LECTURE 6 - INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATION (ISO) 7-LAYER MODEL.

THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Having a model in mind helps you understand how the pieces of the networking puzzle fit together. The most
commonly used model is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The OSI model, first released in
1984 by the International Standards Organization (ISO), provides a useful structure for defining and describing the
various processes underlying networking communications.
The OSI model is a blueprint for vendors to follow when developing protocol implementations. The OSI model
organizes communication protocols into seven levels. Each level addresses a narrow portion of the communication
process.

How Peer OSI Layers Communicate

Communication between OSI layers is both vertical within the OSI layers, and also horizontal between peer layers in
another computer. This is important to understand, because it affects how data is passed within a computer, as well as
between two computers.
When information is passed within the OSI model on a computer, each protocol layer adds its own information to the
message being sent. This information takes the form of a header added to the beginning of the original message. The
sending of a message always goes down the OSI stack, and hence headers are added from the top
to the bottom.
When the message is received by the destination computer, each layer removes the header from its peer layer. Thus at
each layer headers are removed (stripped ) by the receiving computer after the information in the header has been
utilized. Stripped headers are removed in the reverse order in which they were added. That is, the last header added by
the sending computer, is the first one stripped off and read by the receiving computer.
In summary, the information between the layers is passed along vertically.
The information between computers is essentially horizontal, though, because each layer in one computer talks to its
respective layer in the other computer.

The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers.

 Application
 Presentation
 Session
 Transport
 Network
 Data Link
 Physical

PHYSICAL LAYER
Is the lowest layer and is concerned with the transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a
physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium, and
carries the signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:

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 1. Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better accommodate
the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and frame synchronization. It determines:
 How the receiving station defines a frame
 What signal state represents a binary 1
 How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts
2. Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the medium:
3. Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by baseband (digital) or
broadband (analog) signaling.
4. Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate for the physical
medium.

DATA LINK LAYER

The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer,
allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link. It provides:
 Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes.
 Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no frame buffers are available.
 Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
 Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and recovers from errors that occur in
the physical layer by retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.
 Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
 Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
 Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical medium.

NETWORK LAYER
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data should take based on
network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It provides:
 Routing: routes frames among networks.
 Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a sending station to "throttle
back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up.
 Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit (MTU) size is
less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-assembly at the destination
station.
 Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or names, into physical addresses.
 Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded by subnet intermediate
systems, to produce billing information.

Communications Subnet
The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer software residing in the subnet intermediate
systems can recognize them and use them to route data to the destination address.

This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything about the data transmission and intermediate
switching technologies used to connect systems. It establishes, maintains and terminates connections across the
intervening communications facility (one or several intermediate systems in the communication subnet).

TRANSPORT LAYER
It ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It relieves the higher
layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and their peers.
The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from the network layer. For a
reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is required. If the network layer is
unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the transport protocol should include extensive error detection and
recovery.

The transport layer provides:

 Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller
units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network layer. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with acknowledgments.

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  Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers are available.
 Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one logical link and keeps track
of which messages belong to which sessions.
Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict message size limits imposed by
the network (or lower) layer. Consequently, the transport layer must break up the messages into smaller units, or
frames, prepending a header to each frame.

The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as message start and message end
flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to recognize message boundaries. In addition, if the lower layers
do not maintain sequence, the transport header must contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the
receiving end to get the pieces back together in the right order before handing the received message up to the layer
above.

End-to-end layers
Unlike the lower "subnet" layers whose protocol is between immediately adjacent nodes, the transport layer and the
layers above are true "source to destination" or end-to-end layers, and are not concerned with the details of the
underlying communications facility. Transport layer software (and software above it) on the source station carries on a
conversation with similar software on the destination station by using message headers and control messages.

SESSION LAYER
The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different stations. It provides:
 Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes on different machines to
establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.
 Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over the network, performing
security, name recognition, logging, and so on.

PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed as the translator for
the network. This layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common format at the
sending station, then translate the common format to a format known to the application layer at the receiving station.

The presentation layer provides:

 Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
 Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.

APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network services. This layer
contains a variety of commonly needed functions:
 Resource sharing and device redirection
 Remote file access
 Remote printer access
 Inter-process communication
 Network management
 Directory services
 Electronic messaging (such as mail)
 Network virtual terminals

OSI Physical Layer Concepts

The OSI Physical layer does not define the media used, this layer is concerned with all aspects of transmitting and
receiving data on the network media. Specifically, the Physical layer is concerned with transmitting and receiving bits.
This layer defines several key characteristics of the Physical network, including the following:
 Physical structure of the network (physical topology)
 Mechanical and electrical specifications for using the medium(not the medium itself )
 Bit transmission, encoding, and timing

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Although the Physical layer does not define the physical medium, it defines clear requirements that the medium must
meet. These specifications differ depending on the physical medium. Ethernet for UTP, for example, has different
specifications from coaxial ethernet.

