Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

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Journal of Business Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres

Understanding work experience in epidemic-induced telecommuting: The

roles of misfit, reactance, and collaborative technologies
Boying Li a, Chenyang Xue b, Yue Cheng c, *, Eric T.K. Lim d, Chee-Wee Tan e
a
Nottingham University Business School China, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 199 Taikang East Road, Ningbo, China
b
Centre for English Language Education, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 199 Taikang East Road, Ningbo, China
c
School of Public Policy and Administration, Nanchang University, 999 Xuefu Road, Nanchang, China
d
UNSW Business School, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia
e
Department of Digitalization, Copenhagen Business School, Howitzvej 60, 4.18, 2000 Frederiksberg, Denmark

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the management of the global COVID-19 pandemic, the mandated closure of workplaces and stay-at-home
Epidemic-induced telecommuting orders have forced workers to adapt to a prolonged period of unplanned telecommuting, which we term
Psychological reactance epidemic-induced telecommuting. Although epidemic-induced telecommuting has drastically altered how work
Person-environment misfit
is conducted, scant attention is being paid to this emerging work arrangement. To this end, we combine psy­
Collaborative technologies
chological reactance theory and person-environment fit theory to advance the concept of misfit between worker
and environment as a core determinant of employees’ work experience in the epidemic-induced telecommuting.
Particularly, we distinguish between supply-value and demand-ability misfits as constraints on workers’ freedom
at work. Having analyzed data collected through a survey administered on remote workers, we discovered that
both misfits positively influenced workers’ perceived psychological reactance, which led to work exhaustion and
counter-productive behaviors. We also found that the utilization of collaborative technologies moderated the
effects of misfit on workers’ psychological reactance.

1. Introduction commonly associated with benefits such as enhanced flexibility and

improved work-life balance (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Golden et al.,
To stem the spread of COVID-19, governments worldwide have 2006), the same may not hold true for epidemic-induced telecommuting
imposed or are imposing containment measures in the likes of lock­ due to its mandated and unplanned nature, affecting workers on a
downs, public quarantines, and travel bans (Akhtar et al., 2020; Toscano massive scale and lasting for a prolonged period with no end in sight
& Zappalà, 2020). By April 2020, over 3.9 billion people globally had (Waizenegger et al., 2020). Epidemic-induced telecommuting differs
been placed under varying forms of movement restriction, accounting from its conventional counterpart in that compulsory home confinement
for half of the world’s population (Bick et al., 2021; Carillo et al., 2021). renders teleworking a “mandatory full-time practice” (Carillo et al.,
As a consequence of these social confinement measures, organizations 2021, p.70). During epidemics, telecommuting can no longer be viewed
and their employees went into a prolonged period of mandated tele­ as a form of flexible work arrangement. Immediately and unexpectedly,
commuting. According to a survey in the United States (US), 35.2% of employees are compelled to work from home and increasingly rely on
the respondents reported that they worked entirely from home in May digital technologies for work purposes, which in turn may culminate in
2020, following the outbreak of COVID-19, whereas only 8.2% of the unprecedented challenges for individuals and organizations (Toscano &
respondents reported doing so in February 2020, before the outbreak Zappalà, 2020). According to Fox (2020), 69% of employees in the US
(Bick et al., 2021). experienced burnout due to remote work during the COVID-19
Telecommuting denotes work arrangements whereby employees pandemic and the burnout rate appears to be growing. Indeed, as
conduct work activities in places other than their primary workplace alleged by Lipman (2021), employees working remotely during lock­
(Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Even though telecommuting is downs often do not demonstrate a higher productivity than usual, which

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: boying.li@nottingham.edu.cn (B. Li), chenyang.xue@nottingham.edu.cn (C. Xue), chengyue@ncu.edu.cn (Y. Cheng), e.t.lim@unsw.edu.au
(E.T.K. Lim), ct.digi@cbs.dk (C.-W. Tan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113330
Received 4 November 2021; Received in revised form 10 September 2022; Accepted 15 September 2022
Available online 24 September 2022
0148-2963/© 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

in turn calls for future inquiries into the effects of such arrangements on being instrumental to telecommuting, there is limited knowledge on
workers’ performance and well-being. how the use of such technologies amplifies or mitigates the impact of the
Past studies have primarily centered on the social impact of tele­ misfit caused by epidemic-induced telecommuting. Subscribing to the
commuting in the workplace (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007), with technology affordance perspective, which describes plausible actions
limited attention paid to the consequences of prolonged periods of that are enabled by technologies and has been widely embraced in prior
mandated, full-time telecommuting during COVID-19 or other pandemic research to comprehend the implications of technologies at work (Kar­
lockdowns. To the best of our knowledge, Carillo et al.’s (2021) study on ahanna, Xu, Xu, & Zhang, 2018; Leidner, Gonzalez, & Koch, 2018), we
epidemic-induced telecommuting is the only scholarly attempt, to date, posit that the relative use of collaborative technologies during
to elucidate how workers adjust to mandated telecommuting. Further­ epidemic-induced telecommuting could moderate the effects of S-V and
more, while previous work has alluded to the challenges of COVID-19 D-A misfits on employees’ freedom at work. Taken together, we
lockdown on work activities, most tend to be descriptive, such that it endeavor to answer the following research questions:
is unclear as to whether the documented observations apply to workers
generally (Galanti et al., 2021; Herath & Herath, 2020). Given the (1) How do P-E misfits affect employees’ freedom at work and
dearth of research on epidemic-induced telecommuting despite its eventually their work experience in epidemic-induced
pervasiveness, an in-depth appreciation of its effects on workers’ per­ telecommuting?
formance and well-being can allow proper interventions to be enacted in (2) How does the use of collaborative technologies mitigate the
a purposeful and targeted manner. impact of P-E misfits on employees’ freedom at work in epidemic-
Epidemic-induced telecommuting is distinct from its conventional induced telecommuting?
counterpart because it is a mandatory, full-time practice that is applied
on a grand scale and lasts for a prolonged period. These characteristics of Findings from this study contribute to extant literature on four
epidemic-induced telecommuting cause an upheaval of employees’ fronts: First, we extend previous work on P-E fit theory by advancing the
personal and professional lives by constraining how work activities can concept of misfit to capture environmental disruptions that accompany
be performed and disrupting long-standing work routines (Carillo et al., epidemic-induced telecommuting during lockdowns. This study is
2021). As documented by Cushman & Wakefield Echinox, 78% of among the first to conceptualize and validate P-E misfits as sources of
Romanian employees complained about a lack of freedom to socialize mismatch that threaten employees’ freedom during epidemic-induced
with colleagues when working remotely during COVID-19 lockdowns, telecommuting. Second, we further distinguish between S-V and D-A
while 50% felt a sense of reduced flexibility in work (Marica, 2021). misfits—each comprising four constituent sub-dimensions reflecting
Prior research suggests that organizational changes affecting work misfits along the vocational, spatial, temporal, and social aspects of
routines may restrict employees’ freedom and prompt reactance as a work—as constraints that inhibit employees’ freedom at work for
response (Nesterkin, 2013). Yet, limited scholarly attention has been epidemic-induced telecommuting. This in turn affords us a systematic
devoted to comprehending the antecedents and consequences of the understanding of the environmental disruptions encountered by
restricted freedom caused by epidemic-induced telecommuting. To workers due to epidemic-induced telecommuting. Third, we conceptu­
bridge this knowledge gap, we subscribe to the psychological reactance alize misfit in comparative terms to exemplify the discrepancy in
theory as our overarching theoretical lens for illuminating the effects of workers’ assessment of their fit with the work environment relative to
epidemic-induced telecommuting on employees’ work experience. pre-COVID conditions. This will eliminate individual baseline differ­
Organizational change may culminate in a mismatch between cur­ ences in bringing forth the effects of epidemic-induced telecommuting
rent and past realities (Nesterkin, 2013). While prior research has on workers’ performance and well-being that arise from an erosion of P-
leveraged the psychological reactance theory to explore the impact of E fit in workplace settings. Last, while a handful of studies on tele­
such a mismatch on employees (Nesterkin, 2013), the theory, on its own, commuting have attested to the criticality of digital technologies, most
cannot account for the sources of mismatch that arises from epidemic- have accentuated the direct impact of such technologies on employee
induced telecommuting. Consequently, we combine the psychological outcomes in volitional contexts. Departing from previous work, we
reactance theory with person-environment (P-E) fit theory—the latter derive a meaningful use of collaborative technologies in epidemic-
having been applied widely in deciphering how a (mis)match between induced telecommuting and examine the extent to which such pat­
personal and environmental factors shapes work experience—to shed terns of usage can moderate the effects of P-E misfit in workplace set­
light on the constraints imposed by epidemic-induced telecommuting tings, thereby enriching research on telecommuting. In addition to the
that inhibit employees’ freedom at work and produce psychological preceding theoretical contributions, insights from this study can also
reactance. Particularly, we advance the concept of comparative misfit inform practitioners on how to cope with emerging challenges associ­
(henceforth referred to as misfit for short) to trace the erosion of the fit ated with new work arrangements that stem from epidemic-induced
between a worker and their work environment, relative to pre-lockdown telecommuting.
conditions, that is triggered by epidemic-induced telecommuting (Car­ The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: The next section
nevale & Hatak, 2020). For example, a worker may have been satisfied reviews relevant extant literature, introduces our theoretical lens, and
with their engagement with co-workers under pre-COVID work condi­ formulates testable hypotheses. Thereafter, we outline our research
tions; however, prolonged periods of mandated telecommuting may design and methodological procedures. We then report the results from
restrict their contact with colleagues, leading to estranged relationships our data analysis before discussing how our empirical findings bear
and feelings of isolation (Toscano & Zappalà, 2020). Similarly, a implications for theory and practice. We conclude by highlighting the
balanced work-family life before the COVID-19 outbreak may be ruined limitations of our study from which future avenues for research could
by epidemic-induced telecommuting because all family members may spawn.
have to stay at home due to social confinement, blurring the boundaries
between a worker’s personal and professional lives. Expanding on extant 2. Theoretical foundation & hypothesis development
literature, we delineate between supply-value (S-V) and demand-ability
(D-A) misfits as novel constraints that inhibit employees’ freedom at 2.1. Lockdown and epidemic-induced telecommuting
work relative to pre-COVID-19 conditions.
Moreover, as a by-product of prolonged periods of mandated tele­ Epidemics such as the COVID-19 pandemic may seriously affect
commuting, collaborative technologies play increasingly pivotal roles in people’s physical health and emotional balance (Fouques et al., 2021).
sustaining employees’ daily working activities (Carillo et al., 2021). An efficient way of halting viral transmission and controlling the
While past studies have acknowledged collaborative technologies as epidemic is to isolate people via a lockdown (Atalan, 2020; Fouques

