Communication Theory

NOTES FOR 4th SEMESTER ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

SUBJECT CODE: 21EC44

Communication Theory 21EC44

RINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme
and Outcome Based Education (OBE)]
SEMESTER – V EC
Subject Code 18EC53 IA Marks 40
Number of Lecture Hours/Week 5 Exam Marks 60
Total Number of Lecture Hours 50 Exam Hours 03
CREDITS – 04
Course objectives: This course will enable students to:
● Understand and analyze concepts of Analog modulation schemes viz AM, FM, Low pass sampling
and Quantization as a random process.
● Understand and analyze concepts digitization of signals viz: Sampling, quantization and encoding.
● Evolve the concepts of SNR in the presence of channel induced noise and study demodulation of
analog modulated signals.
● Evolve the concepts of quantization noise for sampled and encoded signals and study the concepts
of reconstruction from these samples at a receiver.

Revised
Teach ing Bloom’s
Modules Hours Taxonomy
(RBT) Level
Module – 1
AMPLITUDE MODULATION: Introduction, Amplitude Modulation:
Time & Frequency – Domain description, switching modulator,
Envelop detector.
DOUBLE SIDE BAND-SUPPRESSED CARRIER MODULATION:
Time and Frequency – Domain description, Ring modulator,
Coherent detection, Costas Receiver, Quadrature Carrier
Multiplexing. 10
L1, L2, L3
Hours
SINGLE SIDE–BAND AND VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND METHODS OF
MODULATION: SSB Modulation, VSB Modulation, Frequency
Translation, Frequency- Division Multiplexing, Theme Example:
VSB Transmission of Analog and Digital Television

Module – 2

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ANGLE MODULATION: Basic definitions, Frequency Modulation:

Narrow Band FM, Wide Band FM, Transmission bandwidth of FM
Signals, Generation of FM Signals, Demodulation of FM Signals,
FM Stereo Multiplexing, Phase–Locked Loop: Nonlinear model of 10
L1, L2, L3
PLL, Linear model of PLL, Nonlinear Effects in FM Systems. The Hours
Superheterodyne Receiver.

Module – 3

NOISE: Shot Noise, Thermal noise, White Noise, Noise Equivalent

Bandwidth.
Noise in Analog Modulation: Introduction, Receiver model, noise in 10
DSB-SC receivers. Noise in AM receivers, Threshold effect, noise in FM L1, L2, L3
Hours
receivers, Capture effect, FM threshold effect, FM threshold reduction,
Pre-emphasis, and De-emphasis in FM.

Module – 4

SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION: 10 L1, L2, L3

Introduction, Why Digitize Analog Sources? The Sampling process, Hours
Pulse Amplitude Modulation, Time Division Multiplexing,
Pulse-Position Modulation, Generation of PPM Waves, Detection of
PPM Waves.
Module – 5

SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION:

The Quantization Process, Quantization Noise, Pulse– Code

Modulation: Sampling, Quantization, Encoding, Regeneration,
Decoding, Filtering, Multiplexing, Delta modulation. 10
L1, L2, L3
Application Examples – (a) Video + MPEG (b) Vocoder. Hours

Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, students will be able to:
Analyze and Compute performance of AM and FM modulation in the presence of noise at
the receiver.
Analyze and Compute performance of digital formatting processes with quantization
noise.
Multiplex digitally formatted signals at Transmitter and Demultiplex the signals and
reconstruct digitally formatted signals at the Receiver.
Design /Demonstrate the use of digital formatting in Multiplexers, Vocoders and Video
transmission.

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Graduating Attributes (as per NBA)
Engineering Knowledge Problem
Analysis
Design / development of solutions (partly)
Question paper pattern:
● Examination will be conducted for 100 marks with question paper containing 10 full
questions, each of 20 marks.
● Each full questions can have a maximum of 4 sub questions.
● There will be 2 full questions from each module covering all the topics of the module.
● Students will have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each
module.
● The total marks will be proportionally reduced to 60 marks as SEE is 60.
Textbook:
Communication Systems, Simon Haykins & Moher, 5th Edition, John Willey,
India Pvt. Ltd, 2010, ISBN 978 – 81 – 265 – 2151 – 7.

