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HEAT TRANSFER THEORY

Hyo Won Kwak

CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

Convection heat transfer

Transfer of energy by the mass movement of groups of molecules
Restricted to liquids and gases
As mass molecular movement does not occur at an appreciable speed in
solids
Cannot be mathematically predicted
Study is largely based on experimental results rather than on theory
Satisfactory convection heat transfer formulae
Relationships between dimensionless groups of physical quantities
Furthermore, since the laws of molecular transport
Govern both heat flow and viscosity
Convection heat transfer and fluid friction are closely related to each other
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

Convection coefficients
Natural convection
In which movements occur due to density differences
on heating or cooling
Forced convection
External source of energy is applied to create
movement
In many practical cases, both mechanisms occur
together
Natural Convection

Heat transfer by natural convection

when a fluid is in contact with a surface hotter or
colder than itself
As the fluid is heated or cooled it changes its density
This difference in density causes movement in the
fluid that has been heated or cooled and causes the
heat transfer to continue
Examples of natural convection
when material is placed inside a chiller or freezer
store in which circulation is not assisted by fans
important when material is placed in ovens without
fans and afterwards when the heated material is
removed to cool in air
Natural Convection

Natural convection rates depend upon the physical

constants of the fluid
Density r
Viscosity m
Thermal conductivity k
Specific heat at constant pressure cp
Coefficient of thermal expansion b (beta) which for gases =
V/T by charles' law
Other factors that also affect convection-heat transfer
are, some linear dimension of the system
Diameter D or length L
A temperature difference term, DT
Gravitational acceleration g
Since it is density differences acted upon by gravity that create
circulation
 Experimentally, if has been shown that
convection heat transfer can be described in
terms of these factors grouped in dimensionless
numbers which are known by the names of
eminent workers in this field:

• Nusselt number (Nu) = (hcD/k)

• Prandtl number (Pr) = (cpm/k)
• Grashof number (Gr) = (D3r2g b DT/m2)
and in some cases a length ratio (L/D)
Natural Convection

If we assume that these ratios can be related by a

simple power function we can then write the most
general equation for natural convection:
(Nu) = K(Pr)k(Gr)m(L/D)n (5.14)
Experimental work has evaluated K, k, m, n, under
various conditions
Once K, k, m, n, are known for a particular case,
together with the appropriate physical characteristics of
the fluid, the Nusselt number can be calculated.
From the Nusselt number we can find hc and so
determine the rate of convection-heat transfer by
applying eqn. (5.5).
Natural Convection

In natural convection equations, the values of

the physical constants of the fluid are taken at
the mean temperature between the surface and
the bulk fluid
The Nusselt and Biot numbers look similar
Nusselt number (Nu) = (hcD/k)
for Nusselt, k and h both refer to the fluid
for Biot k is in the solid and h is in the fluid
Natural Convection Equations

These are related to a characteristic dimension of the body

(material for example) being considered, and typically this is a
length for rectangular bodies and a diameter for
spherical/cylindrical ones
1. Natural convection about vertical cylinders and planes, such as
vertical retorts and oven walls
(Nu) = 0.53(Pr.Gr)0.25 for 104 < (Pr.Gr) < 109 (5.15)
(Nu) = 0.12(Pr.Gr)0.33 for 109 < (Pr.Gr) < 1012 (5.16)
For air these equations can be approximated respectively by:
hc = 1.3(DT /L)0.25 (5.17)
hc = 1.8(DT)0.25 (5.18)
(5.17) and (5.18) are dimensional equations and are in standard
units (DT in °C and L (or D) in meters and hc in J m-2 s-1 °C-1).
The characteristic dimension to be used in the calculation of (Nu)
and (Gr) in these equations is the height of the plane or cylinder
Natural Convection Equations

