2x 0 During hydroplaning , the friction coefficient between tyre and runway surface- friction factor is equal to

1. Annex 021-11507A power output of a piston engine best economy - point

4. alternating voltage of 400 Hz number of pairs of poles required AC generator running at 6000 rpm is ;
2.2 volts. fully charged lead-acid bat. cell
115 V AC. low pressure pumps of the fuel system are supplied with electric power
120° 3 phase AC generator has 3 separate stator windings spaced
15 minutes. chemical oxygen generator supplies oxygen
12 cm. wave length 2500 MHz.
2.46 m wave length 121.95 MHz
2.53 m. wave length 118.7 MHz
4 m. wave length75 Mhz.
1000 metres. wave length NDB 300 KHz
118 MHz to 136 MHz VDF frequency range
400 Hz. used electrical frequency in aircraft
12000 RPM frequency of 400 Hertz
9.0 psi. maximum cabin differential pressure at FL370
7 - 9 psi. maximum cabin differential pressure
20 to 50 psi. pressure usually produced by Boost Pumps ( BP ) of the fuel supply system
3000 psi. hydraulic braking system (problem)
3000 psi. Large transport aeroplane hydraulic systems pressure
100 N. Image I
100 N. Annex 021-6716A
3500 N.
8000 ft. cabin pressure altitude is not allowed to exceed
10.000 ft but not exceeding 13.000 ft minus 30 minutes. non-pressurised airplane oxygen supply reserve
13.000 ft. non-pressurised airplane oxygen supply reserve
FL 230 Annex 021-786A same cabin altitude is ;
%100 smoke in the cockpit , the crew oxygen regulator
30%. thermal efficiency of a piston engine

voltage regulator of a DC generator is connected

series with the shunt field coil.

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 9:1 piston engine, mixture rich
1:15 piston engine , the chemically correct fuel/air ratio of the mixture
2X 1:15 Maximum exhaust Gas Temperature ( EGT )
mass of fuel and mass of air entering the cylinder. reciprocating engine fuel/air ratio or mixture
mass of fuel and mass of air entering the cylinder. piston engines , mixture ratio is
mass of fuel and mass of air entering the cylinder. Fuel/air ratio ratio between

BMF=IMF-CMF bypass=inlet - compressor ratio bypass compressor

BR=BMF:CMF bypass ratio=bypass : compressor determined inlet compressor
Bypass air mass flow = Inlet air mass flow – Compressor air mass flow = bypass compressor
Bypass ratio = Bypass air mass flow : Compressor air mass flow = hepsi mass olacak volume değil
Bypass ratio = external airflow mass divided by the internal airflow mass. formül:
Bypass ratio = cold air mass flow divided by the hot air mass flow. 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2
Engine Pressure Ratio ( EPR ) is the ratio of total turbine outlet pressure to total compressor inlet pressure (sondan başa!)

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UFAK minor failure 3 between 10^-3 and 10^-5. ( probable )

BÜYÜK major failure 5 between 10^-5 and 10^-7. ( remote )

TEHLİKELİ hazardous failure 7 between 10^-7 and 10^-9. ( extremely remote )

FELAKET catastrophic failure 9 less than 10^-9. ( extremely improbable )

worst effect
minor - aeroplane slight reduction in functional capabilities or safety margins.
minor - flight crew a slight increase in workload.
minor - occupants - excluding flight crew physical discomfort.
HARİÇ
major - aeroplane significant reduction in functional capabilities or safety margins.
major - flight crew physical discomfort or a significant increase in workload.
major - occupants - excluding flight crew physical distress , possibly including injuries.

hazardous - aeroplane large reduction in functional capabilities or safety margins

hazardous - flight crew physical distrees or excessive workload , impairs ability to perform tasks.
hazardous - occupants - excluding flight crew serious or fatal injury to a small number of passengers or cabin crew.

catastrophic - aeroplane hull loss.

catastrophic - flight crew fatalities or incapacitation
catastrophic - occupants - excluding flight crew multiple fatalities.

aeroplane crew occupants (excluding flight crew)

minor slight reduction func.capabil. or safety margins. slight increase in workload. physical discomfort.
major significant reduction " " significant increase " , physical discomfort physical distrees
hazardous large reduction " " excessive " , physical distrees serious or fatal injury ,small number pass,crew

