impedance of the transformer. Hence deduce an expression
for the short circuit impedance of an n-stage Cascade transformer.(U)
R-10-Feb-2019-Set-1

Cascaded Transformers:

Figure shows a basic scheme for cascading three transformers. The primary of the first stage
transformer is connected to a low voltage supply. A voltage is available across the secondary of this
transformer. The tertiary winding (excitation winding) of first stage has the same number of turns as
the primary winding, and feeds the primary of the second stage transformer.

The potential of the tertiary is fixed to the potential V of the secondary winding as shown in figure.
The secondary winding of the second stage transformer is connected in series with the secondary
winding of the first stage transformer, so that a voltage of 2V is available between the ground and
the terminal of secondary of the second stage transformer.

Similarly, the stage-III transformer is connected in series

with the second stage transformer. With this the output
voltage between ground and the third stage transformer,
secondary is 3V.

It is to be noted that the individual stages except the upper

most must have three-winding transformers. The upper
most, however, will be a two winding transformer.

Figure. Basic 3 stage cascaded transformer

Figure shows metal tank construction of transformers and the secondary winding is not divided.
Here the low voltage terminal of the secondary winding is connected to the tank. The tank of stage-I
transformer is earthed.

The tanks of stage-II and stage-III transformers have potentials of V and 2V, respectively above
earth and, therefore, these must be insulated from the earth with suitable solid insulation. Through
h.t. bushings, the leads from the tertiary winding and the h.v. winding are brought out to be
connected to the next stage transformer. The main disadvantage of cascading the transformers is
that the lower stages of the primaries of the transformers are loaded more as compared with the
upper stages.
The loading of various windings is indicated by P in figure. For the three-stage transformer, the
total output VA will be 3VI = 3P and, therefore, each of the secondary winding of the transformer
would carry a current of I = P/V.

The primary winding of stage-III transformer is loaded with P and so also the tertiary winding of
second stage transformer. Therefore, the primary of the second stage transformer would be loaded
with 2P. Extending the same logic, it is found that the first stage primary would be loaded with P.

The equivalent circuit of an individual stage is shown in figure.

Here Z p , Zs , and Zt , are the impedances associated with
each winding. The impedances are shown in series with an
ideal 3-winding transformer with corresponding number of
turns Np , Ns and Nt.

Figure. Equivalent circuit of one stage

Let Z ps = leakage impedance measured on primary side with secondary short circuited and tertiary
open. Zpt = leakage impedance measured on primary side with tertiary short circuited and
secondary open. Zst = leakage impedance on secondary side with tertiary short circuited and
primary open. If these measured impedances are referred to primary side then

Z ps = Z p + Zs , Zpt = Z p + Zt and Zst = Zs + Z.

Solving these equations, we have

Z p = (1 / 2) (Z ps + Zpt – Zst), Zs = (1 / 2 )(Z ps + Zst – Zpt)

and Zt = (1 / 2) (Zpt + Zst – Z ps). Assuming negligible magnetizing current, the sum of the

ampere turns of all the windings must be zero.

Np*Ip – Ns*Is – Nt*It - = 0.

Assuming lossless transformer, we have

Zp = j*XP, Zs = j* Xs and Zt = j*Xt

Also let Np = Nt for all stages, the equivalent

circuit for a 3-stage transformer would be given
as in above figure. This can be reduced to a very
simplified circuit as shown in the next figure.
The resulting short circuit reactance Xres is
obtained from the condition that the power
rating of the two circuits be the same.

Figure. Equivalent circuit of 3-stage transformer

 Figure. A simplified equivalent circuit

I2Xres = (3*I)2 * Xp + (2*I)2*Xp +I2*Xp+ I2*Xs+ I2*Xs+ I2*Xs+(2*I)2*Xt +I2*Xt

Xres = 14* Xp+3*Xs+5*Xt

instead of 3*(Xp+Xs+Xt) as might be expected. The above equation can be generalised for an n-
stage transformer as follows:

Xres =

where Xpi, Xsi and Xti are the short-circuit reactance of the primary, secondary and tertiary
windings of i th transformer. The impedance of a two-stage transformer is about 3–4 times the
impedance of one unit and a three-stage impedance is 8–9 times the impedance of one unit
transformer.

Topic- Resonant Transformers

2) Explain the operation of resonant transformer with a neat diagram and its
applications.(U) R-19-Nov-2022-Set-3

The equivalent circuit of a high-voltage testing transformer consists of the leakage reactance of the
windings, the winding resistances, the magnetizing reactance, and the shunt capacitance across the
output terminal due to the bushing of the high-voltage terminal and also that of the test object. This
is shown in figure 1a, with its equivalent circuit in figure 1b.

It may be seen that it is possible to have series resonance at power frequency ω, if (L1 +L2) =
1/(ω*C). With this condition, the current in the test object is very large and is limited only by the
resistance of the circuit. The waveform of the voltage across the test object will be purely
sinusoidal. The magnitude of the voltage across the capacitance C of the test object will be

where R is the total series resistance of the circuit.

