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Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Chemistry
Formulae & Relative Masses
Contents
Formulae
Empirical Formulae & Formulae of Ionic Compounds
Writing Equations
Ar & Mr

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Formulae
Your notes
Molecular formulae
Elements are often represented using their chemical symbol from the Periodic Table

Chemical symbols of elements table

Element Symbol Element Symbol

Lithium Li Calcium Ca

Chromium Cr Gold Au

Aluminium Al Sulfur S

Seven elements exist as diatomic molecules, which means that they are molecules made of two
atoms:
1. Hydrogen, H2
2. Nitrogen, N2
3. Oxygen, O2
4. Fluorine, F2
5. Chlorine, Cl2
6. Bromine, Br2
7. Iodine, I2

Periodic Table identifying the 7 diatomic elements

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Your notes

The highlighted elements all exist as diatomic molecules with the formula X2
These 7 elements are also classed as simple molecules
Atoms combine together in fixed ratios that will give them full outer shells of electrons
When this happens, a molecule is formed
The molecular formula of a molecule shows:
The type of atoms involved, given by the chemical symbol
AND
The number of atoms, given by the subscript (little) number after a chemical symbol

Examples of molecular formulae

Substance Molecular formula Made from

Hydrogen H2 2 hydrogen atoms

Chlorine Cl2 2 chlorine atoms

Water H 2O 2 hydrogen atoms

1 oxygen atom

Methane CH4 1 carbon atom

4 hydrogen atoms

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Ammonia NH3 1 nitrogen atom

3 hydrogen atoms
Your notes
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 2 hydrogen atoms
1 sulfur atom
4 oxygen atoms

The table also shows that the molecular formula can be deduced from the relative number of atoms
present
E.g. Ammonia contains 3 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of nitrogen, which means its molecular
formula is NH3

Diagrammatic representation of chemicals

Diagrams or models can be used to represent and/or deduce the molecular formula of elements and
simple compounds:

When simple molecules are represented using coloured atoms, a key is used to show the colours for
each type of atom
Using the water examples, it is important to know that these representations also show the
arrangement of the atoms in the molecule
Water, H2O
The hydrogen atoms are on either side of the oxygen atom

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It does not have two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom all joined together in a row

Your notes

Worked Example
What is the molecular formula of the following compound?

Answer:
The molecule contains:
4 carbon atoms
10 hydrogen atoms
Therefore, the molecular formula is C4H10

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Empirical Formulae & Formulae of Ionic Compounds

Your notes
Empirical formulae
Extended tier only
The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element present in one
molecule or formula unit of the compound
The empirical formula of an organic molecule is often different to its molecular / chemical formula
For example, ethanoic acid has the chemical formula CH3COOH or C2H4O2 but its empirical
formula is CH2O
The molecular / chemical formula of an ionic compound is always its empirical formula
For example, sodium chloride has the chemical formula NaCl, which is also its empirical formula

Worked Example
Complete the table to give the molecular and empirical formulae of the given compounds.

Chemical Molecular Empirical

formula formula

Answers:

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The completed table is:

Chemical Molecular Empirical Your notes

formula formula

C3H 8 C3H 8

C2 H 4 CH2

C4H10O C4H10O

The first compound contains 3 carbon atoms and 8 hydrogen atoms

This 3:8 ratio of atoms cannot be simplified
Therefore, the molecular and empirical formula are both C3H8
The second compound contains 2 carbon atoms and 4 hydrogen atoms
This 2:4 ratio of atoms can be simplified to 1:2
Therefore, the molecular formula is C2H4 and the empirical formula is CH2
The third compound contains 4 carbon atoms, 10 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom
This 10:4:1 ratio of atoms cannot be simplified
Therefore, the molecular and empirical formula are both C4H10O

Deducing formulae of ionic compounds

Extended tier only
Metals and non-metals react together to form ionic compounds
Ionic compounds are not simple molecules
Remember: Simple molecules are formed when non-metals react together to form compounds
Ionic compounds involve the metal losing electrons and the non-metal gaining electrons to form ions