Components That Operate at This Level

Repeaters
A repeater is a network device that repeats a signal from one port onto the other ports to which it is connected.
Repeaters operate at the OSI Physical layer. A repeater does not filter or interpret anything; instead, it merely repeats
(regenerates) a signal, passing all network traffic in all directions. Signals become weaker the farther they travel down
a transmission medium, so repeaters are used to extend the distance between network stations. The term used to
describe the loss of a signal’s strength is attenuation.

Data Link Layer Concepts

Messages consist not of single bits but of meaningful groups of bits. The Data Link layer receives messages, called
frames, from upper layers. A primary function of the Data Link layer is to disassemble these frames into bits for
transmission and then to reconstruct the frames from the bits received.
The Data Link layer has other functions as well, such as addressing, error control, and flow control for a single link
between network devices.
The IEEE 802 standard divides the Data Link layer into two sublayers:
 Media Access Control (MAC). The MAC sublayer controls the means by which multiple devices share the same
media channel for the transmission of information. This includes contention methods, or how data is transferred
from a device, such as the network card, to the transmission medium. The MAC layer can also provide addressing
information for communication between network devices.
 Logical Link Control (LLC). The LLC sublayer establishes and maintains links between communicating devices.
Error and Flow Control at the Data Link Layer
Several of the protocol layers in the OSI model play a role in the overall system of flow control and error control for
the network. Flow control and error control are defined as follows:
 Flow control. Flow control determines the amount of data that can be transmitted in a given time period. Flow
control prevents the transmitting device from overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control. Error control detects errors in received frames and requests retransmission of frames.
Components That Operate at This Level—Bridges
A bridge is a connectivity device that operates at the OSI Data Link layer. The messaging parameters available at the
Data Link layer enable a bridge to pass a frame in the direction of its destination without simultaneously forwarding it
to segments for which it was not intended. In other words, a bridge can filter network traffic. This filtering process
reduces overall traffic because the bridge segments the network, passing frames only when they can’t be delivered on
the local segment and passing frames to only the segment for which they are intended.

Network Layer Concepts

The Network layer handles communication with devices on logically separate networks that are connected to form
internetworks. Because internetworks can be large and can be constructed of different types of networks, the Network
layer utilizes routing algorithms that guide packets from their source to their destination networks.
Within the Network layer, each network in the internetwork is assigned a network address that is used to route
packets. The Network layer manages the process of addressing and delivering packets on internetworks.
Delivering Packets
Many internetworks often include redundant data paths that you can use to route messages. Typically, a packet passes
from the local LAN segment of the source PC through a series of other LAN segments, until it reaches the LAN
segment of the destination PC. The OSI Network layer oversees the process of determining paths and delivering
packets across the internetwork.
Switching techniques are mechanisms for moving data from one network segment to another. These techniques
are as follows:
 Circuit switching
 Message switching
 Packet switching

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching establishes a path that remains fixed for the duration of a connection. Circuit switching provides
devices with a dedicated path and a well defined bandwidth, but circuit switching is not free of disadvantages.

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  Establishing a connection between devices can be time-consuming.
 Because other traffic cannot share the dedicated media path, bandwidth might be inefficiently utilized.
 Circuit-switching networks must have a surplus of bandwidth, so these types of switches tend to be expensive
to construct.

Message Switching
Message switching treats each message as an independent entity. Each message carries address information that
describes the message’s destination, and this information is used at each switch to transfer the message to the next
switch in the route.
Message switching transfers the complete message from one switch to the next, where the message is stored before
being forwarded again. Because each message is stored before being sent on to the next switch, this type of network
frequently is called a store-and forward network. The message switches often are general-purpose computers and must
be equipped with sufficient storage (usually hard drives, or RAM) to enable them to store messages until forwarding
is possible.
Message switching offers the following advantages:
 Data channels are shared among communicating devices, improving the efficiency of available bandwidth.
 Message switches can store messages until a channel becomes available, reducing sensitivity to network
congestion.
 Message priorities can be used to manage network traffic.
 Broadcast addressing uses network bandwidth more efficiently by delivering messages to multiple
destinations.
The chief disadvantage of message switching is that
 message switching is not suited for real-time applications, including data communication, video, and audio.