Reference Books:
1. Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, B. P. Lathi, Oxford
University Press., 4th edition.
2. An Introduction to Analog and Digital Communication, Simon Haykins, John Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd., 2008, ISBN 978–81–265–3653–5.
3. Principles of Communication Systems, H.Taub & D.L.Schilling, TMH, 2011.
4. Communication Systems, Harold P.E, Stern Samy and A Mahmond, Pearson
Edition, 2004.
5. Communication Systems: Analog and Digital, R.P.Singh and S.Sapre: TMH 2nd
edition, 2007.

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MODULE-1

AMPLITUDE MODULATION: Introduction, Amplitude Modulation: Time & Frequency –

Domain description, switching modulator, Envelop detector.

DOUBLE SIDE BAND-SUPPRESSED CARRIER MODULATION: Time and Frequency –

Domain description, Ring modulator, Coherent detection, Costas Receiver, Quadrature Carrier
Multiplexing.

SINGLE SIDE–BAND AND VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND METHODS OF MODULATION: SSB

Modulation, VSB Modulation, Frequency Translation, Frequency- Division Multiplexing,
Theme Example: VSB Transmission of Analog and Digital Television.

1.1 Objectives:

​ Forms of amplitude modulation techniques that include conventional AM-

Representation, Generation and detection are discussed.

​ Double sideband Representation, Generation and detection are discussed. It covers

theoretical and practical aspects of AM.

​ Study about Single side band suppression and VSB Modulation and demodulation

techniques.

1.2. Introduction:

Block diagram of modulation process

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Block diagram of modulation and demodulation process

1.3. Types of modulation:

Carrier wave

Modulating wave

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FM wave

1.4. Amplitude Modulation:

In this type of modulation the amplitude of a sinusoidal carrier is varied according to the
transmitted message signal. Let m(t)be the message signal we would like to transmit, ka be
the amplitude sensitivity (modulation index), and c(t) = Accos(2πfct)be the sinusoidal carrier
signal, where Ac is the amplitude of the carrier and fc is the carrier frequency.

The transmitted AM signal waveform is described by

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Note:

Modulation Index:

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Under Modulation:

Ideal Modulation:

Over Modulation:

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1.5. Double side band large carrier:

To conserve transmitted power, let us suppress the carrier, i.e., let the transmitted waveform
be described by

This is called double side-band suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation.

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1.6. Double Side band Suppressed carrier:

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1.6. Receivers for AM and DSB:

Receivers can be classified into coherent and non-coherent categories.

Definition: If a receiver requires knowledge of the carrier frequency and phase to extract the
message signal from the modulated waveform, then it is called coherent.

Definition: If a receiver does not require knowledge of the phase (only rough knowledge of
the carrier frequency) to extract the message signal from the modulated waveform, then it is
called non-coherent.

Non-coherent demodulator (receiver) for standard AM

Peak envelop Detector

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1.7. Single-side band modulation:

Standard amplitude modulation and DSBSC are wasteful of bandwidth beause they both
require a transmission bandwidth equal twice the message bandwidth

Thus the channel needs to provide only the same bandwidth as the message signal. When
only one side band is transmitted the modulation is reffered to as single side band
modulation.

1.7.1. Frequency domain description:

Precise frequency domain description of a single side band modulation wave depends on
which side band is transmitted.

Consider a messge signal M(f) limited to the band . the spectrum of

DSBSC modulated wave obtained by multiplying m(t) with the carrier wave is shown.

The upper band is represented is mirror image of the lower side band.

The transmission band requirement of SSB is one half that required for DSBSC or AM
modulation

The principle disadvantage of SSB is complexity , cost of its implementation.

1.7.2 Frequency discrimination description method for generating an SSB

modulated wave:
Two conditions must be satisfied

The message signal m(t) has little or no frequency content

The highest frequency component W of the message signal m(t) is much lesser than
carrier frequency
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Then under these conditions the desired side band will appear in a non overlapping
interval in the spectrum in such a way that it may be selected by an appropriate filter

The most severe requirement of this method of SSB generation usually arises from the
unwanted side band

In designing the band pass filter in the SSB modulation scheme we must satisfy the
following two conditions

The pass band of the filter occupies the same frequency range as the spectrum of the
desired
SSB modulated wave.

