ACTIVITY

1 Aim
To identify adiode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, aresistor and a
capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

Apparatus
Multimeter, a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor.
Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.
1. It ADiode is atwo terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased.
does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow.
2. An LED (ight emitting diode) is alsoa two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glows.
3. A Transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B) and
collector (C).
4. AnIC(integrated circuit) is amulti-terminal device in the form of achip. (See Fig. 1.1)
1234 1000 pF
6V

Paper
Electrolytic
Rings
(a)Carbon resistor Mica (b) Capacitors

pnp or npn

LED
(c) Diodes 7 (d) Transistor

1234 567 8
(e) Integrated circuits

Fig. 1.1
5. AResistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when a potential difference is applied across it.
6. ACapacitor is alsoa two terminal device. When it is connected to a d.c. source, then multi-meter shows some current
initially but it decays to zero quickly. However, it conducts when a.c. voltage is applied across its terminals.
The components to be identified are shown in Fig. 1.1

Physics Lab Manual (X) 101

 Procedure
1. If the item has four or more terminals and is in form of a chip, it is an IC (integrated circuit).
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
3. Ifthe item has two terminals, it may be diode, an LED,a resistor or a capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as follows:
4. Put the selector on resistance Rof multimeter and check the continuity. The probe metal ends
terminal marked on the multimeter as common and P (or + ve). are inserted
in
If it so the black one is in common and red probe is in P
(or+ ve). On touching the two ends of the device to the tus
other metal ends of probes - A
If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and
does not move when reversed and there is no ligke
emission, the item is a diode.
If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and
the item is an LED.
does not move when reversed and there is light emission
3. It pointer moves when voltage is applied in one
way and also moves when reversed, the item is a
4. On touching the probes, if a large deflection is observed initially which resistor. VO

the item under then gradually decreases to zero, then A

observation is a capacitor.
Observations
T WITH NAKED EYE
S. No.
Number of legs or pins of the item
Inference
1
More than three The item is an IC.
2. Three The item is a transistor.
3
Two
The item may be a resistor,
capacitor, diode or L.E.D.
TABLEº WITH MULTIMETER AS AN OHMMETER 1
S. No. Possible deflection before and
after interchanging the probes Inference
1. Same constant deflection
2. The item is a resistor.
Unidirectional with no emission of light
3. The item is a diode.
Unidirection with emission of light
The item is an
4. Initially high but gradually decreases to zero. L.E.D.
The item is a
capacitor
Precautions
1. Terminals of multimeter should be properly connected to the given
item to be identified.
2. Selection on multimeter should be made specifically.

-
102
(X
 ACTIVITY
To study effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the
3 Aim)
source) on an LDR.

Apparatus
Light source, Light dependent resistors (LDR's) of different types, metre bridge to measure resistance, a battery,
connecting wires, resistance box, a jockey etc.

Theory
The material in which the average relaxation time is affected, when light is incident on it, can be used to make light
dependent resistor.It is known that the resistanceof the resistor increases whencovered with hand. However, the
resistance of a semi-conductor decreases when exposed to light.
As we know that the intensity of light at a point is inversely proportionalto the square of the distance of the point
1
from the source, i.e.,Ic2,hence as thedistance increases, intensity of light decreases and the resistance of LDR
also decreases.
HR.B -LDR
Procedure
1. Set up the metre bridge to measure the unknown resistance as
described in experiment 2of section-A. (100- 1)
2. Place the LDR inthe right gap and resistance box in the left gap
as shown in Fig. 3.1.
3. In order to locate the neutral point, adjust the position of jockey
by takingsuitable resistance from resistance box. Battery K

Fig. 3.1 Circuit Diagram

104 Physics Lab Manual (X)

4, Now
focus the light from a source on
the LDR with the help of a
the resistance as before. Also, measure the convex lens placed at a suitable distance. Find
the source in different positions at distance of the source from
the LDR.
5. Place known
Notethe observations in the table given distances from the LDR and find the resistance in each case.
below:
Observations

TABLE
S.NO. Position of Distance of LDR
light source from the source
Resistance 100-/ S=
R(100 -)
R

1.
2.
3.
4.