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Table 1 Epidemic-induced telecommuting is one salient work-related

Comparison of convectional and epidemic-induced telework. consequence of a lockdown. Telecommuting, also known as telework
Characteristic Conventional Telework Epidemic-Induced Telework or remote-working, can be defined as a work arrangement whereby in­
dividuals perform work activities in places other than their primary
Vocational ▪ Telework is ▪ Job features must
(Beauregard conventional and be changed to workplace (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). During the COVID-19
et al., 2019; designed to fit in with adapt to the outbreak, many organizations and employees were forced to adopt tel­
Baruch, 2000; the original job task. telework. ecommuting due to the containment measures that were imposed by
Feldman and Choice of Use of governments. Prior research has found that telecommuting facilitates
Gainey, 1997; technological technological
Frolick et al., communicating communicating
social distancing during epidemics such as the COVID-19 outbreak
1993) approach is strategic. approach is (Kawashima et al., 2021). However, epidemic-induced telecommuting
mandatory. may bring many challenges. Telecommuting itself is not simply a change
Temporal ▪ Working hours are ▪ Only some working of work locations; instead, it is associated with changes in the nature of
(Golden & flexible for both hours are flexible,
tasks, work arrangement, and interpersonal engagements (Mahler,
Gajendran, telework and onsite with the
2019; Weinert work. The choice of constraints of 2012). Moreover, because most organizations are not well prepared for
et al., 2015; telework period is simultaneously operating fully virtually (Jamal et al., 2021), epidemic-induced tele­
Mayo et al., normally beneficial working with co- commuting tends to bring about drastic changes in the work environ­
2009; Suh & for employees’ workers, as em­ ment, constraining work activities and interrupting people’s work
Lee, 2017) efficiency. ployees are
Convectional assumed to always
routines.
telework is not be online during Prior studies have mostly investigated work experience in conven­
necessarily working hours. tional telecommuting, which is offered expectedly, voluntarily, and/or
instantaneous in most Most telework in temporarily (Jamal et al., 2021; Pearlson & Saunders, 2001). Tradi­
cases. pandemic period
tionally, telecommuting has been considered as leading to positive
Not all the working requires instanta­
hours are in telework. neous responses. outcomes and benefits for organizations and employees (Gajendran &
Epidemic- Harrison, 2007). On the organizational level, some academic research
induced telework is and company statistics have suggested that the deployment of tele­
mandatory for full- commuting can reduce operation costs (e.g., Gajendran & Harrison,
time employees.
2007; Morgan, 2004). On the individual level, prior studies have argued
Spatial ▪ Flexible workplace: ▪ Mandatory, at
(Suh & Lee, At home, hotel, or home due to that telecommuting can benefit employees in terms of increased flexi­
2017; Pérez any other places. lockdown. bility in work and life, improved satisfaction, and increased productivity
et al., 2002; (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007).
Baruch, 2000;
The extensive, worldwide lockdowns caused by the COVID-19
Frolick et al.,
1993) outbreak attracted the attention of academia to epidemic-induced tele­
Social ▪ Voluntary employee ▪ Mandatory for all commuting. For example, Belzunegui-Eraso and Erro-Garcés (2020)
(Shockley participation in employees to explored how to implement telecommuting in organizations to ensure
et al., 2021; telework, not participate in employees’ safety and provide continuity to economic activity during
Beauregard necessarily all telework.
the COVID-19 crisis. Kawashima et al. (2021) reported that tele­
et al., 2019; employees. Sudden, without
Baruch, 2000; Communication preparation time commuting as a social distancing measure could help decrease em­
Feldman and environment is for employees, co- ployees’ fever rates. Bouziri et al. (2020) investigated the effects of
Gainey, 1997; mostly well prepared, workers, and man­ telecommuting on employees’ well-being during the COVID-19
Donnelly & with the benefits of agers.
pandemic. Yang et al. (2020) demonstrated how information workers
Proctor- telework. Health concerns
Thomson, Employees have among employees
utilized telecommuting tools to implement work collaboration during
2015; Alreemy stable health statuses. may increase social the pandemic. However, prior studies on telecommuting during COVID-
et al., 2016) Collaborative anxiety. 19 lockdown rely on existing knowledge of conventional tele­
technologies are used Collaborative commuting. While some previous studies have noted the challenges that
with professional technologies are
epidemic-induced telecommuting may cause, such as the lack of face-to-
support. mostly used with
Children at school. limited profes­ face interaction due to social distancing and working in the presence of
sional or remote families due to home confinement (Jamal et al., 2021; Raišienė et al.,
support. 2020), few have theorized the constraints caused by these challenges at
Children at
work. Therefore, there is a need for a systematic, theoretical framework
home.
for understanding employees’ work experience in epidemic-induced
telecommuting.
et al., 2021). Lockdown involves different levels of home confinement, Table 1 summarizes the focal characteristics of epidemic-induced
travel and mobility restrictions, and closure of public places, academic and conventional telecommuting. As illustrated in Table 1, distinct
institutions, and business organizations. Consequently, a lockdown from a conventional telecommuting arrangement, epidemic-induced
tends to cause large-scale, mandated telecommuting for a prolonged telecommuting is often unplanned and mandatory, requires full-time
period and is often accompanied by vast changes in work routines working, affects many employees within and across organizations, and
(Fouques et al., 2021; Jamal et al., 2021; Venkatesh, 2020). Previous may last for a prolonged period. It is also accompanied by other
studies have mostly examined the impact of a lockdown on people’s epidemic-related changes in individuals’ daily routines. The unexpected
physical and mental health (Atalan, 2020; Fouques et al., 2021). Re­ and enforced changes in work arrangement and environment interrupt
searchers have also sought to understand the social consequences of a employees’ work routines and constrain their work activities. Thus, the
lockdown, including how it shapes the public’s belief, attitudes, and accumulated knowledge on telecommuting may not be applicable to
behaviors (Van Bavel et al., 2020). Meanwhile, increasing attention has epidemic-induced telecommuting, thus requiring further investigation
been paid to the work-related consequences of a lockdown (Jamal et al., of telecommuting in the context of the epidemic.
2021). As pointed out by Venkatesh (2020), work changes and outcomes As a lockdown is often associated with loss of freedom (Venkatesh,
in lockdown are focal issues to be studied in future research. 2020), we attempt to focus on the role of increased work constraints in
epidemic-induced telecommuting and rely on the psychological

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Fig. 1. Overview of current research framework.