Packet Switching
In packet switching, messages are divided into smaller pieces called packets. Each packet includes source and
destination address information so that individual packets can be routed through the internetwork independently.
So far, packet switching looks considerably like message switching, but the distinguishing characteristic is that
packets are restricted to a size that enables the switching devices to manage the packet data entirely in memory. This
eliminates the need for switching devices to store the data temporarily on disk. Packet switching, therefore, routes
packets through the network much more rapidly and efficiently than is possible with message switching.
Several methods of packet switching exist. Two common methods of packet switching are as follows:
 Datagram
 Virtual circuit

Datagram Packet Switching

Datagram services treat each packet as an independent message. Each packet is routed through the internetwork
independently, and each switch node determines which network segment should be used for the next step in the
packet’s route. This capability enables switches to bypass busy segments and take other steps to speed packets through
the internetwork

Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

Virtual circuits operate by establishing a formal connection between two devices in communication. When devices
begin a session, they negotiate communication parameters, such as maximum message size, communication windows,
and network paths. This negotiation establishes a virtual circuit, which is a well-defined path through the internetwork
by which the devices communicate. This virtual circuit generally remains in effect until the devices stop
communicating.

Packet switching offers the following advantages:

 Packet switching optimizes the use of bandwidth by enabling many devices to route packets through the same
network channels. At any given time, a switch can route packets to several different destination devices,
adjusting the routes as required to achieve the best efficiency.
 Because entire messages are not stored at the switches prior to forwarding, transmission delays are
significantly shorter than those encountered with message switching.
Disadvantages
 They need a significant amount of real-time memory.
 The switching devices must have sufficient processing power to run the more complex routing protocols

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 required for packet switching.
 A system must be in place by which devices can recognize when packets have been lost so that retransmission
can be requested.

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Modes

The OSI Network layer determines the route a packet will take as it passes through a series of different LANs from
the source PC to the destination PC. The complexity and versatility of Network layer addressing gives rise to two
different communication modes for passing messages across the network, both of which are recognized under OSI:
 Connection-oriented mode. Error correction and flow control are provided at internal nodes along the
message path.
 Connectionless mode. Internal nodes along the message path do not participate in error correction and flow
control.

The advantage of connectionless mode is that connectionless communications can be processed more quickly and
more simply because the internal nodes only forward data and thus don’t have to track connections or provide
retransmission or flow control.
Connectionless mode does have its share of disadvantages, however, including the following:
 Messages sometimes get lost due to an overflowing buffer or a failed link along the pathway.
 If a message gets lost, the sender doesn’t receive notification.
 Retransmission for error correction takes longer because a faulty transmission can’t be corrected across an
internal link.

Gateway Services
Routers can handle interconnection of networks whose protocols function in similar ways. When the rules differ
sufficiently on the two networks, however, a more powerful device is required.
A gateway is a device that can translate the different protocols used by different networks. Gateways can be
implemented starting at the Network layer or at higher layers in the OSI model, depending on where the protocol
translation is required.
A hybrid device called a brouter combines some characteristics of a router and a bridge. A brouter routes routable
protocols using information available at the Network layer and acts as a bridge for nonroutable protocols. A routable
protocol is a protocol that can pass through a router. TCP/IP and IPX/SPX are examples of routable protocols.

Transport Layer Concepts

The Transport layer, the next layer of the OSI model, can implement procedures to ensure the reliable delivery of
messages to their destination devices.
The term “reliable” does not mean that errors cannot occur; instead, it means that if errors occur, they are detected. If
errors such as lost data are detected, the Transport layer either requests retransmission or notifies upper-layer
protocols so that they can take corrective action.
The Transport layer enables upper-layer protocols to interface with the network but hides the complexities of network
operation from them. One of the functions of the Transport layer is to break large messages into segments suitable for
network delivery.

Transport Layer Connection Services

Some services can be performed at more than one layer of the OSI model. In addition to the Data Link and Network
layers, the Transport layer can take on some responsibility for connection services. The Transport layer interacts with
the Network layer’s connection-oriented and connectionless services and provides some
of the essential quality control features.
Some of the Transport layer’s activities include the following:
 Repackaging. When large messages are divided into segments for transport, the Transport layer must repackage
the segments when they are received before reassembling the original message.
 Error control. When segments are lost during transmission or when segments have duplicate segment IDs, the
Transport layer must initiate error recovery. The Transport layer also detects corrupted segments by managing
end-to-end error control using techniques such as checksums.
 End-to-end flow control. The Transport layer uses acknowledgments to manage end-to-end flow control between
two connected devices. Besides negative acknowledgments, some Transport layer protocols can request the
retransmission of the most recent segments.