Figure 1a. Transformer Figure 1b. Equivalent circuit

The factor Xc /R = 1/ωCR is the Q factor of the circuit and gives the magnitude of the voltage
multiplication across the test object under resonance conditions. This principle is utilized in testing
at very high voltages and on occasions requiring large current outputs such as cable testing,
dielectric loss measurements, partial discharge measurements, etc.

The chief advantages of this principle are

a) it gives an output of pure sine wave,
b) power requirements are less,
c) cascading is also possible for very high voltages and
d) simple and compact test arrangement.

The disadvantages are the requirements of additional variable chokes capable of withstanding the
full test voltage and the full current rating. A simplified diagram of the series resonance test system
is given in figure 2a, and that of the parallel resonant test system in figure 2b.

Figure.2a. Series resonant ac test system Figure.2b. Parallel resonant ac test system

A voltage regulator of either the auto-transformer type or the induction regulator type is connected
to the supply mains and the secondary winding of the exciter transformer is connected across the hv
reactor, L, and the capacitive load C.

The inductance of the reactor L is varied by varying its air gap and operating range is set in the ratio
10:1. Capacitance C comprises of the capacitance of the test object, capacitance of the measuring
voltage divider, capacitance of the high-voltage bushing, etc.

The Q-factor obtained in these circuits will be typically of the order of 50. In the parallel resonant
mode the high voltage reactor is connected as an auto-transformer and the circuit is connected as a
parallel resonant circuit. The advantage of the parallel resonant circuit is that more stable output
voltage can be obtained along with a high rate of rise of test voltage, independent of the degree of
tuning and the Q-factor.

Topic- Tesla Coil

3) Explain the working principle and applications of Tesla coil with neat sketch. (U)

The commonly used high-frequency resonant transformer is the Tesla coil (figure 1). It is doubly
tuned resonant circuit shown schematically in figure. The primary voltage rating is 10 kV and the
secondary may be rated to as high as 500 to 1000 kV. The primary is fed from a dc or ac supply
through the capacitor C1.
Spark gap G connected across the primary is triggered at the desired voltage V1 which induces a
high self-excitation in the secondary. The primary and the secondary windings (L1and L2 ) are
wound on an insulated former with air-core and are immersed in oil. The windings are tuned to a
frequency of 10 to 100 kHz by means of the capacitors C1 and C2.

Figure 1. Tesla coil equivalent circuit and its output waveform

The primary coil is wound on an insulator fiber tube of about 1 m

length to represent a cylindrical or helical winding and consists of
a few tens of turns (usually copper strip or tubings). The secondary
winding is spaced quite away from the primary winding on another
concentric fiber or Pyrex tube with a few thousand turns.

The whole assembly will be immersed in an oil tank under pressure. The primary winding is
supplied through a high voltage capacitor rectifier unit rated for 10 kV to 50 kV or more and the
power rating of the transformer may be 10 kVA or more. The output voltage V2 is a function of the
parameters L1, L2, C1, C2, and the mutual inductance M.

Usually, the winding resistances will be small and contribute only for damping of the oscillations.
Neglecting the winding resistances, let the capacitor C1 be charged to a voltage V1 when the spark
gap is triggered. Let a current i1 flow through the primary winding L1 and produce a current
i2 through L2 and C2.

The Laplace transformed equations for the above are,

and

where I1 and I2 are the Laplace transformed values of i1 and i2. The output voltage V2 across the
capacitor C2 is
where V2(s) is the Laplace transform of V2.

The solution for V2 from the above equations will be

where K= coefficient of coupling between the windings L1 and L2.

The peak amplitude of the secondary voltage V2 can be expressed as

Energy stored in the primary circuit in the capacitance C1 is transferred to C2 via the magnetic
coupling.

If W1 is the energy stored in C1 and W2 is the energy transferred to C2 and if the efficiency of the
transformer is η, then
 R-20-IV-1-B.Tech., EEE-23-24
Question Bank
HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – IV)

Unit-4

Generation of Impulse voltages:

Topic- Specifications of impulse wave

1) Explain different terms used in the theory of impulse waves and specifications.(U)

An impulse voltage is a unidirectional voltage which, without appreciable oscillations, rises rapidly
to a maximum value and falls more or less rapidly to zero.

Figure indicates the shape the typical impulse voltage. The maximum value is called the pea value
of the impulse and the impulse voltage is specified by this value.

If an impulse voltage develops without causing flash over or

puncture, it is called a full impulse voltage. If flash over or
puncture occur, thus causing a sudden collapse of the
impulse voltage, it is called a chopped impulse voltage.

A full impulse voltage is characterized by its peak value and

its two time intervals, the wave front and wave tail time
intervals.The wave front time of an impulse wave is the time
taken by the wave to reach to its maximum value starting
from zero value.