reactance theory to capture employees’ perceived loss of freedom. to be appropriate for capturing the roles of work constraints in epidemic-
Additionally, epidemic-induced telecommuting causes changes to em­ induced telecommuting.
ployees’ work environment (Jamal et al., 2021), and such changes may
disrupt the fit between an employee’s personal factors and the working 2.2.2. Effects of reactance on employee outcome
environment. Therefore, we refer to P-E fit theory and derive S-V and D- When an individual experiences a certain change, the freedom of
A misfits to conceptualize the sources of work constraints in epidemic- acting in line with their beliefs and free will may be restricted or chal­
induced telecommuting. Furthermore, given the importance of collab­ lenged, resulting in psychological reactance (Nesterkin, 2013). Ac­
orative tools in telecommuting and the permeation of digital technolo­ cording to the psychological reactance theory, individuals in a reactance
gies in daily life during lockdown (Venkatesh, 2020), we also consider state are likely to engage in behaviors that are not allowed, harmful, or
the moderating roles of collaborative technology use in the effect of P-E hostile to the prohibitor. Similarly, in the context of epidemic-induced
misfits on employees’ psychological reactance. An overview of the telecommuting, the unexpected and mandated lockdown and tele­
research framework is shown in Fig. 1. commuting arrangements may cause changes to employees’ work en­
vironments and create discrepancies with employees’ pre-lockdown
2.2. Roles of psychological reactance work norms. When employees experience such mandated changes, their
freedom to act according to their free will and pre-lockdown work norms
2.2.1. Psychological reactance theory: an overview is likely to be constrained. Such loss of freedom may invade the cogni­
Psychological reactance theory originally proposed by Brehm in tive territory and trigger a motivational state of reactance (Nesterkin,
1966, has been widely applied to explain people’s behaviors in the areas 2013), which tends to drive employees into negative responses and
of information systems, marketing, and psychology (Brehm, 1966; cause them to engage in reactance behaviors that generate adverse
Kavvouris et al., 2020; Kwon & Chung, 2010; Lee & Lee, 2009). The effects.
theory suggests that individuals tend to experience a motivational state Based hereon, we expect that employees’ psychological reactance
to restore their freedom when it is being threatened or restricted (Ball & can drive counter-productive behaviors and work exhaustion. Counter-
Wozniak, 2021; Brehm, 1966). Such a motivational state is referred to as productive behavior is a core domain of individual job performance
psychological reactance, meaning the desire to reinstate the threatened (Ramos-Villagrasa et al., 2019). It refers to the “voluntary behavior that
or restricted freedom in thought and behavior. harms the wellbeing of the organization” (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002, p.
One important antecedent of psychological reactance is a threat to 69), such as complaining and purposely doing things wrong. In
freedom, which can be defined as the force that could potentially make it epidemic-induced telecommuting, employees may view organizations as
more difficult for individuals to exercise their freedom (Akhtar et al., responsible for creating disruptions at work and restricting their
2020). Thus, a perceived threat to freedom or loss of freedom is often freedom, such as working from home in the presence of family members
used as a cognitive measure of psychological reactance (Dillard & Shen, or working overtime. Thus, employees who perceive higher psycho­
2005; Rosenberg & Siegel, 2018). One may perceive a threat to freedom logical reactance are likely to become hostile toward or disappointed
and experience a loss of freedom when their autonomy and free will are with the organization, and consequently purposely harm the organiza­
restricted by certain factors (Ball & Wozniak, 2021). Such a threat tion. Moreover, employees who experience reactance are aroused to
subsequently triggers reactance, while different types and strengths of restore their freedom (Clee & Wicklund, 1980). Employees in a high
threats to freedom may lead to different degrees of reactance (Ball & state of reactance would like to act in the direction opposite to that of the
Wozniak, 2021). The psychological reactance theory posits that, upon restriction. Yet under lockdown, it is often not feasible to do what is
experiencing reactance, individuals naturally seek to restore their au­ restricted, such as traveling; consequently, employees may engage in
tonomy and sense of freedom (Nesterkin, 2013). other behaviors that are not favored by the organizations to reassert
To cope with the COVID-19 pandemic, many employees were forced their freedom, resulting in complaining, taking leave, incorrectly per­
to adapt to a prolonged period of mandated telecommuting. Challenges forming tasks on purpose, and other counter-productive behaviors. We
caused by COVID-19 lockdown and epidemic-induced telecommuting therefore hypothesize the following:
create changes in and restrictions on employees’ work environments and
Hypothesis 1. Psychological reactance is positively associated with
routines. Prior research suggests that environmental and organizational
counter-productive behaviors.
changes may lead to individual changes at work (George & Jones, 2001;
Nesterkin, 2013). Nesterkin (2013) posits that the psychological reac­ Work exhaustion reflects job burnout (Ahuja et al., 2007). It occurs
tance theory is a suitable theory to explain how individual employees “when employees feel overextended and drained by their work” (Kim &
react to changes in their work environment. As COVID-19 lockdown and Wright, 2007, p. 147). Prior research suggests that organizational
epidemic-induced telecommuting bring changes to the work environ­ changes and a lack of autonomy contribute to work exhaustion (Moore,
ment that often constraint individual work activities and threaten peo­ 2000; Petrou et al., 2015). Epidemic-induced telecommuting tends to
ple’s freedom in work, we consider the psychological reactance theory cause organizational changes, while it also restricts employees’ freedom.

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

When they perceive a loss of freedom, employees are likely to experience and what the job requires of them (Caplan, 1987). In this sense, fit is akin
a state of reactance, and may attempt to restore their freedom via a to a D-A match, while a gap between the components will result in
reluctance to follow required changes and may even behave in the tension (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005).
opposite direction (Nesterkin, 2013). However, due to the containment
measures in a pandemic, many changes in epidemic-induced tele­ 2.3.2. Manifestations of P-E misfit
commuting are necessary and inevitable, while reactance to required Each of the above mentioned two types of P-E fit captures different
changes may result in inefficiency and ineffectiveness at work, which salient, distinctive, and complementary elements of fit, while a gap in
may cause employees to work over their limit of time and ability (Kim & each pair will induce a corresponding misfit (Ayyagari et al., 2011;
Wright, 2007). Moreover, restricting employees’ freedom may also Edwards, 1996). Unplanned and mandated epidemic-induced tele­
cause them to be emotionally vulnerable, which in turn reduces their commuting may disrupt the pre-lockdown work norms and routines,
tolerance ability and increase the likelihood of their feeling exhausted. constraining what the original work environment can offer (i.e., supply)
In addition, prior research suggests that reactance also creates psycho­ and what an employee can perform (i.e., ability). Therefore, the original
logical tension, which could lead to overwhelming and exhaustion balance between employees and the work environment may be eroded,
(Brehm, 1966; Molines, Akremi, Storme, & Celik, 2018). Consequently, forming or heightening the discrepancies between personal value (or
employees who perceive a great loss of freedom and a high level of ability) and environmental supply (or demand); this may result in the S-
reactance are likely to experience work exhaustion. Based on the above, V and D-A misfits. For example, employees who enjoy business travel
we hypothesize the following: were not likely to travel after the outbreak of COVID-19, but were
constrained at home, resulting in a gap between what the individuals
Hypothesis 2. Psychological reactance is positively associated with work
valued and what the working environment could supply. Given that the
exhaustion.
discrepancy between the employees and work environment might have
existed before lockdown, we focus on the misfit generated during
2.3. Roles of P-E misfit epidemic-induced telecommuting, that is, the misfit during lockdown in
comparison to that before lockdown.
Psychological reactance arises from a threat to freedom (Brehm, Previous studies have adopted three distinct approaches in exam­
1966; Nesterkin, 2013). Yet, what generates a threat to freedom? In this ining P-E fit: molar, molecular, and atomistic approaches (Ayyagari
study, we propose to use the P-E misfit to conceptualize the environ­ et al., 2011; Edwards et al., 2006; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). While the
mental disruptions that constrain work freedom in epidemic-induced molar approach adopts a gestalt view and uses a direct measure of fit or
telecommuting. misfit, the molecular and atomistic approaches adopt the reductionist
view and consider the person and the environment to be two separate
2.3.1. P-E fit Theory: An overview dimensions. In particular, studies that adopt the molecular approach
P-E fit theory claims a fit when personal factors (e.g., needs, values, directly assess the perceived discrepancy between the two dimensions,
and abilities) are compatible with environmental factors (e.g., supplies whereas those that adopt the atomistic approach separately measure the
and demands) (Caplan, 1987; Edwards & Rothbard, 1999; Wang et al., two dimensions and then combine them in some way to reflect the fit or
2020). Generally, P-E fit refers to a match or congruence between a misfit (Edwards et al., 2006). Although all the approaches have been
person and the corresponding environment (Edwards & Shipp, 2007). In used in previous studies, this study follows the molecular approach to
the working context, P-E fit can be defined as “the compatibility between conceptualize misfit.
an individual and a work environment that occurs when their charac­ The manifestation of the S-V and D-A misfits occurs through dis­
teristics are well matched” (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005, p. 281). Ac­ ruptions and changes to work experience in epidemic-induced tele­
cording to P-E fit theory, an employee’s attitudes and behaviors do not commuting. The adoption of a telecommuting arrangement is often
separately arise from the individual and work environment; rather, they accompanied by changes in the basic or inherent features of job tasks,
emerge from the interplay between the two (Edwards, 1996). Whereas a the arrangement of working time and space, and patterns of interaction
match between employees and their work environment can enhance the with other people at work (Mahler, 2012). Following prior research on
former’s mental and physical well-being, a mismatch can induce stress telecommuting and COVID-19, we identify four key aspects that play
as well as impose mental and physical strain. central roles in reflecting and explaining work experience: vocation,
The P-E fit theory identifies two kinds of fit: (1) the S-V fit, also space, time, and social relationship. We then posit that epidemic-induced
known as the needs-supplies fit, and (2) the D-A fit (Ayyagari et al., telecommuting disturbs the working-environment supply and employee
2011; Edwards, 1996; Edwards & Rothbard, 1999). The S-V fit refers to ability in these four aspects. Subsequently, we conceptualize misfit as
the congruence between a person’s values and the supplies in the multi-dimensional, exhibited through four dimensions:
environment available to fulfill their values. Here, values refer to the
person’s conscious desires, and generally subsume interests, prefer­ (a) Vocational misfit is defined as the misfit triggered by changes in
ences, motives, and goals. Supplies refer to the aspects or level of the nature of job tasks and how job tasks are performed. Job task
characteristics available in the environment that may fulfill the person’s is an essential element that defines work experience, and thus is
values, which often include the amount, frequency, or qualities of job selected to exhibit the work-related P-E misfit (Mahler, 2012;
characteristics, as well as extrinsic and intrinsic rewards such as pay and Venkatesh, 2020).
recognition (Ayyagari et al., 2011; Shaw & Gupta, 2004). The S-V fit (b) Temporal misfit refers to the misfit triggered by limitations on
involves what an employee expects to derive from a job and what the job when working activities are performed. Time is a core factor that
can offer to keep the employee (Caplan, 1987). In this sense, fit is akin to shapes work experience (Tietze & Musson, 2002). Adam (1990)
a need-satisfaction match, while a gap between the components will suggested that the duration of work, temporal scheduling of a
result in dissatisfaction (Edwards, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). The work task, and pace of work activity serve as a foundation for
D-A fit refers to the fit between the demands of the environment and a work experience. Therefore, time arrangement is selected as a
person’s abilities. Here, demands reflect the qualitative and quantitative dimension that exhibits work-related P-E misfit.
requirements faced by the person, and include objective demands (e.g., (c) Spatial misfit is the misfit triggered by restrictions on where
commute time and length of workweek) and socially constructed norms working activities are performed. The location and characteris­
and role expectations, while abilities comprise the skills, energy, time, tics of where work activities take place represent an important
knowledge, and resources that the person may muster to meet the de­ element that shapes work experience. Existing studies have
mands. The D-A fit involves what employees can provide to keep a job shown that a lack of face-to-face interaction with co-workers is a

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Table 2 containment measures in a pandemic, employees often must spend