Result
It is observed that as the distance of the source of light from the LDR
increases, its resistance decreases.
Precautions
1. The LDR should be connected carefully to the voltage source.
2. Jockey should be touched gently on the bridge wire.

UDA
 ACTIVITY
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light
4 Aim)
incident obliquely on a glass slab.

Apparatus incident tay

Glass slab, drawing board, white paper P

sheet, drawing pins, office pins,

P2
protractor.

Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) is incident on the
face XY of a rectangular glass slab,then
after refraction it bends towards the
Retracted ray A!

normal since refraction takes place from

rarer to denser medium. The refracted T

ray (QR) travels along straight line and is d

incident on face X'Y' of the slab and after

refraction bends away from the normal M P3
since refraction takes place from denser
P4
torarer medium. The ray (RK) out through
emergent ray A
face XY' is called emergent ray.
Fig. 4.1 Refraction through a glass slab
From Fig. 4.1
() The incident ray is parallelto the emergent ray i.e. i=e.
(i) The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by adistance,
d=tsecr sin(i- r).

Procedure
1. Fix awhite paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.
2. Take a glass slab andput itsymmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary XYY'X'.
3. Draw a normal at point Q on face XY and draw a line PQ making an angle of 30 (say) with the normal. Then
will represent an incident ray.
4. Fix two pins P, and P,on the line PQat distance 10cm ormore between them.
5. See images of these pins through face XY' and fix two more pins P, and P, (10 cm or more apart) in such awb)
that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, allbeing along astraight line.
6. Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RK through the pin pricks of P, and P, to represent emerrsent rayJoin
QRto represent refracted ray.
7. Draw normal at point Ron face XY and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle iie. 30.

106 Physics Lab Manual (X)

 8. Produce PO: forward to cut
X^Y at Z. From R,,
draw RT
of light in passing through the
the ray
given perpendicular to RK. RT measures lateral displacement d, of
glass slab.
9. Measure the angle of emergence (e,).
10. breadth XX= t, of the glass slab with
Measure the
the help of a metre scale.
d
11. Calculate the value of

Deneat the experiment by placing the glass slab so that the

refracted ray nasses through its length and then
through its thickness. But the angle of incidence should be kept the
same as in the first case i.e. 30". Calculate
d, dz
the values of and as explained in steps 10 and
11.
13. Record the observations in atabular form.

Observations and Calculations

Angle of incidence in each case = 30o
S. No. Thicknessof glass Angle of Lateral displacement d
slab traversed by light (t) emergence (d) t

1. t,=....... cm d =.....cm

2
d
L, ....... cm e, =..... d, = ....... Cm =..
t

d, = ........ cm
d
3 z....... Cm e =....... =...

Result
1. As e = iin each observation, therefore, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but it gets laterallv
displaced.
2 d3
tz i.e.

=Constant for the same angle of incidence.

.:. d at
is directly proportional to the thickness of the slab for
wnich shows that the lateral displacement of a ray of light
the same angle of incidence.

107
Physics Lab Manual (X1)
 Precautions
1. Pins should not be placed too close to each other.
2. The pins should be vertical.
3. The angle of incidence should be kept the same for the three observations.

VIVA-VOCE
Q.1. What is light ?
Sin i
Ans. Light is a form of energy which produces in us i.e. = constant = u
+ho
 ACTIVITY
lo
6 Aim
observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit
edges of razor blades). (between sharP

Apparatus
Tuo razor blades, adhesive tapes, a Screen, a source of
plate.
monochromatic light (laser pencil), black paper and a glass

Theory
piffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around thecorners or edges of a fine opening or
takes place when order of wavelength is comparable or small as compared to
aperture. Diffractiorn
the size of slit or aperture. Tne
diffractioneffect iS more pronounced if the size of the aperture or the obstacle is of the order of
wavelength of the
waves. The diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light waves from
different symmetrical points of the
same wavefront. The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central bright band
having alternate dark
andweak bright bands of decreasing intensity on both sides.
For diffraction, d sin =n
Here d = size of
aperture or slit
0= angle of diffraction
n = order of diffraction
A = wavelength of light.