Figure. Full impulse wave

The wave front time is specified as 1.25 times (t2 – t1 ), where t2 is the time for the wave to reach to
its 90% of the peak value and t1 is the time to reach 10% of the peak value. Since (t2 – t1) represents
about 80% of the wave front time, it is multiplied by 1.25 to give total wave front time. The point
where the line AC intersects the time axis is referred to be the nominal starting point of the wave.
The nominal wave tail time is measured between the nominal starting point t0 and the point on the
wave tail where the voltage is 50% of the peak value i.e. wave fail time is expressed as (t3 – t0).

The nominal steepness of the wave front is the average rate of rise of voltage between the points on
the wave front where the voltage is 10% and 90% of the peak value respectively. The standard wave
shape specified in BSS and ISS is a 1/50 micro sec, i.e. a wave front of 1 micro sec. and a wave tail
of 50 micro sec. A tolerance of not more than ±50% on the duration of the wave front and 20% on
the time to half value on the wave tail is allowed. The wave is completely specified as 100 kV, 1/50
micro sec, where 100 kV is the peak value of the wave.

The wave shape recommended by the American Standard Association is 1.5/40 micro sec. with
permissible variations of 0.5 micro sec. on the wave front and ±10 micro sec. on the wave tail. Here
wave front time is taken as 1.67 times the time taken by the wave to rise from 30% to 90% of its
peak value and wave tail time is computed as (t3 – t0).
Chopped Wave:

If an impulse voltage is applied to a piece of insulation and if a flash over or puncture occurs
causing sudden collapse of the impulse voltage, it is called a Chopped impulse voltage. If
chopping takes place on the front part of the wave, it is known as front chopped wave, figure (a),
else, it is known as a chopped wave, figure (b).

Figure. Chopped waves. (a) Front

chopped wave (b) Chopped wave

Impulse Flash Over Voltage: A 50 per cent impulse flash over voltage is the peak value of that
impulse flash over voltage which causes flash over of the object under test for about half the
number of applications of impulses. The flash over also depends upon the polarity, duration of wave
front and wave tails of the applied impulse voltages. If the flash over occurs more than 50% of the
number of applications, it is defined as impulse flash over voltage in excess of 50 %.

Impulse Puncture Voltage: The impulse puncture voltage is the peak value of the impulse voltage
which causes puncture of the material when puncture occurs on the wave tail and is the value of the
voltage at the instant of puncture when puncture occurs on the wave front.

Impulse Ratio for Flash Over: The impulse ratio for flash over is the ratio of impulse flash over
voltage to the peak value of power frequency flash over voltage.

Impulse Ratio for Puncture: The impulse ratio for puncture is the ratio of the impulse puncture
voltage to the peak value of the power frequency puncture voltage.

Topic- Analysis of RLC circuit only

2) An impulse current generator has total capacitance of 15 µF, the charging voltage 125
KV, the circuit inductance 2 mH and the dynamic resistance 1 ohm. Determine the
peak current and wave shape of the wave.(E)
The maximum value of current is given as
Topic- Marx Circuit
3) Describe the Marx circuit arrangement for multistage impulse generators. (U)
R-19-Nov-2022-Set-2

MULTISTAGE IMPULSE GENERATOR CIRCUIT ( Marx Circuit)

In order to obtain higher and higher impulse voltage, a single stage circuit is inconvenient for the
following reasons: (i) The physical size of the circuit elements becomes very large. (ii) High d.c.
charging voltage is required. (iii) Suppression of corona discharges from the structure and leads
during the charging period is difficult. (iv) Switching of vary high voltages with spark gaps is
difficult. In 1923 E. Marx suggested a multiplier circuit which is commonly used to obtain impulse
voltages with as high a peak value as possible for a given d.c. charging voltage.

The schematic diagram of Marx circuit and its modification are shown in figures 1 and 2
respectively. Usually the charging resistance Rs is chosen to limit the charging current to about 50
to 100 mA, and the generator capacitance C is chosen such that the product CRs is about 10 s to 1
min. The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown voltage of the gap G is greater than the
charging voltage V. Thus, all the capacitances are charged to the voltage V in about 1 minute. When
the impulse generator is to be discharged, the gaps G are made to spark over simultaneously by
some external means. Thus, all the capacitors C get connected in series and discharge into the load
capacitance or the test object. The discharge time constant CR1 /n (for n stages) will be very small
(microseconds), compared to the charging time constant CRs which will be few seconds. Hence, no
discharge takes place through thecharging resistors Rs. In the Marx circuit is of figure 1, the
impulse wave-shaping circuit is connected externally to the capacitor unit. In figure 2, the modified
Marx circuit is shown wherein the resistances R1 and R2 are incorporated inside the unit. R1 is
divided into n parts equal to R1 / n and put in series with the gap G. R2 is also divided into n parts
and arranged across each capacitor unit after the gap G. This arrangement saves space, and also the
cost is reduced. But, in case the wave shape is to be varied widely, the variation becomes difficult.
The additional advantages gained by distributing R1 and R2 inside the unit are that the control
resistors are smaller in size and the efficiency (V0ZnV) is high.