Focal dimensions of person-environment misfits. additional time with families (Carillo et al., 2021), while the home
Dimension Trigger in Epidemic- Sub-dimension Sub-dimension of environment may prevent employees from working when they want to,
induced of Supply- Demand-Ability and thus may reduce employees’ control over the scheduling of work
Telecommuting Value Misfit Misfit tasks. Thus, we consider a misfit in work-scheduling latitude as a typical
Vocational Changes in the nature of Misfit in task Misfit in skill aspect of an S-V misfit. We define professional proximity as a state of
job tasks and how tasks identity variety mind in which one feels close to others at work. A misfit in professional
are performed. proximity is closely related to professional isolation, which is considered
Temporal Limitations on when Misfit in work- Misfit in time-based
working activities are scheduling family-work
as a major shortcoming associated with telecommuting (Golden et al.,
performed. latitude balance 2008; Jamal et al., 2021). Telecommuting may restrict employees’ op­
Spatial Restrictions on where Misfit in Misfit in space- portunities for professional and social interactions with colleagues and
working activities are professional based family-work reduce their likelihood of forming and maintaining interpersonal re­
performed. proximity balance
lationships (Cooper & Kurland, 2002; Jamal, Anwar, Khan, & Saleem,
Social Changes in how Misfit in social Misfit in initiated-
employees interact with support task 2021). While this problem could be alleviated by reducing the frequency
other people involved in interdependence. of telecommuting in traditional contexts, it is especially salient under
working activities. epidemic-induced telecommuting, where mandatory social distancing is
enforced for a long period. Therefore, a misfit in professional proximity
represents a salient aspect of an S-V misfit. Social support refers to the
salient difference between working before and after the outbreak
extent to which an employee has opportunities to receive advice and
of the Covid-19 pandemic (Toscano & Zappalà, 2020). Thus,
assistance from other people in the workplace (Morgeson & Humphrey,
space arrangement is chosen to exhibit work-related P-E misfit.
2006). Employees tend to expect social support at work; however, in
(d) Social misfit entails the misfit triggered by changes in how em­
epidemic-induced telecommuting, people may be less likely to establish
ployees interact and engage with other people in work activities.
and maintain social interactions at work, and thus may have fewer op­
Prior research has considered social affiliation and work rela­
portunities to obtain support. Therefore, a misfit in social support can be
tionship to be important aspects in a work setting (Wiesenfeld
an outstanding aspect of misfit to be considered.
et al., 2001). Accordingly, we employ social relationship to
Additionally, the prolonged period of mandated telecommuting may
exhibit work-related P-E misfit.
also increase certain job demands and constrain what employees can
provide. In this sense, epidemic-induced telecommuting makes it diffi­
Considering the above-mentioned four dimensions and the context of
cult for employees to meet their work demands. The decrease in em­
epidemic-induced telecommuting, we consolidate the literature on job
ployees’ ability tends to cause or widen the gap between the demand of
value and demand, employee job expectation, and employee job skills to
the job and the employees’ actual ability in epidemic-induced tele­
advance (1) task identity, (2) work-scheduling latitude, (3) professional
commuting, resulting in D-A misfit (Ayyagari et al., 2011). Skill variety
proximity, and (4) social support as the focal dimensions that constitute
refers to how much a job requires different skills and talents, and is a
the S-V misfit. Additionally, we consider (1) skill variety, (2) time-based
well-known job demand (Morris & Venkatesh, 2010). Work activities in
family-work balance, (3) space-based family-work balance, and (4) initi­
epidemic-induced telecommuting tend to require employees to be able
ated-task interdependence as the focal dimensions that exhibit the D-A
to work remotely and use collaborative tools; thus, the demand for skill
misfit. These constituent sub-dimensions of S-V and D-A misfits are
variety tends to increase and cause misfit. As skill variety is essential for
summarized in Table 2.
completing work in telecommuting, such misfit represents a basic aspect
Epidemic-induced telecommuting may restrict what an organization
of D-A misfit. Time-based and space-based family-work balance are
or a job can offer employees, thus restricting organizations from
derived from Carlson et al. (2000)‘s family inference with work. They
providing the work environment that meets their employees’ values.
refer to the extent to which an employee’s work-related and family-
Consequently, an employee may perceive a heightened discrepancy
related roles are compatible in terms of time and space arrangement.
between what they want and what the working environment provides in
In epidemic-induced telecommuting, people are confined to their
epidemic-induced telecommuting, resulting in an S-V misfit (Ayyagari
homes. An employee’s work life tends to intertwine with their personal
et al., 2011; Cable & DeRue, 2002). Task identity is about the degree to
and family lives (Çoban, 2021; Jamal et al., 2021). Consequently, em­
which a job involves completing a whole, identifiable outcome (Morris
ployees face issues such as time fragmentation and space sharing with
& Venkatesh, 2010). It is a typical job characteristic. As the nature of a
family, which adversely affect their ability to cope with role conflicts
task may be altered in epidemic-induced telecommuting, a job’s supply
(Waizenegger et al., 2020). Considering that work-family balance is a
of task identity tends to decrease, representing a facet of the S-V misfit.
prominent topic in telecommuting and especially pronounced during
Work-scheduling latitude refers to the extent to which an employee has
lockdown (Delanoeije et al., 2019), we consider the misfits in time-based
control over the scheduling of work tasks to suit themselves (Pierce &
and space-based family-work balance as two salient aspects of D-A
Newstrom, 1983). Schedule flexibility is a representative employee’s
misfit. Initiated task interdependence refers to the extent to which other
expectation (Jamal et al., 2021). Conventional, voluntary tele­
people in the workplace rely on an employee’s completion of a task to
commuting often brings employees with scheduling flexibility and au­
complete their own work (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Highly
tonomy; however, epidemic-induced telecommuting is mandatory, full-
interdependent jobs require continuous information exchange among
time, and of a large scale, which often requires employees to be on duty
co-workers (Jamal et al., 2021). In epidemic-induced telecommuting,
at their regular working hours, and thus reduces their flexibility in
employees’ ability to coordinate with others is restricted because the
temporal scheduling. Moreover, to cope with the hastened, mandatory
social distancing impedes most of the spontaneous coordination; how­
transition, employees need to work for longer hours to familiarize
ever, work tasks may become highly interdependent because of remote
themselves with the changes, learn new things, develop new routines,
working. Consequently, the work environment may have a higher
and cope with time zone differences as business trips are restricted
requirement for employees to finish their tasks to allow other work ac­
(Chong, Chang, & Chong, 2020). Additionally, a pandemic influences
tivities to proceed, which represents a typical aspect of D-A misfit.
the degree to which employees feel in control over their work and
personal lives (Syrek, Kühnel, Vahle-Hinz, & de Bloom, 2022). Taking
2.3.3. Misfits as antecedents of reactance
care of personal and family lives during epidemic-induced tele­
Any force or thing that makes it difficult for a person to exercise a
commuting is often a “must” rather than a “choice.” Due the
certain freedom can be considered as a threat (Shen, 2015). The