Procedure
1. Fix the black paper on the glass plate by using
adhesive.
2. Place two razor blades so that their sharp edges Glass plate
are parallel and extremely close to each other
to form a narrow slit in between, as shown in
Black paper
Fig. 6.1
3. Cut the small slit in between the sharp edges
of blades and place it at a suitable distance
from a wallor screen a dark room.
4. Throwa beam of light on the slit by the laser Fig.6.1 Athin slit made by using two razor
pencil. blades, black paper and a glass plate
5. Adiffraction pattern of alternate bright and dark bands is seen on the wall.

Result
When light waves are incident on aslit or aperture, then it bends away (spreads) at the corners of slit showing the
phenomena of diffraction of light.

Physics Lab Manual (XI1) 111

 Precautions
1. Air gaps should not be left between glass plates and black paper.
2. The razor blades should be placed extremely close as possible.
3. Diffraction pattern should be seen on a wall of a dark room.
4. Apoint source of monochromatic light like laser torch should be used.
5. The source of light should be held at least at a distance of 2m from the slit between the
two bladee

VIVA-VCE
Q, 1. What is diffraction of light ? Q. 6. What is the difference between
Ans. The phenomenon of bending of light around
sharp corners or edges of an obstacle and its
the
spreading
and diffraction of light ?
Ans. The interference of light is
interference
into the regions of geometrical shadows is called due to the
diffraction of light. Superposition of light waves emitted from two coherent
sources where as diffraction of light is
Q. 2. State the condition for the diffraction of light due to the
to take place. interference of light waves emitted from two halvec of
the same wavefront.
Ans. The size of the obstacle
should be comparable Q. 7. What is the
expression for the width ofthe
with the wavelength of light.
Q. 3. What is
central maximum in the diffraction pattern ?
diffraction of light due to ?
Ans.The diffraction of light is due to the Ans. o= 2 D
of light waves emanating from the interference where the symbols have their usual
two halves of the same
wavefront. meanings.
o, 4. Why is the Q. 8. What happens to the
observed ?
diffraction of light not commonly maxima if the width of the
width of the central
slit is decreased ?
Ans.It is because the wavelength light is very smalI
of Ans. The width of the
and obstacles of such small size are central maximum ie. 0 =2
not commonly AD
available. d is inversely
Q. 5. Can sound waves be also diffracted ?
proportional
to the width (d) of the slt.
Ans. Yes, the diffraction of sound is
Therefore,
if the width of
the slit is
quite common. It width of central maxima will decreased,
then the
is because the wavelength of
sound is quite large and Q. 9. Why is the increase.
obstacles of this size are easily available. bright ? centre of the diffraction
pattern
Ans. It is
the because the
waves from the two halves of
wavefront reach the centre in the same phase.
 ACTIVITY
lostudy the nature and size of the image formed bya
70 Aim
concave
mirror on a screen by using a candle and a screen (tor dmer e
distances of the candle from the mirror).

Apparatus
AConcave mirror, an optical bench, three uprights, a piece of cardboard, asharp ccutter, a candle and a spirit level.

Theory
The nature, position and size of the image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of object w.rt. the
concave mirror.
From mirror formula.

1 1 1
V u f
when u = o (infinite), v = -f
when u = -2f, V =- 2f
when u = -f V = (infinite)
when u<(-, vbecome positive and therefore,the image becomes virtual.
Hence as the object is moved from infinity towards a concave mirror, its image (position of screen) moves from the
focus of the mirror towards infinity. The two cross each other at distance 2f i.e. at the centre of curvature of the
given concave mirror.