Impulse generators are nominally rated by the total voltage (nominal), the number of stages, and the
gross energy stored. The nominal output voltage is the number of stages multiplied by the charging
voltage. The nominal energy stored is given by ½ C1V2 where C1 = C/n (the discharge capacitance)
and V is the nominal maximum voltage (n times charging voltage). A16-stage impulse generator
having a stage capacitance of 0.280μF and a maximum charging voltage of 300 kV will have an
energy rating of 192 kWs. The height of the generator will be about 15 m and will occupy a floor
area of about 3.25 × 3.00 m. The waveform of either polarity can be obtained by suitably changing
the charging unit polarity.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Marx circuit arrangement for multistage impulse generator
Figure 2. Multistage impulse generator incorporating the series and wave tail resistances within the
generator

Generation of Impulse currents:

Topic- Definitions
4) Define the terms used in the theory of impulse waves and specifications. (R)

The wave shapes used in testing surge diverters are 4/10 and 8/20 μs, the figures respectively
representing the nominal wave-front and wave-tail times. The tolerances allowed on these are ±10%
only. Apart from the standard impulse current waves, rectangular waves of long duration are also
used for testing. The wave shape should be nominally rectangular in shape. The rectangular waves
generally have durations of the order of 0.5 to 5 μs, with rise and fall times of the waves being less
than ±10% of their total duration. The tolerance allowed on the peak value is +20% and -0% (the
peak value may be more than the specified value but not less). The duration of the wave is defined
as the total time of the wave during which the current is at least 10% of its peak value.

Topic- Circuits for producing Impulse current waves

5) Discuss one of the circuits to produce impulse current waves. (C)

High current impulse generators consist of a large number of capacitors connected in parallel to the
common discharge path.

The equivalent circuit of the generator is shown in the following figure. Approximated to that of a
capacitance C charged to a voltage V0 which can be considered to discharge through an inductance
L and a resistance R. Both L and R are the effective inductance and resistance of the leads,
capacitors and the test objects.
Figure. A typical impulse current circuit. 1) Charging unit, 2) Earthing device, 3) Capacitors with
damping resistors, 4) Firing sphere gap, 5) Reactor coil, 6) Protective sphere gap, 7) Test specimen
(LA), 8) Test transformer for power frequency.

Analysis of Impulse Current Generator:

After the gap S is triggered, the Laplace transform current is given as

Figure. Analysis of Impulse Current Generator

where tmax is the time when the first maximum value of current occurs and

Substituting the value of t = tmax in the eqn.

the first maximum value of current is given as

Above equation can be written as

is the initial energy stored by the generator.

If R = 0, ν = 0 then from the above equation, it is clear that

From equation
Below figure shows the current response for different values of ν

Figure. Current response of circuit given in previous figure.

Topic- Wave shape control

6) Discuss the circuit diagram to control the wave shape, with neat sketches. (C)

Wave shape Control

Generally, for a given Series Inductance in Impulse Generator Circuit of figure 1, the generator
capacitance C1 and load capacitance C2 will be fixed depending on the design of the generator and
the test object. Hence, the desired wave shape is obtained by controlling R1 and R2. The following
approximate analysis is used to calculate the wave front and wave tail times.

Figure 1. Series inductance in impulse generator circuit

where
Lc —Inductance of the generator capacitance C1 and lead capacitances
L1— Inductance of the series resistance and the circuit loop inductance
LL — Test object inductance
The resistance R2 will be large. Hence, the simplified circuit shown in figure 2, is used for wave
front time calculation. Taking the circuit inductance to be negligible during charging, C1 charges the
load capacitance C2 through R1.
Then the time taken for charging is approximately three times the time constant of the circuit and is
given by

where,
If R1 is given in ohms and Ce in microfarads, t1 is obtained in microseconds.

Figure 2. Simplified circuit for calculation of wave front time L = LC + L1 + any other added
inductance

For discharging or tail time, the capacitances C1 and C2 may be considered to be in parallel and
discharging occurs through R1 and R2. Hence, the time for 50% discharge is approximately given by

Topic - Tripping and control of impulse generators

7) Discuss the method used to control tripping of impulse generator. (C)
R-10-Feb-2019-Set-1

Tripping and Control of Impulse Generators

In large impulse generators, the spark gaps are generally sphere gaps or gaps formed by
hemispherical electrodes. The gaps are arranged such that sparking of one gap results in automatic
sparking of other gaps as overvoltage is impressed on the other.

A simple method of controlled tripping consists of making the first gap a three electrode gap and
firing it from a controlled source ( figure 1).

The first stage of the impulse generator is fitted with a three electrode gap, and the central electrode
is maintained at a potential in-between that of the top and the bottom electrodes with the resistors
R1 and R1. The tripping is initiated by applying a pulse to the thyratron G by closing the switch S.
The capacitor C produces an exponentially decaying pulse of positive polarity, the pulse goes and
initiates the oscillograph time base. The thyratron conducts on receiving the pulse from the switch S
and produces a negative pulse through the capacitance C1 at the central electrode. Hence, the
voltage between the central electrode and the top electrode of the three electrode gap goes above its
sparking potential and thus the gap conducts. This requires much smaller voltage for operation
compared to the three electrode gap.