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

disruption of work experience in epidemic-induced telecommuting, be it technologies for association, persistence, and identifiability.
to shape, reinforce, or change work routines, constitutes a source of
threat to freedom. When S-V misfit increases in epidemic-induced tele­ 2.4.2. Moderating effects of collaborative technology use
commuting, the discrepancy between an employee’s value and what Although mandated changes due to epidemic-induced tele­
their working environment can offer increases. This restricts and commuting constrain employees’ freedom at work, the use of collabo­
threatens the employee’s freedom, increases the magnitude of the rative technologies provides extra solutions and may empower
perceived loss of freedom, and results in psychological reactance. When employees in many aspects of their work. The challenges caused by the
an employee experiences misfit, they must cope with the mandated changes in work environment in epidemic-induced telecommuting can
changes at work. The heightened discrepancies between what the be addressed by appropriate use of collaborative technologies (Belzu­
employee values and what the work environment can supply are out of negui-Eraso & Erro-Garcés, 2020). Therefore, an employee’s loss of
the employee’s control, and the employee will be forced to take actions freedom at work may simultaneously be restored if collaborative tech­
to adjust. This means that the employee’s range of choices at work is nologies are used well in epidemic-induced telecommuting, reducing the
limited, and the employee losses their control over task identity, work effect created by misfit on the perceived threat to freedom and the
scheduling latitude, professional proximity, and social support, which corresponding psychological reactance.
eventually triggers psychological reactance. Similarly, an increase in D- Association refers to the degree to which collaborative technologies
A misfit in an employee’s work experience can disempower the are used for establishing connections among individuals and between
employee in terms of skill variety, time-based and space-based family- individuals and information (Treem & Leonardi, 2013). Due to a lack of
work balance, and initiated task interdependence (Çoban, 2021). The interpersonal communications and engagement, S-V and D-A misfits
employee will thus perceive an increased threat to freedom and will be cause loss of freedom in social relationships and physical interactions. If
aroused to experience reactance. We therefore hypothesize the employees appropriately use collaborative technologies for association,
following: they have a wider range of choices to connect with one another and to
share information. This opens up options for employees to communicate
Hypothesis 3. S-V misfit is positively associated with psychological
with one another and engage with content for a variety of purposes,
reactance.
including gaining advice and establishing computer-mediated prox­
Hypothesis 4. D-A misfit is positively associated with psychological imity. Thus, the threat to freedom caused by S-V misfit will arouse less
reactance. reactance in employees who use collaborative technologies well for as­
sociation than in those who do not. We therefore hypothesize the
2.4. Roles of collaborative technology use following:
Hypothesis 5a. The association enabled by the use of collaborative tech­
2.4.1. Theory of technology affordance: an overview
nologies negatively moderates the effect of S-V misfit on psychological
Technologies are considered as an essential element both in tele­
reactance.
commuting arrangements and during COVID-19 lockdowns (Venkatesh,
2020; Venkatesh & Johnson, 2002). To perform work in epidemic- When employees intensively use collaborative technologies for as­
induced telecommuting, employees must use technologies and collab­ sociation, their jobs seem to rely on exchange of information, job co­
orate with other people at work (Waizenegger et al., 2020). To inves­ ordination, and team work, which highlights the job demand for skill
tigate the roles of digital technologies in epidemic-induced variety and level of job interdependence (Waizenegger et al., 2020).
telecommuting, this study adopts the theory of affordance. Affordances Consequently, employees may be more aware of the threats to freedom
can be defined as “potential[s] for behaviors associated with achieving created by D-A misfit. That is, for employees who intensively use
an immediate concrete outcome and arising from the relation between collaborative technologies for association, D-A misfit may be perceived
an artifact and a goal-oriented actor or actors” (Treem & Leonardi, 2013, to produce stronger and more salient threats, and thus may cause a
p. 155). Affordance theory has been widely used to understand the roles stronger feeling of reactance. When there is a low level of association,
of information technology (IT) design and use while many studies adopt the misfit between job demand and employee ability may appear to be
the affordance perspective to examine the roles of IT in workplace less salient in front of others. Therefore, although employees may
contexts such as telecommuting (Pee, 2018). experience D-A misfit, such misfit may create less threats to employee
In the context of telecommuting, researchers have highlighted the freedoms, and is thus less likely to produce a state of reactance. That is,
technology affordances of connectedness, identifiability, and mobility, the threat to freedom that is caused by D-A misfit will be more powerful
which are often associated with smartphone use (Chatterjee et al., in triggering reactance for employees who use collaborative technolo­
2017). Connectedness is about the potential of a technology for use in gies well for association than for those who do not. We therefore hy­
establishing communications. Identifiability refers to the potential of a pothesize the following:
technology to allow a user to represent a unique identity. Mobility refers
Hypothesis 5b. The association enabled by the use of collaborative
to the potential of a technology for meandering and changing locations.
technologies positively moderates the effect of D-A misfit on psychological
However, considering that epidemic-induced telecommuting is un­
reactance.
planned, mandated, and on a large scale for a prolonged period, prior
research has suggested that employees are likely to “discover new Persistence refers to the extent to which collaborative technologies
affordances of technology or to repurpose existing technologies in new are used to keep information and relationships available and lasting
and creative ways” (Waizenegger et al., 2020, p. 430). In particular, (Treem & Leonardi, 2013). If collaborative technologies are used well
during lockdown, people are usually under home confinement and in for persistence, employees can trace communication and respond to one
full-time telework. This makes mobility much less salient during lock­ another without the constraints of immediacy and spontany. S-V misfits
downs. Furthermore, because remote working tends to be on a massive in scheduling latitude and professional proximity, together with D-A
scale and lasts for a prolonged period, employees must use collaborative misfits in time-based and space-based family-work balance, cause loss of
technologies not only for establishing connections but also to sustain freedom in time and space management and contribute to psychological
communication and social relationships (Waizenegger et al., 2020). reactance due to time fragmentation and space sharing. Persistence,
Therefore, we adopt the concept of association and persistence from meanwhile, allows employees to find the information they need and to
Treem and Leonardi (2013) to contextualize Chatterjee et al. (2017)‘s resume work activities whenever and wherever convenient (Treem &
connectedness. Thus, considering the context of epidemic-induced tel­ Leonardi, 2013). Because persistence reduces the requirement for
ecommuting, this study focuses on employees’ use of collaborative closeness, promptness, and immediacy, it allows employees to rely less

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Fig. 2. Proposed research model for the impact of epidemic-induced telecommuting.

on scheduling, proximity, and work family balance to gain control, to measures taken in an organization reducing individual employees’
reducing the effects of misfit on loss of freedom and the aroused reac­ suffering (Chatterjee et al., 2021). It could also encourage individual
tance. Moreover, as the work activities and task specifications can be employees to know one another on a personal basis, develop a sense of
persistent when using collaborative technologies, employees have more team bonding, care more for one another, and focus less on self-gain
flexibility to continue and eventually complete entire pieces of work as (Waizenegger et al., 2020). This would allow employees to show less
well as more time to work on the tasks that require high skill diversity. anger at other people and the organization, which might mitigate the
Because persistence facilitates continuity and trackability, it reduces the effects of S-V and D-A misfits on employees’ perceived loss of freedom
extent of the constraints created by S-V misfit in task identity and D-A and reactance. We therefore hypothesize the following:
misfit in skill diversity on employee freedom, and thus alleviates the
Hypothesis 7a. The identifiability enabled by the use of collaborative
influence of the misfits on psychological reactance. Based on the above,
technologies negatively moderates the effect of S-V misfit on psychological
we expect persistence to moderate the effects of misfits on psychological
reactance.
reactance, such that the S-V and D-A misfits are less influential in
contributing to loss of freedom and less likely to arouse experience Hypothesis 7b. The identifiability enabled by the use of collaborative
reactance when collaborative technologies are well used for persistence. technologies negatively moderates the effect of D-A misfit on psychological
We therefore hypothesize the following: reactance.
Hypothesis 6a. The persistence enabled by the use of collaborative tech­ The proposed research model is shown in Fig. 2.
nologies negatively moderates the effect of S-V misfit on psychological
reactance. 3. Methodology
Hypothesis 6b. The persistence enabled by the use of collaborative tech­
nologies negatively moderates the effect of D-A misfit on psychological 3.1. Measurement
reactance.
The proposed research model was tested via an online survey. Based
Identifiability refers to the extent to which collaborative technolo­ on our conceptualization, S-V and D-A misfits are reflective-reflective
gies are used to make people identifiable with their unique identities. second-order constructs. Specifically, misfits in task identity, work
Identifiability allows employees to be identified and to gain recognition scheduling latitude, professional proximity, and social support are the
for what they do, which is likely to enable the feeling of psychological first-order constructs that reflect S-V misfit, whereas misfits in skill va­
empowerment, thus reducing the effect of misfits on psychological riety, time-based family-work balance, space-based family-work bal­
reactance. Moreover, prior research suggests that identifiability may ance, and initiated task interdependence are the first-order constructs
facilitate the enactment of organizational compassion, which would lead that exhibit D-A misfit. All the first-order constructs comprise multiple

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Table 3 Table 4
Descriptive statistics of sample. Reliability and validity of latent constructs.
Demographic Characteristic Count Percentage Construct Cronbach’s Composite Average
Alpha (α) Reliability (CR) Variance
Gender
Extracted (AVE)
Female 146 39.46%
Male 224 60.54% Counter-productive 0.822 0.876 0.586
Age behavior
18–25 55 14.86% Work exhaustion 0.870 0.911 0.720
26–35 181 48.92% Psychological 0.814 0.878 0.642
36–45 74 20.00% reactance
46 and above 60 16.22% Task identity 0.879 0.925 0.805
Education Level Work scheduling 0.912 0.934 0.739
High school and below 29 7.84% latitude
College and bachelor’s degree 213 57.57% Professional 0.915 0.932 0.663
Master’s degree and above 128 34.59% proximity
Income Level (Annual) Social support 0.932 0.947 0.748
Below USD 30,000 68 18.38% Skill variety 0.822 0.894 0.737
USD 30,000 - USD 50,000 108 29.19% Time-based family- 0.853 0.911 0.773
USD 50,000 - USD 75,000 120 32.43% work balance
USD 75,000 and above 74 20.00% Space-based family- 0.863 0.917 0.786
work balance
Initiated task 0.812 0.889 0.727
items taken from the literature, with slight alterations to suit the focal interdependence
Association 0.842 0.905 0.760
research setting to increase the validity and reliability of the results.
Persistence 0.857 0.913 0.777
Moreover, to ensure that we captured the relationships between the Identifiability 0.855 0.911 0.774
variables in the lockdown due to the pandemic and mitigated the indi­
vidual baseline differences before the lockdown, all the variables were
measured using seven-point comparative scales; thus, we instructed the Gosling, 2011; Daly & Nataraajan, 2015). Most of our respondents spent
respondents to indicate their experience/opinions during the COVID-19 approximately 10 min to complete the questionnaire; they each received
lockdown compared to those before the lockdown. USD 1 as compensation, which was close to the US minimum wage. This
The measurement items for counter-productive behavior, work amount of compensation was suitable, considering that MTurk’s work­
exhaustion, association and persistence, and identifiability were, force was willing to work for USD 6 per hour or less as compensation
respectively, adapted from Ramos-Villagrasa et al. (2019), Ahuja et al. (Berinsky et al., 2012; Mason & Suri 2012). The questionnaire was
(2007), Treem and Leonardi (2013), and Chatterjee et al. (2017). For posted on MTurk, specifying that it was about work experience before
psychological reactance, we followed Dillard and Shen (2005)‘s oper­ and during the pandemic lockdown. Since we were interested in the
ationalization and used the measurement items for perceived loss of influence of the P-E misfit created by epidemic-induced telecommuting,
freedom. The respondents were asked to recall their work experience our target respondents were workers who had experienced work routine
before and during the COVID-19 lockdown. Seven-point semantic dif­ changes under the epidemic-induced telecommuting. Screening ques­
ferential scales were used to measure the items, with 1 representing tions were used to determine whether the respondents had experienced
“much more before lockdown” and 7 representing “much more during a mandated telecommuting arrangement during lockdown and whether
lockdown.”. their work routine had been affected by the lockdown. Respondents who
We adopted the molecular approach to measure subjective misfit by met the requirements were allowed to fill in the questionnaire. In total,
directly asking an individual how well their personal characteristics fit we received 476 survey attempts, 370 of which were valid responses and
with those of their work environment in each sub-dimension of S-V and were used for data analysis. The respondents’ demographic information
D-A misfits. Specifically, for S-V misfit, the respondents were instructed is summarized in Table 3. The table shows that the lowest proportion of
to compare the extent to which their values were fulfilled by their work respondents earn an annual income of less than USD 30,000, while more
environment before and during the COVID-19 lockdown (1 = much less than 50% earn an annual income of over USD 50,000, which is consis­
before lockdown; 7 = much less during lockdown). The measurement tent with the US population statistics in 2021 (DQYDJ.com, 2022).
items for misfits in task identity, work-scheduling latitude, professional Moreover, most respondents hold college and bachelor’s degrees. This
proximity, and social support were, respectively, adapted from Morris reflects a pattern similar to that of employed people who teleworked
and Venkatesh (2010), Pierce and Newstrom (1983), Golden et al. because of COVID-19 (BLS.gov, 2021).
(2008), and Morgeson and Humphrey (2006). Regarding the D-A misfit, To address the potential issue of common method bias, we performed
we asked the respondents to compare the extent to which their abilities Harman’s single-factor test, which revealed that no single component
fulfilled their job demands before and during COVID-19 lockdown (1 = emerged, with the first factor accounting for less than half of the vari­
much less easily before lockdown; 7 = much more easily during lock­ ance in the variables. Thus, the likelihood of a common method bias was
down). The measurement items for misfits in skill variety, time-based minimal in this study (Lindell & Whitney, 2001).
and space-based family-work balance, and initiated-task interdepen­
dence were, respectively, adapted from Morris and Venkatesh (2010), 3.3. Assessment of measurement model
Carlson et al. (2000), and Morgeson and Humphrey (2006).
We used partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-
SEM) for model assessment because our model has second-order con­
3.2. Data collection structs (Hair et al., 2021). We adopted the reflective repeated indicator
approach to model the paths of the first-order constructs to misfit and
To empirically test our hypotheses, the respondents were recruited obtain the latent variable scores for the first-order constructs (Hair et al.,
from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk), an online forum in which 2021).
participants can choose to participate in studies for payment (Wien & To assess the measurement model, we first examined its reliability
Peluso, 2021). MTurk was used to collect data because it is a reliable and validity. The outer loadings for all the measurement items were
platform for data collection, while the respondents have been found to higher than the required 0.708 (Hair et al., 2019). Cronbach’s alpha
be representative of the US general work force ( Buhrmester, Kwang, & values for all the first-order constructs ranged from 0.812 to 0.932,