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Some ions that you will be expected to be able to use, because they are stated in the exam
specification, include:
Your notes
Hydrogen ions, H+ - sometimes referred to as protons
Group 1 ions, e.g. Li+, Na+, K+
Group 7 ions, F–, Cl–, Br–
Copper(II) ions, Cu2+
Iron(II) ions, Fe2+
Iron(III) ions, Fe3+
There are some polyatomic (containing more than one atom) ions stated in the exam specification:
Carbonate ions, CO32–
Sulfate ions, SO42–
Hydroxide ions, OH–
Nitrate ions, NO3–
Ammonium ions, NH4+

How to determine the formulae of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds typically have no overall charge
This means that the size of any positively charged ion is cancelled by the size of any negatively
charged ion
Careful: This should not be confused with an atom having no overall charge

Direct comparison
The formula of an ionic compound can be determined by directly comparing the charges of the ions:
For example, iron(II) sulfate
The iron(II) ion is Fe2+, which means that it has a 2+ or +2 charge
The sulfate ion is SO42–, which means that it has a 2– or –2 charge
The charges cancel each other out
Mathematically, (+2) + (–2) = 0
This means that one SO42– ion is needed to cancel the +2 charge on Fe2+

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Therefore, the formula of iron(II) sulfate is FeSO4

The swap-and-drop method
Your notes
When the ions in the ionic compound have different charges, it can be easier to use the swap-and-
drop method
Careful: If you use this method with ions that have the same charge, then you must give the
simplest whole number ratio to get the correct answer
For example, copper(II) chloride:
The copper(II) ion is Cu2+, which means that it has a 2+ or +2 charge
The chloride ion is Cl–, which means that it has a 1– or –1 charge
The size of the charge on the copper(II) ion indicates the number of chloride ions needed, and the
size of the charge on the chloride ion indicates the number of copper(II) ions needed

Determining the formula of copper(II) chloride

The charges swap from element to element and drop down. The positive and negative signs are
removed and there is no need for the number 1.
This gives the overall formula of copper(II) chloride as CuCl2

Worked Example
The compound produced in the reaction between iron wool and chlorine contains the ions Fe3+ and
Cl–.
a) Give the formula of this compound.
b) State the name of this compound.

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Answers:
Part a) Your notes
Direct comparison method:
The iron ion is Fe3+, which means that it has a 3+ or +3 charge
The chloride ion is Cl–, which means that it has a 1– or –1 charge
The charges do not cancel each other out
Mathematically, (+3) + (–1) ≠ 0
Three Cl– ions are needed to cancel the +3 charge on Fe3+
Therefore, the formula is FeCl3
Swap-and-drop method

The formula is FeCl3

Part b)
The metal is iron and the chlorine will change to chloride
Therefore the name is iron chloride

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Take your time determining the chemical formula of ionic compounds with
Different charges on the ions
Polyatomic ions

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Writing Equations
Your notes
Writing word equations & symbol equations
Word equations
Word equations show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full chemical
names
reactants → products
The reactants are the substances on the left-hand side of the arrow
They can be thought of as the chemical ingredients of the reaction
They react with each other to form new substances, which are the products
The products are on the right-hand side of the arrow
The arrow (which is spoken as “to form” or “produces”) implies the conversion of reactants into
products
Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst (a substance added to make a reaction go faster)
can be written above the arrow
An example is the reaction of sodium hydroxide (a base) and hydrochloric acid to produce sodium
chloride (common table salt) and water:
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ⟶ sodium chloride + water

Worked Example
1. Ammonia reacts with nitric acid to form the fertiliser ammonium nitrate. Write a word equation
for the reaction taking place.
2. Iron(II) hydroxide and sodium sulfate are formed when iron(II) sulfate solution and sodium
hydroxide react together. Write a word equation for the reaction taking place.
3. Carbon is the main element found in coal and burns in air to produce carbon dioxide. Write a
word equation for the reaction taking place.
Answers:
1. Ammonia + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate
This question has all the information in the correct order
Ammonia reacts with nitric acid