Figure 1. Tripping of an impulse generator with a three electrode gap

The time lag required for the thyratron firing and breakdown of the three electrode gap ensures that
the sweep circuit of the oscilloscope begins before the start of the impulse generator voltage. The
resistance R2 ensures decoupling of voltage oscillations produced at the spark gap entering the
oscilloscope through the common trip circuit

Figure 2. The trigatron spark gap

Figure 3. A typical tripping circuit of a trigatron

Tripping of the impulse generator is effected by a trip pulse which produces a spark between the
trigger electrode and the earthed sphere. Due to space charge effects and distortion of the field in
the main gap. The trigatron gap is polarity sensitive and a proper polarity pulse should be applied
for correct operation.
 R-20-IV-1-B.Tech., EEE-23-24
Question Bank
HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
(PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE – IV)

Unit-5

Measurement of High DC & AC Voltages

1) List the various methods of measuring high d.c. and a.c. voltages and currents.
R-16-July-2021-Set-1

High-voltage measurement techniques

High-current measurement techniques

Type of current Device or technique

a Direct currents i (i) Resistive shunts with milli ammeter
ii Hall effect generators
iii Magnetic links
b Alternating currents i Resistive shunts
(Power frequency) ii Electromagnetic current transformer
c High frequency ac, i Resistive shunt
impulse and rapidly ii Magnetic potentiometers or Rogowski coils
changing currents iii Magnetic links
Hall effect generator
1) Draw and explain Chubb-Fortescue Circuit for measurements of peak value of a.c.
voltages and discuss its advantages over other methods. (U) R-16-July-2021-Set-1

The Chubb-Fortescue Method

Chubb and Fortescue suggested a simple and accurate method of measuring peak value of a.c.
voltages. The basic circuit consists of a standard capacitor, two diodes and a current integrating
ammeter (MC ammeter) as shown in figure 1a.

Figure 1 (a) Basic circuit (b) Modified circuit

The displacement current i c (t), figure 2 is given by the rate of change of the charge and hence the
voltage V(t) to be measured flows through the high voltage capacitor C and is subdivided into
positive and negative components by the back to back connected diodes. The voltage drop across
these diodes can be neglected (1 V for Si diodes) as compared with the voltage to be measured. The
measuring instrument (M.C. ammeter) is included in one of the branches. The ammeter reads the
mean value of the current.

The relation is similar to the one obtained in case of generating voltmeters. An increased current
would be obtained if the current reaches zero more than once during one half cycle. This means the
wave shapes of the voltage would contain more than one maxima per half cycle. The standard a.c.
voltages for testing should not contain any harmonics and, therefore, there could be very short and
rapid voltages caused by the heavy pre discharges, within the test circuit which could introduce
errors in measurements. To eliminate this problem filtering of a.c. voltage is carried out by
introducing a damping resistor in between the capacitor and the diode circuit, figure 1 (b).

Figure 2.
 Also, if full wave rectifier is used instead of the half wave as shown in figure 1, the factor 2
in the denominator of the above equation should be replaced by 4. Since the frequency f, the
capacitance C and current I can be measured accurately, the measurement of symmetrical
a.c. voltages using Chubb and Fortescue method is quite accurate and it can be used for
calibration of other peak voltage measuring devices.

Figure 3, shows a digital peak voltage measuring circuit. In contrast to the method discussed
just now, the rectified current is not measured directly, instead a proportional analog voltage
signal is derived which is then converted into a proportional medium frequency for using a
voltage to frequency convertor (Block A in figure 3). The frequency ratio f m/f is measured
with a gate circuit controlled by the a.c. power frequency (supply frequency f) and a counter
that opens for an adjustable number of period ∆t = p/f. The number of cycles n counted
during this interval is

Figure 3. Digital peak voltmeter

Thus the indicator can be calibrated to read Vm directly by selecting suitable values of A, p
and R. The voltmeter is found to given an accuracy of 0.35%.

Advantages:
1) Quite accurate,
2) It can be used for calibration of other measuring devices.
Disadvantages:
1) Non uniform current wave form
2) Wave shape contains oscillations / fluctuations

Topic- Resistance potential divider

2) What are the different types of resistive shunts used for impulse current
measurements? (R) R-10-Oct-2019-Set-1

A resistance potential divider with an electrostatic or high impedance voltmeter is shown in figure.
The influence of temperature and voltage on the elements is eliminated in the voltage divider
arrangement. The high-voltage magnitude is given by [(R1+ R2 )/R2] V2 , where V2 is the dc voltage
across the low-voltage arm R2.