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Table 5
Inter-construct correlation matrix.
Construct 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. CPB 0.765
2. WE 0.620 0.848
3. PR 0.631 0.738 0.802
4. MTI 0.386 0.448 0.401 0.897
5. MWS 0.435 0.461 0.412 0.596 0.860
6. MPP 0.396 0.421 0.382 0.758 0.516 0.814
7. MSS 0.385 0.423 0.357 0.724 0.461 0.914 0.865
8. MSV 0.488 0.501 0.451 0.671 0.523 0.713 0.660 0.859
9. MTB 0.502 0.453 0.368 0.493 0.658 0.467 0.442 0.601 0.879
10. MSB 0.426 0.464 0.387 0.546 0.683 0.526 0.470 0.597 0.818 0.886
11. MITI 0.497 0.495 0.423 0.632 0.504 0.751 0.736 0.779 0.571 0.578 0.852
12. As 0.285 0.300 0.331 0.409 0.387 0.466 0.444 0.438 0.279 0.306 0.441 0.872
13. Pe 0.317 0.258 0.333 0.450 0.396 0.514 0.510 0.472 0.366 0.338 0.478 0.772 0.882
14. Id 0.329 0.345 0.392 0.474 0.411 0.483 0.477 0.499 0.365 0.357 0.482 0.743 0.707 0.880

Notes: CPB = counter-productive behavior; WE = work exhaustion; PR = psychological reactance; MTI = misfit in task identity; MWS = misfit in work scheduling
latitude; MPP = misfit in professional proximity; MSS = misfit in social support; MSV = misfit in skill variety; MTB = misfit in time-based family-work balance; MSB =
misfit in space-based family-work balance; MITI = misfit in initiated task interdependence; As = association; Pe = persistence; Id = identifiability. Square roots of AVE
are displayed on the diagonals.

3.4. Hypothesis testing

Table 6
Results of regression analysis.
The latent variable scores were then used for regression analysis. The
Variables Counter- Work Psychological results are shown in Table 6 and Figure 3. The results indicate that threat
Productive Exhaustion Reactance
to freedom is positively associated with counter-productive behavior (β
Behavior
Model 1 Model 2 Model Model 4 = 0.631, p < 0.001) and work exhaustion (β = 0.738, p < 0.001), sup­
3 porting H1 and H2. S-V misfit positively impacts psychological reac­
Psychological 0.631*** 0.738***
tance (β = 0.232, p < 0.01), thus supporting H3. D-A misfit also
Reactance (15.62) (21.01) positively impacts psychological reactance (β = 0.327, p < 0.001),
Supply-value Misfit 0.176* 0.232** supporting H4. Regarding collaborative technology use for association,
(S-V Misfit) (2.41) (3.13) the results show that it negatively moderates the relationship between S-
Demand-ability 0.334*** 0.327***
V misfit and psychological reactance, and positively moderates the
Misfit (4.57) (4.50)
(D-A Misfit) relationship between D-A misfit and psychological reactance. Thus, H5a
Association × S-V − 0.308** and H5b are both supported. However, in terms of collaborative tech­
Misfit (-3.19) nology use for persistence, although it is found to significantly moderate
Association × D-A 0.396*** the relationship between S-V misfit and psychological reactance, the
Misfit (3.53)
Persistence × S-V 0.196*
moderating effect is positive, which is different from expectation.
Misfit (2.12) Moreover, the results show that persistence does not significantly
Persistence × D-A − 0.004n. moderate the influence of D-A misfit on psychological reactance.
s.
Misfit Therefore, H6a and H6b are not supported. Additionally, collaborative
(-0.04)
technology use for identifiability negatively moderates the effect of D-A
Identifiability × S-V 0.123n.s.
Misfit (1.81) misfit on psychological reactance, which supports H6b; however, the
Identifiability × D- − 0.281** moderating effect of identifiability on the relationship between S-V
A Misfit (-2.84) misfit and psychological reactance is not significant, thus failing to
R2 0.399 0.545 0.234 0.293 support H6a.
Adjusted R2 0.397 0.544 0.230 0.277

Note: *** , **, and * denote p < 0.001, p < 0.01, and p < 0.05, respectively; n.s.:
not significant; T-values are in parentheses. 3.5. Post-hoc analyses of mediating effects

while the composite reliability (CR) values ranged from 0.812 to 0.933. To help us further understand the relationships between the P-E
As shown in Table 4, all of them are larger than the threshold of 0.70, misfits, psychological reactance, and employee outcome variables, we
indicating a good level of internal consistency and reliability (Nunnally, further evaluated whether psychological reactance mediated the effects
1994). Moreover, the values for average variance extracted (AVE) for all of S-V and D-A misfit on counter-productive behavior and work
the first-order constructs (range from 0.586 to 0.805) are above 0.50, as exhaustion. We followed Hair et al. (2013)’s instruction on testing
required. This suggests a satisfactory level of convergent validity. mediating effects. First, we tested for the significance of the indirect
Furthermore, the Fornell-Larcker criterion was used to assess effects. The results revealed that the indirect effect of D-A misfit via
discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). As shown in Table 5, the psychological reactance on counter-productive behavior and work
correlation between any two constructs is consistently smaller than the exhaustion were significant (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, respectively). We
square root of the AVE for the constructs, which satisfies the condition then considered the significance of the direct effects of D-A misfit on
for discriminant validity. The largest variance inflation factor (VIF) counter-productive behavior and work exhaustion. The results sug­
value among all the constructs is 0.420, which is lower than the required gested that the direct effects were significant (β = 0.365, p < 0.001 and
threshold of 5, suggesting that multicollinearity was unlikely to be a β = 0.314, p < 0.001, respectively). Given that both the direct and in­
problem (Hair et al., 2019). direct effects were significant, we concluded that psychological reac­
tance partially mediated the effects of S-V misfit on counter-productive
behavior and work exhaustion. To further substantiate the type of par­
tial mediation, the product of the direct and indirect effects was