Procedure
1. Find the rough focal length (f) of the given concave mirror by obtaining a clear image of some distant object on
the screen, Then, centre of curvature of the concave mirror lies at a distance 2f from the pole of the mirror.
2. Level the optical bench by using its levelling screws and a spirit level.
3. Mount the concave mirror over an upright and place it over the optical bench near the zero mark of its scale.
4. Fix alighted candle over another upright and place it over the optical bench near its other end.
5. Mount the cardboard screen having arectangular slot over the third upright and place it between the candle
and the concave mirror.
6. Adjust the heights of the three uprights so that the tip of the candle flame, upper edge of the slot in the card
board sereen andthe pole of the concave mirror are in the same straight line and parallel to the length of the
optical bench.
1. Mark the rough positions of the focus (F) and centre of curvature (C) of the concave mirror on the optical bench.
The points Fand Clie at distances fand 2ffrom the pole of the concave mirror, wheref is its rough focal length.
When the candle lies at infinity
8. Practically, it is not possible to place the candle at infinite distance from the concave mirror. To afairly good
CPproximation, the candle mav be placed at the extreme end of the optical bench, so that it is situated much
beyond the centre of curvature of the given concave mirror. Adjust the position of the cardboard screen, so that
asharp image of the candle flame is obtained on its upper half portion.
Physics Lab Manual (X) 113
 The screen will lie almost at the focus of the concave mirror and areal, inverted and highly diminished
the candle flame will be obtained on it as shown in Fig. 7.1. image of

Parallel rays
from infinity

B
From infinity F
P
C

Fig. 7.1
When the candle lies beyond C
9. When the candle lies beyond C, its real, inverted and diminished image will be formed between Fand Cas
shown in Fig. 7.2
X
A D

B
P
B

Fig.7.2
When the candle lies at C
10. When an object is placed at the centre of curvature of a con
cave mirror, its image is also formed at the same point. In the
present arrangement, it is not possible to place both the candle
and the screen at the same position. CB
In order to overcome this difficulty, a tubular bulb may be fixed B P
in the slot of the cardboard screen so that it is parallel to the
upper edge of the slot. It will be observed that a real and in
verted image of the same size will be formed at the centre of
curvature of the mirror as shown in Fig. 7.3.
When the candle lies between F and C
Fig. 7.3
11, When the candle is placed between Fand C, its image will be
formed beyond C. As in this position of the candie,
the image is not formed between the candle and the mirror, an
ordinary cardboard screen (screen without sod
may be used.
It will be observed that a real, inverted and
magnified image of the candle will be formed bevond Cas shown n
Fig. 7.4.

114
Physics Lab Manual (Xil)
 A

B
B
P

A'

Fig. 7.4

When the candle lies at F

12. Inthis position off the candle, the nature and size of the image
cannot be studied as the image will be formed at infinity as B E
shown in Fig. 7.5
When the candle lies between Fand P (pole) A
P
13. In this position of the candle also, the nature and size of the
image cannot be studied. It is because, in this case, the image
is formed behind the mirror as shown in Fig. 7.6. It is virtual,
erect and magnified. and a virtual image cannot be brought on Fig. 7.5
the screen.

A'

X D

Image

P
B

Fig. 7.6

14. Record the observation in tabular form.

Observations
ough focal-length of the given concave mirror, f= ....cm
S. No. Position of Nature of image Size of
Object Image Real/virtual Inverted/erect
image
1. Much beyond C Roughly at F Real Inverted
(at infinity) Highly
2. BeyondC Between F and C Real Inverted diminished
3. At C At C Real Inverted
Diminished
4.
Same size
Between Fand C Beyond C Real Inverted
Magnified
5. At F At infinity Cannot be studied experimentally
6. Between Fand P Behind the mirror Cannot be studied experimentally

Precautions
1. The optical bench should be levelled properly.
2. The positions of the candle, for which the image is formed between the candle and the
concave mirror, a cardboard
Screen having a rectangular slot should be used.
3. The tip of the candle flame, the upper edge of the rectangular slot in the
cardboard screen and pole of the
mirror should be in the same straight line and parallel to the length of the optical bench.
4. The position of the screen should be adjusted carefully, so as to obtain a sharp image of the
candle flame on it.
VIVA-VOCE
Q. 1. What is a mirror ?
Q. 8. What is mirror formula ?
Ans.Ahighly polished surface which reflects a major
portion of light incident on it is called a mirror. Ans. 1
-t1 1
Q. 2. What is the radius of curvature of a plane
mirror ? where the symbols have their usual meanings.
Ans. Infinity. Q. 9. When does a
 ACTIVITY
lostudy the nature and size of the image formed by a
7(ü) Aim lens on a screen by using a candle and a screen (tor
convex
dimeret
distances of the candle from the lens).