With sudden changes in voltage, such as switching operations, flashover of the test objects, or
source short circuits, flashover or damage may occur to the divider elements due to the stray
capacitance across the elements and due to ground capacitances.
To avoid these transient voltages, voltage controlling capacitors are connected across the elements.
A corona-free termination is also necessary to avoid unnecessary discharges at high voltage ends. A
series resistor with a parallel capacitor connection for linearization of transient potential distribution
is shown in figure 2. Potential dividers are made with 0.05% accuracy up to 100 kV, with 0.1%
accuracy up to 300 kV, and with better than 0.5% accuracy for 500 kV.

Topic- Generating Voltmeter

3) Narrate the operation of generating voltmeter along with neat sketches. (U)

High-voltage measuring devices employ generating principle when source loading is prohibited (as
with Van de Graaf generators, etc.) or when direct connection to the high-voltage source is to be
avoided. A generating voltmeter is a variable capacitor electrostatic voltage generator which
generates current proportional to the applied external voltage. The device is driven by an external
synchronous or constant speed motor and does not absorb power or energy from the voltage
measuring source.

Principle of Operation: The charge stored in a capacitor of capacitance C is given by q = CV. If

the capacitance of the capacitor varies with time when connected to the source of voltage V, the
current through the capacitor.
For a constant angular frequency ω, the current is proportional to the applied voltage V. More
often, the generated current is rectified and measured by a moving coil meter. Generating voltmeter
can be used for ac voltage measurements also provided the angular frequency ω is the same or equal
to half that of the supply frequency.

A generating voltmeter with a rotating cylinder consists of two exciting field electrodes and a
rotating two pole armature driven by a synchronous motor at a constant speed n. The ac current
flowing between the two halves of the armature is rectified by a commutator whose arithmetic mean
may be calculated from

For peak value measurements, the phase angle of the motor must also be so adjusted that Cmax and
the crest value occur at the same instant. Generating voltmeters employ rotating sectors or vanes for
variation of capacitance. Figure gives a schematic diagram of a generating voltmeter.

The high voltage source is connected to a disc electrode S3 which is kept at a fixed distance on the
axis of the other low voltage electrodes S0. S1 and S2.

The rotor vanes of S0 cause periodic change in capacitance between the insulated disc S2 and the hv
electrode S3. The shape and number of the vanes of S0 and S1 are so designed that they produce
sinusoidal variation in the capacitance. The generated ac current through the resistance R is
rectified and read by a moving coil instrument. An amplifier is needed, if the shunt capacitance is
large or longer leads are used for connection to rectifier and meter. The instrument is calibrated
using a potential divider or sphere gap. The meter scale is linear and its range can be extended by
extrapolation. Typical calibration curves of a generating voltmeter are given in figure 2 (a and b).
Advantages of Generating Voltmeters:
i) No source loading by the meter,
ii) No direct connection to high voltage electrode,
iii) Scale is linear and extension of range is easy and
iv) A very convenient instrument for electrostatic devices such as Van de Graaff generator
and particle accelerators.

Limitations of Generating Voltmeters:

i) They require calibration,
ii) Careful construction is needed and is a cumbersome instrument requiring an auxiliary
drive and
iii) Disturbance in position and mounting of the electrodes make the calibration invalid.

Topic- Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT)

4) Explain the use of capacitance voltage transformer used for high voltage measurements in
power systems. (U) R-10-Feb-2019-Set-1

Capacitance divider with a suitable matching or isolating potential transformer tuned for resonance
condition is often used in power systems for voltage measurements. A CVT can be connected to a
low impedance device like a wattmeter pressure coil or a relay coil.CVT can supply a load of a few
VA. The schematic diagram of a CVT with its equivalent circuit is given in figure.

C1 is made of a few units of high-voltage capacitors, and the total capacitance will be around a few
thousand pico farads. A matching transformer is connected between the load or meter M and C2.
The h.v. winding rating may be 10 to 30 kV with the l.v. winding rated from 100 to 500 V.
The value of the tuning choke L is chosen to make the equivalent circuit of the CVT purely
resistive or to bring resonance condition. This condition is satisfied when ω*(L+LT) = 1 / (ω
(C1+C2)) where, L = inductance of the choke, and LT = equivalent inductance of the transformer
referred to hv side. The phasor diagram of the CVT under resonant conditions is shown in figure.

Figure 2. Phasor diagram of a CVT under resonance conditions

The meter reactance, Xm is neglected and is taken as a resistance load Rm when the load is
connected to the voltage divider side. The voltage across the potential transformer V2 = Im*Rm and
the voltage across the capacitor = V2 + Im (Re + jXe ). The phasor diagram is written taking V1 as
the reference phasor.

V1 = VC1 + VC2 and total current = Im + Ic· It can be seen that with proper tuning V2 will be in
phase with V1. Neglecting the reactance drop Inl*Xe, VRi is the voltage drop across the tuning
inductor and the transformer resistance. The voltage V2 (meter voltage) will be in phase with the
input voltage V1.