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This becomes ammonia + nitric acid

to form
Your notes
This is the arrow in the equation
to form the fertiliser ammonium nitrate
This tells you that the product is ammonium nitrate
2. Iron(II) sulfate + sodium hydroxide → iron(II) hydroxide + sodium sulfate
Careful: This question has all the required information but the products are written first
Iron(II) hydroxide and sodium sulfate are formed
This becomes → iron(II) hydroxide + sodium sulfate
when iron(II) sulfate solution and sodium hydroxide react together
This becomes Iron(II) sulfate + sodium hydroxide →
3. Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
Careful: Not all of the required information is given in the question
You are expected to know that burning in air means that the chemical is reacting with
oxygen
Carbon... ...burns in air
This becomes carbon + oxygen
to produce
This is the arrow in the equation
to produce carbon dioxide
This tells you that the product is carbon dioxide

Symbol equations
A symbol equation uses the formulae of the reactants and products to show what happens in a
chemical reaction
When writing symbol equations, you should:
Ensure reactants are on the left of the equation and products are on the right
Write the following non-metals as molecules: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2
Include state symbols
Solid = (s)
Liquid = (l)
Gas = (g)

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Aqueous = (aq)
Sometimes it can be hard to know what the correct state symbol is and we have to look for clues in the
identity of substances in a reaction Your notes
Generally, unless they are in a solution:
Metal compounds will always be solid, although there are a few exceptions
Ionic compounds will usually be solids
Non-metal compounds can be solids, liquids or gases
So, it depends on information given
Precipitates formed in solution count as solids
A symbol equation must be balanced to give the correct ratio of reactants and products:
For example, the combustion of sulfur:
S (s) + O2 (g)→ SO2 (g)
This equation shows that one atom of solid sulfur, S, reacts with one gaseous molecule of oxygen, O2,
to make one gaseous molecule of sulfur dioxide, SO2

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In exams, you will not need to include them in all equations unless you are specifically asked to .
However, it is good practice to include state symbols in your equations so that you don't
miss any marks.
Be careful when writing the state symbol of solutions of liquids.
For example, ethanol, or common alcohol, is a liquid at room temperature, so if it is pure
alcohol then you would be using (l) as the state symbol.
However, most of the time alcohol is used as a solution in water so the state symbol should
be (aq).

Balancing symbol equations

When balancing equations, there must be the same number of atoms of each element on either side of
the equation following the law of conservation of mass
To balance an equation you work across the equation from left to right, checking one element after
another

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If there is a group of atoms such as a nitrate group (NO3–) that has not changed from one side to
the other, then count the whole group as one entity rather than counting the individual atoms
Examples of balanced symbol / chemical equations include: Your notes
Acid-base neutralisation reaction:
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) ⟶ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Redox reaction:
2Fe2O3 (aq) + 3C (s) ⟶ 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)
In each equation, there are equal numbers of each atom on either side of the reaction arrow so the
equations are balanced
The best approach is to practice lot of examples of balancing equations
This can be by trial and error - changing the coefficients (numbers) in front of the formulae one by one
and checking the result on the other side
Balance elements that appear on their own, last in the process

Worked Example
When magnesium oxide, MgO, reacts with nitric acid, HNO3, it forms magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2,
and water.
magnesium oxide + nitric acid ⟶ magnesium nitrate + water
Write the balanced symbol equation for this reaction.
Answer:
The balanced symbol equation is:
MgO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Step 1 - writing the unbalanced equation
Magnesium oxide, MgO, reacts with nitric acid, HNO3, it forms magnesium nitrate,
Mg(NO3)2, and water
MgO + HNO3 ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
The Mg and O atoms (not including the O in the NO3 group appear to be balanced), so we
should focus on the H atoms and NO3 groups
Step 2 - balancing hydrogen atoms
There are 2 hydrogen atoms on the product side, so 2 hydrogen atoms are needed on the
reactant side