Apparatus
Aconvexlens, an optical bench, three uprights, a cardboard screen, a candle and a spirit level.

Theory
From lens formula,
1 1 1

V u f
when o (infinite) V =f
when u = -2f, V = 2f
when u = V = oo (infinite)
when U< ), vbecome negative andthe image becomes virtual.
Hence,as the object is moved from infinity towards the convex lens, its image (position of the screen) moves from
the focus of the lens towards infinity.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and it can not be obtained on the screen.

Procedure
1. Find the rough focal length () of the given convex lens by obtaining a clear image of some distant object on the
Screen.

2. Level the optical bench by using its levelling screws and spirit level.
3. Mount the convex lens over an upright and place it over the optical bench in its middle.
4. Fix the lighted candle over another upright and place it over the optical bench near its one end.
5. Mount a cardboard screen over the third upright and place it over the optical bench near its other end.
0. Adjust the heights of the three uprights, so that the tip of the candle flame, optical centre of the lens and the
centre of the cardboard screen are in the same straight line and parallel to the length of the optical bench.
its
I Mark the rough positions of the pointsFand 2F on the optical bench at distances f and 2f from the lens on
vOth the sides, where fis the rough focal length of the lens.
When the candle lies at infinity Convex lens

8. Practically, it is not possible to place the candle at infinite

stdnce from the convex lens. To a fairly good approximation,
the candle may be placed as far as possible from the lens, So
that it is situated much beyond the point 2F. Adjust the position
of the cardboard Screen, so thata sharp image of the candle
Tlame is obtained on the screen.
The Screen will lie almost at the focus of the lens and a real,
flame will
inverted
be
and highly diminishedimage of the candie Fig. 7.7
formed as shown in Fig. 7.7.
Physics Lab Manual (X) 117
 When the candle lies beyond 2F
9. When the candle lies beyond 2F, its real, inverted and diminished image will be formed on the screen, whe
placed between Fand 2F on the other side of the lens as shown in Fig.7.8.
Convex lens

F A 2F
A
2F'

Fig. 7.8
When the candle lies at 2F Convex lens
10. When the candle is placed at
2F, its real and inverted image B
of the same size willbe formed
at 2F on the other side of the 2F
lens as shown in Fig. 7.9. 2F' F A'

B
When the candle lies
Fig. 7.9
between Fand2F Convex lens
11. When the candle is placed
B
between F and 2F, the image
will be formed beyond 2F on
the other side of the lens as
F 2F
shown in Fig. 7.10. Further, 2F A
the image formed will be real,
inverted and magnified as
shown in Fig. 7.10.

When the candle lies at F B'

Fig. 7.10
12. In this position of the candle,
Convex lens
the nature and size of the
image cannot be studied as
the image will be formed at
infinity as shown in Fig. 7.11.
2E
2F

Fig. 7.11
Physics Lab Manual (XI)
 the candle lies
When
between F and optical centre
position of the candle also, the nature and size of the image this case, the
this cannot be studied because in on
13.In formed is virtual, erect and magnified as shown in Fig. 7.12. and a virtual image caannot be obtained
image
thescreen.

Recordthe observations in a
tabular form.
14.

Convex lens

2F
B' B

Fig. 7.12

Observations
Rough focal length of the given convex lens, f=......cm
S. No. Position of Nature of image Size of

Object Image Real/virtual Inverted/erect image

1. Roughly at F Real Inverted Highly

Much beyond 2F
(at infinity) diminished
2 Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Real Inverted Diminished
3 At 2F At 2F Real Inverted Same size
4 Between Fand 2F Beyond 2F Real Inverted Magnified
5 At F At infinity Cannot be studied experimentally
6.
Between Fand Optical On the same side of the lens Cannot be studied experimentally
centre on which the object is placed

Precautions
Ihe optical bench should be levelled properly.
2. The tip of the candle flame, the optical centre of the lens and the centre of the cardboard screen should be in
the same straight line and parallel to the length of the optical bench.
ine position of the screen should be adjusted carefully, soas toobtain asharp image of the candle flame on
it