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 catastrophic hull loss. " " fatalities or incapacitation fatalities or incapacitation

koltuk sayısı extinguis

7 – 30 arası 1 T = m ( Vj – Vv )
31 – 60 arası 2 T = m ( Vj – Vv ) + A ( pj – p0 )
61 – 200 arası 3
201 – 300 arası 4 gas turbine process continuous. constant pressure.
301 – 400 arası 5 piston engine process intermittent. constant volume.
401 – 500 arası 6
501 – 600 arası 7
601 ve daha fazla 8

Manifold Absolute Pressure ( MAP ) decreases During climb constant throttle and RPM
power output of a piston engine increases. During climb constant MAP and RPM
cabin press. decreases more slowly than atmospheric pressure. climb after take-off
2X high manifold pressure and low RPM results in excessive pressures in the cylinders
between gas generator turbine and free power turbine. Exhaust gas temperature sensing
manifold pressure decreases climbs at a fixed throttle setting fixed pitch propeller
(1) low (2) forward. take-off , the correct combination of propeller pitch (1) , and propeller lever position (2)

fuel flow should increase descent, for maintain same mixture seting

will increase. If the manifold pressure is increased blade angle of a constant speed propeller

reduce the throttle. fixed pitch propeller , is detonating during climb-out after take-off ,corrective action

exciter breaker generator breaker AC generato over voltage

tie breaker(s). imbalance between an AC generators

4
JET ENGINE
as the pressure altitude increases maximum thrust decreases
fuel consumption decreases slightly at constant TAS.
as the pressure altitude decreases maximum thrust increases
fuel consumption increases slightly at constant TAS.

reversible flight controls direct linkage from controls to control surfaces

irrevisible flight controls need an artificial feel system
Trimming irrevisible flight controls hydraulic power control unit
by adjusting the “zero force point” of the feel system. mechanical or fly-by-wire. (actuatorlar var)

chemical oxygen source gaseous oxygen source

reduced weight and volume greater autonomy. (bağımsız)
easy storage and maintenance reversible functioning.
no risk of explosion regulate flow.
no maintenance. more capacity.

(dış yüzeye teğet)

tangent to the periphery. piston engine turbo-supercharger centrifugal compressor

high pressure and large flow. hydraulic system

thermal-use of hot air anti-icing method for the wings

electrically powered ice protection devices anti-icing for pitot-static ports , windshield
pneumatic mechanical devices impulses leading edge de-icing devices
They can only be used as de-icing devices. sequential cycle more than 10 sec.
triggerede flight deck after icing has become visible.

5
jet wing ice protection hot air system.
turboprop ice protection pneumatic system with inflatable boots.

metric ILS / VOR / VDF

decimetric DME / high Altitude Radio Altimeter following wavelengths
hectometric or kilometric ADF uses the following wavelengths
density of air entering the carburettor carburettor heat reduces
thus enriching the fuel/air mixture.

three-phase 115-200 V , 400 Hz AC Auxiliary Power Unit ( APU ) has its own AC generator

arranged in parallel. bimetal strip detectors of an engine fire detection system

close during a fire.

between blade angle

chord line and
plane of rotation.

cabin pressure minus ambient pressure cabin differential pressure

Outflow valve. cabin pressure is regulated by
hot air coming from compressors. cabin heating supply

dielectric change between fuel and air. capacitance type fuel gauging system

actuator or jack converts hydraulic pressure into linear motion

detonation high manifold pressure and low RPM (revolutions per minute)
use of too low an octane fuel may cause

6
detonation correct procedure reduce manifold pressure and fully enrich the mixture.

Spark plug fouling aircraft climbs without mixture adjustment. (or full rich)
aircraft descends continuously at idle power.

Severe compressor stall rise in turbine gas temperature

increase in vibration level.
compressor stall. gas turbine engine accelerates compressor rpm is too high in comparison

an energy storage. accumulator in a hydraulic system works

optical or ionization Smoke detectors type

upper cargo (class E) Smoke detectors installed

malfunction of the pressure controller outflow valve runs to the open position.
CAB V/S increase, CAB ALT increase, DELTA P decrease

SV
Serial= adet x volt

PA
Parallel=adet x ampere

control of free turbine engines on turboprops

propeller RPM.
torque.
turbine temperature.