2. Natural convection about horizontal cylinders

such as a steam pipe or sausages lying on a rack
(Nu) = 0.54(Pr.Gr)0.25 for laminar flow in range
103 < (Pr.Gr) < 109 (5.19)
Simplified equations can be employed in the
case of air, which is so often encountered in
contact with hotter or colder foods giving again:
For 104 < (Pr.Gr) < 109
hc = 1.3(DT/D)0.25 (5.20)
and for 109< (Pr.Gr) < 1012
hc = 1.8(DT)0.33 (5.21)
Example

EXAMPLE 5.7. Heat loss from a cooking vessel

Calculate the rate of convection heat loss to ambient
air from the side walls of a cooking vessel in the form
of a vertical cylinder 0.9 m in diameter and 1.2 m
high. The outside of the vessel insulation, facing
ambient air, is found to be at 49°C and the air
temperature is 17°C.
Forced convection Equations

1. Heating and cooling inside tubes, generally fluid foods

being pumped through pipes
In cases of moderate temperature differences and where tubes
are reasonably long, for laminar flow it is found that:
(Nu) = 4 (5.22)
and where turbulence is developed for (Re) > 2100 and (Pr) >
0.5
(Nu) = 0.023(Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4 (5.23)
For more viscous liquids, such as oils and syrups, the surface
heat transfer will be affected, depending upon whether the fluid
is heating or being cooled. Under these cases, the viscosity
effect can be allowed, for (Re) > 10,000, by using the equation:
(Nu) = 0.027(m/ms)0.14(Re)0.8 (Pr)0.33 (5.24)
Forced convection Equations

In both cases, the fluid properties are those of

the bulk fluid except for ms, which is the viscosity
of the fluid at the temperature of the tube surface
Since (Pr) varies little for gases, either between
gases or with temperature, it can be taken as
0.75 and eqn. (5.23) simplifies for gases to:
(Nu) = 0.02(Re)0.8 (5.25)
In this equation the viscosity ratio is assumed to have no
effect and all quantities are evaluated at the bulk gas
temperature. For other factors constant, this
becomes hc = k' v0.8, as in equation (5.28)
Forced convection Equations

2. Heating or cooling over plane surfaces

Many instances of foods approximate to plane
surfaces, such as cartons of meat or ice cream or
slabs of cheese. For a plane surface, the problem of
characterizing the flow arises, as it is no longer
obvious what length to choose for the Reynolds
number
It has been found, however, that experimental data
correlate quite well if the length of the plate
measured in the direction of the flow is taken for D in
the Reynolds number and the recommended equation
is:
Forced convection Equations

(Nu) = 0.036 (Re)0.8(Pr)0.33 for (Re) > 2 x 104 (5.26)

For the flow of air over flat surfaces simplified

equations are:
hc = 5.7 + 3.9v for v < 5 m s-1 (5.27)
hc = 7.4v0.8 for 5 < v < 30 m s-1 (5.28)
These again are dimensional equations and they
apply only to smooth plates. Values for hc for
rough plates are slightly higher
Forced convection Equations

3. Heating and cooling outside tubes

Typical examples in food processing are water chillers, chilling
sausages, processing spaghetti
Experimental data in this case have been correlated by the usual
form of equation:
(Nu) = K (Re)n(Pr)m (5.29)
For gases and for liquids at high or moderate Reynolds numbers:
(Nu) = 0.26(Re)0.6(Pr)0.3 (5.30)
whereas for liquids at low Reynolds numbers, 1 < (Re) < 200:
(Nu) = 0.86(Re)0.43(Pr)0.3 (5.31)
As in eqn. (5.23), (Pr) for gases is nearly constant so that
simplified equations can be written.
Fluid properties in these forced convection equations are
evaluated at the mean film temperature, which is the arithmetic
mean temperature between the temperature of the tube walls
and the temperature of the bulk fluid
Example

EXAMPLE 5.8. Heat transfer in water flowing

over a sausage
Water is flowing at 0.3 m s-1 across a 7.5 cm diameter
sausage at 74°C. If the bulk water temperature is
24°C, estimate the heat-transfer coefficient.

Mean film temperature = (74 + 24)/2 = 49°C.