The width of the guard band of the filter, separating the pass band from the stop band
where the unwanted side band of the input lies is the twice the lowest frequency
component of the message signal

The frequency separation between the sidebands of this DSBSC modulated wave is
effectively twice the first carrier frequency , thereby permitting the second filter to
remove the unwanted sideband.

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1.8 .VSB Modulated Wave

Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation distinguishes itself from SSB modulation in two
practical respects:
1. Instead of completely removing a sideband, a trace or vestige of that sideband
is transmitted; hence, the name “vestigial sideband.”
2. Instead of transmitting the other sideband in full, almost the whole of this second band is
also transmitted.

1.9. Frequency Domain Description:

Specifically, the transmitted vestige of the lower sideband compensates for the amount
removed from the upper sideband. The transmission bandwidth required by the VSB
modulated wave is given by: - B = W + f

Where, W is message bandwidth, f is the bandwidth of the vestigial sideband.

VSB has the virtue of conserving bandwidth like SSB, while retaining the low frequency
baseband characteristics of double sideband modulation.
It is basically used in transmission of tv signals where good phase characteristics and
transmission of low frequency components is important.

Transmits USB or LSB and vestige of other

sideband Reduces bandwidth by roughly a factor
of 2
Generated using standard AM or DSBSC modulation, then filtering
Standard AM or DSBSC demodulation
VSB used for image transmission in TV signals

1.10. Generation of VSB modulate wave:

To generate VSB modulated wave, we pass a DSBSC modulated wave through a sideband
shaping filter.

The design of the filter depends on the desired spectrum of the VSB modulated wave. The
relation between transfer function H(f)of the filter and the spectrum S(f) of the VSB
modulated wave is given by –
S(f)= Ac/2[M(f-fc) + M(f+fc)]H(f), where M(f) is message spectrum.
To determine the specifications of the filter transfer function H(f) so that S(f)
defines the spectrum of the s(t), we pass s(t) through a coherent detector.
Thus, multiplying s(t) by a locally generated sine wave cos(2 π fc t), which is synchronous
with the carrier wave Ac cos(2 π fc t), we get v(t)= cos(2 π fc t)s(t).
The relation in frequency domain gives the Fourier transform of v(t) as
V(f) = 0.5[S(f-fc) + S(f+fc)]
The final spectrum is given by : -
Vo(f)=Ac/4 M(f) [H (f - fc) + H (f + fc )]

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1.11. Envelope Detection of VSB wave plus Carrier:

The modified modulator wave applied to the envelope detector input as
s(t) = Ac[1+0.5kam(t)]cos(2 πfct) – 0.5kaAcmQ(t)sin(2 πfct)
The envelope detector output denoted by a(t) is given as – a(t)=
Ac{[a+0.5kam(t)]^2 + [0.5kamQ(t)]^2}^0.5

The distortion can be reduced either by reducing the % modulation to reduce ka or by

increasing the width of the vestigial sideband to reduce mQ(t).

1.12. Comparison of Amplitude Modulation Techniques:

​ In standard AM systems the sidebands are transmitted in full, accompanied by the

carrier. Accordingly, demodulation is accomplished by using an envelope detector or
square law detector. On the other hand in a suppressed carrier system the receiver is
more complex because additional circuitry must be provided for purpose of carrier
recovery.
​ Suppressed carrier systems require less power to transmit as compared to AM systems
thus making them less expensive.

​ SSB modulation requires minimum transmitter power and maximum transmission

band with for conveying a signal from one point to other thus SSB modulation is
preferred.
​ VSB modulation requires a transmission band with that is intermediate then that of
SSB or DSBSC.
​ DSBSC modulation, SSB modulation, and VSB modulation are examples of linear
modulation. The output of linear modulator can be expressed in the canonical form
given by
​ s(t)= s1(t)cos(2πfct) –sQ(t) sin(2πfct).

​ In SSB and VSB modulation schemes the quadrature component is only to interfere
with the in phase component so that power can be eliminated in one of the sidebands.
​ The band pass representation can also be used to describe quadrature amplitude
modulation.The complex envelope of the linearly modulated wave s(t) equals
s(t)=s1(t)+jsQ(t).