calculate the total displacement of a multi-cylinder pistonengine

piston area * piston stroke * number of cylinders

7
decreasing freezing points of the three mentioned fuels
Jet A , Jet A-1 , Jet B

crank assembly crankshaft , connecting rods and pistons

after high pressure valve ( item 4 ). fuel-flow measurement is carried out

advantage Nickel-Cadmium batteries

reduced charging time
constant output voltage

advantages of alternating current A

flexibility
lighter weight
easy to convert into direct current
easy maintenance

advantages of a gaseous oxygen source

regulate flow.
more capacity. pneumatic

advantages of a chemical oxygen source disadvantages of a chemical oxygen source

reduced weight and volume flow which cannot be modulated (ayarlanamaz)
easy storage and maintenance non reversible functioning (geri çevrilemez)
no risk of explosion poor autonomy (zayıf otonom)
no maintenance electrical

disadvantages of axial flow compressors

8
 compared to centrifugal flow compressors
more expensive to manufacture
Annex 021-10164A
greater vulnerability to foreign object damage

C1 and C2 sensors detect smoke.

cool the bleed air air cycle machine

2x check valve. hydraulic device similar to an electronic diode

type of gate logic 1 AND.

hydraulic systems which works correctly

Annex 021-6660A
an INVERT or NOT gate.

Annex

Annex

Annex 021-6736A
a condition of hydraulic lock exists .....

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 fuel cross-feed system supply of any engine from any fuel tank.
fuel-oil heat exchanger cools the oil and heats the fuel.

kVA and kVAR. output power components of a constant frequency AC system

high efficiency constant speed propeller as compared to a fixed pitch propeller
wider speed range

main purpose
lubricating system reduce internal friction and provide cooling 2- aid in dissipation of heat.
accumulator damp the fluid pressure variations. 2- store energy. in a hydraulic system
fuel vent system. pressurization of fuel tanks is maintained by
BCF fire extinguishers flame inhibitors by absorbing the air’s oxygen.
diffuser decrease the flow velocity. preventing excessive fuel as engine speed is increased-independent pwr.set
air cycle machine cool the bleed air. maintain a constant mixture at low and high power settings
supercharger maintain power at altitude. located between the compressor and the combustion chamber
Constant Speed Drive maintain a constant frequency.
compressor bleed valve prevent surging (dalgalanmayı engelleme) low compressor rpm.
mixture control adjust the fuel flow to obtain the correct fuel/air ratio.

cowl flaps control CHT ( cylinder head temperature ).

bypass valve prevent stall in the LP compressor. fitted between the LP and HP compressor
2x pack cooling fan cooling air to primary and secondary heat exchanger during slow flight and ground operation.

distributor distribute secondary current to the sparking plugs

voltage regulator control the output voltage generator at varying loads and speeds.
primer pump provide additional fuel for an engine start.
ignition switch control the primary circuit of the magneto.
baffle check valves prevent fuel movement to the wing tip.

10
 baffle restrict the fuel movements in the tank.
bonding metallic parts provide safe distribution of electrical charges and currents.
ensure zero voltage difference between aircraft components.
provide a single earth for electrical devices.
Pressure Relief Valve relieve overpressure if the pressure reducing valve malfunctions.protect against excessive system pressure
cabin air flow valves maintain a constant and sufficient mass air flow to ventilate the cabin and minimise cabin pressure surges.
“bootstrap” cold air unit ( air cycle machine ) arrangement. (cabin air conditioning and pressurisation system)
static wick dischargers dissipate (dağıtmak) static charge ... avoiding radio interference ..static electricity.

2x stringers assist the skin absorbing the longitudinal traction-compression stresses.

barometric correction in a fuel controller maintain the correct fuel to air mass ratio when the altitude increases.

blow-in-doors in air inlets provide the engine with additional air at high power settings and low air speeds.
turbine conversion of kinetic energy ( velocity ) into ( mechanical ) work.
contact breaker control the primary circuit of the magneto.
trim tab reduces hinge moment and control surface efficiency.
2x proximity evacuation path give additional guidance thick smoke. 2- reduced cabin visibility.

regulator flight deck O2 Supply 100% oxygen. , diluted oxygen. , oxygen on demand. , at emergency/positive pressure

bleed air to “ON” decrease in power and an increase in exhaust gas temperature

float-type carburettors difference in air pressure at the venturi throat and the air inlet

fuel supply mixture control for a carburettor control by

11
 Magnesium alloy construction of gearbox casing material used in

DC starter/generator type of starter used on a helicopter engine

anti-knock capability. octane rating of a fuel characterises

resistance to detonation

oil cooler in the return line to the oil tank after the oil has passed through the scavenge pump.