Advantages of a CVT:
i) simple design and easy installation,
ii) frequency independent voltage distribution along elements
iii) provides isolation between the h.v. terminal and l.v. metering.
Disadvantages of a CVT:
i) Voltage ratio is susceptible to temperature variations and
ii) Problem of inducing ferro-resonance in power system
Topic- Electrostatic Voltmeters
5) What is the purpose of electrostatic voltmeter, describe its operation with neat
diagrams. (R)

The electric field according to Coulomb is the field of forces. The electric field is produced by
voltage and, therefore, if the field force could be measured, the voltage can also be measured.
Whenever a voltage is applied to a parallel plate electrode arrangement, an electric field is set up
between the plates. It is possible to have uniform electric field between the plates with suitable
arrangement of the plates.

The field is uniform, normal to the two plates and directed towards the negative plate. If A is the
area of the plate and E is the electric field intensity between the plates ε the permittivity of the
medium between the plates, we know that the energy density of the electric field between the plates
is given as, Wd = (1/2)εE2.

Consider a differential volume between the plates and parallel to the plates with area A and
thickness dx, the energy content in this differential volume A*dx is dW = WdA (dx) =
(1/2) εE2*A*dx. Now force F between the plates is defined as the derivative of stored electric
energy along the field direction i.e., F = dW / dx = (1/2) εE2*A. Now E = V/d where V is the
voltage to be measured and d the distance of separation between the plates. Therefore, the
expression for force F = (1//2)*ε*V2*A / d2.

Since the two plates are oppositely charged, there is always force of attraction between the plates.
If the voltage is time dependent, the force developed is also time dependent. In such a case the mean
value of force is used to measure the voltage.

Electrostatic voltmeters measure the force based on the above equations and are arranged such that
one of the plates is rigidly fixed whereas the other is allowed to move. With this the electric field
gets disturbed. As the force is proportional to square of Vrms, the meter can be used both for a.c.
and d.c. voltage measurement. The force developed between the plates is sufficient to be used to
measure the voltage. The greatest advantage of the electrostatic voltmeter is its extremely low
loading effect as only electric fields are required to be set up. Because of high resistance of the
medium between the plates, the active power loss is negligibly small.

The voltage source loading is, therefore, limited only to the reactive power required to charge the
instrument capacitance which can be as low as a few pico farads for low voltage voltmeters. The
measuring system as such does not put any upper limit on the frequency of supply to be measured.
Figure shows a schematic diagram of an absolute electrostatic voltmeter. The hemispherical metal
dome D encloses a sensitive balance B which measures the force of attraction between the movable
disc which hangs from one of its arms and the lower plate P. The movable electrode M hangs with a
clearance of above 0.01 cm, in a central opening in the upper plate which serves as a guard ring.
The diameter of each of the plates is 1 meter.

Light reflected from a mirror carried by the balance beam serves to magnify its motion and to
indicate to the operator at a safe distance when a condition of equilibrium is reached. As the
spacing between the two electrodes is large (about 100 cms for a voltage of about 300 kV), the
uniformity of the electric field is maintained by the guard rings G which surround the space
between the discs M and P. The guard rings G are maintained at a constant potential in space by a
capacitance divider ensuring a uniform spatial potential distribution. When voltages in the range 10
to 100 kV are measured, the accuracy is of the order of 0.01 per cent.

The spheres are arranged with a vertical axis and at spacing slightly greater than the sparking
distance for the particular voltage to be measured. The upper high voltage sphere is supported on a
spring and the extension of spring caused by the electrostatic force is magnified by a lamp-mirror
scale arrangement. An accuracy of 0.5 per cent has been achieved by the arrangement.

Electrostatic voltmeters using compressed gas as the insulating medium have been developed.
One such voltmeter using SF6 gas has been used which can measure voltages upto 1000 kV and
accuracy is of the order of 0.1%.

Topic- Sphere Gaps

6) Explain how a sphere gap can be used to measure the peak value of voltages. (U)
R-10-Oct-2019-Set-1

It is one of the standard methods for the measurement of peak value of d.c. a.c. and impulse
voltages. It is used for checking the voltmeters and other voltage measuring devices used in high
voltage test circuits. Two identical metallic spheres separated by certain distance form a sphere gap.

The sphere gap can be used for measurement of impulse voltage of either polarity provided that the
impulse is of a standard wave form and has wave front time at least 1 micro sec. and wave tail time
of 5 micro sec. Also, the gap length between the sphere should not exceed a sphere radius.

The specifications regarding the shape, mounting, clearances of the spheres are met, the results
obtained by the use of sphere gaps are reliable to within ±3%.
Sphere gaps can be arranged either
i) vertically with lower sphere grounded or
ii) horizontally with both spheres connected to the source voltage or one sphere grounded.

The voltage to be measured is applied between the two spheres and the distance or spacing S
between them gives a measure of the spark over voltage. A series resistance is usually connected
between the source and the sphere gap to (i) limit the breakdown current, and (ii) to suppress
unwanted oscillations in the source voltage when breakdown occurs (in case of impulse voltages).