Properties of water at 49°C are:
cp = 4.186 kJ kg-1°C-1
k = 0.64 J m-1 s-1°C-1
m = 5.6 x 10-4 N s m-2
r = 1000 kg m-3.
Example

EXAMPLE 5.9. Surface heat transfer to vegetable

puree
3 m min-1 over a flat plate 0.9 m long by 0.6 m wide.
Steam is condensing on the other side of the plate
and maintaining the surface, which is in contact with
the puree, at 104°C. Assume that the properties of the
vegetable puree are, density 1040 kg m-3, specific
heat 3980 J kg-1 °C-1, viscosity 0.002 N s m-2, thermal
conductivity 0.52 J m-1 s-1 °C-1
Example

EXAMPLE 5.10. Heat loss from a cooking vessel

What would be the rate of heat loss from the
cooking vessel of Example 5.7, if air moves past
the cooking vessel at a speed of 61 m min-1 due to
ventilation
OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Most convenient to use overall heat transfer coefficients in heat

transfer calculations as these combine all of the constituent factors
into one, and are based on the overall temperature drop.
An overall coefficient, U, combining conduction and surface
coefficients, has already been introduced in eqn. (5.5).
Radiation coefficients, subject to the limitations discussed in the
section on radiation, can be incorporated also in the overall
coefficient.
The radiation coefficients should be combined with the convection
coefficient to give a total surface coefficient, as they are in series,
hs = (hr + hc) and so: (5.32)
The overall coefficient U for a composite system, consisting of
surface film, composite wall, surface film, in series, can then be
calculated as in eqn. (5.5) from,
1/U = 1/(hr + hc)1 + x1/k1 + x2/k2 + …+ 1/(hr + hc)2 (5.33)
Example

EXAMPLE 5.11. Effect of air movement on heat

transfer in a cold store
In Example 5.2, the overall conductance of the materials in a
cold-store wall was calculated. Now on the outside of such a wall
a wind of 6.7 m s-1 is blowing, and on the inside a cooling unit
moves air over the wall surface at about 0.61 m s-1. The radiation
coefficients can be taken as 6.25 and 1.7 J m-2 s-1 °C-1 on the
outside and inside of the wall respectively. Calculate the overall
heat transfer coefficient for the wall.
EXAMPLE

5.2. Heat transfer in cold store wall of

brick, concrete and cork
A cold store has a wall comprising 11 cm of brick on
the outside, then 7.5 cm of concrete and then 10 cm
of cork. The mean temperature within the store is
maintained at -18°C and the mean temperature of the
outside surface of the wall is 18°C. (Area = 1m2)
Calculate the rate of heat transfer through the wall.
The appropriate thermal conductivities are for brick,
concrete and cork, respectively 0.69, 0.76 and 0.043
J m-1 s-1 °C-1.
Determine also the temperature at the interfaces
between the concrete and cork layers, and the brick
and concrete layers.
Solution
Example

EXAMPLE 5.12. Comparison of heat transfer in

brick and aluminium walls
Calculate the respective U values for a wall made
from either (a) 10 cm of brick of thermal conductivity
0.7 J m-1 s-1 °C-1, or (b) 1.3mm of aluminium sheet,
conductivity 208 J m-1 s-1 °C-1. Surface heat-transfer
coefficients are on the one side 9.8 and on the other
40 J m-2 s-1 °C-1.
Solution

Comparing the calculations in Example 5.11 with those in Example

5.12
it can be seen that the relative importance of the terms varies
In the first case, with the insulated wall, the thermal conductivity of the
insulation is so low that the neglect of the surface terms makes little
difference to the calculated U value. hs = kf /xf
In the second case, with a wall whose conductance is of the same order
as the surface coefficients, all terms have to be considered to arrive at
a reasonably accurate U value.
In the third case, with a wall of high conductivity, the wall conductance
is insignificant compared with the surface terms and it could be
neglected without any appreciable effect on U.
The practical significance of this observation is that if the controlling
terms are known, then in any overall heat-transfer situation other
factors may often be neglected without introducing significant error.
On the other hand, if all terms are of the same magnitude, there are
no controlling terms and all factors have to be taken into account.
HEAT TRANSFER FROM CONDENSING VAPOURS