low amperage , magnetos in a piston engine igition system

high voltage current

2x varying the field strength output of a generator is controlled by

fuel flow only. power output of a diesel engine without a turbo charger is regulated by

Torque times RPM. power output of a piston engine can be calculated by

Torque measured gear box which is located between the engine and the propeller.
the voltage regulator constant-frequency alternators is directly controlled by

tension. pressurisation load on the skin of a fuselage

primary input signals fuel control system primary performance indicator

N2 , either EPR or
compressor discharge pressure , N1.
compressor inlet temperature ,
fuel shut-off ,
thrust lever angle.

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 prevent excessive press. venting an engine oil tank

fail safe design redundancy (fazlalık) of the structure or equipment

safe life design replacement of parts after a given number of cycles or hours of use.

damage tolerance in structural design withstand a weakening of the structure without catastrophic failure.

oil and nitrogen in oleo-pneumatic strut

oil supplies the damping function
nitrogen supplies the spring function.

reason disconnecting a constant speed drive ( CSD ) of an AC generator

low oil pressure in the CSD.
high oil temperature in the CSD.

low pressure fuel-cooled oil cooler

cool the oil
heat the fuel.

bleed air from the engine hydraulic system can be pressurized

2x richness (zenginlik) of fuel/air mixture ratio

actual mixture ratio relative to the chemically correct ratio.
2 -real mixture ratio relative to the theoretical ratio.

emergency extension of landing systems

Compressed nitrogen.
Auxiliary hydraulic system.
Freefall.

13
compression , and then tension bending moment from the wing root to the wing tip
torsion and bending. two deformation modes that cause wing flutter

series wound. (bobin) windings commonly used in DC starter motors

Integral tanks. fuel tanks used on most modern transport aircraft

2 adiabatic and 2 isochoric lines ideal Otto engine indicator diagram

vapour lock stoppage in a fuel feeding line caused by a fuel vapour bubble.
creep. cumulative deformation of the turbine blades in a gas turbine engine
slipstream effect low airspeeds with high power setting

DC generator operating parallel and equalising circuit voltage regulator

AC generator moving part in an AC generator is rotor.
DC generator (mekanik enerjiyi DC ye çeviren motordlardır) difference between aircraft AC alternators and DC generators ( dynamos )
Ampere hours. capacity of a battery alternators are fixed ( stator )
accumulator kimyasal enerjiyi DC elektrik enerjisine çevirir dynamos have a fixed inductor ( field ) coil.
AC alternator connected parallel mode. (Mekanik enerjiyi AC ye çeviren motorlardır)
DC à AC static converter / inverter
AC à DC transformer rectifier unit ( TRU ) accumulator in a hydraulic brake system
a DC transformer and rectifier. batteries are charged in flight from ; supply a limited amount of brake energy
change DC into AC. using inverters in an electrical system
hot buses or direct buses directly connected to the battery.
battery is almost fully discharged voltage to decrease under load.

hot air wing anti-icing system does not affect aerodynamic performance
a reduction in maximum thrust.

use of igniters
for ground starts.

14
 for in-flight relights. (yeniden yakmak)
during turbulence in flight
under heavy precipitation or in icing conditions

reverse thrust deflect (saptırmak) the fan thrust.

fan flow is deflected

high pressure relief valve. hydraulic system pressure limiting control

shunt-type ( parallel field ) DC electric motor

reverse the polarity of either the stator and the rotor

positive sweep Torsion in a wing can be caused by

2x Turbine blade stage “impulse” or “reaction”.

(i) impulse blade section the pressure drops
(ii) remains constant across the rotor blades
pressure drops across the stator blades
remains constant across the rotor blades.

magneto self-contained electro-magnetic induction system.

Using compressor bleed air to power systems

decreases aircraft performance

wing spar carry bending moment

spar of a centilever wing wing bends downwards , aileron flutter aileron deflects
Compression in the upper girder upwards , because...centre of gravity lies behind the hinge line
tension in the lower girder.
wing bends upwards , aileron flutter aileron deflects
can-type combustion chambers downwards ,because...centre of gravity lies behind the hinge line

15
 chambers are inter-connected

continuous loop fire detection system

resistance decreases.
leakage current increases

turbo-prop,decelerates landing roll beta range

produces negative thrust.