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This means that 2HNO3 will be needed as we cannot change the chemical formula
MgO + 2HNO3 ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O Your notes
This also balances the nitrate, NO3, groups
Step 3 - checking the equation
The equation appears balanced so we need to check that it is:
Reactant side:
Mg atom
1 O atom - not including those in the NO3 group
2 H atoms
2 NO3 groups - remember to keep groups as a single entity if they are unchanged on
both sides of the equation
Product side:
1 Mg atom
2 NO3 groups - remember to keep groups as a single entity if they are unchanged on
both sides of the equation
2 H atoms
1 O atom - not including those in the NO3 group
The equation is now balanced

Worked Example
Aluminium reacts with copper(II) oxide to produce aluminium oxide and copper. Balance the symbol
equation for the reaction taking place.
_Al (s) + _CuO (s) ⟶ _Al2O3 (s) + _Cu (s)
Answer:
The balanced symbol equation is:
2Al (s) + 3CuO (s) ⟶ Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)
Step 1 - balancing aluminium atoms
There are 2 aluminium atoms on the product side, so 2 aluminium atoms are needed on the
reactant side
2Al + CuO ⟶ Al2O3 + _Cu
Step 2 - balancing oxygen atoms
There are 3 oxygen atoms on the product side, so 3 oxygen atoms are needed on the
reactant side

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This means that 3 CuO will be needed as we cannot change the chemical formula
2Al + 3CuO ⟶ Al2O3 + Cu Your notes
Step 3 - balancing copper atoms
There are 3 copper atoms on the reactant side, so 3 copper atoms are needed on the
product side
2Al + 3CuO ⟶ _Al2O3 + 3Cu
The equation is now balanced

Deducing symbol equations

Extended tier only
For some reactions, you will not be given the unbalanced equation
You will be expected to know or deduce the formula of compounds and then balance the
equations

Worked Example
Aluminium burns in chlorine to form the white solid, aluminium chloride.
Write the balanced symbol equation, including state symbols, for the reaction.
Answer:
1. Work out the formulae and state symbols of the reactants and products:
Aluminium is a solid metal, like other pure metals, it is an element so its formula is the same
as its chemical symbol: Al (s)
From your knowledge of Group VII elements, you should know that chlorine is a gas that
exists as a diatomic molecule: Cl2 (g)
Aluminum chloride is a solid - this information is given in the question as you would not be
expected to know this.
Its formula is deduced from the charges on the ions present:
Aluminium has a 3+ charge
Chloride ions have a 1- charge
Therefore, for the compound to be neutral, 3 chloride ions are needed for every 1
aluminium ion: AlCl3 (s)
2. Construct an unbalanced symbol equation:
The unbalanced symbol equation is:

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Al (s) + Cl2 (g) → AlCl3 (s)

3. Balance the equation:
Your notes
Make the number of Cl atoms on the right-hand side an even number by adding a 2 in front
of AlCl3:
Al (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)
This gives 6 Cl atoms on the right-hand side
So, now balance the number of Cl atoms, on the left-hand side, by adding a 3 in front of Cl2:
Al (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)
This gives 2 Al atoms on the right-hand side
So, balance the number of Al atoms, on the left-hand side, by adding a 2 in front of the Al:
2Al (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When balancing equations you cannot change any of the formulae, only the amount of each atom or
molecule. This is done by changing the numbers that go in front of each chemical species.

Balancing Ionic Equations

In aqueous solutions, ionic compounds dissociate into their ions
This means that they separate into their component ions
For example, hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide dissociate as follows:
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
It is important that you can recognise common ionic compounds and their constituent ions
These include:
Acids such as HCl and H2SO4
Group I and Group II hydroxides e.g. sodium hydroxide
Soluble salts e.g. potassium sulfate, sodium chloride
The steps to writing an ionic equation are:
1. Write the full, balanced symbol equation

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2. Replace the ionic compounds in the balanced symbol equation with the component ions
3. Remove any ions that appear on both sides of the equation Your notes

Worked Example
Write the ionic equation for the displacement reaction of aqueous chlorine and aqueous potassium
iodide.
Answer:
1. Write out the full balanced equation:
2KI (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + I2 (aq)
2. Replace the ionic compounds in the balanced symbol equation with the component ions
2K+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2K+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq)
3. Remove any ions that appear on both sides of the equation:
2I- (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Ionic equations should always have state symbols included.