The rate of heat transfer obtained when a vapor

is condensing to a liquid is very often important
In particular, it occurs in the food industry in steam-
heated vessels where the steam condenses and gives
up its heat; and in distillation and evaporation where
the vapor produced must be condensed
In condensation, the latent heat of vaporization is
given up at constant temperature, the boiling
temperature of the liquid
HEAT TRANSFER FROM CONDENSING VAPOURS

Two generalized equations have been obtained:

1. For condensation on vertical tubes or plane
surfaces
hv = 0.94[(k3r2g/m) x (l/LDT)]0.25 (5.34)
where l(lambda) is the latent heat of the condensing liquid in J
kg-1, L is the height of the plate or tube and the other symbols
have their usual meanings.
2. For condensation on a horizontal tube
hh = 0.72[(k3r2g/m) x (l/DDT)]0.25 (5.35)
where D is the diameter of the tube.
HEAT TRANSFER FROM CONDENSING VAPOURS

These equations apply to condensation in which the

condensed liquid forms a film on the condenser surface.
This is called film condensation: it is the most usual form and is
assumed to occur in the absence of evidence to the contrary.
However, in some cases the condensation occurs in drops that
remain on the surface and then fall off without spreading a
condensate film over the whole surface.
Since the condensate film itself offers heat transfer resistance,
film condensation heat transfer rates would be expected to be
lower than drop condensation heat transfer rates and this has
been found to be true.
Surface heat-transfer rates for drop condensation may be as
much as ten times as high as the rates for film condensation.
HEAT TRANSFER FROM CONDENSING VAPOURS

The contamination of the condensing vapor by other

vapors, which do not condense under the condenser
conditions, can have a profound effect on overall
coefficients.
Examples of a non-condensing vapor are air in the vapors from
an evaporator and in the jacket of a steam pan.
The adverse effect of non-condensable vapors on overall heat
transfer coefficients is due to the difference between the normal
range of condensing heat transfer coefficients, 1200-12,000 J m-
2 s-1 °C-1, and the normal range of gas heat transfer coefficients

with natural convection or low velocities, of about 6 J m-2 s-1 °C-1.

HEAT TRANSFER FROM CONDENSING VAPOURS

Uncertainties make calculation of condensation

coefficients difficult, and for many purposes it is near
enough to assume the following coefficients:

for condensing steam 12,000 J m-2 s-1 °C-1

for condensing ammonia 6,000 J m-2 s-1 °C-1
for condensing organic liquids 1,200 J m-2 s-1 °C-1

The heat-transfer coefficient for steam with 3% air falls to

about 3500 J m-2 s-1 °C-1, and with 6% air to about 1200
J m-2 s-1 °C-1.
Example

EXAMPLE 5.13. Condensing ammonia in a

refrigeration plant (Assuming the ammonia
condensing coefficient, 6000 J m-2 s-1 °C-1)
A steel tube of 1 mm wall thickness is being used to
condense ammonia, using cooling water outside the
pipe in a refrigeration plant. If the water side heat
transfer coefficient is estimated at 1750 J m-2 s-1 °C-
1 and the thermal conductivity of steel is 45 J m-1 s-
1 °C-1, calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient.
SUMMARY

Heat is transferred by conduction, radiation and

convection.
Heat transfer rates are given by the general
equation
q = UA DT
For heat conduction
q = (k/x)A DT
For radiation
q = Aes (T14- T24 )
SUMMARY

Overall heat-transfer coefficients are given by:

(a) for heat conductances in series,

(b) for radiation convection and conduction

1 = 1/(hr1 + hc1) + x1/k1 + x2/k2 + …….+ 1/(hr2 + hc2)
For convection heat-transfer coefficients are given by
equations of the general form
(Nu) = K(Pr)k(Gr)m(L/D)n
for natural convection:
(Nu) = K (Pr.Gr)k
and for forced convection
(Nu) = K(Re)p(Pr)q.