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calculated. Both the direct and indirect effects were positive, which general opinion that technology use in telecommuting tends to produce
meant that the sign of their product would be positive; thus, we could mixed effects (Wicks, 2002).
conclude that psychological reactance represented a complementary Surprisingly, collaborative technology use for persistence does not
mediation of the relationship between D-A misfit and employee out­ significantly moderate the relationship between D-A misfit and psy­
comes (i.e., counter-productive behavior and work exhaustion). More­ chological reactance. An alternative explanation could be that although
over, the indirect effects of S-V misfit, via psychological reactance, on persistence allows content and communications to be lasting and
counter-productive behavior and work exhaustion were also signifi­ trackable, it may not reduce the need for immediacy. During lockdowns,
cant (p < 0.05 for both); however, the direct effects of S-V misfit on most companies adopt telecommuting on a large scale, if not fully. When
counter-productive behavior and work exhaustion were not significant. everyone is working online, persistence may bring little flexibility and
Therefore, we concluded that psychological reactance fully mediated empowerment, and thus does not mitigate the effect of D-A misfit on
the effects of S-V misfit on employee outcomes (i.e., counter-productive psychological reactance. Interestingly, too, we found that collaborative
behavior and work exhaustion). technology use for persistence positively moderated the effect of S-V
misfit on psychological reactance, which is contrary to our hypothesis.
4. Conclusion This could be because, when employees trace content and maintain re­
lationships using collaborative technologies, they may recall the “good-
Epidemic-induced telecommuting is a unique and important phe­ old” days before lockdown and may be more sensitive to what they
nomenon that brings challenges during the COVID-19 and other value. The use of technology for persistence thus causes employees to
pandemic lockdowns. This study focuses on this salient social distancing perceive more importance of the threatened freedom in task identity,
measure during lockdowns and analyzes the role of epidemic-induced scheduling latitude, professional proximity, and social support. Prior
telecommuting in workers’ work experiences from the perspective of literature suggests that issue involvement and the perceived importance
the psychological reactance theory and P-E fit theory. In epidemic- of threatened freedom influence the effect of the threat on reactance
induced telecommuting, we conceptualized the S-V and D-A misfits (Quick et al., 2011; Rosenberg & Siegel, 2018). Therefore, it is plausible
and, from an analysis of data collected through a questionnaire survey, that collaborative technology use for persistence induces employees to
we found that both misfits were positively associated with the state of be more sensitive to the loss of freedom due to S-V misfit and enables
psychological reactance that employees experienced, which subse­ such threatened freedom to be a stronger cause of psychological reac­
quently drove work exhaustion and counter-productive behaviors. tance. Another unexpected finding is that collaborative technology use
Additionally, we found that different uses of collaborative technology for identifiability does not significantly moderate the effect of S-V misfit
played different roles in shaping the effects of misfits on psychological on threat to freedom. A possible explanation is that although identifi­
reactance. ability can effectively trigger organizational compassion and team
bonding and thus impede the effect of D-A misfit on reactance, making
4.1. Discussion of key empirical findings people identifiable and rewarding them for their work may already be a
norm in this digital society, and thus has no additional empowerment
Several important findings were obtained from this study. First, we effects. These surprising findings illustrate that the roles of technology
found that psychological reactance led to negative employee outcomes use in epidemic-induced telecommuting can be more complicated, and
(i.e., counter-productive behavior and work exhaustion) in epidemic- reveal opportunities for future research to further explore the use of
induced telecommuting. This illustrates the need to consider the loss technologies in such a unique context.
of freedom that causes psychological reactance in the workplace during
lockdowns. Our findings are consistent with those obtained in previous 4.2. Contributions to theory
studies that psychological reactance can cause negative individual out­
comes, such as burnout in workplace condition and message fatigue in This study contributes to the literature as follows: First, we consider
persuasion text (Golden, 2006; Kim & So, 2018; Pishghadam et al., the unique characteristics of epidemic-induced telecommuting into ac­
2021). Moreover, both S-V and D-A misfits restrict employees’ freedom count and expand the P-E fit lens by theorizing and empirically inves­
at work and arouses their psychological reactance. This is consistent tigating the S-V and D-A misfits to capture environmental disruptions in
with prior findings that psychological reactance is elicited when situa­ epidemic-induced telecommuting during lockdowns. A wide range of
tional ambiguity restricts individuals’ behavioral freedom (Ma & Kay, studies have examined P-E fit, its antecedents, and positive impacts (Yu,
2017). Based on the post-hoc mediation analyses, we revealed that both 2009); however, the unplanned, mandated, massive-scale, and long-
misfits caused negative employee outcomes via psychological reactance, lasting epidemic-induced telework makes the mismatch a salient phe­
which further confirmed the importance of psychological reactance in nomenon. While some scholars have emphasized the erosion of fit and
shaping employees’ work experience when facing unplanned and called for research attention, few studies have empirically examined the
mandated telecommuting arrangements. While conventional tele­ role of misfit in epidemic-induced telecommuting (Carnevale & Hatak,
commuting tends to be associated with positive employee outcomes 2020). Therefore, this study contributes to prior literature on tele­
(Gajendran & Harrison, 2007), our results show that epidemic-induced commuting by extending the conversation to epidemic-induced tele­
teleworking could harm employee performance. These findings offer commuting and proposing the theoretical lens of P-E misfit.
unique insights into epidemic-induced telecommuting, and reveal the Moreover, we develop the two types of P-E misfit as multi-
theoretical and practical importance of extending the discussion on dimensional concepts and simultaneously compare their effects. While
telecommuting to epidemic-induced telecommuting. a few studies have considered multi-dimensional misfit, they have
Our results also suggest that use of collaborative technologies plays focused on different types and levels of misfits (Wang & Li, 2019; Wang
important roles in epidemic-induced telecommuting. We found that et al., 2020). Moreover, a relatively limited number of studies have
collaborative technology use for association mitigated the effect of S-V simultaneously examined both the S-V and D-A versions of fit (Living­
misfit on reactance, and that collaborative technology use for identifi­ stone, Nelson, & BarrView, 1997). In this study, however, we simulta­
ability alleviated the effect of D-A misfit on reactance. However, neously consider S-V and D-A misfits, each with its corresponding,
collaborative technology use for association strengthens the effect of D- salient sub-dimensions under epidemic-induced telecommuting. By
A misfit on reactance. The findings indicate that the use of technologies treating S-V and D-A misfits as higher-order latent variables reflectively
in telecommuting, generally, may lead to an increased level of freedom explained from the vocational, temporal, spatial and social perspectives,
(Gajendran & Harrison, 2007), except when the purpose of use (i.e., for we expect our research to provide systematic and novel insights into P-E
association) is a salient part of job demand. This is consistent with the misfit.

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Furthermore, comparative scales (i.e., semantic differential scales) track employees’ experience and reduce their suffering.
are used to measure misfits and all the other variables in the research
model. This study is particularly concerned with capturing the re­
lationships among the variables during the epidemic-induced tele­ 4.4. Limitations and future research
commuting. However, each individual respondent tends to have their
own baseline work experience before lockdown. By asking the re­ Some limitations in this study provide opportunities for future
spondents to indicate their experience during relative to that before research. First, the intensity of a lockdown and social confinement may
lockdown, we seek to rule out the noise due to individual baseline dif­ vary considerably across countries and regions, while people with
ferences. This represents a new approach to understanding the effects of different cultural backgrounds may react to it differently. In this study,
lockdown and social distancing on employees’ work experience or other we seek to control for the lockdown differences by enlisting respondents
cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes. This approach can also be whose work routines are affected by the lockdown. However, we do not
generalized to capture other before-and-after baseline differences. account for cultural differences. Future research could extend the con­
Additionally, while many studies on telecommuting recognize the versation and consider the effects of cultural and regional differences.
value of using collaborative technologies, many are qualitative or focus Second, this study focuses on the effects of work-related S-V and D-A
on the direct effects of digital technologies (Gajendran & Harrison, misfits on psychological reactance and subsequently on employee out­
2007). In this study, we enrich the literature on technology affordance comes. However, the boundaries between work and personal lives are
by contextualizing the use of collaborative technologies based on the largely blurred due to the large-scale, prolonged period of work from
characteristics of epidemic-induced telecommuting. More importantly, home. Therefore, future research may consider investigating how non-
we extend the literature on telecommuting by providing insights into the work-related factors shape employees’ work experience during
unconventional, moderating influences of collaborative technology use epidemic-induced telecommuting.
under epidemic-induced telecommuting. Furthermore, this study focuses on the S-V and D-A perspectives of P-
E (mis)fit. Given the richness of the P-E fit theory, alternative P-E per­
spectives can be considered, such as person-organization and person-
4.3. Implications for practice
people (mis)fits (Wang & Li, 2019; Wang et al., 2020). Future research
can extend this study by considering fit from different perspectives.
The findings from this study can help practitioners. Practitioners
should be aware of the unique characteristics of epidemic-induced tel­
ecommuting that distinguish it from conventional telecommuting, and CRediT authorship contribution statement
should accordingly tailor their strategies and practices. Instead of
assuming increased autonomy and flexibility, practitioners such as Boying Li: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
managers and human resource officers should focus on the loss of Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptu­
freedom and psychological reactance under epidemic-induced tele­ alization. Chenyang Xue: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
commuting. To avoid or alleviate negative outcomes such as counter- draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data
productive behavior and work exhaustion, practitioners such as man­ curation, Conceptualization. Yue Cheng: Writing – review & editing,
agers and human resource officers should empower employees during Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis,
epidemic-induced telecommuting. For example, managers should Data curation, Conceptualization. Eric T.K. Lim: Writing – review &
consider allowing employees sufficient autonomy over tasks, offering editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal
constructive feedback and suggestions, and showing appreciation of analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Chee-Wee Tan: Writing –
employees’ hard work (Siswanti & Muafi, 2020). review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology,
Additionally, practitioners in organizations may use this study as a Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
reference to understand the potential manifestations and impacts of S-V
and D-A misfits, as they result in reactance and subsequently negative
Declaration of Competing Interest
employee outcomes. Specifically, practitioners should strive to achieve
fit. In particular, organizations should seek to continue to offer what
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
employees value: allowing them to complete entire and identifiable
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
pieces of work; letting them define their own work schedule if possible;
the work reported in this paper.
arranging regular team meetings or casual, daily check-ins to keep
people involved; and creating opportunities for seeking and offering
support (Waizenegger et al., 2020). Moreover, practitioners should Acknowledgement
design and deliver appropriate training for employees to acquire the
new skills that organizations require during epidemic-induced This research was supported by Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science
telecommuting. Foundation of China under Grant No. LQ21G030016 and Natural Sci­
Furthermore, as collaborative technologies are essential in epidemic- ence Foundation of China under Young Scientist Fund Programme with
induced telecommuting, practitioners should encourage the use of project code 72101130.
technologies for association; however, they need to avoid being too
demanding. Organizations should design collaborative tools to afford Appendix A. Measurement items and factor loadings
identifiability and cultivate an environment in which every individual
employee feels important. Appropriate policies should be in place to See Table A1.