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Session Layer Concepts
The Session layer, manages dialogs between two computers by establishing, managing, and terminating
communications. Dialogs can take three forms:
 Simplex dialogs. These dialogs are responsible for one-way data transfers only. An example is a fire alarm, which
sends an alarm message to the fire station but cannot (and does not need to) receive messages from the fire
station.
 Half-duplex dialogs. These dialogs handle two-way data transfers in which the data flows in only one direction at
a time.
 Full-duplex dialogs. This third type of dialog permits two-way simultaneous data transfers by providing each
device with a separate communication channel.

Costs rise for half- and full-duplex operation because the more complex dialog technologies are naturally more
expensive. Designers of communications systems, therefore, generally use the simplest dialog mode that satisfies the
communication requirements.

Session Layer Session Administration

A session is a formal dialog between a service requester and a service provider. Sessions have at least four phases:
 Connection establishment. In this phase, a service requester requests initiation of a service. During the setup
process, communication is established and rules are agreed upon.
 Data transfer. With all the rules agreed upon during setup, each party to the dialog knows what to expect.
Communication is therefore efficient, and errors are easy to detect.
 Connection release. When the session is completed, the dialog is terminated in an orderly fashion.
 Error Correction. Error Correction is also done at the Session layer. It checks for errors in the reassembled
packets received from the Transport layer.
The connection establishment phase establishes the parameters for the communication session. Actually, the
connection establishment phase is comprised of several tasks, including the following:
 Specification of required services that are to be used
 User login authentication and other security procedures
 Negotiation of protocols and protocol parameters
 Notification of connection IDs
 Establishment of dialog control, as well as acknowledgment of numbering and retransmission procedures
After the connection is established, the devices involved can initiate a dialog (data transfer phase). As well as
exchange data, these devices exchange acknowledgments and other control data that manage the dialog.
The Session layer can also incorporate protocols to resume dialogs that have been interrupted. After a formal dialog
has been established, devices recognize a lost connection whenever the connection has not been formally released.
Therefore, a device realizes that a connection has been lost when the device fails to receive an expected
acknowledgment or data transmission.

Presentation Layer Concepts

The Presentation layer deals with the syntax, or grammatical rules, needed for communication between two
computers. The Presentation layer converts system-specific data from the Application layer into a common, machine-
independent format that supports a more standardized design for lower protocol layers.
The Presentation layer also attends to other details of data formatting, such as data encryption and data compression.
On the receiving end, the Presentation layer converts the machine independent data from the network into the format
required for the local system. This conversion could include the following:

Application Layer Concepts

The Application layer of the OSI reference model is concerned with providing services on the network, including file
services, print services, application services such as database services, messaging services, and directory services
among others.
It is not the one responsible for running user applications such as word processors. The Application layer, however,
does provide an interface whereby applications can communicate with the network. It is this interface that is often
referred to as the Application Programming Interface (API).
Some examples of APIs include MAPI (Messaging Programming Interface) and TAPI (Telephony Application
Programming Interface).
The Application layer also advertises the available services that your computer has to the network.

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NETWORKING STANDARDS
Standards Organizations and the ISO
The development and implementation of de jure standards is regulated by standards organizations. For example, the
CCITT (this is a French acronym that translates to the International Consultative Committee for Telegraphy and
Telephony) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), among other organizations, are
responsible for several prominent network standards that support the International Standards Organization’s objective
of network interoperability.
The International Standards Organization (ISO)—whose name is derived from the Greek prefix iso, meaning
“same”—is located in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO develops and publishes standards and coordinates the activities of all
national standardization bodies. In 1977, the ISO designed a communication standard based on the open systems
architecture theory from which computer networks would be designed. This model came to be known as the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. This model has become an accepted framework for analyzing and developing
networking components and functionality.

Rules and the Communication Process

Some of the procedures governed by network standards are as follows:
 Procedures used to communicate the establishment and ending of communication
 Signals used to represent data on the transmission media
 Types of signals to be used
 Access methods for relaying a signal across the media
 Methods used to direct a message to the intended destination
 Procedures used to control the rate of data flow
 Methods used to enable different computer types to communicate
 Ways to ensure that messages are received correctly