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Ar & Mr
Your notes
Relative masses
Relative atomic mass
The symbol for relative atomic mass is Ar
The relative atomic mass for each element can be found in the Periodic Table, along with the atomic
number
Relative atomic mass is shown on the atomic symbol
It is always larger than the atomic number (except for hydrogen, where they are the same)
Use the key on the Periodic Table to correctly identify the mass number

Key for chemical symbols on the Periodic Table

This key is given on the Periodic Table in exams and identifies the number that is the relative atomic
mass.
Atoms are too small to accurately weigh but scientists needed a way to compare the masses of atoms
Carbon-12 is used as the standard atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units
The mass of all other atoms are compared against carbon-12
The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12

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The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24 which means that magnesium is twice as heavy as
carbon
Your notes
The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 which means it has one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-
12 atom
Relative molecular (formula) mass
The symbol for the relative molecular mass is Mr
Relative molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule
The term relative formula mass is used when referring to the total mass of an ionic compound
To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
present in the formula

Relative Formula Mass Calculations Table

Substance Atoms present Calculation Mr

Hydrogen 2xH (2 x 1) 2
H2

Water (2 x H) + (1 x O) (2 x 1) + (1 x 16) 18
H2 O

Potassium carbonate (2 x K) + (1 x C) + (3 x O) (2 x 39) + (1 x 12) + (3 x 16) 138

K2CO3

Calcium hydroxide (1 x Ca) + (2 x O) + (2 x H) (1 x 40) + (2 x 16) + (2 x 1) 74

Ca(OH)2

Ammonium sulfate (2 x N) + (8 x H) + (1 x S) + (4 x O) (2 x 14) + (8 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) 132

(NH4)2SO4

Worked Example
Calculate the relative formula mass of:
1. Sodium chloride, NaCl
2. Copper oxide, CuO
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3. Magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2

Answers:
Your notes
1. Sodium chloride
NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
2. Copper oxide
CuO = 63.5 + 16 = 79.5
3. Magnesium nitrate
Mg(NO3)2 = 24 + (14 x 1 x 2) + (16 x 3 x 2) = 148

Reacting masses
The Law of Conservation of mass tells us that mass cannot be created or destroyed
In a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of the products
We can use this, along with relative atomic / formula masses to perform calculations to identify the
quantities of reactants or products involved in a chemical reaction
Example:
2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
Relative atomic masses: Ca = 40; O = 16
Using the balanced symbol equation:
Reactants:
2 x 40 = 80 units of mass of calcium
2 x 16 = 32 units of mass of oxygen (O2 molecule, 16 + 16 = 32)
Products:
2 x (40 + 16) = 112 units of mass of CaO
2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
80 + 32 = 112
The ratio of the mass of calcium and oxygen reacting will always be the same, regardless of the units
80 g of calcium will react with 32 g of oxygen to form 112 g of calcium oxide
80 tonnes of calcium will react with 32 tonnes of oxygen to form 112 tonnes of calcium oxide
So, 40 kg of calcium will react with 16 kg of oxygen to form 56 kg of calcium oxide

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Your notes
Worked Example
Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced when 32 g of methane, CH4, reacts completely in
excess oxygen:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Relative atomic masses, Ar: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16
Answer:
Using the balanced symbol equation:
Reactants:
12 + (4 x 1) = 16 units of mass of methane
2 x 16 = 32 units of mass of oxygen (O2 molecule, 16 + 16 = 32)
Products:
12 + (2 x 16) = 44 units of mass of carbon dioxide
2 x ((2 x 1) + 16) = 36 units of mass of water
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
16 + 64 → 44 + 36
So, 16 g of methane would react in excess oxygen to form 44 g of carbon dioxide
32 g of methane is double the amount of methane from the balanced symbol equation
So, this would produce double the amount of caron dioxide
2 x 44 = 88 g of carbon dioxide

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