“open circuit” occurs in an electrical supply system

loss of continuity will prevent its working components from functioning.

When applying carburettor heating ice in the carburettor

mixture becomes richer. may form at OAT’s higher than +10°C.

When changing power constant-speed propeller , engine overload is avoided by

increasing the RPM before increasing the manifold pressure

2x excessively leaning the mixture for a better fuel economy

high cylinder head and exhaust gas temperature

2x starting the engine at idle rpm on the ground , the mixture is

rich , cool the engine sufficiently when idling.

fixed pitch propeller TAS increase AOA reduce

constant speed propeller TAS increase AOA increase

AC voltage across a capacitor current through the capacitor increase.(capacitor gördüğünde cvp. İncrease)
two AC generators unparalleled phase unimportant.
two AC generators parallel excitation current. (çıkış akımı) are balanced

16
 two AC generators parallel reactive load balanced energizing current.
2x AC generator connected another AC generator
generator breaker and the tie breaker.

combustion gases pass through a turbine pressure drops.

inlet guide vanes ( VIGVs ) VIGVs are located at the front of the HP compressor......
variable stator vanes ( VSVs )

speed static dynamic static

Duct correct-incorrect velocity pressure pressure temp Total pressure Total temp
divergent duct GENİŞLEME decrease increase decrease increase constant constant
convergent duct DARALMA increase decrease increase decrease constant constant

impulse turbine correct or incorrect

pressure drops across the nozzle guide vanes.
pressure remains constant across the rotor blades.

reaction turbine correct or incorrect

pressure drops across the nozzle guide vanes.
pressure drops across the rotor blades.

compressor stall correct or incorrect

high pressure ratio operating at low RPM.
air flow stagnates in the rear stages of the compressor.

rudder limiting correct or incorrect

rudder ratio changer system reduces the rudder deflection as the IAS increases

17
variable stop system limits rudder and rudder pedal deflection as the IAS increases

trimming irreversible flight control system correct or incorrect

zero force position of the control column does not change when using the elevator trim.
zero force position of the control wheel changes when using the aileron trim.

composite and metal structures correct or incorrect

strength to be tailored to the direction of the load
higher strength/weight ratio than metal structures.

sandwich structural parts correct or incorrect

consists of two thin sheets enclosing a light core material.
not suitable for absorbing concentrated loads.

sandwich structural parts correct or incorrect

main function of the core material is to stabilise the covering sheets
unsuitable for absorbing concentrated loads.

chemical oxygen generators correct or incorrect

Chemical oxygen generators used to supply passenger oxygen
chemical oxygen generators,once activated,cannot be switched off.

cockpit windows correct or incorrect

some aeroplanes the cockpit windows have an additional speed restriction
Cockpit side windows are usually defogged only.

structural design principles correct or incorrect

structural design , fail safe implies parallel structural parts.
structural design , fail safe implies redundant load paths.
damage tolerance principle takes cracking of the structure into account.
safe life structure is based on a declared number of cycles or time period (number of cycles önde!)

18
safe life principle is based on the replacement of parts after a given number of cycles or flight hours

gust lock system correct-incorrect

Manual flight controls should have a gust lock.
Reversible flight controls should have a gust lock.
suitable design precautions to prevent flight with the gust lock engaged

gust lock systems When the gust lock is ON there is protection to prevent take-off.

detonation when detonation is recognised

low RPM reduce manifold pressure
high manifold pressure enrich the mixture.
high cylinder head temperature.
using too lean a fuel/air mixture.
too low an octane fuel

FREEZING POINT JET A HIGHER TEMP THAN JET B

FLASH POINT JET A HIGHER TEMP THEN JET B

gas turbine engine with a constant speed propeller and free power turbine
pwr setting increased pwr setting decreased
EGT increased EGT decreases.
HP spool speed increases HP spool speed decreases.
gas generator speed increases.

19
centilever wing
tension in the upper surface ,
compression in the lower surface

Windshield heating essential to improve the strength of the cockpit windows.

magneto fails complete loss of approximately 100 rpm

twin spool turbofan , an abortive start ( hung start ) will result

N2 speed stabilising at a lower than normal rpm and a subsequent increase in EGT.

aircraft structure , “fail safe”

in which the load is carried by other components if a part of the structure fails.

power output of fixed pitch propeller RPM indicator.

power output of a piston engine Torque times RPM.
power output of a diesel engine fuel flow only.

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