12
B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Table A1
Measurement items and factor loadings.
Measurement Item Mean S.D. Factor
Loading

Counter-Productive Behaviors (Ramos-Villagrasa et al., 2019)

1. I complained about minor work-related issues at work … 4.043 1.359 0.691
2. I made problems at work bigger than they were … 4.224 1.153 0.813
3. I focused on the negative aspects of situation at work instead of the positive aspects… 4.232 1.363 0.738
4. I talked to colleagues about the negative aspects of my work … 4.159 1.292 0.808
5. I talked to people outside the organization about the negative aspects of my work … 4.192 1.316 0.770

Work Exhaustion (Ahuja et al., 2007)

1. I felt emotionally drained from my work … 4.751 1.554 0.837
2. I felt mentally exhausted at the end of the workday … 4.784 1.597 0.853
3. I felt fatigued when I got up in the morning and had to face another day on the job … 4.686 1.556 0.880
4. I felt burned out from my work … 4.846 1.504 0.823

Psychological Reactance (Dillard & Shen, 2005)

1. My freedom to choose work was threatened … 4.924 1.439 0.782
2. I am unable to control my work activities… 4.800 1.481 0.834
3. I felt constraint in how I work … 4.776 1.487 0.828
4. My work behavior was influenced … 4.824 1.490 0.759

Misfit in Task Identity (Morris & Venkatesh, 2010)

1. My needs of completing a whole and identifiable piece of work was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.586 1.619 0.918
2. My needs of completely finishing the pieces of work I began was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.435 1.650 0.888
3. My needs of doing an entire piece of work from beginning to end was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.511 1.638 0.885

Misfit in Work Scheduling Latitude (Pierce & Newstrom, 1983)

1. My needs of defining my own work schedule was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.557 1.632 0.847
2. My needs of acting independently of my supervisor in defining my work schedule was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.673 1.611 0.876
3. My needs of defining my work schedule independently of others was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.592 1.594 0.856
4. My needs of exercising independent thought, judgement, and action in determining when I will work was fulfilled by my work environment 4.646 1.525 0.844
…
5. My needs of exercising discretion in defining my work schedule was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.616 1.514 0.876

Misfit in Professional Proximity (Golden et al., 2008)

1. My needs of involving in activities and meetings that could enhance my career was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.546 1.599 0.797
2. My needs of having opportunities to be mentored was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.524 1.660 0.782
3. My needs of being in the loop was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.605 1.464 0.796
4. My needs of having face-to-face contact with coworkers was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.578 1.854 0.828
5. My needs of not being isolated was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.489 1.738 0.796
6. My needs of having emotional support of coworkers was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.516 1.795 0.850
7. My needs of having informal interaction with others was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.573 1.747 0.847

Misfit in Social Support (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006)

1. My needs of having the opportunity to develop close friendships in my job was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.605 1.773 0.869
2. My needs of having the chance to get to know other people in my job was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.570 1.764 0.882
3. My needs of having the opportunity to meet with others in my work was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.505 1.716 0.867
4. My needs of having a supervisor who is concerned about my welfare was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.441 1.619 0.819
5. My needs of having colleagues who take a personal interest in me was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.446 1.686 0.869
6. My needs of having friendly colleagues was fulfilled by my work environment … 4.500 1.752 0.881

Misfit in Skill Variety (Morris & Venkatesh, 2010)

1. I was able to fulfill my job demand of doing many different things at work … 4.681 1.514 0.870
2. I was able to fulfill my job demand of using a number of complex or high-level skills … 4.495 1.591 0.859
3. I was able to fulfill my job demand of doing complex and non-repetitive tasks … 4.603 1.527 0.848

Misfit in Time-based Family-work Balance (Carlson et al., 2000)

1. My work responsibilities and the time I spent on family responsibilities fit … 4.670 1.603 0.886
2. The time I spent with my family allowed me to have sufficient time for work activities that could be helpful to my career … 4.662 1.581 0.858
3. I could handle work activities given the amount of time I must spend on family responsibilities … 4.657 1.554 0.893

Misfit in Space-Based Family-work Balance (Carlson et al., 2000)

1. My work responsibilities and the space I used for family responsibilities fit … 4.765 1.585 0.900
2. The space I shared with my family allowed me to have enough space for work activities that could be helpful to my career … 4.635 1.624 0.882
3. I could handle work activities given the amount of space I must share with other family members… 4.597 1.552 0.877

Misfit in Initiated Interdependence (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006)

1. I was able to fulfill my job demand in terms of accomplishing my job before others complete their job … 4.614 1.512 0.829
2. I was able to fulfill my job demand in terms of completing my job because other jobs depend directly on it … 4.549 1.551 0.862
3. I was able to fulfill my job demand in terms of getting my job done so that other jobs can be completed … 4.522 1.605 0.866
(continued on next page)

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B. Li et al. Journal of Business Research 154 (2023) 113330

Table A1 (continued )
Measurement Item Mean S.D. Factor
Loading

Association (Treem and Leonardi (2013)

1. I utilized collaborative tools to connect with other knowledgeable members of the organization … 4.792 1.593 0.885
2. I utilized collaborative tools to keep existing links and to establish new links … 4.754 1.548 0.855
3. I utilized collaborative tools to associate with people I know or am aware of, and to find new people I did not know or wasn’t aware of … 4.897 1.532 0.876

Persistence (Treem and Leonardi (2013)

1. I utilized collaborative tools to keep the relationships I formed at work … 4.841 1.540 0.883
2. I utilized collaborative tools to maintain my relations with others at work despite changes in activities, work, or location … 4.765 1.555 0.873
3. I utilized collaborative tools to have my information or conversations stay available at work after I post them … 4.816 1.560 0.888

Identifiability (Chatterjee et al. (2017)

1. I utilized collaborative tools at work to present a unique identity … 4.792 1.588 0.868
2. I utilized collaborative tools at work to show others who I am … 4.689 1.561 0.864
3. I utilized collaborative tools to let other people identify me at work … 4.784 1.602 0.907

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12th international conference on wirtschaftsinformatik, Université de Bamberg, International (HCII), the International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS), and the
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Eric T. K. Lim is a tenured Senior Lecturer in the School of Information Systems &
Decision, 40(7), 672–681. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251740210438508
Technology Management at UNSW Business School, UNSW Sydney. He investigates how
Wien, A. H., & Peluso, A. M. (2021). Influence of human versus AI recommenders: The
technologically enabled open innovations in crowd platforms and social media can be
roles of product type and cognitive processes. Journal of Business Research, 137,
harnessed to benefit society. His research has been published in leading information sys­
13–27.
tems journals such as Information Systems Research (ISR), Journal of Management Informa­
Wiesenfeld, B. M., Raghuram, S., & Garud, R. (2001). Organizational identification
tion Systems (JMIS), Journal of the Association for Information Systems (JAIS), Journal of the
among virtual workers: The role of need for affiliation and perceived work-based
Association for Information Science and Technology (JASIST), European Journal of Information
social support. Journal of Management, 27(2), 213–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/
Systems (EJIS), Decision Support Systems (DSS), and Information and Management (I&M),
014920630102700205
among others. He currently serves as a Senior Editor for Industrial Management & Data
Yang, L., Jaffe, S., Holtz, D., Suri, S., Sinha, S., Weston, J., Joyce, C., Shah, N., Sherman,
Systems (IMDS) and an associate editor for Internet Research (IntR).
K., & Lee, C.-J. (2020). How work from home affects collaboration: A large-scale
study of information workers in a natural experiment during COVID-19. arXiv
preprint arXiv:2007.15584. Chee-Wee Tan is a Professor with Special Responsibilities in Research Excellence at the
Yu, K. Y. T. (2009). Affective influences in person-environment fit theory: Exploring the Department of Digitalization in Copenhagen Business School (CBS), an Honorary Professor
role of affect as both cause and outcome of PE fit. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94 of Business Analytics and Digitalization at the Nottingham University Business School
(5), 1210–1226. China in the University of Nottingham Ningbo China (UNNC), an Adjunct Professor at the
School of Business in Monash University, a Distinguished Research Scholar at the Faculty
of Business in Lingnan University (LNU), a Guest Professor at the School of Management in
Boying Li (Belle) is an Assistant Professor in Marketing and Information Systems at the
the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), and a Visiting Professorial
University of Nottingham Ningbo China. Her research areas include rumor, fake news,
Fellow at the School of Information Systems and Technology Management in University of
consumer behavior in social media, electronic word-of-mouth, e-commerce and online
New South Wales (UNSW). He received his Ph.D. in Management Information Systems
pro-social behavior. She has published in journals such as Information Systems Journal
from the University of British Columbia. His research interests focus on design and inno­
(ISJ), International Journal of Operations and Production Management (IJOPM), Information
vation issues related to digital services. His work has been published in leading peer-
and Management (I&M), Production Planning & Control (PPC) and International Journal of
reviewed journals such as MIS Quarterly (MISQ), Journal of Operations Management
Production Research (IJPR). She has also served as reviewers for journals including I&M,
(JOM), Information Systems Research (ISR), Journal of Management Information Systems
IJPR, Industrial Management & Data Systems (IMDS), and Internet Research (IntR).
(JMIS), Journal of the Association for Information Systems (JAIS), Journal of the American
Society for Information Science and Technology (JASIST), European Journal of Information
Chenyang Xue is currently a tutor in mathematics at the University of Nottingham Ningbo Systems (EJIS), and Decision Support Systems (DSS), among others. Apart from his current
China. His research areas include information fragmentation, information transformation appointment as a Senior Editor for MISQ, Chee-Wee is currently serving on the editorial
and flow of action. In the field of Information System, he has published in journals such as boards for Industrial Management & Data Systems (IMDS), IEEE Transactions on Engi­
Advanced Powder Technology, Chemical Engineering Journal, and international conferences neering Management (IEEE-TEM), Information & Management (I&M), Internet Research
such as the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS) and the International (IntR), Journal for the Association of Information Systems (JAIS), Journal of Computer
Conference on Information Systems (ICIS). Information Systems (JCIS), and Journal of Management Analytics (JMA). In addition,
Chee-Wee has served in various editorial capacities for special issues at Decision Support
Systems (DSS), I&M, and JMIS. Finally, Chee-Wee is the co-director of the joint research
Yue Cheng is a faculty at School of Public Policy and Administration in Nanchang Uni­
center between CBS and the Antai College of Economics and Management (ACEM) in
versity. Her research interests generally focus on human-AI (artificial intelligence) inter­
Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU).
action, algorithmic management and digital services. Her work has been published in
Chinese Journal of Information Systems (CJIS) and presented at Human-Computer Interaction

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