The value of the series resistance may vary from 100 to 1000 kilo ohms for ac or dc voltages and
not more than 500 Ω in the case of impulse voltage.
Factors Influencing the Spark over Voltage of Sphere Gaps:
i) Nearby earthed objects:
The spark over voltage is reduced because of the nearby earthed objects.

ii) Effect of Atmospheric Conditions:

The spark over voltages of a spark gap depends on the air density which varies with the changes in
both temperature and pressure. If the spark over voltage is V under test conditions of temperature T
and pressure p torr and if the spark over voltage is V0 under standard conditions of temperature T=
20°C and pressure p = 760 torr, then V = k*V0,

Figure 1. Sphere gap for voltage measurement

Figure 2. Horizontal arrangement of sphere gap

7) What are the requirements of a sphere gap for measurement of high voltages? Discuss
the advantages of sphere gap for measurements. (R) R-10-Oct-2017-Set-1
 The requirements of a sphere gap for measurement of high voltages:

The spheres should be so made that their surfaces are smooth and their curvatures as
uniform as possible. The curvature should be measured by a spherometer at various
positions over an area enclosed by a circle of radius 0.3 D about the sparking point where D
is the diameter of the sphere and sparking points on the two spheres are those which are at
minimum distances from each other.

For smaller size, the spheres are placed in horizontal configuration whereas large sizes
(diameters), the spheres are mounted with the axis of the sphere gaps vertical and the lower
sphere is grounded. In either case, it is important that the spheres should be so placed that
the space between spheres is free from external electric fields and from bodies which may
affect the field between the spheres.

According to BSS 358: 1939, when one sphere is grounded, the distance from the sparking

point of the high voltage sphere to the equivalent earth plane to which the earthed sphere is
connected should lie within the limits as given in the specifications.

The advantages of uniform field spark gaps are

(i) No influence of nearby earthed objects,
(ii) No polarity effect.
The disadvantages are
i) Very accurate mechanical finish of the electrode is required,
ii) Careful parallel alignment of the two electrodes,
iii) Influence of dust brings in erratic breakdown of the gap.

This is much more serious in these gaps as compared with sphere gaps as the highly stressed
electrode areas become much larger. Therefore, a uniform field gap is normally not used for
voltage measurements.

Therefore, a uniform field gap is normally not used for voltage measurements.

Measurement of Impulse Voltages & Currents:

Topic - Potential dividers with CRO

8) What are different types of resistive shunts used for impulse current measurements?
Discuss their characteristics and limitations. (R) R-10-Feb-2018-Set-1
Topic - Hall Generator
9) Describe the Hall generator for measuring the high d.c. currents. (U)
R-16-Sep-2020-Set-1

Hall effect (see figure) is used to measure very high direct current. Whenever electric current flows
through a metal plate placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to it, Lorenz force will deflect the
electrons in the metal structure in a direction perpendicular to the direction of both the magnetic
field and the flow of current.

The charge displacement results in an e.m.f. in the perpendicular direction called the Hall voltage.
The Hall voltage is proportional to the current I, the magnetic flux density B and inversely
proportional to the plate thickness d i.e., VH = R*B*I / d, where R is the Hall coefficient which
depends upon the material of the plate and temperature of the plate. For metals the Hall coefficient
is very small and hence semiconductor materials are used for which the Hall coefficient is high.

When large d.c. currents are to

be measured the current carrying
conductor is passed through an
iron cored magnetic circuit
(figure b).

Figure. Hall generator for

measuring high dc currents

The magnetic field intensity produced by the conductor in the air gap at a depth d is given by
H = 1 / (2πd).

The Hall element is placed in the air gap and a small constant d.c. current is passed through the
element. The voltage developed across the Hall element is measured and by using the expression
for Hall voltage the flux density B is calculated and hence the value of current I is obtained.

Topic - Rogowski Coils

10) A Rogowski coil is required to measure impulse current of 10 kA having rate of change
of current of 1010 A/sec. The voltmeter is connected across the integrating circuit which
reads 10 volts for full scale deflection. The input to the integrating circuit is from the
Rogowski Coil. Determine the mutual inductance of coil R and C of the integrating
circuit.(E) R-16-July-2021-Set-1
11) What is Ragowskii Coil? Explain with a neat diagram, its principle of operation for
measurement of high impulse currents.(R) R-10-Feb-2019-Set-1

If a coil is placed surrounding a current carrying conductor, the voltage signal induced in the coil is
vt (t) = M dI(t)/dt where M is the mutual inductance between the conductor and the coil, and I(t) is
the current flowing in the conductor. The coil is wound on a nonmagnetic former of toroidal shape
and is coaxially placed surrounding the current-carrying conductor.

The number of turns on the coil is chosen to be large, to get enough signal induced. The coil is
wound cross-wise to reduce the leakage inductance. An integrating circuit (figure) is employed to
get the output signal voltage proportional to the current to be measured. The output voltage is given
by

Rogowski coils with electronic or active integrator circuits have large bandwidths (about 100 MHz).
Miniature probes having nanosecond response time are made using very few turns of copper strips
for UHF measurements.

Figure. Rogowski coil for high impulse current

measurements.