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1.13. Frequency Translations:

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1.14. Frequency Division Multiplexing:

Multiplexing is a scheme, whereby a number of independent signals can be combined

into a composite signal suitable for transmission over a common channel. Voice frequencies
transmitted over telephone systems, for example, range from 300 to 3100 Hz. To transmit a
number of these signals over the same channel (e.g. cable), the signals must be kept apart so
that they do not interfere with each other, and thus they can be separated at the receiving end.
This is accomplished by separating the signals either in frequency or in time. The technique of
separating the signals in frequency is referred to as frequency-division multiplexing (FDM),
whereas the technique of separating the signals in time is called time-division multiplexing
(TDM).
Following each signal input, we have shown a low- pass filter, which is designed to
remove high-frequency components that do not contribute significantly to signal representation
but are capable of disturbing other message signals that share the common channel. These
low-pass filters may be omitted only if the input signals are sufficiently band-limited initially.
The filtered signals are applied to modulators that shift the frequency ranges of the signals so as
to occupy mutually exclusive frequency intervals. The necessary carrier frequencies needed to
perform these frequency translations are obtained from a carrier supply. For the modulation, we
may use any one of the methods described in previous sections of this chapter. However, in
telephony, the most widely used method of modulation in frequency-division multiplexing is
single sideband modulation, which, in the case of voice signals, requires a bandwidth that is
approximately equal to that of the original voice signal. In practice, each voice input is usually
assigned a bandwidth of 4 kHz. The band-pass filters following the modulators are used to
restrict the band of each modulated wave to its prescribed range. The resulting band-pass filter
outputs are next combined in parallel to form the input to the common channel. At the
receiving terminal, a bank of band-pass filters, with their inputs connected in parallel, is used to
separate the message signals on a frequency-occupancy basis. Finally, the original message
signals are recovered by individual demodulators. Note that the FDM system shown in Figure.

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EXAMPLE: Modulation steps in a 60-channel FDM system

The practical implementation of an FDM system usually involves many steps of
modulation and demodulation, as illustrated in Figure The first multiplexing step combines 12
voice inputs into a basic group, which is formed by having the nth input modulate a carrier at
frequency fc= 60+4nkHz, where n =1, 2,..12. The lower sidebands are then selected by band-
pass filtering and combined to form a group of 12 lower sidebands (one for each voice input).
Thus the basic group occupies the frequency band 60–108 kHz. The next step in the FDM
hierarchy involves the combination of five basic groups into a super group. This is
accomplished by using the nth group to modulate a carrier of frequency fc= 372+48n kHz, where
n=1, 2, .. , 5. Here again the lower sidebands are selected by filtering and then combined to form
a super group occupying the band 312–552 kHz. Thus, a super group is designed to
accommodate 60 independent voice inputs. The reason for forming the super group in this
manner is that economical filters of the required characteristics are available only over a
limited frequency range. In a similar manner, super groups are combined into master groups,
and master- groups are combined into very large groups.

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1.15. Outcomes

Earn the basic principles and engineering issues involved in analog communication systems.
Appreciate the uses of modulation techniques.
A detailed study in terms of bandwidth, spectral forms and other factors.
Merits and demerits of SSB and VSB.
Introduction to FDM scheme.

1.16. Further Readings

​ Modern digital and analog Communication systems B. P. Lathi, Oxford

University Press., 4th ed, 2010

​ Communication Systems, Harold P.E, Stern Samy and A Mahmond, Pearson Edn, 2004.

​ Communication Systems: Singh and Sapre: Analog and digital TMH 2nd , Ed 2007.

​ www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVQ7mr2TU2U

​ nptel.ac.in/courses/117105085/

1.17. Recommended Questions

1. Explain the need for Modulation?
2. Explain the generation of AM wave using switching modulator with equations,
waveforms and spectrum before and after filtering process?
3. Explain the time domain & frequency domain representation of AM wave?
4. Show that square law device can be used to detect AM wave?
6. What is Quadrature null effect? How it can be eliminated?
7. Explain the generation of DSB-SC using Ring modulator?
8. With a neat diagram explain Quadrature carrier multiplexing.
9. Explain the advantage of SSB over DSBSC.
10. Compare the different AM schemes.
11. Explain the FDM scheme.

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